ArticleTitle stringclasses 109 values | Question stringlengths 4 586 ⌀ | Answer stringlengths 1 926 ⌀ | ArticleFile stringclasses 57 values | EvidencesAvailable stringclasses 120 values |
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polar_bear | What does a polar bear's fur provide? | It provides the animal with effective camouflage. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | What does a polar bear's fur provide? | A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | Do female polar bears weight more than the male? | no | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | Do female polar bears weight more than the male? | No | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | How much weight do female polar bears gain during pregnancy? | They gain double their weight. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | How much weight do female polar bears gain during pregnancy? | They double their weight during pregnancy | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | Can polar bears be seen under infrared photography? | Polar bears are nearly invisible under infrared photography. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | Can polar bears be seen under infrared photography? | Only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | What is actually black in color? | A polar bear's skin. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | What insulate it against the cold? | Its think blubber and fur. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | What includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable? | Database entry. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | What do with greenpeace and the natural resources defense council have in common? | They filed lawsuits in California. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | Are studies insufficient evidence for global protection? | It is arguable. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | Are polar bears excellent swimmers? | yes | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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species concept
grizzlyâpolar bear hybrid
American Society of Mammalogists
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Ecological niche
Phenotype
ABC Islands (Alaska)
common ancestor
hibernation induction trigger
Hibernation
Dormancy
Churchill, Manitoba
Constantine J. Phipps
Peter S. Pallas
Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Greenland
Denmark
Svalbard
Norway
Siberia
Franz-Josef Land
Russia
Alaska
USA
seasonal fidelity
USS Honolulu (SSN-718)
North Pole
Ukkusiksalik National Park
marine mammal
circumpolar
Arctic Ocean
James Bay
Canada
Canadian Arctic
Svalbard
Franz Josef Land
Pinniped
habitat destruction
National Geographic
HarperCollins
United States Geological Survey
Arctic shrinkage
Alaska
Beaufort Sea
Canadian Wildlife Service
global warming
bear
ringed seal
beluga whale
walrus
muskox
reindeer
berry
kelp
National Research Council of Canada
Human
Orcas
fish
Retinol
liver
Hypervitaminosis A
swimming
Waste
Landfill
Churchill, Manitoba
Manitoba
styrofoam
plastic
car batteries
ethylene glycol
hydraulic fluid
motor oil
Thompson, Manitoba
bioaccumulation
halocarbon
PCBs
pesticides
ecological pyramid
lipophilicity
blubber
hormone
immunoglobulin G
retinol
hermaphroditic
persistant organic pollutant
DDT
Svalbard
Churchill, Manitoba
Manitoba
weaning
Alaska
United States Geological Survey
World Conservation Union
vulnerable species
United States Geological Survey
2050
global warming
Arctic archipelago
Greenland
Hudson Bay
Canada
National Center for Policy Analysis
Heartland Institute
Nunavut
S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897
IUCN
Marine Mammal Protection Act
International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears
United States
Canada
Norway
Denmark
Greenland
Russia
Soviet Union
icebreaker
University of Calgary
Inuit
trophy hunting
IUCN
Inuit
Nunavut
Inuit
Northwest Territories
Inuvialuit
Detroit Zoo
Marine Mammal Protection Act
Center for Biological Diversity
United States Fish and Wildlife Service
Department of the Interior
Endangered Species Act
threatened species
14 December
2006
Greenpeace
Natural Resources Defense Council
California
December 27
2006
United States
Department of the Interior
global warming
Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population
Coca-Cola
Polar Beverages
Nelvana
Bundaberg Rum
Klondike bar
penguins
Northern Hemisphere
Toonie
panserbjørne
His Dark Materials
Lost (TV series)
1988 Winter Olympics
Bowdoin
Canada
licence plate
East (novel)
Edith Pattou
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
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polar_bear | A semi-aquatic marine mammal , the polar bear has what? | It has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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2006
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California
December 27
2006
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Department of the Interior
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Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population
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Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
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polar_bear | Garbage is what? | Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | The bears sometimes what? | They sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | Is the Polar Bear the mascot of Bowdoin college ? | yes | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | Have thumbpolar bears been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat ? | yes | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | Did Mitchell Taylor , the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research , not write a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time ? | no | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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polar_bear | Are Cubs born in December without awakening the mother ? | yes | data/set1/a4 | polar bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage. Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.
A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,
and is the apex predator within its range. Polar Bears International It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.
The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century. Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable. . Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. See also HTML excerpts: population status reviews and Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005. Polar Bears and Conservation and In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005. See also the Center's website on the issue. This petition is still under review.
Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy. Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from SeaWorld The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals. At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.
A Polar Bear resting.
A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.
Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada. however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the
summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies. .
An infrared image of a polarbear.
The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.
The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears. However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.
The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.
The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism. . Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease. The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.
The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.
However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253. Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids, . . indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world. Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation. .
A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776. . This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.
#Canadian Arctic Archipelago
#Greenland, Denmark
#Svalbard, Norway
#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia
#Alaska, USA
The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them. .
Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu from the North Pole.
Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.
Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea. The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.
The main population centers are:
* Wrangell Island and western Alaska
* Northern Alaska
* Canadian Arctic archipelago
* Greenland
* Svalbard-Franz Josef Land
* North-Central Siberia
Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas. . The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species. T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in
Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.
The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming. . The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.
A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.
There is a photographically confirmed case from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland. It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag. More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.
Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed, . . there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness. .
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe, . but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet. Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food. , Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum. They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape. Polar bear vs Walrus Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas. Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)
As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A. .
Polar bear diving in a zoo.
Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005. .
Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage. This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure. . Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. . . To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba. Hudson Bay Post
Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency. . Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area. .
The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend. .
Mother with cub at Svalbard
A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba
Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.
In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.
In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago. In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.
The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land. .
Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050. From USGS
The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006. Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced. The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming. The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.
Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning. The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates. The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"
Polar bear
Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s. Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data. Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000. Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area. In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004. .
The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007. Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time. These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists. . PBI Ask the Experts
First polar bear shot in the S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.
Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century. The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year. Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research. International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.) The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.
Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.
Play fight
About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada, where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters. Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills. Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears, and northern residents are strongly concerned about it. In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year" despite protests from some scientific groups. CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters" While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s) . Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.
The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.
Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.
Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters. The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"
In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act" In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears. The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.
American Hunter
In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species. The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law. On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.
On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination. The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover. Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction! Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat
Russia declared a complete protection in 1955, but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.
Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"
Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.
thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjørne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.
* Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
* Grizzly-polar bear hybrid
* USS Connecticut (SSN-22)
*ARKive - images and movies of the polar bear (Ursus maritimus)
* Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History species account-Polar Bear
* Nunavut Dept of Environment
* USGS Polar Bear Studies
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Qatar | Does Qatar rank as the eighth richest country in the world per capita? | No. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Does Qatar rank as the eighth richest country in the world per capita? | no | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Do nearly all Qataris profess Islam? | Yes. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Do nearly all Qataris profess Islam? | yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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catarrh
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Hamad bin Jassem bin Jabr Al Thani
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emirate
Southwest Asia
coast
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|
Qatar | Can women legally drive in Qatar? | Yes. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
Related Wikipedia Articles
catarrh
As Salam al Amiri
Arabic
Doha
Constitutional Monarchy
Emir of Qatar
Hamad bin Khalifa
List of prime ministers of Qatar
Hamad bin Jassem bin Jabr Al Thani
Independence
United Kingdom
September 3
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Qatari riyal
.qa
Al Thani
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List of words of disputed pronunciation#Q
Transliteration
emirate
Southwest Asia
coast
Arabian Peninsula
Saudi Arabia
Persian Gulf
state
Arabic
petroleum
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Qatari
Zubara
Ptolemy
Arabian Peninsula
Ottoman Empire
British Empire
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Clan
Al Khalifa
House of Saud
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Saudi Arabia
fishing
Pearl hunting
Colonialism
India
Petroleum
hydrocarbon
twentieth century
nineteenth century
Al Khalifa
Bahrain
Dependent territory
Al Wakrah
Treaty
state
Protectorate
Lewis Pelly
Negotiation
entrepreneur
Doha
Muhammed bin Thani
Al Thani
independence
dynasty
protectorate
British Empire
Second World War
Indian Independence movement
1950s
Kuwait
Trucial States
federation
emirate
United Arab Emirates
Sovereignty
As of 2005
Hamad bin Khalifa
Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani
Switzerland
liberalization
Women's suffrage
Al Jazeera
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website
satellite television
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terrorism
municipality
baladiyah
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provinces
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Al Ghuwariyah
Al Jumaliyah
Al Khawr
Al Wakrah
Ar Rayyan
Jariyan al Batnah
Ash Shamal
Umm Salal
Mesaieed
fishing
Pearl hunting
Japan
cultured pearl
1920s
1930s
oil reserves
1940s
standard of living
natural gas
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Cubic kilometre
wealth
standard of living
Western Europe
Gross domestic product
income tax
Aspire Tower
2006 Asian Games
knowledge economy
Qatar Science & Technology Park
technology
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Sports City
ASPIRE Academy for Sports Excellence
2016 Summer Olympics
role model
investment
Qatar Financial Centre
Lusail
peninsula
plain
sand
Khor al Adaid
Inland Sea
inlet
limestone
outcrop
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foot (unit of length)
Above mean sea level
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natural gas field
Islam
Arab
Petroleum industry
Arabic language
Expatriate
South Asia
Shi'a
Sunni
Sunni
Christians
Hindus
Sikhs
Buddhists
Bahá'à Faith
India
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European ethnic groups
Arabs
United States
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Orthodox
Copt
Anglican
Protestant
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Buddhists
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Texas A&M University
Virginia Commonwealth University
Cornell University
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Northwestern University
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School accreditation
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Qatar Academy
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University of Calgary
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Tropospheric scatter
Qtel
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satellite
2006 Asian Games
Al Jazeera
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Foreign relations of Qatar
List of cities in Qatar
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Politics of Qatar
Hamad bin Khalifa
|
Qatar | Can women legally drive in Qatar? | yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | When did Qatar become an independent state? | September 3, 1971. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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|
Qatar | When did Qatar become an independent state? | September 3, 1971 | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Where is Qatar's telecommunication system centered? | Doha. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Where is Qatar's telecommunication system centered? | Doha | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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catarrh
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Independence
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British Empire
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Qatar | Where did a suicide-bombing kill a teacher in 2005? | At the Doha Players Theatre. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Where did a suicide-bombing kill a teacher in 2005? | Doha Players Theatre | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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emirate
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coast
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|
Qatar | Does the native pronunciation of Qatar sound like 'cutter'? | Yes. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
Related Wikipedia Articles
catarrh
As Salam al Amiri
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Hamad bin Jassem bin Jabr Al Thani
Independence
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Transliteration
emirate
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coast
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hydrocarbon
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Treaty
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Protectorate
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Doha
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Al Thani
independence
dynasty
protectorate
British Empire
Second World War
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municipality
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Al Khawr
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Petroleum industry
Arabic language
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|
Qatar | Does the native pronunciation of Qatar sound like 'cutter'? | no | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | What is the Arabic word for municipalities? | baladiyah. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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catarrh
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Qatar | What is the Arabic word for municipalities? | baladiyah | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | What universities are in Education City? | Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | What universities are in Education City? | Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | What carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatar's status as distinct from Bahrain? | The British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asking to negotiate with a representative from Qatar after Bahrain's violation of the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Qatar became an independent sovereign state in what year? | On September 3, 1971. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | What consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand? | Much of the country. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | How do qatar and the wider region relate? | Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Was Qatar University founded in 1973? | Yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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catarrh
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|
Qatar | Is Qatar bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south? | Yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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catarrh
As Salam al Amiri
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Independence
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Transliteration
emirate
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hydrocarbon
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dynasty
protectorate
British Empire
Second World War
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1950s
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Al Ghuwariyah
Al Jumaliyah
Al Khawr
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Ar Rayyan
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Arabic language
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South Asia
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|
Qatar | What bordered by Saudi? | Qatar | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Who served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 ? | Qatar. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Sunni
Christians
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Hamad bin Khalifa
|
Qatar | Has Qatar a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha ? | Yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Was Qatar University founded in 1973 ? | Yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Did the Qataris not choose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha , Muhammed bin Thani ? | Yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Will oil and gas probably remain the backbone of Qatar 's economy for some time to come ? | Yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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Qatar | Has it been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region , develop local and regional markets , and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets ? | Yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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catarrh
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emirate
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coast
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|
Qatar | What happened in these positions in english? | These allophones cannot occur there. | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
Related Wikipedia Articles
catarrh
As Salam al Amiri
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Hamad bin Jassem bin Jabr Al Thani
Independence
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List of words of disputed pronunciation#Q
Transliteration
emirate
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coast
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Ptolemy
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British Empire
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fishing
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hydrocarbon
twentieth century
nineteenth century
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Treaty
state
Protectorate
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entrepreneur
Doha
Muhammed bin Thani
Al Thani
independence
dynasty
protectorate
British Empire
Second World War
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1950s
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Trucial States
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emirate
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Sovereignty
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Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani
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liberalization
Women's suffrage
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website
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terrorism
municipality
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provinces
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Al Ghuwariyah
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Al Khawr
Al Wakrah
Ar Rayyan
Jariyan al Batnah
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income tax
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knowledge economy
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foot (unit of length)
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natural gas field
Islam
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Petroleum industry
Arabic language
Expatriate
South Asia
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Sunni
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Hindus
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Bahá'à Faith
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satellite
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Al Jazeera
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List of cities in Qatar
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Politics of Qatar
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|
Qatar | Can these allophones not occur in these positions in english? | yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
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catarrh
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Hamad bin Jassem bin Jabr Al Thani
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Qatar | Is -RRB- , officially the state of qatar -LRB- arabic (: : transliterated as dawlat qatar -RRB- , an arab emirate in southwest asia? | Yes | data/set2/a3 | Qatar
Qatar ( ; The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.
In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u and broad a . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be or . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دÙÙØ© Ùطر transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.
The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude." The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas. Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.
Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.
After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.
Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.
Desert in Qatar
The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.
Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.
The Emiri Diwan.
The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961. When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.
Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .
Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.
100px
Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:
#Ad Dawhah
#Al Ghuwariyah
#Al Jumaliyah
#Al Khawr
#Al Wakrah
#Ar Rayyan
#Jariyan al Batnah
#Ash Shamal
#Umm Salal
#Mesaieed
Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.
Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.
Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 km³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World. With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).
The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007. Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.
Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.
Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.
The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.
Map of Qatar
The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.
The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.
Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .
In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens. Qatar Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Bahá'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.
The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most Bahá'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.
There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.
No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.
Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙبÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.
Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.
When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.
The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote The role of Saudi women as well as holding senior positions in government. Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.
In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973. More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation, some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College. In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary also operate campuses in Doha.
In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.
The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.
Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.
Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.
Al Jazeera (Arabic: اÙجزÙرةâ, al-ÄazÄ«rä, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.
According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings .
* Ministry of Education
* Supreme Education Council - "Education for a New Era" Reform Initiative
* Ministry of Interior
* The Planning Council
* VLM Qatar Hotel Directory
Related Wikipedia Articles
catarrh
As Salam al Amiri
Arabic
Doha
Constitutional Monarchy
Emir of Qatar
Hamad bin Khalifa
List of prime ministers of Qatar
Hamad bin Jassem bin Jabr Al Thani
Independence
United Kingdom
September 3
1971
Qatari riyal
.qa
Al Thani
English language
List of words of disputed pronunciation#Q
Transliteration
emirate
Southwest Asia
coast
Arabian Peninsula
Saudi Arabia
Persian Gulf
state
Arabic
petroleum
natural gas
Qatari
Zubara
Ptolemy
Arabian Peninsula
Ottoman Empire
British Empire
state
September 3
1971
peninsula
arid
climate
nomad
Clan
Al Khalifa
House of Saud
Bahrain
Saudi Arabia
fishing
Pearl hunting
Colonialism
India
Petroleum
hydrocarbon
twentieth century
nineteenth century
Al Khalifa
Bahrain
Dependent territory
Al Wakrah
Treaty
state
Protectorate
Lewis Pelly
Negotiation
entrepreneur
Doha
Muhammed bin Thani
Al Thani
independence
dynasty
protectorate
British Empire
Second World War
Indian Independence movement
1950s
Kuwait
Trucial States
federation
emirate
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Sovereignty
As of 2005
Hamad bin Khalifa
Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani
Switzerland
liberalization
Women's suffrage
Al Jazeera
news source
website
satellite television
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Suicide attack
terrorism
municipality
baladiyah
governorates
provinces
Ad Dawhah
Al Ghuwariyah
Al Jumaliyah
Al Khawr
Al Wakrah
Ar Rayyan
Jariyan al Batnah
Ash Shamal
Umm Salal
Mesaieed
fishing
Pearl hunting
Japan
cultured pearl
1920s
1930s
oil reserves
1940s
standard of living
natural gas
export
Cubic kilometre
wealth
standard of living
Western Europe
Gross domestic product
income tax
Aspire Tower
2006 Asian Games
knowledge economy
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technology
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Romania | Does Romania border Hungary? | Yes. | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Does Romania border Hungary? | yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Is Romania a secular state? | Yes. | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Is Romania a secular state? | yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Is the president elected by popular vote? | Yes. | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Is the president elected by popular vote? | yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | How many counties is Romania divided into? | 41. | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | How many counties is Romania divided into? | forty-one | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What is the highest mountain in Romania? | Moldoveanu Peak. | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What is the highest mountain in Romania? | Moldoveanu Peak | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What is the official language of Romania? | Romanian. | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What is the official language of Romania? | Romanian | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Is the Romanian economy doing well? | Yes. | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Are there many Roma in Romania? | No. | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Are there many Roma in Romania? | no | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | How many territories joined to form Romania? | 2. | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | How many territories joined to form Romania? | 2 | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Does Romania share a border with Ukraine? | yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Does Romania share a border with Ukraine? | Yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Did Romania declare neutrality during World War I? | yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Did Romania declare neutrality during World War I? | Yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Does Romania share the same language with Moldova? | yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Does Romania share the same language with Moldova? | Practically | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Who was the first gymnast to score a perfect "ten"? | Nadia ComÄneci | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Who was the first gymnast to score a perfect "ten"? | Nadia ComÄneci | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What is the largest city in Romania? | Bucharest | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What is the largest city in Romania? | Bucharest | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What is the largest ethnic minority in Romania? | Hungarians | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What is the largest ethnic minority in Romania? | Hungarians | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | How many countries in Europe are bigger than Romania? | eleven | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | How many countries in Europe are bigger than Romania? | Eleven | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Why doesn't Romania have a state religion? | Romania is a secular state | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Why wasn't Romania neutral during World War II? | it received a Soviet ultimatum | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Why wasn't Romania neutral during World War II? | The Soviets threatened invasion. | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture in what year? | 2007 | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed`` John of Anina''? | the remains (the lower jaw) of the oldest modern human | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Is it true that romania has a population of 21,698,181? | Yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What do economy and law have in common? | (not sure how to answer this) | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | What did Tourism in Romania attract in 2005? | investments worth 400 million euros | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Is Romania a secular state? | Yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Is Romania a semi-presidential unitary state? | Yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | null | null | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | null | null | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Is Romania a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister ? | Yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Romania | Was Gellu Naum the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania ? | Yes | data/set2/a7 | Romania
Romania ( , ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.
Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.
Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest ( ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture. Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.
The name of Romania (România) comes from Român (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243 "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90 âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quì quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile Române, vol. II, p. 158 161 "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a esté peuplé des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-à -dire romain ⦠" Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444
The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter from Câmpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumâneascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: Român and Rumân. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de învÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumânesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumâni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia româneascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.
"...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi înfluresc întru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi românii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srâbeascÇ pre limba româneascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumâni Åi le-au scris în cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor români,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor români" Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.
" Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi români peste tot locul...", Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134. Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumân", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "român" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning. After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumân" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "român", "românesc". In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei româneÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."
In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo câteva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomâneascÄ. The name "România" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century. The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".
On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a înviat/AÅa tu România din somn ai deÅteptat."
Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent
In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania. The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent. The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.
Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column
The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC. In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians. Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria). The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC. Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.
The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD, and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.
Roman Dacia
Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold , the Romans heavily colonized the province, brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian). But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.
In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived. The Gepids and the Avars and their Slavic subjects ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs, the Cumans and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages, and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.
Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place
Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube. For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.
In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomâneascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century, when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania until 1711.
Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or Brassó) the privilege to build the Citadel.
Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler (also known as Vlad Dracula or , ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476. |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.
Voroneţ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.
The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504. His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2 ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries, some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the Voroneţ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule. After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.
Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens) in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population. In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.
After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks. The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince (Domnitor in Romanian). Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years, Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.
The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums
In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side; in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers. In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.
The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).
PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs
In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.
The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania. The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain, and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.
The Romanian expression România Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 km² STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.
Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.
During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance. Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria Românilor între anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002 Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war. This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration. The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany, which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:
following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.
In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947. With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership" elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties. Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582 ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.
; (1947-1989)
In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.
After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth. "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel. "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania" A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars), the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies. CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow). To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy. He greatly extended the authority police state and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.
During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons: detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens. Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, întemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5. Between 60,000, and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961 Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmântul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din România în anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004 Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România", 15 December 2006
After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures. Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest. Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.
The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.
Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004. The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.
Topographic map of Romania.
With a surface area of 238,391 km², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.
Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.
Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains
A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems. Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe. The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively. There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania. |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"
There are almost 10,000 km² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania. Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 km².
The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.
Typical landscape in the Danube Delta
Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 °C, WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest with temperatures over 35 °C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 °C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 °C (36 °F) and below -15 °C (5 °F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.
Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm, The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..
According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe, World Bank, International Association for Official Statistics). usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population. Official site of the results of the 2002 Census
The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.
The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively. Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people. Outsourcing IT în România, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005 Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006. Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.
TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. Temesvár). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.
St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:Kolozsvár, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.
Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%). Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people. Romanian Census Website with population by religion Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population. Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper. "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years" "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"
There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.
There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti. "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"
University of Bucharest
Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania: The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.
Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaţii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.
In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities). Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8 In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide). UN Human Development Report 2006 The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score. OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15 According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide. "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University" Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500. RÄzvan Florian, Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, România, p. 7-9
Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania
With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800 GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007 estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005 and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe. GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007 Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP. "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006" Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.
After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies. Index of Economic Freedom: Romania In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union, Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007 a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe. Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006. Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006. Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007, Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity. Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006 The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA. "RomânaÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:
Romania's Road Network
Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.
World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe. Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight. The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.
Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.
The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country
Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy. In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs). World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016. WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition, volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746 In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record, 20 million overnight stays by international tourists but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more. Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)
Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005. Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros
Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore
Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer. During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles. Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently, and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.
Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007
The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (Segesvár) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival
Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them. ROMANIA - CULTURE The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements, with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia; from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire; from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire; from the Hungarians; and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French and German culture.
Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova
The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems). Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).
In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte în mâini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8
Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu
Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English). Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu. Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.
Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu, International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time. George Enescu (1881 - 1955) George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.
Constantin BrâncuÅi is an internationally renowned Romanian sculptor, whose sculptures blend simplicity and sophistication that led the way for modernist sculptors. As a testimony to his skill, one of his pieces, "Bird in Space" , was sold in an auction for $27.5 million in 2005, a record for any sculpture. Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' soars to new auction record Brancusi's 'Bird in Space' Sets World Auction Record for Sculpture at $27,456,000 The price record for a Brancusi masterpiece was set up in 2005 when âBird in Spaceâ was sold for USD 27.5 M
Hunyadi Castle, 1419, with its impressive size and architectural beauty sets it among the most precious monuments of medieval art.
Romanian cinema has recently achieved worldwide acclaim with the appearance of such films as The Death of Mr. Lazarescu, directed by Cristi Puiu, (Cannes 2005 Prix un certain regard winner), and 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days, directed by Cristian Mungiu (Cannes 2007 Palme d'Or winner). The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."
The UNESCO List of World Heritage Sites Official list of WHS within Romania includes Romanian sites such as the Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania, the Painted churches of northern Moldavia with their fine exterior and interior frescoes, the Wooden Churches of Maramures unique examples that combine Gothic style with traditional timber construction, the Monastery of Horezu, the citadel of SighiÅoara, and the Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains. UNESCO World Heritage List from Romania Romania's contribution to the World Heritage List stands out because it consists of some groups of monuments scattered around the country, rather than one or two special landmarks. World Heritage Site - Romania Also, in 2007, the city of Sibiu famous for its Brukenthal National Museum is the European Capital of Culture alongside the city of Luxembourg.
Romania is a semi-presidential democratic republic where executive functions are shared between the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote, and resides at Cotroceni Palace. Since the constitutional amendment of 2003, the president's term is five years (previously it was four). The Romanian Government, which is based at Victoria Palace, is headed by a prime minister, who appoints the other members of his or her cabinet and who is nearly always the head of the party or coalition that holds a majority in the parliament. If, however, none of the parties hold 50% + 1 of the total seats in parliament, the president will appoint the prime minister. Before beginning its term, the government is subject to a parliamentary vote of approval.
[[Image:Palatul-parlamentului-SW-angle.jpg|thumb|left|The Palace of the Parliament , the seat of Romania's bicameral parliament. Built in 1984, it is the largest building in Europe and the world's second largest administrative building behind the Pentagon The Palace of the Parliament and 10% larger by volume than the Great Pyramid of Giza. The building of Parliament Bucharest International Conference Center - Description ]]
The legislative branch of the government, collectively known as the Parliament (Parlamentul României), consists of two chambers the Senate (Senat), which has 137 members, and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor), which has 332 members. The members of both chambers are elected every four years under a system of party-list proportional representation.
The justice system is independent of the other branches of government, and is made up of a hierarchical system of courts culminating in the High Court of Cassation and Justice, which is the supreme court of Romania. High Court of Cassation and Justice - Presentation There are also courts of appeal, county courts and local courts. The Romanian judicial system is strongly influenced by the French model, CIA Factbook 2000 - Legal system considering that it is based on civil law and is inquisitorial in nature. The Constitutional Court (Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ) is responsible for judging the compliance of laws and other state regulations to the Romanian Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the country. The constitution, which was introduced in 1991, can only be amended by a public referendum; the last amendment was in 2003. The Romanian Constitutional Court structure is based on the Constitutional Council of France, being made up of nine judges who serve nine-year, non-renewable terms. Following the 2003 constitutional amendment, the court's decisions cannot be overruled by any majority of the parliament.
The country's entry into the European Union in 2007 has been a significant influence on its domestic policy. As part of the process, Romania has instituted reforms including judicial reform, increased judicial cooperation with other member states, and measures to combat corruption. Nevertheless, in 2006 Brussels report, Romania along with Bulgaria were described as the two most corrupt countries in the EU. Romania will be EU's most corrupt new member
Romania is divided into forty-one counties (judeÅ£e), as well as the municipality of Bucharest (BucureÅti) - which is its own administrative unit. Each county is administered by a county council (consiliu judeÅ£ean), responsible for local affairs, as well as a prefect, who is appointed by the central government but cannot be a member of any political party.
Alongside the county structure, Romania is also divided into four NUTS-1 level divisions (Romanian:Macroregiunea) and eight development regions corresponding to NUTS-2 divisions in the European Union. These divisions have no administrative capacity and are instead used for co-ordinating regional development projects and statistical purposes. The NUTS-3 level divisions reflect Romania's administrative-territorial structure, and correspond to the 41 counties and the Bucharest municipality.
Map of the 8 development regions. The 41 local administrative units are also highlighted.
*Macroregiunea 1:
**Nord-Vest (6 counties)
**Centru (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 2:
**Nord-Est (6 counties)
**Sud-Est (6 counties)
*Macroregiunea 3:
**Sud-Muntenia (7 counties)
**BucureÅti-Ilfov (1 county and Bucharest)
*Macroregiunea 4:
**Sud-Vest Oltenia (5 counties)
**Vest (4 counties)
The country is further subdivided into 319 cities and 2686 communes (rural localities). Communes and towns have their own local councils and are headed by a mayor (primar). Out of these, 103 of the larger and more urbanised towns have the status of municipality, which gives them greater administrative power over local affairs.
Since December 1989, Romania has pursued a policy of strengthening relations with the West in general, more specifically with the United States and the European Union. It joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) on March 29, 2004, the European Union (EU) on January 1, 2007, and the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 1972, and is a member of the World Trade Organization.
The current government has stated its goal of strengthening ties with and helping other Eastern European countries (in particular Moldova, Ukraine and Georgia) with the process of integration with the West. Romania has also made clear over the past 10 years that it supports NATO and EU membership for the democratic former Soviet republics in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. Romania also declared its public support for Turkey, Croatia and Moldova joining the European Union. With Turkey, Romania shares a privileged economic relation. Because it has a large Hungarian minority, Romania has also developed strong relations with Hungary - the latter playing a key role in supporting Romania's bid to join the EU.
In December 2005, President Traian BÄsescu and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice signed an agreement that would allow a U.S. military presence at several Romanian facilities primarily in the eastern part of the country. U.S. Department of State - Background Note: Romania - U.S.-ROMANIAN RELATIONS
Relations with Moldova are rather special, considering that the two countries practically share the same language, and a fairly common historical background. Signs in the early 1990s that Romania and Moldova might unite after both countries achieved emancipation from communist rule, quickly faded away when a pro-Russian government was formed in Moldova. Romania remains interested in Moldovan affairs, but the two countries have been unable even to reach agreement on a basic bilateral treaty; Romania is insistent (against determined Moldovan resistance) that such a treaty would have to refer to Romania and Moldova's 'special relationship'. For more information see Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova.
In the 1976 Summer Olympics, the gymnast Nadia ComÄneci (coach: Bela Karolyi) became the first gymnast ever to score a perfect "ten". She also won three gold medals, one silver and one bronze, all at the age of fifteen. "Gymnast Posts Perfect Mark" Robin Herman, New York Times, March 28, 1976 Her success continued in the 1980 Summer Olympics, where she was awarded two gold medals and two silver medals.
Football (soccer) is popular in Romania, the most internationally known player being Gheorghe Hagi, who played for Steaua BucureÅti (Romania), Real Madrid, FC Barcelona (Spain) and Galatasaray (Turkey), among others. In 1986, the Romanian soccer club Steaua BucureÅti became the first Eastern European club ever, and only one of the two (the other being Red Star Belgrade) to win the prestigious European Champions Cup title.In 1989, it played the final again, but lost to AC Milan. Another strong Romanian team is Dinamo Bucuresti who is the first Romanian team who played a semifinal in the European Champions Cup in 1984 with Liverpool FC and a semifinal in the Cup Winners Cup 1989-1990 against Anderlecht Bruxelles . Other important Romanian football clubs are Rapid BucureÅti, FC Progresul BucureÅti, FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara, FC Universitatea Craiova, CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca, FC OÅ£elul GalaÅ£i, Sportul StudenÅ£esc, FC Farul ConstanÅ£a, FC Arges Pitestietc. Romanian National Football Team has taken part 7 times in the Football World Cup, and it had a very successful period through the 1990s, reaching the quarter-finals in the 1994 World Cup in USA, when the "Golden Generation" was at its best.
Ilie NÄstase, the tennis player, is another internationally known Romanian sports star. He won several Grand Slam titles and dozens of other tournaments and was the first player to be ranked as number 1 by ATP from 1973 to 1974; he also was a successful doubles player. Romania has also reached the Davis Cup finals three times. Virginia Ruzici was a successful tennis player in the 1970s.
Though maybe not the force they once were, the Romanian national rugby team has so far competed at every Rugby World Cup.
For a country of its size, Romania has been one of the most successful countries in the history of Summer Olympic Games (15th overall) with a total of 283 medals won throughout the years, 82 of which are gold medals. |All-Time Medal Standings, 1896-2004
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2006 and the 2005 U.S. Department of State website.
Overviews
* BBC News Country Profile - Romania
* US Department of State - Romania
* CIA World Factbook - Romania
* Federal Research Division, Library of Congress -Romania : a country study
Travel guides
*
* Official site of the National authority for Tourism
* Romania, Terra Incognita - reveals the hidden beauties of Romania
* The Spirit of Romania - Journals, stories, travel photography
* 1st portal about Romania estd. 1996
Economy and law links
* Exchange Rates - from the National Bank of Romania
* Romanian Law and Miscellaneous - English
Culture and history links
* Treasures of the national library of Romania
* Chronology of Romania from the World History Database
* ICI.ro - A comprehensive site about Romania
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Rodna Mountains
Danube Delta
continental climate
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sub-replacement fertility rate
Romanians
Minorities of Romania
Hungarian minority in Romania
Roma minority in Romania
Romani people
UNDP
Transylvania
Harghita County
Covasna County
Ukrainians of Romania
Germans of Romania
Lipovans
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Banat Bulgarians
Croats of Romania
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Russians
History of the Jews in Romania
Czechs of Romania
Polish minority in Romania
Italians of Romania
Armenians in Romania
central Europe
Moldavia
Subcarpathians
orchards
vineyards
pastures
Romanian language
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Italian language
French language
Spanish language
Portuguese language
Catalan language
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Romani
Transylvanian Saxons
English language
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13 November
2005
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1937
1940
Cluj-Napoca
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1316
1545
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December 27
2006
Bucharest
List of Metropolitan Areas in Romania
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Largest cities of the European Union by population within city limits
Cluj-Napoca
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Oradea
Metropolitan areas in Romania
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BraÅov metropolitan area
IaÅi metropolitan area
Oradea metropolitan area
TimiÅoara metropolitan area
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University of Bucharest
Romanian Revolution of 1989
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Ministry of Education and Research of Romania
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European higher education area
Tutoring#Private tutoring
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PISA
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Academic Ranking of World Universities
Bucharest University
Tower Center International
List of countries by GDP per capita (PPP)
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European Union
January 1
2007
Communist Romania
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Poland
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Spain
CIA World Factbook
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Italy
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Eurostat
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World Bank
Hungary
Poland
Czech Republic
Jurnalul Naţional
Roads in Romania
Europe
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Western Europe
Trans-European transport networks
Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre-Accession
International Financial Institutions
World Bank
IMF
Pan-European corridors
Roads in Romania
World Bank
CFR
Bucharest
Metro
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Transport in Bucharest
Romania
tourism
World Travel and Tourism Council
Routledge
Mamaia
Black Sea
Bulgaria
Greece
Italy
Spain
Mangalia
Saturn, Romania
Venus, Romania
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Olimp
Constanta
Mamaia
Black Sea Romanian resorts
Valea Prahovei
Poiana BraÅov
Transylvania
Sibiu
BraÅov
SighiÅoara
Cluj-Napoca
Castles of Transylvania
Bran
Dracula's Castle
Painted churches of Northern Moldavia
Wooden churches of MaramureÅ
Merry Cemetery
MaramureÅ County
Danube Delta
Iron Gates
Danube
ScÄriÅoara Cave
Apuseni Mountains
Sibiu
Nagyszeben
European Capital of Culture
Saxons
SighiÅoara
Central Europe
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Balkans
Ancient Rome
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Slavic peoples
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Serbia
Ukraine
Russia
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Hungarian people
Transylvanian Saxons
Western culture
French Culture
German Culture
Mihai Eminescu
national poet
Moldova
Mihai Eminescu
George CoÅbuc
Ioan Slavici
LuceafÄrul
The Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas
Mihail KogÄlniceanu
Vasile Alecsandri
Andrei MureÅanu
DeÅteaptÄ-te, române!
Nicolae BÄlcescu
Ion Luca Caragiale
National Theatre Bucharest
Ion CreangÄ
Tudor Arghezi
Lucian Blaga
Ion Barbu
Gellu Naum
surrealism
Nichita StÄnescu
Marin Sorescu
Marin Preda
socialist realism
Endless Column
Targu Jiu
Eugen Ionescu
Mircea Eliade
Emil Cioran
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Paul Celan
Elie Wiesel
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pianist
conducting
George Enescu Festival
Ciprian Porumbescu
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Bird in Space
Hunyadi Castle
The Death of Mr. Lazarescu
Cristi Puiu
2005 Cannes Film Festival
Prix un certain regard
4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days
Cristian Mungiu
2007 Cannes Film Festival
Palme d'Or
Variety (magazine)
Jay Weissberg
17 May
2007
Variety (magazine)
UNESCO
World Heritage Site
Saxon villages with fortified churches in Transylvania
Painted churches of northern Moldavia
Wooden Churches of Maramures
Monastery of Horezu
SighiÅoara
Dacian Fortresses of the OrÄÅtie Mountains
Sibiu
Brukenthal National Museum
European Capital of Culture
Luxembourg
semi-presidential
presidents of Romania
Prime ministers of Romania
Cotroceni Palace
Government of Romania
Victoria Palace
Prime ministers of Romania
Palace of the Parliament
world's largest buildings
the Pentagon
Great Pyramid of Giza
Parliament of Romania
Bicameralism
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party-list proportional representation
High Court of Cassation and Justice
French law
Civil law (legal system)
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Curtea ConstituÅ£ionalÄ
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European Union
judicial reform
Bulgaria
Counties of Romania
Bucharest
Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics
development regions of Romania
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Bucharest
Development regions of Romania
Nord-Vest (development region)
Centru (development region)
Nord-Est (development region)
Sud-Est (development region)
Sud (development region)
BucureÅti-Ilfov (development region)
Sud-Vest (development region)
Vest (development region)
cities in Romania
Communes of Romania
Municipalities of Romania
United States
European Union
NATO
March 29
2004
European Union
January 1
2007
International Monetary Fund
World Bank
World Trade Organization
Eastern Europe
Moldova
Ukraine
Georgia (country)
Caucasus
Turkey
Croatia
Moldova
Hungary
Traian BÄsescu
Secretary of State
Condoleezza Rice
Moldova
Romanian-Moldovan relations
Movement for unification of Romania and Moldova
1976 Summer Olympics
Nadia ComÄneci
New York Times
1980 Summer Olympics
Football (soccer)
Gheorghe Hagi
Steaua BucureÅti
Real Madrid C.F.
FC Barcelona
Galatasaray S.K.
Red Star Belgrade
European Champions Cup
AC Milan
Dinamo Bucuresti
European Champions Cup
Liverpool FC
Cup Winners Cup
1989
1990
R.S.C. Anderlecht
Rapid BucureÅti
FC Progresul BucureÅti
FCU Politehnica TimiÅoara
FC Universitatea Craiova
CFR 1907 Cluj-Napoca
FC Oţelul Galaţi
Sportul Studenţesc
FC Farul Constanţa
FC Arges Pitesti
Romania national football team
Football World Cup
1994 World Cup
USA
Ilie NÄstase
Grand Slam (tennis)
number 1
ATP
Davis Cup
Virginia Ruzici
Romania national rugby union team
National team appearances in the Rugby World Cup
Rugby World Cup
Summer Olympic Games
All-time Olympic Games medal count
CIA World Factbook
National Bank of Romania
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