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[SOURCE: https://www.fast.ai/posts/2021-08-16-ai-taxonomy.html] | [TOKENS: 1427] |
Getting Specific about AI Risks (an AI Taxonomy) Rachel Thomas August 16, 2021 The term “Artificial Intelligence” is a broad umbrella, referring to a variety of techniques applied to a range of tasks. This breadth can breed confusion. Success in using AI to identify tumors on lung x-rays, for instance, may offer no indication of whether AI can be used to accurately predict who will commit another crime or which employees will succeed, or whether these latter tasks are even appropriate candidates for the use of AI. Misleading marketing hype often clouds distinctions between different types of tasks and suggests that breakthroughs on narrow research problems are more broadly applicable than is the case. Furthermore, the nature of the risks posed by different categories of AI tasks varies, and it is crucial that we understand the distinctions. One source of confusion is that in fiction and the popular imagination, AI has often referred to computers achieving human consciousness: a broad, general intelligence. People may picture a super-smart robot, knowledgeable on a range of topics, able to perform many tasks. In reality, the current advances happening in AI right now are narrow: a computer program that can do one task, or class of tasks, well. For example, a software program analyzes mammograms to identify likely breast cancer, or a completely different software program provides scores to essays written by students, although is fooled by gibberish using sophisticated words. These are separate programs, and fundamentally different from the depictions of human-like AI in science fiction movies and books. It is understandable that the public may often assume that since companies and governments are implementing AI for high-stakes tasks like predictive policing, determining healthcare benefits, screening resumes, and analyzing video job interviews, it must be because of AI’s superior performance. However, the sad reality is that often AI is being implemented as a cost-cutting measure: computers are cheaper than employing humans, and this can cause leaders to overlook harms caused by the switch, including biases, errors, and a failure to vet accuracy claims. In a talk entitled “How to recognize AI snake oil”, Professor Arvind Narayanan created a useful taxonomy of three types of tasks AI is commonly being applied to right now: The above 3 categories are not comprehensive of all uses of AI, and there are certainly innovations that span across them. However, this taxonomy is a useful heuristic for considering differences in accuracy and differences in the nature of the risks we face. For perception tasks, some of the biggest ethical concerns are related to how accurate AI can be (e.g. for the state to accurately surveil protesters has chilling implications for our civil rights), but in contrast, for predicting social outcomes, many of the products are total junk, which is harmful in a different way. The first area, perception, which includes speech to text and image recognition, is the area where researchers are making truly impressive, rapid progress. However, even within this area, that doesn’t mean that the technology is always ready to use, or that there aren’t ethical concerns. For example, facial recognition often has much higher error rates on dark-skinned women, due to unrepresentative training sets. Even when accuracy is improved to remove this bias, the use of facial recognition by police to identify protesters (which has happened numerous times in the USA) is a grave threat to civil rights. Furthermore, how a computer algorithm performs in a controlled, academic setting can be very different from how it performs when deployed in the real world. For example, Google Health developed a computer program that identifies diabetic retinopathy with 90% accuracy when used on high-quality eye scans. However, when it was deployed in clinics in Thailand, many of the scans were taken in poor lighting conditions, and over 20% of all scans were rejected by the algorithm as low quality, creating great inconvenience for the many patients that had to take another day off of work to travel to a different clinic to be retested. While improvements are being made in the area of category 2, automating judgement, the technology is still faulty and there are limits to what is possible here due to the fact that culture and language usage are always evolving. Widely used essay grading software rewards “nonsense essays with sophisticated vocabulary,” and is biased against African-American students, giving their essays lower grades than expert human graders do. The software is able to measure sentence length, vocabulary, and spelling, but is unable to recognize creativity or nuance. Content from LGBTQ YouTube creators was mislabeled as “sexually explicit” and demonetized, harming their livelihoods. As Ali Alkhatib wrote, “The algorithm is always behind the curve, executing today based on yesterday’s data… This case [of YouTube demonetizing LGBTQ creators] highlights a shortcoming with a commonly offered solution to these kinds of problems, that more training data would eliminate errors of this nature: culture always shifts.” This is a fundamental limitation of this category: language is always evolving, new slurs and forms of hate speech develop, just as new forms of creative expression do as well. Narayanan labels the third category, of trying to predict social outcomes, as “fundamentally dubious.” AI can’t predict the future, and to label a person’s potential is deeply concerning. Often, these approaches are no more accurate than simple linear regression. Social scientists spent 15 years painstakingly gathering a rich longitudinal dataset on families containing 12,942 variables. When 160 teams created machine learning models to predict which children in the dataset would have adverse outcomes, the most accurate submission was only slightly better than a simple benchmark model using just 4 variables, and many of the submissions did worse than the simple benchmark. In the USA, there is a black box software program with 137 inputs used in the criminal justice system to predict who is likely to be re-arrested, yet it is no more accurate than a linear classifier on just 2 variables. Not only is it unclear that there have been meaningful AI advances in this category, but more importantly the underlying premise of such efforts raises crucial questions about whether we should be attempting to use algorithms to predict someone’s future potential at all. Together with Matt Salganik, Narayanan has further developed these ideas in a course on the Limits to Prediction (check out the course pre-read, which is fantastic). Narayanan’s taxonomy is a helpful reminder that advances in one category don’t necessarily mean much for a different category, and he offers the crucial insight that different applications of AI create different fundamental risks. The overly general term artificial intelligence, misleading hype from companies pushing their products, and confusing media coverage often cloud distinctions between different types of tasks and suggest that breakthroughs on narrow problems are more broadly applicable than they are. Understanding the types of technology available, as well as the distinct risks they raise, is crucial to addressing and preventing harmful misuses. Read Narayanan’s How to recognize AI snake oil slides and notes for more detail. This post was originally published on the USF Center for Applied Data Ethics (CADE) blog. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_(computing)#Video_gaming] | [TOKENS: 586] |
Contents Theme (computing) In computing, a theme is a preset package containing graphical appearance and functionality details. A theme usually comprises a set of shapes and colors for the graphical control elements, the window decoration and the window. Themes are used to customize the look and feel of a piece of computer software or of an operating system. Also known as a skin (or visual style in Windows XP) it is a custom graphical appearance preset package achieved by the use of a graphical user interface (GUI) that can be applied to specific computer software, operating system, and websites to suit the purpose, topic, or tastes of different users. As such, a skin can completely change the look and feel and navigation interface of a piece of application software or operating system. Software that is capable of having a skin applied is referred to as being skinnable, and the process of writing or applying such a skin is known as skinning. Applying a skin changes a piece of software's look and feel—some skins merely make the program more aesthetically pleasing, but others can rearrange elements of the interface, potentially making the program easier to use. Use Themes are often used to change the look and feel of a wide range of things at once, which makes them much less granular than allowing the user to set each option individually. For example, users might want the window-borders from a particular theme, but installing it would also alter the desktop background. One method for dealing with this is to allow the user to select which parts of the theme they want to load; for example in Windows 98, users could load the background and screensaver from a theme, but leave the icons and sounds untouched. Themed systems Firefox and Google Chrome either support or supported a form of theme. Firefox (and its sibling Thunderbird) supports themes either through lightweight themes (formerly Personas). Google Chrome version 3.0 or later allows themes to alter the appearance of the browser. Internet Explorer 5 and its immediate successor allowed the background picture of their toolbars to be customized. The most popular skins are for instant messaging clients, media center, and media player software, such as Trillian and Winamp, due to the association with fun that such programs try to encourage. Standard interface Some platforms support changing the standard interface, including most using the X Window System. For those that do not, programs can add the functionality, like WindowBlinds for Microsoft Windows and ShapeShifter for macOS. Websites Many websites are skinnable, particularly those that provide social capabilities. Some sites provide skins that make primarily cosmetic changes, while some—such as H2G2—offer skins that make major changes to page layout. As with standalone software interfaces, this is facilitated by the underlying technology of the website—XML and XSLT, for instance, facilitate major changes of layout, while CSS can easily produce different visual styles. See also References |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleton_(undead)] | [TOKENS: 457] |
Contents Skeleton (undead) A skeleton is a type of physically manifested undead often found in fantasy, gothic, and horror fiction, as well as mythology, folklore, and various kinds of art. Most are human skeletons, but they can also be from any species found on Earth or in the fantasy world. Myth and folklore Animated human skeletons have been used as a personification of death in Western culture since the Middle Ages, a personification perhaps influenced by the valley of the dry bones in the Book of Ezekiel. The Grim Reaper is often depicted as a hooded skeleton holding a scythe (and occasionally an hourglass), which has been attributed to Hans Holbein the Younger (1538). Death as one of the biblical horsemen of the Apocalypse has been depicted as a skeleton riding a horse. The Triumph of Death is a 1562 painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depicting an army of skeletons raiding a town and slaughtering its occupants. "The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was" is a Brothers Grimm fairy tale in which a boy named Hans joins a circle of dancing skeletons. In Japanese folklore, Mekurabe are rolling skulls with eyeballs who menace Taira no Kiyomori. Figurines and images of skeletons doing routine things are common in Mexico's Day of the Dead celebration, where skulls symbolize life and their familiar circumstances invite levity. Highly decorated sugar-skull candy has become one of the most recognizable elements of the celebrations. They are known in Mexico as calacas, a Mexican Spanish term simply meaning "skeleton". The modern association between skeleton iconography and the Day of the Dead was inspired by La Calavera Catrina, a zinc etching created by Mexican cartoonist José Guadalupe Posada in the 1910s and published posthumously in 1930. Initially a satire of Mexican women who were ashamed of their indigenous origins and dressed imitating the French style, wearing heavy makeup to make their skin look whiter, it later became a more general symbol of vanity. During the 20th century, the Catrina entrenched itself in the Mexican consciousness and became a national icon, often depicted in folk art. Modern fiction See also References |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minecraft_Zombie.png] | [TOKENS: 149] |
File:Minecraft Zombie.png Summary Licensing Additionally, while this file is under a free license, re-use of this file may be subject to legal constraints, depending on jurisdiction and independent from its copyright status. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing. File history Click on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. File usage The following page uses this file: Global file usage The following other wikis use this file: Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details may not fully reflect the modified file. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/bengali] | [TOKENS: 5522] |
BBC News, বাংলা - মূলপাতা প্রধান খবর একুশে ফেব্রুয়ারির প্রথম প্রহরে রাত ১২টা ১ মিনিটে কেন্দ্রীয় শহীদ মিনারে পুষ্পস্তবক অর্পণের মাধ্যমে শ্রদ্ধা নিবেদন করেন রাষ্ট্রপতি মো. সাহাবুদ্দিন। রাষ্ট্রপতি চলে যাবার পর রাত ১২টা ৮ মিনিটে শহীদ মিনারের বেদিতে পুষ্পস্তবক অর্পণের মাধ্যমে শ্রদ্ধা নিবেদন করেন প্রধানমন্ত্রী তারেক রহমান। সুপ্রিম কোর্টের প্রধান বিচারপতি জন রবার্টস রায়ে বলেন, প্রেসিডেন্টকে শুল্ক আরোপের মতো অসাধারণ ক্ষমতা প্রয়োগের ক্ষেত্রে কংগ্রেসের স্পষ্ট অনুমোদন দেখাতে হবে। জাতীয় জরুরি অবস্থার জন্য সংরক্ষিত আইনকে ব্যবহার করে শুল্ক আরোপের মাধ্যমে ট্রাম্প তার কর্তৃত্বের সীমা অতিক্রম করেছেন। বর্তমানে দ্য হান্ড্রেডের আটটি দলের মধ্যে চারটি দল আংশিক বা পুরোপুরি আইপিএল সংশ্লিষ্ট কোম্পানির মালিকানায় রয়েছে। এই দলগুলো হলো ম্যানচেস্টার সুপার জায়ান্টস, এমআই লন্ডন, সাউদার্ন ব্রেভ ও সানরাইজার্স লিডস। উপসাগরীয় অঞ্চলে যুক্তরাষ্ট্র যখন সামরিক শক্তি বাড়িয়েই চলেছে, তখন ইরানি নেতৃত্ব বিবেচনা করছে যে মার্কিন দাবি না মানার বিষয়টিই সর্বোত্তম বিকল্প কি না। ঢাকা থেকে প্রকাশিত শনিবারের পত্রিকাগুলোয় আন্তর্জাতিক মাতৃভাষা দিবস ঘিরে বিভিন্ন প্রতিবেদন; পুলিশের উচ্চপদে রদবদল, জামায়াতের স্থানীয় নির্বাচনের প্রস্তুতি নেওয়া এবং বাংলাদেশ ও ভারতের ভিসা পরিষেবা বাড়ার খবর গুরুত্ব পেয়েছে। নারীকে টার্গেট করার মাধ্যম হিসেবে তার পোশাক বা চরিত্রকে 'টুল' হিসেবে ব্যবহার করার প্রবণতা দেখা যায়। জাইমা রহমানের ক্ষেত্রেও তেমনটাই ঘটেছে বলে মনে করছেন অধিকার কর্মীরা। পরিবহন সেক্টরের চাঁদা নিয়ে সড়ক পরিবহন ও সেতুমন্ত্রীর দেওয়া বক্তব্য সমালোচনার তৈরি করেছে। ‘সমঝোতা’ বা ‘অলিখিত বিধান’ বলে চাঁদাবাজিকে বৈধতা দেওয়া হচ্ছে বলেও অভিযোগ করেছেন কেউ কেউ। এছাড়া প্রধানমন্ত্রী তারেক রহমানের দুর্নীতিবিরোধী অবস্থানের সঙ্গে মন্ত্রীর এই অবস্থান সাংঘর্ষিক বলেই মনে করেন বিশেষজ্ঞরা। প্রধানমন্ত্রী পদে দায়িত্ব নেওয়ার পর তারেক রহমানকে অভিনন্দন জানিয়ে লেখা চিঠিতে এই বাণিজ্য চুক্তির কথা উল্লেখ করেছেন যুক্তরাষ্ট্রের প্রেসিডেন্ট ডোনাল্ড ট্রাম্প। তবে অর্থনীতিবিদদের কেউ কেউ বলছেন, বাংলাদেশের নির্বাচিত সরকারের উচিত চুক্তিটি পরীক্ষা করে দেখা। রমজানের সঠিক তারিখ প্রতিবছর পরিবর্তিত হয়, কারণ ইসলামিক ক্যালেন্ডার চাঁদের অবস্থান অনুযায়ী চলে। সাধারণত প্রতি বছর রমজান প্রায় ১১ দিন করে এগিয়ে আসে। বিবিসি বাংলা এখন হোয়াটসঅ্যাপে! নির্বাচিত খবর ইসলামের প্রধান পাঁচটি ধর্মীয় স্তম্ভের একটি হচ্ছে রোজা। কখন ও কীভাবে রোজা ইসলামের অবিচ্ছেদ্য অনুষঙ্গ হয়ে উঠলো? এক মাস ধরে যখন আপনি রোজা রাখছেন, প্রতিদিন দীর্ঘ সময় না খেয়ে থাকছেন, এর কী প্রভাব পড়ছে আপনার শরীরে? রোজা রাখা কি স্বাস্থ্যের জন্য ভালো, নাকি ক্ষতিকর? ইসলাম ধর্মে রোজা সংক্রান্ত যেসব নিয়মের কথা বলা আছে, রমজানে ধর্মপ্রাণ মুসলিমরা সেগুলো মেনে চলেন। কিন্তু এমন অনেক বিষয় আছে, যেগুলো সম্বন্ধে ধর্মে সরাসরি কিছু বলা না থাকলেও অনেকে সেগুলোও মানেন। নির্বাচনের পর সংসদ সদস্যদের শপথের তারিখ ঘোষণার পর থেকেই রাজনৈতিক অঙ্গনে বড় আলোচনার বিষয় হয়ে উঠেছিল সংবিধান সংস্কার পরিষদ, বিশেষ করে বিএনপি এই পরিষদের সদস্য হিসেবে শপথ নিবে কি-না। শেষ পর্যন্ত এই শপথ নেয়নি বিএনপি সদস্যরা। তবে জামায়াত জোটের সদস্যরা দুটি শপথই নিয়েছেন। এখন সংবিধান সংস্কার পরিষদের ভবিষ্যৎ কি হবে, তা নিয়ে আলোচনা জোরালো হয়ে উঠেছে। অন্তর্বর্তী সরকারের মূল্য লক্ষ্য ছিল তিনটি- সংবিধানসহ বিভিন্ন ক্ষেত্রে সংস্কার, জুলাই অভ্যুত্থানের সময় সংঘটিত 'মানবতাবিরোধী অপরাধের বিচার' এবং সরকার ঘোষিত রূপরেখার মধ্যেই সংসদ নির্বাচন আয়োজন। কিন্তু সব মিলিয়ে সরকার কতটা সফল ও কতটা ব্যর্থ? বিবিসি বাংলা এখন ইন্সটাগ্রামেও! সংসদ নির্বাচন ২০২৬ জুলাই সনদের যে সব বিষয়ে নোট অব ডিসেন্ট নেই সে সব প্রশ্নে সংস্কারগুলো নিয়ে তেমন কোনো সংকট দেখছেন না সংবিধান বিশ্লেষকরা। তবে, সংসদের উচ্চকক্ষের গঠন নিয়ে এরই মধ্যে আলোচনা তৈরি হয়েছে দেশের রাজনৈতিক অঙ্গনে। গণভোট ও সংসদ নির্বাচন এই দুই ভোটের গড় হারে এই পার্থক্য কেন সেটি নিয়ে নির্বাচন কমিশন একটি ব্যাখ্যা দিয়েছে শুক্রবার বিকেলে। ইসি সচিব আখতার আহমেদ জানিয়েছেন, দুইটি আসনের জাতীয় নির্বাচনের ফলাফল স্থগিত থাকায় কম হয়েছে সংসদ ভোটের হার। জাতীয় সংসদ নির্বাচনে বিএনপি ও সমমনা দলগুলোর কাছে অনেক কম আসন পেলেও প্রথমবারের মতো সংসদের প্রধান বিরোধী দল হিসেবে আত্মপ্রকাশ করতে যাচ্ছে জামায়াতে ইসলামী। সবমিলিয়ে এই নির্বাচন থেকে দলটি আসলে কী পেল বা অর্জন করলো তা নিয়ে নানা বিশ্লেষণ চলছে রাজনৈতিক মহলে। ত্রয়োদশ জাতীয় সংসদ নির্বাচনে অন্তত চল্লিশ শতাংশ আসনে একাধিক অনিয়মের চিত্র দেখা গেছে বলে জানিয়েছে দুর্নীতিবিরোধী আন্তর্জাতিক সংস্থা ট্রান্সপারেন্সি ইন্টারন্যাশনাল বাংলাদেশ (টিআইবি)। এতগুলো আসনে নিজেদের প্রতিনিধি থাকার ফলে সংসদে যেকোনো আইন প্রণয়ন সহজ হয়, এমনকি রাষ্ট্রের সর্বোচ্চ আইন হিসেবে পরিচিত সংবিধান পরিবর্তনের সুযোগ তৈরি হয়। কিন্তু অতীতে দেখা গেছে, এরকম নিরঙ্কুশ সংখ্যাগরিষ্ঠতা পাওয়া জয় কখনও কখনও 'ফ্যাসিস্ট' শাসক তৈরিতে করার ক্ষেত্রেও ভূমিকা রাখে। বাংলাদেশ ভারত বিশ্ব স্বাস্থ্য ভিডিও অন্যান্য খবর সামাজিক মাধ্যমে বিবিসি বাংলা পাঠকপ্রিয় খবর অন্যান্য ভাষায় সংবাদ দেখুন © 2026 বিবিসি। বাইরের কোন সাইটের তথ্যের জন্য বিবিসি দায়বদ্ধ নয়। বাইরের লিংক সম্পর্কে বিবিসির দৃষ্টিভঙ্গি সম্বন্ধে পড়ুন। |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp] | [TOKENS: 2181] |
BBC News, 中文 - 主页 头条新闻 作为全球最大的碳排放国，中国过去12个月安装的太阳能和风力发电量超过其他所有国家的总和。这场所谓的可再生能源革命，速度前所未有。有分析人士认为，其他国家可能需数十年才能追上。 安德鲁·蒙巴顿-温莎因涉嫌公职人员行为失当遭逮捕。他做错了什么？面临哪些指控？此前有过哪些挣扎？ 由TikTok母公司开发的新型人工智慧（AI）模型本周震撼好莱坞，Seedance 2.0仅需少量文字提示即可生成具备音效与对白的电影级影片。 为何无论谷爱凌身处何处，她都会引爆舆论？ 在推动宠物经济的初衷下，中国香港特区政府开展修改禁止狗只进入餐饮场所法律工作，但期望成事的各方都有着不同的担忧。 更多新闻 影片 2022年起，台湾的一家电视台每逢农历新年，都会在网路上24小时不间断地直播中国大陆的古装宫斗剧《后宫甄嬛传》，并逐渐演变成年轻人过年的“文化习俗”。 在台湾，近年有越来越多追星族为了买到演唱会的票而拜月老。 78岁的《壹传媒》创办人黎智英被控告中国《香港国安法》案件，包括“串谋勾结外国势力”等案罪成，判囚20年，是法律实施后刑期最高的被告。有声音认为，刑期无异于终身监禁。 一对情侣入住中国深圳一家酒店后，发现他们最私密的时刻被偷拍，并作为针孔摄像头色情片在网上流传。 出身中国湖南的李贞秀预计在2月3日就职，成为台湾首位“陆配”立委，目前这个社群担任最高阶的公职。她的提名、加上去年花莲村长邓万华因中国国籍遭解职，让陆配参政的讨论浮上檯面。 特朗普关税 在慕尼黑安全会议上，欧洲国家包含德国及英国已感受到新的全球秩序正在成形。不管喜不喜欢，这些欧洲国家及选民开始对安全感到焦虑，许多新的计划及结盟开始成形，问题是它们能成功吗? 美国在中东大幅增兵以威慑伊朗，BBC事实查核透过卫星影像确认“亚伯拉罕·林肯号”航母打击群已部署阿拉伯海，搭载F-35战机与数千士兵。美国在中东舰艇增至12艘，战机也明显增加。伊朗则举行导弹演习回应。 各国领袖本周齐聚慕尼黑安全会议，而欧洲安全正处于关键的十字路口。 同一次通话，美中两方侧重点不同。 台美经贸利益透过此次协议已深度互绑，半导体无疑是重中之重，台积电作为枢纽，持续主导这场晶片外交谈判。 特别推荐 台湾兴起“甄嬛热”，过年期间大批观众在YouTube观看马拉松式直播。有趣的是，不少《甄嬛传》忠实粉丝本身是“排斥中国”的“台独支持者”，引发不同的文化和政治解读。 晨起第一件事喝热水、居家穿棉拖鞋、熬制苹果银耳汤……这些在华人、华裔中常见的行为逐渐开始风靡TikTok和Instagram，来自不同国家的年轻人开始效仿，戏称自己正在“成为中国人”。 高市为何大胜？中日如何继续交锋？四月高市即将访美，届时将会如何巩固日美同盟？台湾问题是包袱还是资产？内部严峻的通膨及低薪问题会否纠缠她？ 日本一直面临经济成长疲、公共债务不断攀升和劳动力快速老化等问题。 78岁的《壹传媒》创办人黎智英被控告中国《香港国安法》案件，包括“串谋勾结外国势力”等罪成，判囚20年。 深度报道 银发人群月人均使用时长达129小时，换算下来每天超过4小时，深夜0点仍有超过30%的银发用户活跃在线。 习近平说，解放军已“有效应对各种风险挑战”，许多军中人员经历了“政治整训”。 前美国国安顾问沙利文表示，习近平“对一个与自己有如此长期关系的人下手，这令人震惊，也引发了许多疑问”。 明氏家族在靠近中国与缅甸边境的掸邦地区长期经营诈骗园区，电诈亦成为当地一大经济支柱。 宏福苑全数1984户的居民失去家园，现有逾4000名居民四散在不同地区的应急安置处。BBC中文梳理大火至今就长期安置的主要论述，以及灾后重建惯常会遇到的主要难题。 知识资讯 在中国文化里，马不仅是一种动物，还代表一组意象：速度、奔赴、行动、开拓、吃苦、与路之间的关系。 特朗普想要购买格陵兰岛的愿望，在美国发展成为如今的超级大国的历史上并非没有先例。 从简单的效果增强到幻觉般的人脸细节，现代手机决定了我们的回忆应该长什么样。你可能喜欢这些效果，但它们也可能改变我们看世界的方式。 中国希望越来越能控制何时何地下雨。其雄心勃勃的人工增雨（云层播种）计划为何如此具争议性，它是否真的有效？ Netflix最新纪录片将让泰拉·班克斯（Tyra Banks）和节目评审们回应一些真人秀节目中最具争议的丑闻。 社交媒体 热门内容 © 2026 BBC. BBC对外部网站内容不负责任。 阅读了解我们对待外部链接的做法。 |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minecraft#cite_note-25] | [TOKENS: 12858] |
Contents Minecraft Minecraft is a sandbox game developed and published by Mojang Studios. Following its initial public alpha release in 2009, it was formally released in 2011 for personal computers. The game has since been ported to numerous platforms, including mobile devices and various video game consoles. In Minecraft, players explore a procedurally generated world with virtually infinite terrain made up of voxels (cubes). They can discover and extract raw materials, craft tools and items, build structures, fight hostile mobs, and cooperate with or compete against other players in multiplayer. The game's large community offers a wide variety of user-generated content, such as modifications, servers, player skins, texture packs, and custom maps, which add new game mechanics and possibilities. Originally created by Markus "Notch" Persson using the Java programming language, Jens "Jeb" Bergensten was handed control over the game's development following its full release. In 2014, Mojang and the Minecraft intellectual property were purchased by Microsoft for US$2.5 billion; Xbox Game Studios hold the publishing rights for the Bedrock Edition, the unified cross-platform version which evolved from the Pocket Edition codebase[i] and replaced the legacy console versions. Bedrock is updated concurrently with Mojang's original Java Edition, although with numerous, generally small, differences. Minecraft is the best-selling video game in history with over 350 million copies sold. It has received critical acclaim, winning several awards and being cited as one of the greatest video games of all time. Social media, parodies, adaptations, merchandise, and the annual Minecon conventions have played prominent roles in popularizing it. The wider Minecraft franchise includes several spin-off games, such as Minecraft: Story Mode, Minecraft Dungeons, and Minecraft Legends. A film adaptation, titled A Minecraft Movie, was released in 2025 and became the second highest-grossing video game film of all time. Gameplay Minecraft is a 3D sandbox video game that has no required goals to accomplish, giving players a large amount of freedom in choosing how to play the game. The game features an optional achievement system. Gameplay is in the first-person perspective by default, but players have the option of third-person perspectives. The game world is composed of rough 3D objects—mainly cubes, referred to as blocks—representing various materials, such as dirt, stone, ores, tree trunks, water, and lava. The core gameplay revolves around picking up and placing these objects. These blocks are arranged in a voxel grid, while players can move freely around the world. Players can break, or mine, blocks and then place them elsewhere, enabling them to build things. Very few blocks are affected by gravity, instead maintaining their voxel position in the air. Players can also craft a wide variety of items, such as armor, which mitigates damage from attacks; weapons (such as swords or bows and arrows), which allow monsters and animals to be killed more easily; and tools (such as pickaxes or shovels), which break certain types of blocks more quickly. Some items have multiple tiers depending on the material used to craft them, with higher-tier items being more effective and durable. They may also freely craft helpful blocks—such as furnaces which can cook food and smelt ores, and torches that produce light—or exchange items with villagers (NPC) through trading emeralds for different goods and vice versa. The game has an inventory system, allowing players to carry a limited number of items. The in-game time system follows a day and night cycle, with one full cycle lasting for 20 real-time minutes. The game also contains a material called redstone, which can be used to make primitive mechanical devices, electrical circuits, and logic gates, allowing for the construction of many complex systems. New players are given a randomly selected default character skin out of nine possibilities, including Steve or Alex, but are able to create and upload their own skins. Players encounter various mobs (short for mobile entities) including animals, villagers, and hostile creatures. Passive mobs, such as cows, pigs, and chickens, spawn during the daytime and can be hunted for food and crafting materials, while hostile mobs—including large spiders, witches, skeletons, and zombies—spawn during nighttime or in dark places such as caves. Some hostile mobs, such as zombies and skeletons, burn under the sun if they have no headgear and are not standing in water. Other creatures unique to Minecraft include the creeper (an exploding creature that sneaks up on the player) and the enderman (a creature with the ability to teleport as well as pick up and place blocks). There are also variants of mobs that spawn in different conditions; for example, zombies have husk and drowned variants that spawn in deserts and oceans, respectively. The Minecraft environment is procedurally generated as players explore it using a map seed that is randomly chosen at the time of world creation (or manually specified by the player). Divided into biomes representing different environments with unique resources and structures, worlds are designed to be effectively infinite in traditional gameplay, though technical limits on the player have existed throughout development, both intentionally and not. Implementation of horizontally infinite generation initially resulted in a glitch termed the "Far Lands" at over 12 million blocks away from the world center, where terrain generated as wall-like, fissured patterns. The Far Lands and associated glitches were considered the effective edge of the world until they were resolved, with the current horizontal limit instead being a special impassable barrier called the world border, located 30 million blocks away. Vertical space is comparatively limited, with an unbreakable bedrock layer at the bottom and a building limit several hundred blocks into the sky. Minecraft features three independent dimensions accessible through portals and providing alternate game environments. The Overworld is the starting dimension and represents the real world, with a terrestrial surface setting including plains, mountains, forests, oceans, caves, and small sources of lava. The Nether is a hell-like underworld dimension accessed via an obsidian portal and composed mainly of lava. Mobs that populate the Nether include shrieking, fireball-shooting ghasts, alongside anthropomorphic pigs called piglins and their zombified counterparts. Piglins in particular have a bartering system, where players can give them gold ingots and receive items in return. Structures known as Nether Fortresses generate in the Nether, containing mobs such as wither skeletons and blazes, which can drop blaze rods needed to access the End dimension. The player can also choose to build an optional boss mob known as the Wither, using skulls obtained from wither skeletons and soul sand. The End can be reached through an end portal, consisting of twelve end portal frames. End portals are found in underground structures in the Overworld known as strongholds. To find strongholds, players must craft eyes of ender using an ender pearl and blaze powder. Eyes of ender can then be thrown, traveling in the direction of the stronghold. Once the player reaches the stronghold, they can place eyes of ender into each portal frame to activate the end portal. The dimension consists of islands floating in a dark, bottomless void. A boss enemy called the Ender Dragon guards the largest, central island. Killing the dragon opens access to an exit portal, which, when entered, cues the game's ending credits and the End Poem, a roughly 1,500-word work written by Irish novelist Julian Gough, which takes about nine minutes to scroll past, is the game's only narrative text, and the only text of significant length directed at the player.: 10–12 At the conclusion of the credits, the player is teleported back to their respawn point and may continue the game indefinitely. In Survival mode, players have to gather natural resources such as wood and stone found in the environment in order to craft certain blocks and items. Depending on the difficulty, monsters spawn in darker areas outside a certain radius of the character, requiring players to build a shelter in order to survive at night. The mode also has a health bar which is depleted by attacks from mobs, falls, drowning, falling into lava, suffocation, starvation, and other events. Players also have a hunger bar, which must be periodically refilled by eating food in-game unless the player is playing on peaceful difficulty. If the hunger bar is empty, the player starves. Health replenishes when players have a full hunger bar or continuously on peaceful. Upon losing all health, players die. The items in the players' inventories are dropped unless the game is reconfigured not to do so. Players then re-spawn at their spawn point, which by default is where players first spawn in the game and can be changed by sleeping in a bed or using a respawn anchor. Dropped items can be recovered if players can reach them before they despawn after 5 minutes. Players may acquire experience points (commonly referred to as "xp" or "exp") by killing mobs and other players, mining, smelting ores, animal breeding, and cooking food. Experience can then be spent on enchanting tools, armor and weapons. Enchanted items are generally more powerful, last longer, or have other special effects. The game features two more game modes based on Survival, known as Hardcore mode and Adventure mode. Hardcore mode plays identically to Survival mode, but with the game's difficulty setting locked to "Hard" and with permadeath, forcing them to delete the world or explore it as a spectator after dying. Adventure mode was added to the game in a post-launch update, and prevents the player from directly modifying the game's world. It was designed primarily for use in custom maps, allowing map designers to let players experience it as intended. In Creative mode, players have access to an infinite number of all resources and items in the game through the inventory menu and can place or mine them instantly. Players can toggle the ability to fly freely around the game world at will, and their characters usually do not take any damage nor are affected by hunger. The game mode helps players focus on building and creating projects of any size without disturbance. Multiplayer in Minecraft enables multiple players to interact and communicate with each other on a single world. It is available through direct game-to-game multiplayer, local area network (LAN) play, local split screen (console-only), and servers (player-hosted and business-hosted). Players can run their own server by making a realm, using a host provider, hosting one themselves or connect directly to another player's game via Xbox Live, PlayStation Network or Nintendo Switch Online. Single-player worlds have LAN support, allowing players to join a world on locally interconnected computers without a server setup. Minecraft multiplayer servers are guided by server operators, who have access to server commands such as setting the time of day and teleporting players. Operators can also set up restrictions concerning which usernames or IP addresses are allowed or disallowed to enter the server. Multiplayer servers have a wide range of activities, with some servers having their own unique rules and customs. The largest and most popular server is Hypixel, which has been visited by over 14 million unique players. Player versus player combat (PvP) can be enabled to allow fighting between players. In 2013, Mojang announced Minecraft Realms, a server hosting service intended to enable players to run server multiplayer games easily and safely without having to set up their own. Unlike a standard server, only invited players can join Realms servers, and these servers do not use server addresses. Minecraft: Java Edition Realms server owners can invite up to twenty people to play on their server, with up to ten players online at a time. Minecraft Realms server owners can invite up to 3,000 people to play on their server, with up to ten players online at one time. The Minecraft: Java Edition Realms servers do not support user-made plugins, but players can play custom Minecraft maps. Minecraft Bedrock Realms servers support user-made add-ons, resource packs, behavior packs, and custom Minecraft maps. At Electronic Entertainment Expo 2016, support for cross-platform play between Windows 10, iOS, and Android platforms was added through Realms starting in June 2016, with Xbox One and Nintendo Switch support to come later in 2017, and support for virtual reality devices. On 31 July 2017, Mojang released the beta version of the update allowing cross-platform play. Nintendo Switch support for Realms was released in July 2018. The modding community consists of fans, users and third-party programmers. Using a variety of application program interfaces that have arisen over time, they have produced a wide variety of downloadable content for Minecraft, such as modifications, texture packs and custom maps. Modifications of the Minecraft code, called mods, add a variety of gameplay changes, ranging from new blocks, items, and mobs to entire arrays of mechanisms. The modding community is responsible for a substantial supply of mods from ones that enhance gameplay, such as mini-maps, waypoints, and durability counters, to ones that add to the game elements from other video games and media. While a variety of mod frameworks were independently developed by reverse engineering the code, Mojang has also enhanced vanilla Minecraft with official frameworks for modification, allowing the production of community-created resource packs, which alter certain game elements including textures and sounds. Players can also create their own "maps" (custom world save files) that often contain specific rules, challenges, puzzles and quests, and share them for others to play. Mojang added an adventure mode in August 2012 and "command blocks" in October 2012, which were created specially for custom maps in Java Edition. Data packs, introduced in version 1.13 of the Java Edition, allow further customization, including the ability to add new achievements, dimensions, functions, loot tables, predicates, recipes, structures, tags, and world generation. The Xbox 360 Edition supported downloadable content, which was available to purchase via the Xbox Games Store; these content packs usually contained additional character skins. It later received support for texture packs in its twelfth title update while introducing "mash-up packs", which combined texture packs with skin packs and changes to the game's sounds, music and user interface. The first mash-up pack (and by extension, the first texture pack) for the Xbox 360 Edition was released on 4 September 2013, and was themed after the Mass Effect franchise. Unlike Java Edition, however, the Xbox 360 Edition did not support player-made mods or custom maps. A cross-promotional resource pack based on the Super Mario franchise by Nintendo was released exclusively for the Wii U Edition worldwide on 17 May 2016, and later bundled free with the Nintendo Switch Edition at launch. Another based on Fallout was released on consoles that December, and for Windows and Mobile in April 2017. In April 2018, malware was discovered in several downloadable user-made Minecraft skins for use with the Java Edition of the game. Avast stated that nearly 50,000 accounts were infected, and when activated, the malware would attempt to reformat the user's hard drive. Mojang promptly patched the issue, and released a statement stating that "the code would not be run or read by the game itself", and would run only when the image containing the skin itself was opened. In June 2017, Mojang released the "1.1 Discovery Update" to the Pocket Edition of the game, which later became the Bedrock Edition. The update introduced the "Marketplace", a catalogue of purchasable user-generated content intended to give Minecraft creators "another way to make a living from the game". Various skins, maps, texture packs and add-ons from different creators can be bought with "Minecoins", a digital currency that is purchased with real money. Additionally, users can access specific content with a subscription service titled "Marketplace Pass". Alongside content from independent creators, the Marketplace also houses items published by Mojang and Microsoft themselves, as well as official collaborations between Minecraft and other intellectual properties. By 2022, the Marketplace had over 1.7 billion content downloads, generating over $500 million in revenue. Development Before creating Minecraft, Markus "Notch" Persson was a game developer at King, where he worked until March 2009. At King, he primarily developed browser games and learned several programming languages. During his free time, he prototyped his own games, often drawing inspiration from other titles, and was an active participant on the TIGSource forums for independent developers. One such project was "RubyDung", a base-building game inspired by Dwarf Fortress, but with an isometric, three-dimensional perspective similar to RollerCoaster Tycoon. Among the features in RubyDung that he explored was a first-person view similar to Dungeon Keeper, though he ultimately discarded this idea, feeling the graphics were too pixelated at the time. Around March 2009, Persson left King and joined jAlbum, while continuing to work on his prototypes. Infiniminer, a block-based open-ended mining game first released in April 2009, inspired Persson's vision for RubyDung's future direction. Infiniminer heavily influenced the visual style of gameplay, including bringing back the first-person mode, the "blocky" visual style and the block-building fundamentals. However, unlike Infiniminer, Persson wanted Minecraft to have RPG elements. The first public alpha build of Minecraft was released on 17 May 2009 on TIGSource. Over the years, Persson regularly released test builds that added new features, including tools, mobs, and entire new dimensions. In 2011, partly due to the game's rising popularity, Persson decided to release a full 1.0 version—a second part of the "Adventure Update"—on 18 November 2011. Shortly after, Persson stepped down from development, handing the project's lead to Jens "Jeb" Bergensten. On 15 September 2014, Microsoft, the developer behind the Microsoft Windows operating system and Xbox video game console, announced a $2.5 billion acquisition of Mojang, which included the Minecraft intellectual property. Persson had suggested the deal on Twitter, asking a corporation to buy his stake in the game after receiving criticism for enforcing terms in the game's end-user license agreement (EULA), which had been in place for the past three years. According to Persson, Mojang CEO Carl Manneh received a call from a Microsoft executive shortly after the tweet, asking if Persson was serious about a deal. Mojang was also approached by other companies including Activision Blizzard and Electronic Arts. The deal with Microsoft was arbitrated on 6 November 2014 and led to Persson becoming one of Forbes' "World's Billionaires". After 2014, Minecraft's primary versions received usually annual major updates—free to players who have purchased the game— each primarily centered around a specific theme. For instance, version 1.13, the Update Aquatic, focused on ocean-related features, while version 1.16, the Nether Update, introduced significant changes to the Nether dimension. However, in late 2024, Mojang announced a shift in their update strategy; rather than releasing large updates annually, they opted for a more frequent release schedule with smaller, incremental updates, stating, "We know that you want new Minecraft content more often." The Bedrock Edition has also received regular updates, now matching the themes of the Java Edition updates. Other versions of the game, such as various console editions and the Pocket Edition, were either merged into Bedrock or discontinued and have not received further updates. On 7 May 2019, coinciding with Minecraft's 10th anniversary, a JavaScript recreation of an old 2009 Java Edition build named Minecraft Classic was made available to play online for free. On 16 April 2020, a Bedrock Edition-exclusive beta version of Minecraft, called Minecraft RTX, was released by Nvidia. It introduced physically-based rendering, real-time path tracing, and DLSS for RTX-enabled GPUs. The public release was made available on 8 December 2020. Path tracing can only be enabled in supported worlds, which can be downloaded for free via the in-game Minecraft Marketplace, with a texture pack from Nvidia's website, or with compatible third-party texture packs. It cannot be enabled by default with any texture pack on any world. Initially, Minecraft RTX was affected by many bugs, display errors, and instability issues. On 22 March 2025, a new visual mode called Vibrant Visuals, an optional graphical overhaul similar to Minecraft RTX, was announced. It promises modern rendering features—such as dynamic shadows, screen space reflections, volumetric fog, and bloom—without the need of RTX-capable hardware. Vibrant Visuals was released as a part of the Chase the Skies update on 17 June 2025 for Bedrock Edition and is planned to release on Java Edition at a later date. Development began for the original edition of Minecraft—then known as Cave Game, and now known as the Java Edition—in May 2009,[k] and ended on 13 May, when Persson released a test video on YouTube of an early version of the game, dubbed the "Cave game tech test" or the "Cave game tech demo". The game was named Minecraft: Order of the Stone the next day, after a suggestion made by a player. "Order of the Stone" came from the webcomic The Order of the Stick, and "Minecraft" was chosen "because it's a good name". The title was later shortened to just Minecraft, omitting the subtitle. Persson completed the game's base programming over a weekend in May 2009, and private testing began on TigIRC on 16 May. The first public release followed on 17 May 2009 as a developmental version shared on the TIGSource forums. Based on feedback from forum users, Persson continued updating the game. This initial public build later became known as Classic. Further developmental phases—dubbed Survival Test, Indev, and Infdev—were released throughout 2009 and 2010. The first major update, known as Alpha, was released on 30 June 2010. At the time, Persson was still working a day job at jAlbum but later resigned to focus on Minecraft full-time as sales of the alpha version surged. Updates were distributed automatically, introducing new blocks, items, mobs, and changes to game mechanics such as water flow. With revenue generated from the game, Persson founded Mojang, a video game studio, alongside former colleagues Jakob Porser and Carl Manneh. On 11 December 2010, Persson announced that Minecraft would enter its beta phase on 20 December. He assured players that bug fixes and all pre-release updates would remain free. As development progressed, Mojang expanded, hiring additional employees to work on the project. The game officially exited beta and launched in full on 18 November 2011. On 1 December 2011, Jens "Jeb" Bergensten took full creative control over Minecraft, replacing Persson as lead designer. On 28 February 2012, Mojang announced the hiring of the developers behind Bukkit, a popular developer API for Minecraft servers, to improve Minecraft's support of server modifications. This move included Mojang taking apparent ownership of the CraftBukkit server mod, though this apparent acquisition later became controversial, and its legitimacy was questioned due to CraftBukkit's open-source nature and licensing under the GNU General Public License and Lesser General Public License. In August 2011, Minecraft: Pocket Edition was released as an early alpha for the Xperia Play via the Android Market, later expanding to other Android devices on 8 October 2011. The iOS version followed on 17 November 2011. A port was made available for Windows Phones shortly after Microsoft acquired Mojang. Unlike Java Edition, Pocket Edition initially focused on Minecraft's creative building and basic survival elements but lacked many features of the PC version. Bergensten confirmed on Twitter that the Pocket Edition was written in C++ rather than Java, as iOS does not support Java. On 10 December 2014, a port of Pocket Edition was released for Windows Phone 8.1. In July 2015, a port of the Pocket Edition to Windows 10 was released as the Windows 10 Edition, with full crossplay to other Pocket versions. In January 2017, Microsoft announced that it would no longer maintain the Windows Phone versions of Pocket Edition. On 20 September 2017, with the "Better Together Update", the Pocket Edition was ported to the Xbox One, and was renamed to the Bedrock Edition. The console versions of Minecraft debuted with the Xbox 360 edition, developed by 4J Studios and released on 9 May 2012. Announced as part of the Xbox Live Arcade NEXT promotion, this version introduced a redesigned crafting system, a new control interface, in-game tutorials, split-screen multiplayer, and online play via Xbox Live. Unlike the PC version, its worlds were finite, bordered by invisible walls. Initially, the Xbox 360 version resembled outdated PC versions but received updates to bring it closer to Java Edition before eventually being discontinued. The Xbox One version launched on 5 September 2014, featuring larger worlds and support for more players. Minecraft expanded to PlayStation platforms with PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 editions released on 17 December 2013 and 4 September 2014, respectively. Originally planned as a PS4 launch title, it was delayed before its eventual release. A PlayStation Vita version followed in October 2014. Like the Xbox versions, the PlayStation editions were developed by 4J Studios. Nintendo platforms received Minecraft: Wii U Edition on 17 December 2015, with a physical release in North America on 17 June 2016 and in Europe on 30 June. The Nintendo Switch version launched via the eShop on 11 May 2017. During a Nintendo Direct presentation on 13 September 2017, Nintendo announced that Minecraft: New Nintendo 3DS Edition, based on the Pocket Edition, would be available for download immediately after the livestream, and a physical copy available on a later date. The game is compatible only with the New Nintendo 3DS or New Nintendo 2DS XL systems and does not work with the original 3DS or 2DS systems. On 20 September 2017, the Better Together Update introduced Bedrock Edition across Xbox One, Windows 10, VR, and mobile platforms, enabling cross-play between these versions. Bedrock Edition later expanded to Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4, with the latter receiving the update in December 2019, allowing cross-platform play for users with a free Xbox Live account. The Bedrock Edition released a native version for PlayStation 5 on 22 October 2024, while the Xbox Series X/S version launched on 17 June 2025. On 18 December 2018, the PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, Xbox 360, and Wii U versions of Minecraft received their final update and would later become known as "Legacy Console Editions". On 15 January 2019, the New Nintendo 3DS version of Minecraft received its final update, effectively becoming discontinued as well. An educational version of Minecraft, designed for use in schools, launched on 1 November 2016. It is available on Android, ChromeOS, iPadOS, iOS, MacOS, and Windows. On 20 August 2018, Mojang announced that it would bring Education Edition to iPadOS in Autumn 2018. It was released to the App Store on 6 September 2018. On 27 March 2019, it was announced that it would be operated by JD.com in China. On 26 June 2020, a public beta for the Education Edition was made available to Google Play Store compatible Chromebooks. The full game was released to the Google Play Store for Chromebooks on 7 August 2020. On 20 May 2016, China Edition (also known as My World) was announced as a localized edition for China, where it was released under a licensing agreement between NetEase and Mojang. The PC edition was released for public testing on 8 August 2017. The iOS version was released on 15 September 2017, and the Android version was released on 12 October 2017. The PC edition is based on the original Java Edition, while the iOS and Android mobile versions are based on the Bedrock Edition. The edition is free-to-play and had over 700 million registered accounts by September 2023. This version of Bedrock Edition is exclusive to Microsoft's Windows 10 and Windows 11 operating systems. The beta release for Windows 10 launched on the Windows Store on 29 July 2015. After nearly a year and a half in beta, Microsoft fully released the version on 19 December 2016. Called the "Ender Update", this release implemented new features to this version of Minecraft like world templates and add-on packs. On 7 June 2022, the Java and Bedrock Editions of Minecraft were merged into a single bundle for purchase on Windows; those who owned one version would automatically gain access to the other version. Both game versions would otherwise remain separate. Around 2011, prior to Minecraft's full release, Mojang collaborated with The Lego Group to create a Lego brick-based Minecraft game called Brickcraft. This would have modified the base Minecraft game to use Lego bricks, which meant adapting the basic 1×1 block to account for larger pieces typically used in Lego sets. Persson worked on an early version called "Project Rex Kwon Do", named after the character of the same name from the film Napoleon Dynamite. Although Lego approved the project and Mojang assigned two developers for six months, it was canceled due to the Lego Group's demands, according to Mojang's Daniel Kaplan. Lego considered buying Mojang to complete the game, but when Microsoft offered over $2 billion for the company, Lego stepped back, unsure of Minecraft's potential. On 26 June 2025, a build of Brickcraft dated 28 June 2012 was published on a community archive website Omniarchive. Initially, Markus Persson planned to support the Oculus Rift with a Minecraft port. However, after Facebook acquired Oculus in 2013, he abruptly canceled the plans, stating, "Facebook creeps me out." In 2016, a community-made mod, Minecraft VR, added VR support for Java Edition, followed by Vivecraft for HTC Vive. Later that year, Microsoft introduced official Oculus Rift support for Windows 10 Edition, leading to the discontinuation of the Minecraft VR mod due to trademark complaints. Vivecraft was endorsed by Minecraft VR contributors for its Rift support. Also available is a Gear VR version, titled Minecraft: Gear VR Edition. Windows Mixed Reality support was added in 2017. On 7 September 2020, Mojang Studios announced that the PlayStation 4 Bedrock version would receive PlayStation VR support later that month. In September 2024, the Minecraft team announced they would no longer support PlayStation VR, which received its final update in March 2025. Music and sound design Minecraft's music and sound effects were produced by German musician Daniel Rosenfeld, better known as C418. To create the sound effects for the game, Rosenfeld made extensive use of Foley techniques. On learning the processes for the game, he remarked, "Foley's an interesting thing, and I had to learn its subtleties. Early on, I wasn't that knowledgeable about it. It's a whole trial-and-error process. You just make a sound and eventually you go, 'Oh my God, that's it! Get the microphone!' There's no set way of doing anything at all." He reminisced on creating the in-game sound for grass blocks, stating "It turns out that to make grass sounds you don't actually walk on grass and record it, because grass sounds like nothing. What you want to do is get a VHS, break it apart, and just lightly touch the tape." According to Rosenfeld, his favorite sound to design for the game was the hisses of spiders. He elaborates, "I like the spiders. Recording that was a whole day of me researching what a spider sounds like. Turns out, there are spiders that make little screeching sounds, so I think I got this recording of a fire hose, put it in a sampler, and just pitched it around until it sounded like a weird spider was talking to you." Many of the sound design decisions by Rosenfeld were done accidentally or spontaneously. The creeper notably lacks any specific noises apart from a loud fuse-like sound when about to explode; Rosenfeld later recalled "That was just a complete accident by Markus and me [sic]. We just put in a placeholder sound of burning a matchstick. It seemed to work hilariously well, so we kept it." On other sounds, such as those of the zombie, Rosenfeld remarked, "I actually never wanted the zombies so scary. I intentionally made them sound comical. It's nice to hear that they work so well [...]." Rosenfeld remarked that the sound engine was "terrible" to work with, remembering "If you had two song files at once, it [the game engine] would actually crash. There were so many more weird glitches like that the guys never really fixed because they were too busy with the actual game and not the sound engine." The background music in Minecraft consists of instrumental ambient music. To compose the music of Minecraft, Rosenfeld used the package from Ableton Live, along with several additional plug-ins. Speaking on them, Rosenfeld said "They can be pretty much everything from an effect to an entire orchestra. Additionally, I've got some synthesizers that are attached to the computer. Like a Moog Voyager, Dave Smith Prophet 08 and a Virus TI." On 4 March 2011, Rosenfeld released a soundtrack titled Minecraft – Volume Alpha; it includes most of the tracks featured in Minecraft, as well as other music not featured in the game. Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku chose the music in Minecraft as one of the best video game soundtracks of 2011. On 9 November 2013, Rosenfeld released the second official soundtrack, titled Minecraft – Volume Beta, which included the music that was added in a 2013 "Music Update" for the game. A physical release of Volume Alpha, consisting of CDs, black vinyl, and limited-edition transparent green vinyl LPs, was issued by indie electronic label Ghostly International on 21 August 2015. On 14 August 2020, Ghostly released Volume Beta on CD and vinyl, with alternate color LPs and lenticular cover pressings released in limited quantities. The final update Rosenfeld worked on was 2018's 1.13 Update Aquatic. His music remained the only music in the game until 2020's "Nether Update", introducing pieces from Lena Raine. Since then, other composers have made contributions, including Kumi Tanioka, Samuel Åberg, Aaron Cherof, and Amos Roddy, with Raine remaining as the new primary composer. Ownership of all music besides Rosenfeld's independently released albums has been retained by Microsoft, with their label publishing all of the other artists' releases. Gareth Coker also composed some of the music for the game's mini games from the Legacy Console editions. Rosenfeld had stated his intent to create a third album of music for the game in a 2015 interview with Fact, and confirmed its existence in a 2017 tweet, stating that his work on the record as of then had tallied up to be longer than the previous two albums combined, which in total clocks in at over 3 hours and 18 minutes. However, due to licensing issues with Microsoft, the third volume has since not seen release. On 8 January 2021, Rosenfeld was asked in an interview with Anthony Fantano whether or not there was still a third volume of his music intended for release. Rosenfeld responded, saying, "I have something—I consider it finished—but things have become complicated, especially as Minecraft is now a big property, so I don't know." Reception Minecraft has received critical acclaim, with praise for the creative freedom it grants players in-game, as well as the ease of enabling emergent gameplay. Critics have expressed enjoyment in Minecraft's complex crafting system, commenting that it is an important aspect of the game's open-ended gameplay. Most publications were impressed by the game's "blocky" graphics, with IGN describing them as "instantly memorable". Reviewers also liked the game's adventure elements, noting that the game creates a good balance between exploring and building. The game's multiplayer feature has been generally received favorably, with IGN commenting that "adventuring is always better with friends". Jaz McDougall of PC Gamer said Minecraft is "intuitively interesting and contagiously fun, with an unparalleled scope for creativity and memorable experiences". It has been regarded as having introduced millions of children to the digital world, insofar as its basic game mechanics are logically analogous to computer commands. IGN was disappointed about the troublesome steps needed to set up multiplayer servers, calling it a "hassle". Critics also said that visual glitches occur periodically. Despite its release out of beta in 2011, GameSpot said the game had an "unfinished feel", adding that some game elements seem "incomplete or thrown together in haste". A review of the alpha version, by Scott Munro of the Daily Record, called it "already something special" and urged readers to buy it. Jim Rossignol of Rock Paper Shotgun also recommended the alpha of the game, calling it "a kind of generative 8-bit Lego Stalker". On 17 September 2010, gaming webcomic Penny Arcade began a series of comics and news posts about the addictiveness of the game. The Xbox 360 version was generally received positively by critics, but did not receive as much praise as the PC version. Although reviewers were disappointed by the lack of features such as mod support and content from the PC version, they acclaimed the port's addition of a tutorial and in-game tips and crafting recipes, saying that they make the game more user-friendly. The Xbox One Edition was one of the best received ports, being praised for its relatively large worlds. The PlayStation 3 Edition also received generally favorable reviews, being compared to the Xbox 360 Edition and praised for its well-adapted controls. The PlayStation 4 edition was the best received port to date, being praised for having 36 times larger worlds than the PlayStation 3 edition and described as nearly identical to the Xbox One edition. The PlayStation Vita Edition received generally positive reviews from critics but was noted for its technical limitations. The Wii U version received generally positive reviews from critics but was noted for a lack of GamePad integration. The 3DS version received mixed reviews, being criticized for its high price, technical issues, and lack of cross-platform play. The Nintendo Switch Edition received fairly positive reviews from critics, being praised, like other modern ports, for its relatively larger worlds. Minecraft: Pocket Edition initially received mixed reviews from critics. Although reviewers appreciated the game's intuitive controls, they were disappointed by the lack of content. The inability to collect resources and craft items, as well as the limited types of blocks and lack of hostile mobs, were especially criticized. After updates added more content, Pocket Edition started receiving more positive reviews. Reviewers complimented the controls and the graphics, but still noted a lack of content. Minecraft surpassed over a million purchases less than a month after entering its beta phase in early 2011. At the same time, the game had no publisher backing and has never been commercially advertised except through word of mouth, and various unpaid references in popular media such as the Penny Arcade webcomic. By April 2011, Persson estimated that Minecraft had made €23 million (US$33 million) in revenue, with 800,000 sales of the alpha version of the game, and over 1 million sales of the beta version. In November 2011, prior to the game's full release, Minecraft beta surpassed 16 million registered users and 4 million purchases. By March 2012, Minecraft had become the 6th best-selling PC game of all time. As of 10 October 2014[update], the game had sold 17 million copies on PC, becoming the best-selling PC game of all time. On 25 February 2014, the game reached 100 million registered users. By May 2019, 180 million copies had been sold across all platforms, making it the single best-selling video game of all time. The free-to-play Minecraft China version had over 700 million registered accounts by September 2023. By 2023, the game had sold over 300 million copies. As of April 2025, Minecraft has sold over 350 million copies. The Xbox 360 version of Minecraft became profitable within the first day of the game's release in 2012, when the game broke the Xbox Live sales records with 400,000 players online. Within a week of being on the Xbox Live Marketplace, Minecraft sold a million copies. GameSpot announced in December 2012 that Minecraft sold over 4.48 million copies since the game debuted on Xbox Live Arcade in May 2012. In 2012, Minecraft was the most purchased title on Xbox Live Arcade; it was also the fourth most played title on Xbox Live based on average unique users per day. As of 4 April 2014[update], the Xbox 360 version has sold 12 million copies. In addition, Minecraft: Pocket Edition has reached a figure of 21 million in sales. The PlayStation 3 Edition sold one million copies in five weeks. The release of the game's PlayStation Vita version boosted Minecraft sales by 79%, outselling both PS3 and PS4 debut releases and becoming the largest Minecraft launch on a PlayStation console. The PS Vita version sold 100,000 digital copies in Japan within the first two months of release, according to an announcement by SCE Japan Asia. By January 2015, 500,000 digital copies of Minecraft were sold in Japan across all PlayStation platforms, with a surge in primary school children purchasing the PS Vita version. As of 2022, the Vita version has sold over 1.65 million physical copies in Japan, making it the best-selling Vita game in the country. Minecraft helped improve Microsoft's total first-party revenue by $63 million for the 2015 second quarter. The game, including all of its versions, had over 112 million monthly active players by September 2019. On its 11th anniversary in May 2020, the company announced that Minecraft had reached over 200 million copies sold across platforms with over 126 million monthly active players. By April 2021, the number of active monthly users had climbed to 140 million. In July 2010, PC Gamer listed Minecraft as the fourth-best game to play at work. In December of that year, Good Game selected Minecraft as their choice for Best Downloadable Game of 2010, Gamasutra named it the eighth best game of the year as well as the eighth best indie game of the year, and Rock, Paper, Shotgun named it the "game of the year". Indie DB awarded the game the 2010 Indie of the Year award as chosen by voters, in addition to two out of five Editor's Choice awards for Most Innovative and Best Singleplayer Indie. It was also awarded Game of the Year by PC Gamer UK. The game was nominated for the Seumas McNally Grand Prize, Technical Excellence, and Excellence in Design awards at the March 2011 Independent Games Festival and won the Grand Prize and the community-voted Audience Award. At Game Developers Choice Awards 2011, Minecraft won awards in the categories for Best Debut Game, Best Downloadable Game and Innovation Award, winning every award for which it was nominated. It also won GameCity's video game arts award. On 5 May 2011, Minecraft was selected as one of the 80 games that would be displayed at the Smithsonian American Art Museum as part of The Art of Video Games exhibit that opened on 16 March 2012. At the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards, Minecraft won the award for Best Independent Game and was nominated in the Best PC Game category. In 2012, at the British Academy Video Games Awards, Minecraft was nominated in the GAME Award of 2011 category and Persson received The Special Award. In 2012, Minecraft XBLA was awarded a Golden Joystick Award in the Best Downloadable Game category, and a TIGA Games Industry Award in the Best Arcade Game category. In 2013, it was nominated as the family game of the year at the British Academy Video Games Awards. During the 16th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated the Xbox 360 version of Minecraft for "Strategy/Simulation Game of the Year". Minecraft Console Edition won the award for TIGA Game Of The Year in 2014. In 2015, the game placed 6th on USgamer's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list. In 2016, Minecraft placed 6th on Time's The 50 Best Video Games of All Time list. Minecraft was nominated for the 2013 Kids' Choice Awards for Favorite App, but lost to Temple Run. It was nominated for the 2014 Kids' Choice Awards for Favorite Video Game, but lost to Just Dance 2014. The game later won the award for the Most Addicting Game at the 2015 Kids' Choice Awards. In addition, the Java Edition was nominated for "Favorite Video Game" at the 2018 Kids' Choice Awards, while the game itself won the "Still Playing" award at the 2019 Golden Joystick Awards, as well as the "Favorite Video Game" award at the 2020 Kids' Choice Awards. Minecraft also won "Stream Game of the Year" at inaugural Streamer Awards in 2021. The game later garnered a Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Award nomination for Favorite Video Game in 2021, and won the same category in 2022 and 2023. At the Golden Joystick Awards 2025, it won the Still Playing Award - PC and Console. Minecraft has been subject to several notable controversies. In June 2014, Mojang announced that it would begin enforcing the portion of Minecraft's end-user license agreement (EULA) which prohibits servers from giving in-game advantages to players in exchange for donations or payments. Spokesperson Owen Hill stated that servers could still require players to pay a fee to access the server and could sell in-game cosmetic items. The change was supported by Persson, citing emails he received from parents of children who had spent hundreds of dollars on servers. The Minecraft community and server owners protested, arguing that the EULA's terms were more broad than Mojang was claiming, that the crackdown would force smaller servers to shut down for financial reasons, and that Mojang was suppressing competition for its own Minecraft Realms subscription service. The controversy contributed to Notch's decision to sell Mojang. In 2020, Mojang announced an eventual change to the Java Edition to require a login from a Microsoft account rather than a Mojang account, the latter of which would be sunsetted. This also required Java Edition players to create Xbox network Gamertags. Mojang defended the move to Microsoft accounts by saying that improved security could be offered, including two-factor authentication, blocking cyberbullies in chat, and improved parental controls. The community responded with intense backlash, citing various technical difficulties encountered in the process and how account migration would be mandatory, even for those who do not play on servers. As of 10 March 2022, Microsoft required that all players migrate in order to maintain access the Java Edition of Minecraft. Mojang announced a deadline of 19 September 2023 for account migration, after which all legacy Mojang accounts became inaccessible and unable to be migrated. In June 2022, Mojang added a player-reporting feature in Java Edition. Players could report other players on multiplayer servers for sending messages prohibited by the Xbox Live Code of Conduct; report categories included profane language,[l] substance abuse, hate speech, threats of violence, and nudity. If a player was found to be in violation of Xbox Community Standards, they would be banned from all servers for a specific period of time or permanently. The update containing the report feature (1.19.1) was released on 27 July 2022. Mojang received substantial backlash and protest from community members, one of the most common complaints being that banned players would be forbidden from joining any server, even private ones. Others took issue to what they saw as Microsoft increasing control over its player base and exercising censorship, leading some to start a hashtag #saveminecraft and dub the version "1.19.84", a reference to the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. The "Mob Vote" was an online event organized by Mojang in which the Minecraft community voted between three original mob concepts; initially, the winning mob was to be implemented in a future update, while the losing mobs were scrapped, though after the first mob vote this was changed, and losing mobs would now have a chance to come to the game in the future. The first Mob Vote was held during Minecon Earth 2017 and became an annual event starting with Minecraft Live 2020. The Mob Vote was often criticized for forcing players to choose one mob instead of implementing all three, causing divisions and flaming within the community, and potentially allowing internet bots and Minecraft content creators with large fanbases to conduct vote brigading. The Mob Vote was also blamed for a perceived lack of new content added to Minecraft since Microsoft's acquisition of Mojang in 2014. The 2023 Mob Vote featured three passive mobs—the crab, the penguin, and the armadillo—with voting scheduled to start on 13 October. In response, a Change.org petition was created on 6 October, demanding that Mojang eliminate the Mob Vote and instead implement all three mobs going forward. The petition received approximately 445,000 signatures by 13 October and was joined by calls to boycott the Mob Vote, as well as a partially tongue-in-cheek "revolutionary" propaganda campaign in which sympathizers created anti-Mojang and pro-boycott posters in the vein of real 20th century propaganda posters. Mojang did not release an official response to the boycott, and the Mob Vote otherwise proceeded normally, with the armadillo winning the vote. In September 2024, as part of a blog post detailing their future plans for Minecraft's development, Mojang announced the Mob Vote would be retired. Cultural impact In September 2019, The Guardian classified Minecraft as the best video game of the 21st century to date, and in November 2019, Polygon called it the "most important game of the decade" in its 2010s "decade in review". In June 2020, Minecraft was inducted into the World Video Game Hall of Fame. Minecraft is recognized as one of the first successful games to use an early access model to draw in sales prior to its full release version to help fund development. As Minecraft helped to bolster indie game development in the early 2010s, it also helped to popularize the use of the early access model in indie game development. Social media sites such as YouTube, Facebook, and Reddit have played a significant role in popularizing Minecraft. Research conducted by the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania showed that one-third of Minecraft players learned about the game via Internet videos. In 2010, Minecraft-related videos began to gain influence on YouTube, often made by commentators. The videos usually contain screen-capture footage of the game and voice-overs. Common coverage in the videos includes creations made by players, walkthroughs of various tasks, and parodies of works in popular culture. By May 2012, over four million Minecraft-related YouTube videos had been uploaded. The game would go on to be a prominent fixture within YouTube's gaming scene during the entire 2010s; in 2014, it was the second-most searched term on the entire platform. By 2018, it was still YouTube's biggest game globally. Some popular commentators have received employment at Machinima, a now-defunct gaming video company that owned a highly watched entertainment channel on YouTube. The Yogscast is a British company that regularly produces Minecraft videos; their YouTube channel has attained billions of views, and their panel at Minecon 2011 had the highest attendance. Another well-known YouTube personality is Jordan Maron, known online as CaptainSparklez, who has also created many Minecraft music parodies, including "Revenge", a parody of Usher's "DJ Got Us Fallin' in Love". Minecraft's popularity on YouTube was described by Polygon as quietly dominant, although in 2019, thanks in part to PewDiePie's playthroughs of the game, Minecraft experienced a visible uptick in popularity on the platform. Longer-running series include Far Lands or Bust, dedicated to reaching the obsolete "Far Lands" glitch by foot on an older version of the game. YouTube announced that on 14 December 2021 that the total amount of Minecraft-related views on the website had exceeded one trillion. Minecraft has been referenced by other video games, such as Torchlight II, Team Fortress 2, Borderlands 2, Choplifter HD, Super Meat Boy, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, The Binding of Isaac, The Stanley Parable, and FTL: Faster Than Light. Minecraft is officially represented in downloadable content for the crossover fighter Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, with Steve as a playable character with a moveset including references to building, crafting, and redstone, alongside an Overworld-themed stage. It was also referenced by electronic music artist Deadmau5 in his performances. The game is also referenced heavily in "Informative Murder Porn", the second episode of the seventeenth season of the animated television series South Park. In 2025, A Minecraft Movie was released. It made $313 million in the box office in the first week, a record-breaking opening for a video game adaptation. Minecraft has been noted as a cultural touchstone for Generation Z, as many of the generation's members played the game at a young age. The possible applications of Minecraft have been discussed extensively, especially in the fields of computer-aided design (CAD) and education. In a panel at Minecon 2011, a Swedish developer discussed the possibility of using the game to redesign public buildings and parks, stating that rendering using Minecraft was much more user-friendly for the community, making it easier to envision the functionality of new buildings and parks. In 2012, a member of the Human Dynamics group at the MIT Media Lab, Cody Sumter, said: "Notch hasn't just built a game. He's tricked 40 million people into learning to use a CAD program." Various software has been developed to allow virtual designs to be printed using professional 3D printers or personal printers such as MakerBot and RepRap. In September 2012, Mojang began the Block by Block project in cooperation with UN Habitat to create real-world environments in Minecraft. The project allows young people who live in those environments to participate in designing the changes they would like to see. Using Minecraft, the community has helped reconstruct the areas of concern, and citizens are invited to enter the Minecraft servers and modify their own neighborhood. Carl Manneh, Mojang's managing director, called the game "the perfect tool to facilitate this process", adding "The three-year partnership will support UN-Habitat's Sustainable Urban Development Network to upgrade 300 public spaces by 2016." Mojang signed Minecraft building community, FyreUK, to help render the environments into Minecraft. The first pilot project began in Kibera, one of Nairobi's informal settlements and is in the planning phase. The Block by Block project is based on an earlier initiative started in October 2011, Mina Kvarter (My Block), which gave young people in Swedish communities a tool to visualize how they wanted to change their part of town. According to Manneh, the project was a helpful way to visualize urban planning ideas without necessarily having a training in architecture. The ideas presented by the citizens were a template for political decisions. In April 2014, the Danish Geodata Agency generated all of Denmark in fullscale in Minecraft based on their own geodata. This is possible because Denmark is one of the flattest countries with the highest point at 171 meters (ranking as the country with the 30th smallest elevation span), where the limit in default Minecraft was around 192 meters above in-game sea level when the project was completed. Taking advantage of the game's accessibility where other websites are censored, the non-governmental organization Reporters Without Borders has used an open Minecraft server to create the Uncensored Library, a repository within the game of journalism by authors from countries (including Egypt, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia and Vietnam) who have been censored and arrested, such as Jamal Khashoggi. The neoclassical virtual building was created over about 250 hours by an international team of 24 people. Despite its unpredictable nature, Minecraft speedrunning, where players time themselves from spawning into a new world to reaching The End and defeating the Ender Dragon boss, is popular. Some speedrunners use a combination of mods, external programs, and debug menus, while other runners play the game in a more vanilla or more consistency-oriented way. Minecraft has been used in educational settings through initiatives such as MinecraftEdu, founded in 2011 to make the game affordable and accessible for schools in collaboration with Mojang. MinecraftEdu provided features allowing teachers to monitor student progress, including screenshot submissions as evidence of lesson completion, and by 2012 reported that approximately 250,000 students worldwide had access to the platform. Mojang also developed Minecraft: Education Edition with pre-built lesson plans for up to 30 students in a closed environment. Educators have used Minecraft to teach subjects such as history, language arts, and science through custom-built environments, including reconstructions of historical landmarks and large-scale models of biological structures such as animal cells. The introduction of redstone blocks enabled the construction of functional virtual machines such as a hard drive and an 8-bit computer. Mods have been created to use these mechanics for teaching programming. In 2014, the British Museum announced a project to reproduce its building and exhibits in Minecraft in collaboration with the public. Microsoft and Code.org have offered Minecraft-based tutorials and activities designed to teach programming, reporting by 2018 that more than 85 million children had used their resources. In 2025, the Musée de Minéralogie in Paris held a temporary exhibition titled "Minerals in Minecraft." Following the initial surge in popularity of Minecraft in 2010, other video games were criticised for having various similarities to Minecraft, and some were described as being "clones", often due to a direct inspiration from Minecraft, or a superficial similarity. Examples include Ace of Spades, CastleMiner, CraftWorld, FortressCraft, Terraria, BlockWorld 3D, Total Miner, and Luanti (formerly Minetest). David Frampton, designer of The Blockheads, reported that one failure of his 2D game was the "low resolution pixel art" that too closely resembled the art in Minecraft, which resulted in "some resistance" from fans. A homebrew adaptation of the alpha version of Minecraft for the Nintendo DS, titled DScraft, has been released; it has been noted for its similarity to the original game considering the technical limitations of the system. In response to Microsoft's acquisition of Mojang and their Minecraft IP, various developers announced further clone titles developed specifically for Nintendo's consoles, as they were the only major platforms not to officially receive Minecraft at the time. These clone titles include UCraft (Nexis Games), Cube Life: Island Survival (Cypronia), Discovery (Noowanda), Battleminer (Wobbly Tooth Games), Cube Creator 3D (Big John Games), and Stone Shire (Finger Gun Games). Despite this, the fears of fans were unfounded, with official Minecraft releases on Nintendo consoles eventually resuming. Markus Persson made another similar game, Minicraft, for a Ludum Dare competition in 2011. In 2025, Persson announced through a poll on his X account that he was considering developing a spiritual successor to Minecraft. He later clarified that he was "100% serious", and that he had "basically announced Minecraft 2". Within days, however, Persson cancelled the plans after speaking to his team. In November 2024, artificial intelligence companies Decart and Etched released Oasis, an artificially generated version of Minecraft, as a proof of concept. Every in-game element is completely AI-generated in real time and the model does not store world data, leading to "hallucinations" such as items and blocks appearing that were not there before. In January 2026, indie game developer Unomelon announced that their voxel sandbox game Allumeria would be playable in Steam Next Fest that year. On 10 February, Mojang issued a DMCA takedown of Allumeria on Steam through Valve, alleging the game was infringing on Minecraft's copyright. Some reports suggested that the takedown may have used an automatic AI copyright claiming service. The DMCA was later withdrawn. Minecon was an annual official fan convention dedicated to Minecraft. The first full Minecon was held in November 2011 at the Mandalay Bay Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. The event included the official launch of Minecraft; keynote speeches, including one by Persson; building and costume contests; Minecraft-themed breakout classes; exhibits by leading gaming and Minecraft-related companies; commemorative merchandise; and autograph and picture times with Mojang employees and well-known contributors from the Minecraft community. In 2016, Minecon was held in-person for the last time, with the following years featuring annual "Minecon Earth" livestreams on minecraft.net and YouTube instead. These livestreams, later rebranded to "Minecraft Live", included the mob/biome votes, and announcements of new game updates. In 2025, "Minecraft Live" became a biannual event as part of Minecraft's changing update schedule.[citation needed] Notes References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_spiders#Games_and_toys] | [TOKENS: 6758] |
Contents Cultural depictions of spiders Throughout history, spiders have been depicted in popular culture, mythology, and symbolism. From African folklore to Greek mythology, the spider has been used to represent a variety of things, and endures into the present day with characters such as Shelob from The Lord of the Rings and Spider-Man from the eponymous comic series. It is also a symbol of mischief and malice for its toxic venom and the slow death it causes, which is often seen as a curse. In addition, the spider has inspired creations from an ancient geoglyph to a modern steampunk spectacle. Spiders have been the focus of fears, stories and mythologies of various cultures for centuries. The spider has symbolized patience and persistence due to its hunting technique of setting webs and waiting for its prey to become ensnared. Numerous cultures attribute the spider's ability to spin webs with the origin of spinning, textile weaving, basket weaving, knotwork, string games and net making. Spiders are associated with creation myths because they seem to weave their own artistic worlds. Philosophers often use the spider's web as a metaphor or analogy, and today, terms such as the Internet or World Wide Web evoke the inter-connectivity of a spider web. Many goddesses associated with spiders and other female portrayals reflect observations of their specific female-dominated copulation. In folklore and mythology The spider, along with its web, is featured in mythological fables, cosmology, artistic spiritual depictions, and in oral traditions throughout the world since ancient times. The spider was syncretically associated with the goddess Neith of Ancient Egypt (merging with Mesometanian Inanna and Astarte of the Near East) in her aspect as spinner and weaver of destiny, this link continuing through the Babylonian Ishtar deity and associated with the mortal Greek Arachne. Uttu, the ancient Sumerian goddess of weaving, was often depicted as a spider spinning her web. In the myth of the water god Enki and Ninsikila, the mountain mother goddess, Uttu is presented as Enki's daughter. The narrative recounts that Enki's wife, Ninhursag, warned Uttu that Enki sought sexual intimacy with her. Uttu then enclosed herself within her web, but eventually allowed Enki to enter after he offered marriage and a gift of fresh produce. After consuming the produce, the myth states that Enki brought her beer. After she became intoxicated from the beer, Enki raped her in an attempt to consummate the marriage. Hearing Uttu's distress, Ninhursag intervened, extracting Enki's bodily fluid from her and planting it in the ground, which then gave rise to eight new types of plants. Muslim tradition often suggests that spiders should be respected. This belief is partly attributed to a widely recounted story[a] According to this narrative, when Muhammad and Abu Bakr took refuge in the Cave of Thawr, a spider spun a web across the cave's entrance. The undisturbed nature of this web, (along with a dove's nest) at the entrance led their Quraysh pursuers to believe that no one could have recently entered the cave without disturbing these natural elements, thereby causing them to bypass the hiding place. Additionally, the Quran includes a parable in Surah Al-Ankabut (Chapter 29, "The Spider"), which states: 'The parable of those who take protectors other than Allah is that of the spider who takes refuge in a house. And indeed, the flimsiest of houses is the house of the spider, if they only knew."[Quran 29:41] While this parable uses the spider's web as a metaphor for the fragility of reliance on anything other than Allah, the naming of a Surah after the spider signifies its symbolic importance within Islamic discourse. A similar story to the spider cave Hadith appears in the Alphabet of Sirach about the story of David hiding in a cave from Saul found in 1 Samuel: 24. David asks God about the purpose of spiders (and wasps) to the world. God explains that he will understand their purpose in due time. Later, when David is a fugitive and Saul examines the cave in which David is hiding, he noticed a spider and web at the cave's entrance. Saul concludes that David could not be hiding in the cave. When David exits the cave, he kisses and blesses the spider. A notable ancient legend from the Western canon that explains the origin of the spider is the Greek myth of Arachne, a story of a weaving competition between the mortal Arachne and the goddess Athena. While its precise origins are debated, possibly stemming from Lydian mythology,[b] the myth was briefly mentioned by Virgil in 29 BC,[c] and became widely known through Ovid's poem Metamorphoses, written between AD 2 and 8. The Greek word "arachne" (αράχνη) means "spider", and is the origin of Arachnida, the spiders' taxonomic class. The myth of Arachne recounts her story of being a renowned weaver from Hypaepa of Lydia; as the daughter of a prominent Tyrian purple wool dyer. Arachne's skill in weaving led her to boast that she surpassed even the goddess Athena. Challenging Athena to a contest, Arachne wove a tapestry depicting the infidelities of the Olympian gods while Athena depicted her victory over Poseidon that earned her the patronage of Athens. Though Athena acknowledged the flawless quality of Arachne's work, she was enraged by the mortal's extreme hubris. In a fit of anger, Athena destroyed Arachne's tapestry and loom. Overcome with shame and despair, Arachne then attempted to hang herself. Taking pity on her, Athena transformed Arachne into a spider, sprinkling her with a magical liquid[d] "and ever since, Arachne, as a spider, weaves her web." A lesser-known variation of the myth, apparently originating in Attica, states that Athena transformed both Arachne and her brother Phalanx (whose name also translates to spider)[e] into spiders for committing incest, a violation against her teachings. Scholar Robert Graves proposed that Ovid's tale may have its roots in the commercial rivalry between the Athenian citizenry of Greece and Miletus in Asia Minor, a city that flourished around 2000 BC. In Miletus, the spider may have been an important figure, as evidenced by seals with spider emblems recovered from the site. In Ancient Egyptian mythology, the goddess Neith, by virtue of her association with weaving, is also linked to spiders. In African traditional folklore, the spider is often personified as a trickster character. The most prominent example from West Africa is Kwaku Ananse of the Ashanti, anglicized as Aunt Nancy (or Sister Nancy) in the West Indies and other parts of the Americas, among many incarnations. Stories of Ananse became such a central part of Ashanti oral culture that the word Anansesem—"spider tales"—came to encompass all kinds of fables. These narratives were subsequently transmitted as Anansi toree to children of Maroon people and other Africans in the diaspora. These tales are allegorical stories that often also teach a moral lesson. Similarly, Major A.J.N. Tremearne observed that the Hausa also view the spider with high esteem as the most cunning of all animals and the king of all stories, even employing similar narrative storytelling devices of the Akan-Ashanti by attributing each of them to the spider, identified as Gizzo or Gizo in the Hausa language. North American cultures have traditionally depicted spiders. The Native American Lakota people's oral tradition also includes a spider-trickster figure, which is known by several names. As chronicled in the legend of The "Wasna" (Pemmican) Man and the Unktomi (Spider), a man encounters a hungry spider family, and the hero Stone Boy is tricked out of his fancy clothes by Unktomi, a trickster spider figure. In some Native American myths, the spider is also seen in the legend about the origin of the constellation Ursa Major. The constellation was seen as seven men transformed into stars and climbing to paradise by unrolling a spider's web. The Hopi have the creation myth of Spider Grandmother. In this story, Spider Grandmother thought the world into existence through the conscious weaving of her webs. Spider Grandmother also plays an important role in the creation mythology of the Navajo, and there are stories relating to Spider Woman in the heritage of many Southwestern native cultures as a powerful helper and teacher. In Mesoamerica, the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan may represent a similar figure. The South American Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped nature; they placed emphasis on animals and often depicted spiders in their art. The people of the Nazca culture created expansive geoglyphs, including a large depiction of a spider on the Nazca plain in southern Peru. The purpose or meaning of the so-called "Nazca lines" is still uncertain. An adobe spider-god temple of the Cupisnique culture was discovered in the Lambayeque Region of Peru. It is part of the Ventarron temple complex and is known as Collud. The Cupisnique spider deity was associated with hunting nets, textiles, war, and power. One image depicts spider deities holding nets filled with decapitated human heads. Spiders are depicted in Indigenous Australian art, in rock and bark paintings, and for clan totems. Spiders in their webs are associated with a sacred rock in central Arnhem Land on the Burnungku clan estate of the Rembarrnga/Kyne people. Their totem design is connected with a major regional ceremony, providing a connection with neighboring clans that also have spider totems in their rituals. Nareau, the Lord Spider, created the universe, according to the traditional Cosmology of Oceania's Kiribati islanders of the Tungaru archipelago (Gilbert Islands); similarly, Areop-Enap ("Old Spider") plays an important part in the creation myth of the traditional Nauru islanders of Micronesia. The Tsuchigumo (translated as "Earth spiders")[f] of Japan, is a mythical, supernatural creature faced by the legendary Minamoto no Raiko. Depending on the version of the story, the Tsuchigumo was able to take the visage of either a boy or a woman. In one version, while on a search for a mythical giant skull, Raiko is lured to a dilapidated house using an illusion of a floating skull. Raiko and his companion Watanabe no Tsuna killed the Tsuchigumo at the end of the story, releasing spiders the size of children from its belly. Another Japanese mythological spider figure is the Jorōgumo ("prostitute spider") which is portrayed as being able to transform into a seductive woman. In some instances, the Jorōgumo attempts to seduce and perhaps marry passing samurai. In other instances she is venerated as a goddess dwelling in the Jōren Falls who saves people from drowning. Her name also refers to a golden orb-spider species Trichonephila clavata (Jorō-gumo, which translates to "binding bride" or "whore spider"). In the Philippines, there is a Visayan folk tale version of The Spider and the Fly which explains why the spider hates the fly. The 10th-century Saint Conrad of Constance is sometimes represented as a bishop holding a chalice with a spider. According to this story, while he was celebrating Easter Mass, a spider fell into the chalice. Ignoring the commonly held belief of the time that all or most spiders were poisonous, as a token of faith, Conrad nevertheless drank the wine with the spider in it. For King Robert the Bruce of Scotland, the spider is depicted as an inspirational symbol, according to an early 14th-century legend.[g] The legend tells of Robert the Bruce's encounter with a spider during the time of a series of military failures against the English. One version tells that while taking refuge in a cave on Rathlin Island, he witnesses a spider continuously failing to climb its silken thread to its web. However, due to perseverance the spider eventually succeeds, demonstrating that "if at first you don't succeed, try, try and try again". Taking this as being symbolic of hope and perseverance, Bruce came out of hiding and eventually won Scotland's independence. In the 15th century, the French king Louis XI acquired the nickname "the universal spider" (l'universelle aragne), from Georges Chastellain, a chronicler of the dukes of Burgundy, referring to the king's tendency to implement schemes and plans during his contention with Burgundy and the following conflicts with Charles the Bold who compared the king to a spider. In Polish folklore and literature, Pan Twardowski - a sorcerer who made a deal with the Devil – is depicted as having escaped from the Devil who was taking him to Hell, and ending up living on the Moon, his only companion being a spider; from time to time Twardowski lets the spider descend to Earth on a thread and bring him news and gossip from the world below. Several versions of the Tom Thumb story include Tom Thumb's death by a spider bite. In an 18th-century poem, his death is portrayed in the following verses: The spider watching for his Prey, Tom took to be a fly, And seized him without delay, Regarding not his cry. The blood out of his body drains, He yielded up his breath; Thus he was freed from all Pains, By his unlook'd for death. In literature The epic poem Metamorphoses, written by Ovid two millennia ago, includes the metamorphosis of Arachne. This was retold in Dante Alighieri's depiction as the half-spider Arachne in the second book of his Divine Comedy, Purgatorio. Considered as the earliest known work of science fiction in Western literature, the 2nd-century satirical novel A True Story by Lucian of Samosata includes a battle between the People of the Moon and the People of the Earth featuring giant spiders that are "bigger than the islands of Cyclades". In the 16th-century Chinese folk novel, Wu Cheng'en's Journey to the West, the Buddhist monk Tang Sanzang's odyssey includes being trapped in a spider's cave and bound by beautiful women and many children, who are transformations of spiders. Published in 1808, the poem Marmion by Walter Scott[h] includes the popularly quoted line: Oh! what a tangled web we weave When first we practise to deceive! The spider gained an evil reputation from the 1842 Biedermeier novella by Jeremias Gotthelf, The Black Spider. In this allegorical tale that was adapted to various media, the spider symbolizes evil works and represents the moral consequences of making a pact with the devil. Giant spiders guarding a treasure or fortress are prominent in fantasy literature as "The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth" (1908) by Lord Dunsany and "The Tower of the Elephant" (1933) by Robert E. Howard. Atlach-Nacha is the creation of Clark Ashton Smith and first appeared in his short story "The Seven Geases" (1934). Atlach-Nacha resembles a huge spider with an almost-human face. In the story, Atlach-Nacha is the reluctant recipient of a human sacrifice given to it by the toad-god Tsathoggua. Spiders serve as a recurring motif in the works of J. R. R. Tolkien.[i] Tolkien included giant spiders in his 1937 book The Hobbit where they roamed Mirkwood, attacking and sometimes capturing the main characters. The character of Ungoliant is featured as a spiderlike entity, and as a personification of Night from his earliest writings. In The Lord of the Rings, the creature's final surviving daughter Shelob is encountered as Frodo and Sam move through the mountain pass of Cirith Ungol. Shelob was featured in the film adaption of the last book of the Lord of the Rings series. Although described as giant spiders, Tolkien gave them fictional attributes such as compound eyes, beaks and the spinning of black webs. He also resurrected the Old English words cob and lob for "spider". A key element of Richard Matheson's novel The Shrinking Man and the film based on it The Incredible Shrinking Man is the struggle of the protagonist, shrunken to the size of an insect, with a voracious spider – ending with his waging an epic battle and killing the spider. The 1952 children's novel Charlotte's Web by E. B. White is notable in its portrayal of the spider in a positive manner as a heroine rather than an object of fear or horror. More recently, giant spiders have featured in books such as the 1998 fantasy novel Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets by J. K. Rowling. This book was later followed by a motion picture of the same name, using the giant spider Aragog from the novel as a supporting character and friend of groundskeeper, Hagrid. In Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, a book about many of the creatures within the Wizarding World, these giant spiders are also known as Acromantulas. The spider is also found in modern children's tales. The nursery rhymes "Itsy Bitsy Spider" and "Little Miss Muffet" have spiders as focal characters. The poem "The Spider and the Fly" (1829) by Mary Howitt is a cautionary tale of seduction and betrayal which inspired a 1949 film and a 1965 Rolling Stones song, each sharing the same title, as well as a 1923 cartoon by Aesop Fables Studio. The poet Walt Whitman describes a ballooning spider in his 1868 poem, A Noiseless Patient Spider. Author Neil Gaiman popularised the African spider god Anansi in his book, Anansi Boys, where the protagonist learns that the trickster god was his father. In comics and manga In graphic novels, spiders are often adapted by superheroes or villains as their symbols or alter egos due to the arachnid's strengths and weaknesses. One of the most notable characters in comic book history has taken his identity from the spider, the Marvel comic book hero Spider-Man. Peter Parker was accidentally bitten by a radioactive spider and then, as Spider-Man, was able to scale tall buildings and shoot web fluid from a device attached to his wrist. Along with these abilities came super senses and instant reflexes. Writer Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko originated this franchise. Due to the character's popularity, Spider-Man appeared in movies and various other media. In addition to Spider-Man, the Marvel Universe includes several subsequent characters using the spider as their patron; including Silk, Spider-Woman, Spider-Girl, the Scarlet Spider, Venom, Black Widow, Tarantula and Anya Corazon, who adopts the superhero names Araña and (the third) Spider-Girl. The DC Comics universe also include characters named Spider Girl and the Tarantula. Many other comic book, manga and anime characters have taken the guise of a spider, such as the Black Spider from the Batman universe; in the Pokémon franchise, Spinarak and Ariados, Joltik and Galvantula, and Dewpider and Araquanid, Tarountula and Spidops, are all variously based on spiders. In the Static Shock series, the titular character meets another superhero called Anansi the Spider in Africa. He takes his name from the African trickster god. The light novel and manga series So I'm a Spider, So What?, the protagonist is turned into a spider at the beginning of the story. Trapped in a world based around Japanese role-playing game tropes, she makes use of webs, various types of traps and poison attacks, and her intellect to survive. In film and television Spiders have been present for many decades both in film and on television, predominantly in the horror genre. Those who suffer from arachnophobia, an acute fear of spiders, become particularly horrified. The spider web is used as a motif to adorn dark passageways, depicting the recesses of the unknown. Spider themes are featured in early film history. In Fritz Lang's 1919 and 1920 The Spiders adventure series, a spider is the calling card for "The Spiders" criminal organization. The 1924 silent fantasy movie The Thief of Bagdad, and his 1940 remake, contains a scene of a fight with a gigantic spider. Pan Si Dong (1927), 盘丝洞, (The Cave of the Silken Web) is a film adaptation of the classic tale of Xuánzàng's encounter from a chapter of the 16th-century Great Classical Novel, Journey to the West, and was remade as a 1967 Hong Kong cinema production. Many horror films have featured the spider, including 1955's Tarantula!, exploiting America's fear of atomic radiation during the nuclear arms race, the 1975 low-budget cult film The Giant Spider Invasion, and Kingdom of the Spiders, a 1977 film starring William Shatner as a veterinarian who found himself facing a horde of spiders hiding in Verde Valley, Arizona. The fear of spiders culminates in Arachnophobia, a 1990 movie in which spiders multiply in large numbers. On the other hand, a person who admires spiders is referred to as an "arachnophile"; such as Virginia, a demented orphan who likes to play deadly spider games in the black comedy horror B movie, Spider Baby. The Godzilla franchise includes a giant spiderlike kaiju named Kumonga ("Spiga" in the English versions), first appearing in 1967's Son of Godzilla. The 1999 film Wild Wild West features a giant mechanical spider. Experiments with spiders in space tend to go horribly wrong, as with a DNA experiment on board a NASA space shuttle in the 2000 film Spiders, or mutant spiders from a derelict Soviet space station in the 2013 film Spiders 3D. Before there were Snakes on a Plane (2006), there were spiders on a plane in Tarantulas: The Deadly Cargo (1977). Radiation and spiders once again combine to wreak havoc in the 2002 film spoof Eight Legged Freaks, this time due to nuclear waste. Several books featuring spiders have been adapted to film, including The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King featuring Shelob and Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets with Aragog the Acromantula. Charlotte A. Cavatica's positive portrayal of a spider character can be seen in two full-length feature versions of Charlotte's Web. The first Charlotte's Web was a Hanna-Barbera musical animated film released in 1973, followed by a live-action 2006 film version of the original story. Walt Disney Pictures produced the 1996 film James and the Giant Peach based on the 1961 novel of the same name by Roald Dahl, in which the abused orphan James, who is only friends with a spider, finds more insect friends such as Spider and Centipede after entering a magical peach. In Ingmar Bergman's 1961 Swedish film adaptation Through a Glass Darkly, the psychotic Karin believes she has an encounter with God as a spider. Surreal spider imagery symbolism and themes are featured prominently in the 2013 psychological thriller Enemy; director Denis Villeneuve's film adaptation of the novel The Double by José Saramago. On television, the 1990 miniseries Stephen King's It is based on his novel It, where the now adult members of the Losers' club confront the giant spider form of Pennywise. The plot of the 2018 Doctor Who episode "Arachnids in the UK" revolves around an infestation of giant spiders that has occurred as the result of a scientific experiment. The 2002 David Cronenberg film Spider features spider and cobweb symbolism, with the main character acquiring the nickname 'Spider' due to his resemblance to one. A 2008 episode of MonsterQuest talked about monster spiders in the Amazon rain forest. In music The Rolling Stones adapted themes from Mary Howitt's poem in their 1965 song "The Spider and the Fly". Released in 1966, "Boris the Spider" was the first song written by John Entwistle for The Who, and became a staple of their live concerts. In 1987 David Bowie released a song "Glass Spider" which would later serve as the name for his Glass Spider Tour. Previously Bowie had a backing band known as The Spiders from Mars who would lend their name to his 1972 album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars. "Spiderwebs" became a hit for No Doubt in 1995.[j] Alice Cooper's 2008 concept album, Along Came a Spider is about a fictitious serial killer known as 'Spider', who wraps his victims in silk and cuts off one of their legs in order to create his own eight-legged arachnoid. In philosophy In the Vedic philosophy of India, the spider is depicted as hiding the ultimate reality with the veils of illusion. Indra's net[k] is used as a metaphor for the Buddhist concept of interpenetration, which holds that all phenomena are intimately connected. Indra's net has a multifaceted jewel at each vertex, and each jewel is reflected in all of the other jewels. As related in the book Vermeer's Hat by historian Timothy Brook: When Indra fashioned the world, he made it as a web, and at every knot in the web is tied a pearl. Everything that exists, or has ever existed, every idea that can be thought about, every datum that is true—every dharma, in the language of Indian philosophy—is a pearl in Indra's net. Not only is every pearl tied to every other pearl by virtue of the web on which they hang, but on the surface of every pearl is reflected every other jewel on the net. Everything that exists in Indra's web implies all else that exists. Other depictions Information technology terms such as the "web spider" (or "web crawler") and the World Wide Web imply the spiderlike connection of information accessed on the Internet. A dance, the tarantella, refers to the purported victims of a bite from the spider Lycosa tarantula which were allegedly compelled to dance until they were exhausted. Giant spider sculptures (11 feet tall and 22 feet across) described as "looming and powerful protectresses, yet are nurturing, delicate, and vulnerable" and a "favorite with children" have been found in Washington DC, Denver CO, and elsewhere. Even larger sculptures are found in places like Ottawa and Zürich. These sculptures, two series of six by Louise Bourgeois, can be seen at the National Gallery of Art, Denver Art Museum, London's Tate Modern and in a few other select sculpture gardens. The larger series is titled Maman and the other simply titled Spider. One Spider was sold at a Christie's auction house for over $10 million. A four-day performance art spectacle in Liverpool (September 2008) featured La Princesse by the French performance art company La Machine. This giant steampunk spider climbed walls, stalked the streets and sprayed unwary citizens while in search of a nest. Giant spiders appear in several role-playing games, such as Lolth, the Spider Queen of Dungeons & Dragons, and the first edition of Warcraft, where spiders are described as being "of staggering size—perhaps 15 feet around—with great furred body." Lolth is the main goddess of the dark elves. Their strongly matriarchal society is also in line with the real world female spiders who consume males during, or after copulation. In video games, spiders or spider-shaped foes are common, such as the Metroid series where the trilogy's antagonist, Metroid Prime, has a spiderlike Metroid as her primary physical form. This trilogy also includes the Ing, antagonists of Echoes, whose warrior forms resemble five-legged spiders. Atlach-Nacha is an H-game centered on a spiderlike demoness disguising herself as a human. In The Legend of Zelda series, giant spiders are a frequent foe. In particular, Ocarina of Time features large spiders named Skulltulas, and Twilight Princess has an enormous spider boss. Monster Hunter 4 introduced monster a called the Nerscylla, described in game as a "Temnoceran," based on the Chelicerate subphylum of arthropods, along with its subspecies, the Shrouded Nerscylla. An anthropomorphic spiderlike creature based on Little Miss Muffet named Muffet is featured in the 2015 video game Undertale. Giant spiders appear as hostile enemies in The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim which were quickly modded into bears by the players. Creatures resembling spiders are common in the pikmin series (either called Long Legs or Dweevil), however these only have 4 legs. In the Lego toyline Bionicle series, the Visorak horde is a species consisting of six spiderlike breeds. They are created by the Brotherhood of Makuta to conquer islands; they possess mutagenic venom and spin sticky green webs. In the Transformers franchise, Tarantulas and Blackarachnia are both Predacons that turn into giant spiders. Notable athletes with spider nicknames include Olympic skier Spider Sabich, so named by his father due to his long, thin arms and legs as a baby, and UFC Middleweight Champion Anderson "The Spider" Silva who was dubbed "Brazil's Spiderman" by an announcer who thought he looked like a superhero in the ring. Spider mascots are associated with the Cleveland Spiders baseball team and the San Francisco Spiders hockey team, as well as the University of Richmond's athletic teams. The widespread urban legend that a person swallows a high number of spiders during sleep in one's life has no basis in reality. A sleeping person causes noises and vibrations, such as breathing, snoring, and heartbeat, which warn spiders of danger. Also, it is typical for people to wake up from sleep when they have a spider on their face. Huntsman spiders are large and swift, often eliciting arachnophobic reactions from susceptible people, and are the subject of many superstitions, exaggerations and myths. The banana spider myth claims that the Huntsman spider lays its eggs in banana flower blossoms, resulting in spiders inside the tip of bananas waiting to terrorize an unsuspecting consumer. This is supposed to explain why monkeys allegedly peel bananas from the "wrong" end. According to another urban legend, daddy long-legs spiders (Pholcidae) have potent venom, but their fangs are too short to deliver the poison. This myth might have arisen due to their similarity to the brown recluse spider. In a 2004 episode of Discovery Channel's MythBusters, it was shown that host Adam Savage baits and survives a bite from a daddy long-legs. A modern myth depicts a young woman who discovered that her beehive hairdo was infested with black widow spiders. The Spider Bite legend emerged in Europe in the late 1970s. In most versions of this tale, a young vacationing female sunbather is bitten on the cheek by a spider. After seeking medical attention for the resultant swelling, hundreds of tiny spiders are discovered emerging from her lanced wound, which causes the victim to go insane. An email hoax describes attacks by the "South American Blush Spider" in public toilets. The alleged spider's scientific name is Arachnius gluteus, where "arachnius" is a made-up word intended to mean "spider"[l] and "gluteus" is a reference to buttocks (cf: gluteus maximus). The hoax spider shares some characteristics with the two-striped telamonia (Telamonia dimidiata), and there is an updated version of the hoax using that name for the spider's species, with the rest of the text left unchanged, except for details such as locations. This hoax began in 1999 and has since spread to social media where it continues to circulate. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven] | [TOKENS: 9960] |
Contents Heaven Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Heaven, or the Heavens, is a common religious cosmological or supernatural place where beings such as deities, angels, souls, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or reside. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to Earth or incarnate and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven in the afterlife or, in exceptional cases, enter Heaven without dying. Heaven is often described as a "highest place", the holiest place, a paradise, in contrast to Hell or the Underworld or the "low places" and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith, or other virtues or right beliefs or simply divine will. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to come. Another belief is in an axis mundi or world tree which connects the heavens, the terrestrial world, and the underworld. In Indian religions, heaven is considered as Svargaloka, and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as the otherworld. In the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity, Islam, and some schools of Judaism, as well as Zoroastrianism, heaven is the realm of afterlife where good actions in the previous life are rewarded for eternity, Hell being the place where bad behavior is punished. Etymology The modern English word heaven is derived from the earlier (Middle English) heven (attested 1159); this in turn was developed from the previous Old English form heofon. By about 1000, heofon was being used in reference to the Christianized "place where God dwells", but originally, it had signified "sky, firmament" (e.g. in Beowulf, c. 725). The English term has cognates in the other Germanic languages: Old Saxon heƀan "sky, heaven" (hence also Middle Low German heven "sky"), Old Icelandic himinn, Gothic himins; and those with a variant final -l: Old Frisian himel, himul "sky, heaven", Old Saxon and Old High German himil, Old Saxon and Middle Low German hemmel, Old Dutch and Dutch hemel, and modern German Himmel. All of these have been derived from a reconstructed Proto-Germanic form *hemina-. or *hemō. The further derivation of this form is uncertain. A connection to Proto-Indo-European *ḱem- "cover, shroud", via a reconstructed *k̑emen- or *k̑ōmen- "stone, heaven", has been proposed. Others endorse the derivation from a Proto-Indo-European root *h₂éḱmō "stone" and, possibly, "heavenly vault" at the origin of this word, which then would have as cognates ancient Greek ἄκμων (ákmōn "anvil, pestle; meteorite"), Persian آسمان (âsemân, âsmân "stone, sling-stone; sky, heaven") and Sanskrit अश्मन् (aśman "stone, rock, sling-stone; thunderbolt; the firmament"). In the latter case English hammer would be another cognate to the word. Ancient Near East The ancient Mesopotamians regarded the sky as a series of domes (usually three, but sometimes seven) covering the flat Earth. Each dome was made of a different kind of precious stone. The lowest dome of heaven was made of jasper and was the home of the stars. The middle dome of heaven was made of saggilmut stone and was the abode of the Igigi. The highest and outermost dome of heaven was made of luludānītu stone and was personified as An, the god of the sky. The celestial bodies were equated with specific deities as well. The planet Venus was believed to be Inanna, the goddess of sex and war. The Sun was her brother Utu, the god of justice, and the Moon was their father Nanna. In ancient Near Eastern cultures in general and in Mesopotamia in particular, humans had little to no access to the divine realm. Heaven and Earth were separated by their very nature; humans could see and be affected by elements of the lower heaven, such as stars and storms, but ordinary mortals could not go to Heaven because it was the abode of the gods alone. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh says to Enkidu, "Who can go up to heaven, my friend? Only the gods dwell with Shamash forever." Instead, after a person died, his or her soul went to Kur (later known as Irkalla), a dark shadowy underworld, located deep below the surface of the earth. All souls went to the same afterlife, and a person's actions during life had no impact on how they would be treated in the world to come. Nonetheless, funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that Inanna had the power to bestow special favors upon her devotees in the afterlife. Despite the separation between heaven and earth, humans sought access to the gods through oracles and omens. The gods were believed to live in Heaven, but also in their temples, which were seen as the channels of communication between Earth and Heaven, which allowed mortal access to the gods. The Ekur temple in Nippur was known as the "Dur-an-ki", the "mooring rope" of heaven and earth. It was widely thought to have been built and established by Enlil himself. The ancient Hittites believed that some deities lived in Heaven while others lived in remote places on Earth, such as mountains, where humans had little access. In the Middle Hittite myths, Heaven is the abode of the gods. In the Song of Kumarbi, Alalu was king in Heaven for nine years before giving birth to his son, Anu. Anu was himself overthrown by his son, Kumarbi. Almost nothing is known of Bronze Age (pre-1200 BC) Canaanite views of heaven and the archaeological findings at Ugarit (destroyed c. 1200 BC) have not provided information. The first century Greek author Philo of Byblos may have preserved elements of Iron Age Phoenician religion in his Sanchuniathon. Zoroaster, the Zoroastrian prophet who introduced the Gathas, spoke of the existence of Heaven and Hell. Historically, the unique features of Zoroastrianism, such as its conception of heaven, hell, angels, monotheism, belief in free will, and the day of judgement, among other concepts, may have influenced other religious and philosophical systems, including the Abrahamic religions, Gnosticism, Northern Buddhism, and Greek philosophy. Abrahamic and Abrahamic-inspired religions As in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, in the Hebrew Bible, the universe is commonly divided into two realms: heaven (šāmayim) and earth ('ereṣ). Sometimes a third realm is added: either "sea", "water under the earth", or sometimes a vague "land of the dead" that is never described in depth. The structure of heaven itself is not fully described in the Hebrew Bible, but the fact that the Hebrew word šāmayim is plural has been interpreted by scholars as an indication that the ancient Israelites envisioned the heavens as having multiple layers, much like the ancient Mesopotamians. This reading is also supported by the use of the phrase "heaven of heavens" in verses such as Deuteronomy 10:14, 1 Kings 8:27, and 2 Chronicles 2:6. In line with the typical view of most Near Eastern cultures, the Hebrew Bible depicts Heaven as a place that is inaccessible to humans. Although some prophets are occasionally granted temporary visionary access to heaven, such as in 1 Kings 22:19–23, Job 1:6–12 and 2:1–6, and Isaiah 6, they hear only God's deliberations concerning the Earth and learn nothing of what Heaven is like. There is almost no mention in the Hebrew Bible of Heaven as a possible afterlife destination for human beings, who are instead described as "resting" in Sheol. The only two possible exceptions to this are Enoch, who is described in Genesis 5:24 as having been "taken" by God, and the prophet Elijah, who is described in 2 Kings 2:11 as having ascended to Heaven in a chariot of fire. According to Michael B. Hundley, the text in both of these instances is ambiguous regarding the significance of the actions being described and in neither of these cases does the text explain what happened to the subject afterwards. The God of the Israelites is described as ruling both Heaven and Earth. Other passages, such as 1 Kings 8:27 state that even the vastness of Heaven cannot contain God's majesty. A number of passages throughout the Hebrew Bible indicate that Heaven and Earth will one day come to an end. This view is paralleled in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, which also regarded Heaven and Earth as vulnerable and subject to dissolution. However, the Hebrew Bible differs from other ancient Near Eastern cultures in that it portrays the God of Israel as independent of creation and unthreatened by its potential destruction. Because most of the Hebrew Bible concerns the God of Israel's relationship with his people, most of the events described in it take place on Earth, not in Heaven. The Deuteronomistic source, Deuteronomistic History, and Priestly source all portray the Temple in Jerusalem as the sole channel of communication between Earth and Heaven. During the period of the Second Temple (c. 515 BC – 70 AD), the Hebrew people lived under the rule of first the Persian Achaemenid Empire, then the Greek kingdoms of the Diadochi, and finally the Roman Empire. Their culture was profoundly influenced by those of the peoples who ruled them. Consequently, their views on existence after death were profoundly shaped by the ideas of the Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The idea of the immortality of the soul is derived from Greek philosophy and the idea of the resurrection of the dead is thought to be derived from Persian cosmology, although the later claim has been recently questioned. By the early first century AD, these two seemingly incompatible ideas were often conflated by Hebrew thinkers. The Hebrews also inherited from the Persians, Greeks, and Romans the idea that the human soul originates in the divine realm and seeks to return there. The idea that a human soul belongs in Heaven and that Earth is merely a temporary abode in which the soul is tested to prove its worthiness became increasingly popular during the Hellenistic period (323–31 BC). Gradually, some Hebrews began to adopt the idea of Heaven as the eternal home of the righteous dead. Descriptions of Heaven in the New Testament are more fully developed than those in the Old Testament, but are still generally vague. As in the Old Testament, in the New Testament God is described as the ruler of Heaven and Earth, but his power over the Earth is challenged by Satan. The Gospels of Mark and Luke speak of the "Kingdom of God" (Ancient Greek: βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ; basileía tou theou), while the Gospel of Matthew more commonly uses the term "Kingdom of heaven" (Ancient Greek: βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν; basileía tōn ouranōn). Both phrases are thought to have the same meaning, but the author of the Gospel of Matthew changed the name "Kingdom of God" to "Kingdom of Heaven" in most instances because it was the more acceptable phrase in his own cultural and religious context in the late first century. Modern scholars agree that the Kingdom of God was an essential part of the teachings of the historical Jesus but there is no agreement on what this kingdom was. None of the gospels record Jesus as having explained exactly what the phrase "Kingdom of God" means. The most likely explanation for this apparent omission is that the Kingdom of God was a commonly understood concept that required no explanation. According to Sanders and Casey, Jews in Judea during the early first century believed that God reigns eternally in Heaven, but many also believed that God would eventually establish his kingdom on earth as well. Because God's Kingdom was believed to be superior to any human kingdom, this meant that God would necessarily drive out the Romans, who ruled Judea, and establish his own direct rule over the Jewish people. This belief is referenced in the first petition of the Lord's Prayer, taught by Jesus to his disciples and recorded in Matthew and Luke 11:2: "Your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven." Other scholars contend that Jesus' teaching of the Kingdom of God was of something that is present but also still yet to come. For instance, Wright points to the synoptic gospels that Jesus' death and resurrection was anticipated as the climax and fulfillment of his "Kingdom of God" messages and that his combined prophecy about the Second Temple's doom, through apocalyptic language, would serve as his vindication. The synoptic gospels and Pauline epistles portray Jesus as believing his death and resurrection would complete the work of inaugurating the Kingdom of God and that his followers who wrote everything down expressed their belief he had done so, using first-century Jewish idioms, and that such events "did with evil and launch the project of new creation". In the teachings of the historical Jesus, people are expected to prepare for the coming of the Kingdom of God by living moral lives. Jesus's commands for his followers to adopt lifestyles of moral perfectionism are found in many passages throughout the Synoptic Gospels, particularly in the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7. Jesus also taught that, in the Kingdom of Heaven, there would be a reversal of roles in which "the last will be first and the first will be last." This teaching recurs throughout the recorded teachings of Jesus, including in the admonition to be like a child, the Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus in Luke 16, the Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard in Matthew 20, the Parable of the Great Banquet in Matthew 22, and the Parable of the Prodigal Son in Luke 15. Traditionally, Christianity has taught that Heaven is the location of the throne of God as well as the holy angels, although this is in varying degrees considered metaphorical. In traditional Christianity, it is considered a state or condition of existence (rather than a particular place somewhere in the cosmos) of the supreme fulfillment of theosis in the beatific vision of the Godhead. In most forms of Christianity, Heaven is also understood as the abode for the redeemed dead in the afterlife, usually a temporary stage before the resurrection of the dead and the saints' return to the New Earth. The resurrected Jesus is said to have ascended to Heaven where he now sits at the Right Hand of God and will return to Earth in the Second Coming. Various people have been said to have entered Heaven while still alive, including Enoch, Elijah and Jesus, after his resurrection. According to Roman Catholic teaching, Mary, mother of Jesus, is also said to have been assumed into Heaven and is titled the Queen of Heaven. In the second century AD, Irenaeus of Lyons recorded a belief that, in accordance with John 14, those who in the afterlife see the Saviour are in different mansions, some dwelling in the heavens, others in paradise and others in "the city". While the word used in all these writings, in particular the New Testament Greek word οὐρανός (ouranos), applies primarily to the sky, it is also used metaphorically of the dwelling place of God and the blessed. Similarly, though the English word "heaven" keeps its original physical meaning when used, for instance, in allusions to the stars as "lights shining through from heaven", and in phrases such as heavenly body to mean an astronomical object, the heaven or happiness that Christianity looks forward to is, according to Pope John Paul II, "neither an abstraction nor a physical place in the clouds, but a living, personal relationship with the Holy Trinity. It is our meeting with the Father which takes place in the risen Christ through the communion of the Holy Spirit." While the concept of Heaven (malkuth hashamaim מלכות השמים, the Kingdom of Heaven) is much discussed in Christian thought, the Jewish concept of the afterlife, sometimes known as olam haba, the World-to-come, is not discussed as often. The Torah has little to say on the subject of survival after death, but by the time of the rabbis two ideas had made inroads among the Jews: one, which is probably derived from Greek thought, is that of the immortal soul which returns to its creator after death; the other, which is thought to be of Persian origin, is that of resurrection of the dead. Jewish writings[which?] refer to a "new earth" as the abode of mankind following the resurrection of the dead. Originally, the two ideas of immortality and resurrection were different but in rabbinic thought they are combined: the soul departs from the body at death but is returned to it at the resurrection. This idea is linked to another rabbinic teaching, that men's good and bad actions are rewarded and punished not in this life but after death, whether immediately or at the subsequent resurrection. Around 1 AD, the Pharisees believed in an afterlife but the Sadducees did not. The Mishnah has many sayings about the World to Come, for example, "Rabbi Yaakov said: This world is like a lobby before the World to Come; prepare yourself in the lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall." Judaism holds that the righteous of all nations have a share in the World-to-come. According to Nicholas de Lange, Judaism offers no clear teaching about the destiny which lies in wait for the individual after death and its attitude to life after death has been expressed as follows: "For the future is inscrutable, and the accepted sources of knowledge, whether experience, or reason, or revelation, offer no clear guidance about what is to come. The only certainty is that each man must die – beyond that we can only guess." Similar to Jewish traditions such as the Talmud, the Qur'an and Hadith frequently mention the existence of seven samāwāt (سماوات), the plural of samāʾ (سماء), meaning 'heaven, sky, celestial sphere', and cognate with Hebrew shamāyim (שמים). Some of the verses in the Qur'an mentioning the samaawat are 41:12, 65:12 and 71:15. Sidrat al-Muntaha, a large enigmatic Lote tree, marks the end of the seventh heaven and the utmost extremity for all of God's creatures and heavenly knowledge. One interpretation of "heavens" is that all the stars and galaxies (including the Milky Way) are part of the "first heaven", and "beyond that six still bigger worlds are there," which have yet to be discovered by scientists. According to Shi'ite sources, Ali mentioned the names of the seven heavens as below: Still an afterlife destination of the righteous is conceived in Islam as Jannah (Arabic: جنة "Garden [of Eden]" translated as "paradise"). Regarding Eden or paradise the Quran says, "The description of the Paradise promised to the righteous is that under it rivers flow; eternal is its fruit as well as its shade. That is the ˹ultimate˺ outcome for the righteous. But the outcome for the disbelievers is the Fire!" Islam rejects the concept of original sin, and Muslims believe that all human beings are born pure. Children automatically go to paradise when they die, regardless of the religion of their parents. Paradise is described primarily in physical terms as a place where every wish is immediately fulfilled when asked. Islamic texts describe immortal life in Jannah as happy, without negative emotions. Those who dwell in Jannah are said to wear costly apparel, partake in exquisite banquets, and recline on couches inlaid with gold or precious stones. Inhabitants will rejoice in the company of their parents, spouses, and children. In Islam if one's good deeds outweigh one's sins then one may gain entrance to paradise only through God's mercy. Conversely, if one's sins outweigh their good deeds they are sent to hell. The more good deeds one has performed the higher the level of Jannah one is directed to. Quran verses which describe paradise include: 13:15, 18:31, 38:49–54, 35:33–35 and 52:17. The Quran refers to Jannah with different names: Al-Firdaws, Jannātu-′Adn ("Garden of Eden" or "Everlasting Gardens"), Jannatu-n-Na'īm ("Garden of Delight"), Jannatu-l-Ma'wa ("Garden of Refuge"), Dāru-s-Salām ("Abode of Peace"), Dāru-l-Muqāma ("Abode of Permanent Stay"), al-Muqāmu-l-Amin ("The Secure Station") and Jannātu-l-Khuld ("Garden of Immortality"). In the Hadiths, these are the different regions in paradise. According to the Ahmadiyya view, much of the imagery presented in the Quran regarding Heaven, but also Hell, is metaphorical. They propound the verse which describes, according to them, how the life to come after death is different from the life on Earth. The Quran says: "From bringing in your place others like you, and from developing you into a form which at present you know not." According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya sect in Islam, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul, as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an "embryonic soul" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born in which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own rights over that of other's becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape. The Baháʼí Faith regards the conventional description of heaven (and hell) as a specific place as symbolic. The Baháʼí writings describe heaven as a "spiritual condition" where closeness to God is defined as heaven; conversely hell is seen as a state of remoteness from God. Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, has stated that the nature of the life of the soul in the afterlife is beyond comprehension in the physical plane, but has stated that the soul will retain its consciousness and individuality and remember its physical life; the soul will be able to recognize other souls and communicate with them. For Baháʼís, entry into the next life has the potential to bring great joy. Bahá'u'lláh likened death to the process of birth. He explains: "The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in the womb of its mother." The analogy to the womb in many ways summarizes the Baháʼí view of earthly existence: just as the womb constitutes an important place for a person's initial physical development, the physical world provides for the development of the individual soul. Accordingly, Baháʼís view life as a preparatory stage, where one can develop and perfect those qualities which will be needed in the next life. The key to spiritual progress is to follow the path outlined by the current Manifestation of God, which Baháʼís believe is currently Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh wrote, "Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved." The Baháʼí teachings state that there exists a hierarchy of souls in the afterlife, where the merits of each soul determines their place in the hierarchy, and that souls lower in the hierarchy cannot completely understand the station of those above. Each soul can continue to progress in the afterlife, but the soul's development is not entirely dependent on its own conscious efforts, the nature of which we are not aware, but also augmented by the grace of God, the prayers of others, and good deeds performed by others on Earth in the name of that person. Mandaeans believe in an afterlife or heaven called Alma d-Nhura (World of Light). The World of Light is the primeval, transcendent world from which Tibil and the World of Darkness emerged. The Great Living God (Hayyi Rabbi) and his uthras (angels or guardians) dwell in the World of Light. The World of Light is also the source of Piriawis, the Great Yardena (or Jordan River) of Life. The cosmological description of the universe in the Gnostic codex On the Origin of the World presents seven heavens created by the lesser god or Demiurge called Yaldabaoth, which are individually ruled over by one of his Archons. Above these realms is the eighth heaven, where the benevolent, higher divinities dwell. During the end of days, the seven heavens of the Archons will collapse on each other. The heaven of Yaldabaoth will split in two and cause the stars in his celestial sphere to fall. Chinese religions In the native Chinese Confucian traditions, heaven (Tian) is an important concept, where the ancestors reside and from which emperors drew their mandate to rule in their dynastic propaganda, for example. Heaven is a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophies, and religions, and is on one end of the spectrum a synonym of Shangdi ("Supreme Deity") and on the other naturalistic end, a synonym for nature and the sky. The Chinese term for "heaven", Tian (天), derives from the name of the supreme deity of the Zhou dynasty. After their conquest of the Shang dynasty in 1122 BC, the Zhou people considered their supreme deity Tian to be identical with the Shang supreme deity Shangdi. The Zhou people attributed Heaven with anthropomorphic attributes, evidenced in the etymology of the Chinese character for heaven or sky, which originally depicted a person with a large cranium. Heaven is said to see, hear and watch over all people. Heaven is affected by people's doings, and having personality, is happy and angry with them. Heaven blesses those who please it and sends calamities upon those who offend it. Heaven was also believed to transcend all other spirits and gods, with Confucius asserting, "He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray." Other philosophers born around the time of Confucius such as Mozi took an even more theistic view of heaven, believing that heaven is the divine ruler, just as the Son of Heaven (the King of Zhou) is the earthly ruler. Mozi believed that spirits and minor gods exist, but their function is merely to carry out the will of heaven, watching for evil-doers and punishing them. Thus they function as angels of heaven and do not detract from its monotheistic government of the world. With such a high monotheism, it is not surprising that Mohism championed a concept called "universal love" (jian'ai, 兼愛), which taught that heaven loves all people equally and that each person should similarly love all human beings without distinguishing between his own relatives and those of others. In Mozi's Will of Heaven (天志), he writes: "I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heaven ordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the five grains and flax and silk that so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged many things to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. This has been so from antiquity to the present." Original Chinese: 「且吾所以知天之愛民之厚者有矣，曰以磨為日月星辰，以昭道之；制為四時春秋冬夏，以紀綱之；雷降雪霜雨露，以長遂五穀麻絲，使民得而財利之；列為山川谿谷，播賦百事，以臨司民之善否；為王公侯伯，使之賞賢而罰暴；賊金木鳥獸，從事乎五穀麻絲，以為民衣食之財。自古及今，未嘗不有此也。」 Mozi criticized the Confucians of his own time for not following the teachings of Confucius. By the time of the later Han dynasty, however, under the influence of Xunzi, the Chinese concept of heaven and Confucianism itself had become mostly naturalistic, though some Confucians argued that Heaven was where ancestors reside. Worship of heaven in China continued with the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to heaven, usually by slaughtering two healthy bulls as a sacrifice. Indian religions In Buddhism there are several heavens, all of which are still part of samsara. Those who accumulate good karma may be reborn in one of them. However, their stay in heaven is not eternal—eventually they will use up their good karma and will undergo rebirth into another realm, as a human, animal or other being. Because heaven is temporary and part of samsara, Buddhists focus more on escaping the cycle of rebirth and achieving bodhi (enlightenment) and realizing the transcendental state of nirvana—which is not a heaven. but a "trans-mundane state". According to Buddhist cosmology the universe is impermanent and beings transmigrate through several existential "planes" in which this human world is only one "realm" or "path". These are traditionally envisioned as a vertical continuum with the heavens existing above the human realm, and the realms of the animals, hungry ghosts and hell beings existing beneath it. According to Jan Chozen Bays in her book, Jizo: Guardian of Children, Travelers, and Other Voyagers, the realm of the asura is a later refinement of the heavenly realm and was inserted between the human realm and the heavens. One important Buddhist heaven is the Trāyastriṃśa, which resembles Olympus of Greek mythology. In the Mahayana Buddhist worldview, there are also numerous pure lands which lie outside the world of samsara and are created by the Buddhas upon attaining enlightenment. Sukhavati, the pure land of Amitābha Buddha, is the most popular afterlife destination in Mahayana Buddhism, though other pure lands like Maitreya's palace in Tushita are also taught. This goal is central to Pure Land Buddhism. Birth in Amitābha's Pure Land is seen as an assurance of Buddhahood, for once reborn there, beings do not fall back into cyclical existence. Nevertheless, beings in a pure land can freely travel to other realms and manifest in worldly realms in order to guide others as bodhisattvas. The Tibetan word Bardo means literally "intermediate state". In Sanskrit the concept has the name antarabhāva. The lists below are ordered from highest to lowest of the heavenly worlds. Brahmāloka Here the denizens are Brahmās, and the ruler is Mahābrahmā. After developing the four Brahmavihāras, King Makhādeva rebirths here after death. The monk Tissa and Brāhmana Jānussoni were also reborn here. The lifespan of a Brahmās is not stated but is not eternal. Parinirmita-vaśavartin (Pali: Paranimmita-vasavatti) The heaven of devas have "power over (others') creations". These devas do not create pleasing forms that they desire for themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by the acts of other devas who seek their favor. The ruler of this world is called Vaśavartin (Pāli: Vasavatti), who has longer life, greater beauty, more power and happiness and more delightful sense-objects than the other devas of his world. This world is also the home of the devaputra (being of a divine race) called Māra, who endeavors to keep all beings of the Kāmadhātu in the grip of sensual pleasures. Māra is also sometimes called Vaśavartin, but in general these two dwellers in this world are kept distinct. The beings of this world are 3 lǐ (1,400 m; 4,500 feet) tall and live for 9,216,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). Nirmāṇarati (Pali: Nimmānaratī) The world of devas "delighting in their creations". The devas of this world are capable of making any appearance to please themselves. The lord of this world is called Sunirmita (Pāli Sunimmita); his wife is the rebirth of Visākhā, formerly the chief upāsikā (female lay devotee) of the Buddha. The beings of this world are 2+1⁄2 lǐ (1,140 m; 3,750 feet) tall and live for 2,304,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). Tuṣita (Pali: Tusita) The world of the "joyful" devas, it is best known for being the world in which a Bodhisattva lives before being reborn in the world of humans. Until a few thousand years ago, the Bodhisattva of this world was Śvetaketu (Pāli: Setaketu), who was reborn as Siddhārtha, who would become the Buddha Śākyamuni; since then the Bodhisattva has been Nātha (or Nāthadeva) who will be reborn as Ajita and will become the Buddha Maitreya (Pāli Metteyya). While this Bodhisattva is the foremost of the dwellers in Tuṣita, the ruler of this world is another deva called Santuṣita (Pāli: Santusita). The beings of this world are 2 lǐ (910 m; 3,000 feet) tall and live for 576,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition). Anāthapindika, a Kosālan householder and benefactor to the Buddha's order was reborn here. Yāma The denizens here have a lifespan of 144,000,000 years. Trāyastriṃśa (Pali: Tāvatimsa) The ruler of this heaven is Indra or Shakra, and the realm is also called Trayatrimia. Each denizen addresses other denizens with the title "mārisa". The governing hall of this heaven is called Sudhamma Hall. This heaven has a garden Nandanavana with damsels, as its most magnificent sight. Ajita, the Licchavi army general, was reborn here. Gopika, the Sākyan girl, was reborn as a male god in this realm. Any Buddhist reborn in this realm can outshine any of the previously dwelling denizens because of the extra merit acquired for following the Buddha's teachings. The denizens here have a lifespan of 36,000,000 years. Cātummahārājika The heaven "of the Four Great Kings", its rulers are the four Great Kings of the name, Virūḍhaka विरुद्धक, Dhṛtarāṣṭra धृतराष्ट्र, Virūpākṣa विरुपाक्ष, and their leader Vaiśravaṇa वैश्यवर्ण. The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also considered part of this world, as are the retinues of the four kings, composed of Kumbhāṇḍas कुम्भाण्ड (dwarfs), Gandharva गन्धर्वs (fairies), Nāgas नाग (snakes) and Yakṣas यक्ष (goblins). The beings of this world are 230 m (750 feet) tall and live for 9,000,000 years (Sarvāstivāda tradition) or 90,000 years (Vibhajyavāda tradition). The Heaven of the Comfort from Others' Transformations The Heaven of Bliss by Transformation The Tushita Heaven The Suyama Heaven The Trayastrimsha Heaven The Heaven of the Four Kings Ouyi Zhixu explains that the Shurangama sutra only emphasizes avoidance of deviant sexual desire, but one would naturally need to abide by the 10 good conducts to be born in these heavens. Tibetan literature classifies the heavenly worlds into 5 major types: Attaining heaven is not the final pursuit in Hinduism as heaven itself is ephemeral and related to physical body. Only being tied by the bhoot-tattvas, heaven cannot be perfect either and is just another name for pleasurable and mundane material life. According to Hindu cosmology, above the earthly plane, are other planes: (1) Bhuva Loka, (2) Swarga Loka, meaning Good Kingdom, is the general name for heaven in Hinduism, a heavenly paradise of pleasure, where most of the Hindu Devatas (Deva) reside along with the king of Devas, Indra, and beatified mortals. Some other planes are Mahar Loka, Jana Loka, Tapa Loka and Satya Loka. Since heavenly abodes are also tied to the cycle of birth and death, any dweller of heaven or hell will again be recycled to a different plane and in a different form per the karma and "maya" i.e. the illusion of Samsara. This cycle is broken only by self-realization by the Jivatma. This self-realization is Moksha (Turiya, Kaivalya). The concept of moksha is unique to Hinduism. Moksha stands for liberation from the cycle of birth and death and final communion with Brahman. With moksha, a liberated soul attains the stature and oneness with Brahman or Paramatma. Different schools such as Vedanta, Mimansa, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Yoga offer subtle differences in the concept of Brahman, obvious Universe, its genesis and regular destruction, Jivatma, Nature (Prakriti) and also the right way in attaining perfect bliss or moksha. In the Vaishnava traditions the highest heaven is Vaikuntha, which exists above the six heavenly lokas and outside of the mahat-tattva or mundane world. It's where eternally liberated souls who have attained moksha reside in eternal sublime beauty with Lakshmi and Narayana (a manifestation of Vishnu). In the Nasadiya Sukta, the heavens/sky Vyoman is mentioned as a place from which an overseeing entity surveys what has been created. However, the Nasadiya Sukta questions the omniscience of this overseer. The shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown at right. Unlike the current convention of using North direction as the top of map, this uses South as the top. The shape is similar to a part of human form standing upright. The Deva Loka (heavens) are at the symbolic "chest", where all souls enjoying the positive karmic effects reside. The heavenly beings are referred to as devas (masculine form) and devis (feminine form). According to Jainism, there is not one heavenly abode, but several layers to reward appropriately the souls of varying degree of karmic merits. Similarly, beneath the "waist" are the Narka Loka (hell). Human, animal, insect, plant and microscopic life forms reside on the middle. The pure souls (who reached Siddha status) reside at the very southernmost end (top) of the Universe. They are referred to in Tamil literature as தென்புலத்தார் (Kural 43). Sikhs believe that heaven and hell are also both in this world where everyone reaps the fruit of karma. They refer to good and evil stages of life respectively and can be lived now and here during our life on Earth. Kabir in the Guru Granth Sahib rejects the otherworldly heaven and says that one can experience heaven on this Earth through the company of holy people. He claims to know the Lord, who is beyond measure and beyond thought; By mere words, he plans to enter heaven. I do not know where heaven is. Everyone claims that he plans to go there. By mere talk, the mind is not appeased. The mind is only appeased, when egotism is conquered. As long as the mind is filled with the desire for heaven, He does not dwell at the Lord's Feet. Says Kabeer, unto whom should I tell this? The Company of the Holy is heaven. — Kabir, Guru Granth Sahib 325 Mesoamerican religions The Nahua people such as the Aztecs, Chichimecs and the Toltecs believed that the heavens were constructed and separated into 13 levels. Each level had from one to many Lords living in and ruling these heavens. Most important of these heavens was Omeyocan (Place of Two). The Thirteen Heavens were ruled by Ometeotl, the dual Lord, creator of the Dual-Genesis who, as male, takes the name Ometecuhtli (Two Lord), and as female is named Omecihuatl (Two Lady). Polynesia In the creation myths of Polynesian mythology are found various concepts of the heavens and the underworld. These differ from one island to another. What they share is the view of the universe as an egg or coconut that is divided between the world of humans (earth), the upper world of heavenly gods, and the underworld. Each of these is subdivided in a manner reminiscent of Dante's Divine Comedy, but the number of divisions and their names differs from one Polynesian culture to another. In Māori mythology, the heavens are divided into a number of realms. Different tribes number the heaven differently, with as few as two and as many as fourteen levels. One of the more common versions divides heaven thus: The Māori believe these heavens are supported by pillars. Other Polynesian peoples see them being supported by gods (as in Hawaii). In one Tahitian legend, heaven is supported by an octopus. The Polynesian conception of the universe and its division is illustrated by a drawing made by a Tuomotuan chief in 1869. Here, the nine heavens are further divided into left and right, and each stage is associated with a stage in the evolution of the earth that is portrayed below. The lowest division represents a period when the heavens hung low over the earth, which was inhabited by animals that were not known to the islanders. In the third division is shown the first murder, the first burials, and the first canoes, built by Rata. In the fourth division, the first coconut tree and other significant plants are born. Theosophy In Theosophy, founded mainly by Helena Blavatsky, it is believed that each religion (including Theosophy) has its own individual heaven in various regions of the upper astral plane that fits the description of that heaven that is given in each religion, to which a soul that has been good in their previous life on Earth will go. The area of the upper astral plane of Earth in the upper atmosphere where the various heavens are located is called Summerland (Theosophists believe hell is located in the lower astral plane of Earth which extends downward from the surface of the earth to its center). However, Theosophists believe that the soul is recalled back to Earth after an average of about 1400 years by the Lords of Karma to incarnate again. The final heaven that souls go to billions of years in the future after they finish their cycle of incarnations is called Devachan. Neuroscience In Inside the Neolithic Mind (2005), Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue that many cultures around the world and through history neurally perceive a tiered structure of heaven, along with similarly structured circles of hell. The reports match so similarly across time and space that Lewis-Williams and Pearce argue for a neuroscientific explanation, accepting the percepts as real neural activations and subjective percepts during particular altered states of consciousness. Representations in arts Works of fiction have included numerous conceptions of Heaven and Hell. Two famous descriptions of Heaven are given in Dante Alighieri's Paradiso (of the Divine Comedy) and John Milton's Paradise Lost. See also References External links |
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BBC News, မြန်မာ - ပင်မစာမျက်နှာ ထိပ်တန်း သတင်းများ မန္တလေးတိုင်း၊ နွားထိုးကြီးမြို့နယ်ထဲမှာ လျှို့ဝှက်ဆောက်လုပ်ထားတဲ့ အမျိုးသားညီညွတ်ရေးအစိုးရ(NUG)ရဲ့ မြေအောက်ဆေးရုံ မိုင်းခွဲဖျက်ဆီးခံလိုက်ရတယ်လို့ နွားထိုးကြီးမြို့နယ်ပြည်သူ့ကာကွယ်ရေးအဖွဲ့(ပကဖ)ရဲ့ တာဝန်ရှိသူတစ်ဦးက ဘီဘီစီကိုအတည်ပြုပါတယ်။ မင်းသားဟောင်းအင်ဒရူးကို ဖမ်းဆီးမယ့်ကိစ္စကို ဘုရင်နဲ့ ဘက်ကင်ဟမ်နန်းတော်ကို ကြိုတင်အသိပေးခဲ့တာမရှိဘူးလို့ နားလည်ရပါတယ်။ ချားလ်စ်ဘုရင်က "ဥပဒေနဲ့အညီ ဖြစ်ရမယ်"လို့ ပြောကြားခဲ့ပြီး ရဲတပ်ဖွဲ့အနေနဲ့ သူ့ဆီကနေ အပြည့်အဝ ပူးပေါင်းဆောင်ရွက်မှု ရရှိမှာဖြစ်ကြောင်း အတည်ပြုပြောထားပါတယ်။ အင်ဒရူး မောင့်ဘက်တင်-ဝင်ဆာကတော့ သူ့ရဲ့ ၆၆ နှစ်ပြည့် မွေးနေ့ကို ခုတင်တစ်လုံးနဲ့ အိမ်သာတစ်ခုပဲရှိတဲ့ ရဲစခန်းအချုပ်ခန်းထဲမှာ ဖြတ်သန်းခဲ့ရပါတယ်။ မင်းသားဟောင်းတစ်ဦးလည်းဖြစ်၊ ဖော့ကလန်စစ်ပြန်တစ်ဦးလည်းဖြစ်တဲ့ သူဟာ ဘယ်လိုအကြောင်းရင်းတွေကြောင့် အခုလို ဂုဏ်သိက္ခာကျဆင်းပြီး နာမည်ပျက်သွားခဲ့ရတာလဲ။ NUG ထိန်းချုပ်မြို့နယ်တွေထဲက သစ်တော သယံဇာတ စီမံခန့်ခွဲမှုဝန်ထမ်းတွေကို ခြိမ်းခြောက်တာတွေ ရှိတဲ့အတွက် ဝန်ထမ်းတွေရဲ့ စိတ်ပိုင်းနဲ့ ရုပ်ပိုင်းဆိုင်ရာ လုံခြုံရေးကြောင့် ယာယီရပ်နားထားပါတယ်။ နိုင်ငံတော်ကို ပြိုကွဲပျက်စီးစေမယ့် အဖျက်လုပ်ရပ်များစွာရှိနေတယ်လို့ စစ်ခေါင်းဆောင်ပြောတဲ့သတင်းအပါအဝင် ဖေဖော်ဝါရီ ၂၀ ရက် နိုင်ငံတဝန်းနဲ့ ကမ္ဘာတဝန်းကထူးခြားသတင်းတွေကို တိုက်ရိုက်တင်ဆက်သွားမှာဖြစ်ပါတယ်။ ဗမာအမျိုးသားတော်လှန်ရေးတပ်မတော် BNRA ရဲ့ ခေါင်းဆောင် ဗိုလ်နဂါးက စစ်တပ်ဆီ လက်နက်ချအပြီးမှာ သူနဲ့တွဲမြင်ကြတဲ့ ပုလဲနယ်ရှိရာ ယင်းမာပင်ခရိုင်ထဲမှာ လုံခြုံရေးသတိပြုဖို့ တော်လှန်ရေးအသိုင်းအဝိုင်းက သတိထားလာကြပါပြီ။ သမ္မတထရမ့်ဟာ တိုက်ခိုက်ရေးအတွက် ရွေးချယ်စရာ နည်းလမ်းတွေကို အကြံပေးတွေနဲ့ ဆွေးနွေးခဲ့ပြီး အမေရိကန်ရဲ့ တိုက်ခိုက်မှုဟာ အစောဆုံးအနေနဲ့ လာမယ့် စနေနေ့မှာတင် ဖြစ်ပွားနိုင်တယ်လို့ အမေရိကန် မီဒီယာတွေက ဖော်ပြခဲ့ကြပါတယ်။ အကျဥ်းထောင်ထဲရောက်နေတဲ့ လိုင်ကတော့ သူပိုင်သမျှ အရာရာ ဟောင်ကောင်မှာဖြစ်ထွန်းတာမို့ ဟောင်ကောင်ရဲ့ကျေးဇူးကျွေးတွေ သူ ဆပ်မကုန်နိုင်ဘူးလို့ ပြောပါတယ်။ BNRA အခြေစိုက် စခန်းတွေကို စစ်ကိုင်းတိုင်းကွပ်ကဲရေးဌာနရဲ့ စစ်ဆင်ရေးစီမံချက်အဖြစ် ဝင်ရောက်စီးနင်းခဲ့တဲ့အကြောင်းအပါအဝင် ဖေဖော်ဝါရီ ၁၉ ရက် နိုင်ငံတဝန်းနဲ့ ကမ္ဘာတဝန်းထူးခြားသတင်းတွေကို တိုက်ရိုက်တင်ဆက်သွားမှာဖြစ်ပါတယ်။ ကမ္ဘာ့မြေရှားတင်ပို့မှုကို ချုပ်ကိုင်ထားတဲ့တရုတ်နိုင်ငံက အမေရိကန်အပါအဝင် အိန္ဒိယနိုင်ငံကို မြေရှားသတ္တု တင်ပို့မှု တင်းကျပ်လိုက်ပြီးတဲ့နောက်မှာ အိန္ဒိယနဲ့ အမေရိကန်ဟာ တရုတ်အပေါ် မှီခိုမှုကို လျှော့ချဖို့ မြေရှားအရင်းအမြစ်အသစ်တွေ ရှာဖွေကြပါခဲ့တယ်။ သမ္မတ ထရမ့်ဟာ မြန်မာအိမ်နီးချင်း ထိုင်းနဲ့ မလေးရှားတို့နဲ့ပါ မြေရှားစာချုပ်တွေ ချုပ်ဆိုထားပါတယ်။ ကမ္ဘာ့အင်အားကြီးနိုင်ငံတွေရဲ့ မြေရှားလွန်ဆွဲပွဲမှာ မြန်မာမြေရှားက ဘယ်အခန်းကဏ္ဍမှာ ရှိနေလဲ။ ဘာကြောင့် တရုတ်အမျိုးသမီးငယ် အမြောက်အမြားဟာ လိင်တူအချစ် (Gay) အသားပေး ဝတ္ထုတွေ ရေးသားမှုနဲ့ အဖမ်းခံနေရတာလဲ။ အဲဒီစာရေးဆရာမတွေ ကိုယ်တိုင်ကရော ဘယ်လိုမျိုး ခံစားနေကြရသလဲ။ နိုင်ငံတကာရဲ့ဒဏ်ခတ်ပိတ်ဆို့မှုခံထားရတဲ့ အီရန်နိုင်ငံက လေယာဉ်လောင်စာဆီတင်သင်္ဘောတွေ ရေဒါဖျောက်ပြီး ရန်ကုန်မြို့ ၊ သီလဝါဆိပ်ကမ်းကို ရောက်လာတာကို နိုင်ငံတကာလွတ်ငြိမ်းချမ်းသာခွင့်အဖွဲ့ (Amnesty International) က စုံစမ်းတွေ့ရှိခဲ့ပါတယ်။ ဒီစုံစမ်းမှုကို ဘယ်လိုလုပ်ဆောင်ခဲ့ပါသလဲ။ အဖွဲ့ရဲ့ ဒေသတွင်းသုတေသနဆိုင်ရာ ဒါရိုက်တာကို ဘီဘီစီက ဆက်သွယ်မေးမြန်းထားပါတယ်။ ဒေတာ ချွေတာချင်ပါသလား။ ဘီဘီစီမြန်မာပိုင်းသတင်းကို ဒေတာကုန်ကျမှု နည်းပါးသည့် ပုံဖြင့်ကြည့်ရန် အထူးစာမျက်နှာ ၂၀၂၅ မြန်မာရွေးကောက်ပွဲ USDP ပါတီဥက္ကဋ္ဌ ဦးခင်ရီဟာ နေပြည်တော်မှာ စစ်ခေါင်းဆောင်ဗိုလ်ချုပ်မှူးကြီးမင်းအောင်လှိုင်နဲ့ ပြီးခဲ့တဲ့ရက်ပိုင်းအတွင်း တွေ့ဆုံခဲ့တယ်လို့ နေပြည်တော်က ဘီဘီစီသတင်းရင်းမြစ်တစ်ဦးက ပြောပါတယ်။ အပိုင်း ၃ ပိုင်းနဲ့ကျင်းပခဲ့တဲ့စစ်တပ်ရွေးကောက်ပွဲမှာ ကြိုတင်မဲတွေကြောင့် အနိုင်အရှုံးသိသာခဲ့တာက စစ်တပ်ထိန်းချုပ်တဲ့ မြို့နယ် ၃ ခုမှာပဲ ပြုလုပ်နိုင်ခဲ့တဲ့ ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ်ထဲက မဲဆန္ဒနယ်တွေမှာ ဖြစ်ပါတယ်။ စစ်ကော်မရှင်ဟာ လွှတ်တော်အစည်းအဝေးတွေ ကျင်းပဖို့ ပြင်ဆင်နေပြီး တပြိုင်နက်တည်းမှာပဲ မြို့နယ်ပေါင်း ၆၃ ခုကို စစ်အုပ်ချုပ်ရေးသက်တမ်း ဆက်တိုးထားပါတယ်။ NLD ပါတီနဲ့ လူထုထောက်ခံမှုရှိတဲ့ပါတီတချို့ ဖျက်သိမ်းခံထားရပြီး ဒေါ်အောင်ဆန်းစုကြည် အပါအဝင် အတိုက်အခံနိုင်ငံရေးသမားတွေကို ဖမ်းဆီးထောင်ချထားချိန်မှာ ကျင်းပလို့ ဒီရွေးကောက်ပွဲကို ကြံ့ခိုင်ရေးကပဲ အနိုင်ရခဲ့တာလို့ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲလေ့လာ သူတွေကပြောပါတယ်။ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ အပိုင်း ၁ နဲ့ ၂ ပြီးသွားပေမဲ့ နောက်ဆက်တွဲအငြင်းပွားမှုတွေနဲ့ အားနည်းချက်တွေ ကျန်နေခဲ့ပါတယ်။ အပိုင်း ၁ တုန်းက ဖြစ်ခဲ့တဲ့အငြင်းပွားမှုတွေက အပိုင်း ၂ အထိလည်း ဆက်ဖြစ်ခဲ့ပြီး ဖြေရှင်းပြင်ဆင်နိုင်ခဲ့တာမရှိဘူးလို့ နိုင်ငံရေးပါတီတွေက ညည်းညူနေကြပါတယ်။ ကြံ့ခိုင်ရေးပါတီ နေရာအများစုနိုင်မယ်လို့ ခန့်မှန်းထားကြတဲ့ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲမှာ မထင်မှတ်တဲ့ ရလဒ်တချို့လည်း ထွက်ပေါ်လာခဲ့ပြီး နာမည်ကြီးနိုင်ငံရေးသမားတချို့ရှုံးပွဲတွေ့သွားပါတယ်။ အာဏာသိမ်း ၅ နှစ်အလွန်မှာ လွှတ်တော်ကိုယ်စားပြုကော်မတီဖြစ်တဲ့ (CRPH) ကဘယ်လိုရပ်တည်မလဲ၊ တဖက်မှာလည်း စစ်တပ်ဟာ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲအလွန်မှာ လွှတ်တော်ခေါ်မှာဖြစ်တာကြောင့် စင်ပြိုင်လွှတ်တော်ဖြစ်လာမှာလား... ဆိုတဲ့ မေးခွန်းတွေ နိုင်ငံရေးစောင့်ကြည့်သူတွေကြား အပြောများလာပါတယ်။ လူထုခေါင်းဆောင် ဒေါ်အောင်ဆန်းစုကြည် ရဲ့ အောင်မြေ မဲဆန္ဒနယ်ဖြစ်တဲ့ ကော့မှူးမြို့နယ်မှာ စစ်ကော်မရှင်ရဲ့ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ အပိုင်း ၂ ကျင်းပခဲ့ပါတယ်။ ကော့မှူးမြို့ခံ အများစုကတော့ အရင်လို မဲပေးဖို့ စိတ်အားထက်သန်မှုတွေမတွေ့ရသလို မဲပေးနှုန်းလည်းလျော့ကျသွားပါတယ်။ ဒေါ်အောင်ဆန်းစုကြည် ဖမ်းဆီးထိန်းသိမ်းခံထားရချိန်မှာ ကျင်းပတဲ့ ကော့မှူးက ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ အရင်နဲ့ ဘာတွေ ကွဲပြားသွားလဲ။ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ အပိုင်း ၁ ကျင်းပချိန် တိုက်ခိုက်ခံခဲ့ရတဲ့မန္တလေးတိုင်းထဲ စစ်ကော်မရှင်က ရဲနဲ့ စစ်သားအင်အား ဖြန့်ကြက်ပြီး အပိုင်း ၂ ကို ကျင်းပခဲ့ပေမဲ့ ပဲခူးနဲ့ မကွေးတိုင်းထဲက မဲဆန္ဒနယ်တွေမှာတော့ ထွေအုပ်အရာရှိသေဆုံးတဲ့အထိ ဗုံးခွဲတိုက်ခိုက်မှုတွေ ရှိခဲ့ပါတယ်။ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲအလွန်မှာ တပ်မတော်ကာကွယ်ရေးဦးစီးချုပ်ရာထူး အပြောင်းအလဲအကြောင်းကိုပဲ လူပြောများကြပြီး တပ်ချုပ်ကိုဝန်းရံမယ့် ထိပ်တန်းဗိုလ်ချုပ်ကြီးတချို့အကြောင်းကိုတော့ လူပြောနည်းပါတယ်။ ဒီထဲမှာ အလားအလာအရှိဆုံးကတော့ စစ်တက္ကသိုလ်အပတ်စဥ် ၃၈ DSA-38 ဆင်းတွေ ဖြစ်ပါတယ်။ စစ်တပ်ဦးဆောင်တဲ့ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ အပိုင်း ၁ အပြီးမှာတော့ ကြိုတင်မဲပွင့်လင်းမြင်သာမှုနဲ့ ပတ် သက်လို့ မေးခွန်းထုတ်လာကြပါတယ်။ ပြည်သူ့လွှတ်တော်က တင်တဲ့ သမ္မတလောင်းနဲ့ တပ်မတော်သားအစုအဖွဲ့ကတင်မယ့် သမ္မတလောင်းနှစ်ဦးမှာ ဘယ်သူသမ္မတဖြစ်လာနိုင်မလဲ။ပြည်သူ့လွှတ်တော်မှာသမ္မတလောင်းနေရာအတွက် စောင့်ကြည့်ရမယ့်သူနှစ်ဦးရှိပြီး ကြံ့ခိုင်ရေးပါတီဥက္ကဋ္ဌ ဦးခင်ရီနဲ့ စစ်ကော်မရှင်ရဲ့ဝန်ကြီးချုပ် ဦးညိုစော ဖြစ်ပါတယ်။ ဘီဘီစီမြန်မာပိုင်းရဲ့ သတင်းတွေကို တယ်လီဂရမ်မှာလည်း ဝင်ကြည့်နိုင်ပါပြီ။ မြန်မာနဲ့နိုင်ငံတကာ ထိပ်တန်းသတင်းတွေကို ဘီဘီစီမြန်မာပိုင်းရဲ့ တယ်လီဂရမ်ချန်နယ်ကနေ တင်ဆက်ပေးနေပါတယ်။ နားဆင်ကြည့်ရှုရန် နောက်ဆုံးရ နိုင်ငံတကာ နဲ့ အားကစားသတင်းများ သတင်းနှင့်ကမ္ဘာ့မျက်မှောက်ရေးရာ ဆောင်းပါး ထိုင်းနိုင်ငံရဲ့ ၂၀၂၆ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲရလဒ်အရ လက်ရှိအာဏာရ ဖုန်ကျိုင်ထိုင်းပါတီက မဲအပြတ်အသတ်နဲ့ နိုင်ပြီး အစိုးရအာဏာကို လက်ရှိ ဝန်ကြီးချုပ်အနုတင်ချန်ဝီရကူလ်က ဆက်ပြီးဆုပ်ကိုင်မှာဖြစ်ပါတယ်။ မြန်မာ ရွှေ့ပြောင်းလုပ်သား သန်းနဲ့ချီရှိတဲ့ထိုင်းမှာ ထိုင်း- ကမ္ဘောဒီးယား နယ်စပ်ပဋိပက္ခကြောင့် အမျိုးသားရေးအားကောင်းလာချိန် ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ ကျင်းပဖို့ ရှိနေပါတယ်။ ဒါပေမဲ့ နိုင်ငံရေးပါတီတွေဟာ သန်းနဲ့ချီတဲ့ဒီရွှေ့ပြောင်းတွေအရေး မေ့ပျောက်ထားလား။ အာဏာသိမ်း ၅ နှစ်ပြည့်ချိန် ဖေဖော်ဝါရီလမှာရွေ့လာတဲ့ နိုင်ငံရေးအခင်းအကျင်းအရ အခုနှစ်ထဲ စစ်တပ်ရောတော်လှန်ရေးမှာပါ လွှတ်တော်၊ အစိုးရ၊ ကောင်စီဆိုတဲ့ အလွှာသုံးခု စင်ပြိုင်ရှိမယ့် သဘောတွေ့နေရပါတယ်။ ပြည်ထောင်စုအတိုင်ပင်ခံကောင်စီကို သမ္မတက ဖွဲ့စည်းပေးရမှာဖြစ်ပြီး ဒီအဖွဲ့မှာ စစ်ကော်မရှင်အဖွဲ့ဝင်တွေနဲ့ အာဏာသိမ်းစစ်အုပ်ချုပ်ရေးမှာပါဝင်ခဲ့တဲ့ စီနီယာအရာရှိကြီးတွေ ပြန်ပါလာနိုင်တယ်လို့ နေပြည်တော်မှာ ခန့်မှန်းသုံးသပ်နေကြပါတယ်။ စစ်မှုထမ်းဥပဒေကို တိမ်းရှောင်ရင်း ကျားဖြန့်လုပ်ငန်းထဲရောက်သွားတဲ့ အသက် ၂၅ နှစ်အရွယ် ကိုမစ်တီးဟာ ကမ္ဘောဒီးယားက ကျားဖြန့်ရုံတွေနှိမ်နင်းရေးကနေ လွတ်မြောက်ခဲ့ပေမဲ့ ငွေရလွယ်တဲ့ဒီငွေလိမ်လုပ်ငန်းကိုပဲ ဆက်လုပ်မယ်ဆိုပြီး ပြောနေပါတယ်။ မြန်မာ့ရေးရာ နိုင်ငံတကာ ဗီဒီယို သတင်းများ ဘီဘီစီမြန်မာ သတင်းများကို ဆိုရှယ်မီဒီယာမှာ ရယူနိုင်ပါပြီ။ အဖတ်များနေသော သတင်းဆောင်းပါးများ ပူးတွဲဝန်ဆောင်မှုများ © 2026 BBC. ပြင်ပဝက်ဆိုက်များတွင် ပါဝင်သော အကြောင်းအရာများအတွက် ဘီဘီစီက တာဝန်မယူပါ။ ပြင်ပဝက်ဆိုက်များကို လင့် ထည့်ပေးခြင်းနှင့် ပတ်သက်သော ဘီဘီစီလုပ်ထုံးလုပ်နည်းကို ဖတ်ရန်။ |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/azeri] | [TOKENS: 1350] |
BBC News, Azərbaycanca - Xəbərlər Digər xəbərlər Vaşinqtonda rəsmi səfərdə olan Prezident İlham Əliyevin mühafizəçiləri ilə ona etiraz edənlər arasında insident baş verib. Britaniya kral ailəsinin ən qalmaqallı fiqurlarından biri Keçmiş Şahzadə Andrew bu həftə həbs edildi. O, sonradan azadlığa buraxılsa da, istintaq davam edir. Fevralın 19-da səhər saatlarında keçmiş şahzadə Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor vəzifədə olarkən qanun pozuntusu etməkdə şübhəli bilinərək həbs edilib Bu gündən Azərbaycanda Ramazan ayı başlayır. Eləcə də dünyanın hər yerində milyonlarla müsəlman İslam təqvimində ən müqəddəs aylardan biri olan Ramazanı qarşılayır. Artıq bu il Bakı və Yerevan otuz ildən çox davam edən münaqişəyə son qoyacaq sülh müqaviləsi imzalaya bilər. Lakin heç də bütün azərbaycanlılar və ermənilər buna hazır deyil. Azərbaycanda aprelin 1-dən nikotin tərkibli elektron siqaretlərin idxalı, ixracı, istehsalı və satışı qadağan edilir. Elektron siqaret nədir? Hansı zərərləri var? Siqareti tərgitmək istəyənlər üçün alternativdirmi? BBC Azərbaycanca bu və digər suallara cavabları bir araya toplayıb. Müsavat partiyasının üzvü Tofiq Yaqublunun qızı Nigar Həzi deyir ki, təkcə atası ilə görüş saatı qısaldılmayıb, həm də körpə uşağı üçün apardığı yemək görüş otağına buraxılmayıb. Bu gün Bakı Hərbi Məhkəməsində separatçı, özünü ləğv etmiş Dağlıq Qarabağ respublikasının keçmiş dövlət naziri, rusiyalı milyarder Ruben Vardanyana 20 il həbs cəzası verilib. Almaniya-Fransa əməkdaşlığı son zamanlar Avropanın hərəkətverici qüvvəsi kimi diqqət çəksə də, Merzin Fransa prezidenti Emmanuel Makrondan uzaqlaşması və Meloni ilə yaxınlaşması Avropa mətbuatında "Meloni və Merz: Avropanın yeni güclü cütlüyü" kimi şərhlərə səbəb olub. Bu transformasiyanın arxasında nə dayanır? Yerevandan sonra Bakıya gələn ABŞ-ın vitse-prezidenti Cey Di Vans Azərbaycanla müdafiə, atom energetikası və kibertəhlükəsizlik sahələrində əməkdaşlıq haqqında xartiya imzalayıb və ABŞ-ın Azərbaycana Xəzərdə sərhədi qoruyacaq katerlər verəcəyini vəd edib. Azərbaycanın hökumətə yaxın medialara görə ona qarşı dövlət çevrilişinə cəhd, dövlətə xəyanət və çirkli pulların yuyulması ittihamları irəli sürülüb. İlk dəfə idi ki, ABŞ vitse-prezidenti Cənubi Qafqazın bu iki müharibələr görmüş ölkəsinə səfər edirdi. Bu, təkcə Bakı və Yerevana siyasi dəstək idi, yoxsa həm də Rusiyaya ünvanlanan strateji mesaj idi? Videolar Sizin qurğunuzda yenidən səsləndirmə mümkün deyil BBC News Azərbaycancanı WhatsApp-da izləyin Biz Azərbaycan, region və dünyadan maraqlı və əhəmiyyətli xəbərlər, məqalələr və videoları sizə çatdırırıq. Onları birbaşa telefonunuzda oxumaq və baxmaq üçün kanalımızı WhatsApp-da izləyin Təhlil Sosial media hesablarımız © 2026 BBC. BBC kənar saytların məzmununa məsul deyil. Bizim kənar keçidlərə dair yanaşmamız barədə oxuyun. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list] | [TOKENS: 669] |
Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list This is a hidden tracking category for CS1 citations that use |author=, or its aliases where Module:Citation/CS1 identifies cs1|2 citation templates that appear to use singular forms of author name-list parameters to list multiple authors' names. Doing so corrupts the citation's metadata. The citation module code looks for multiple comma or semicolon separator characters in the value assigned to |author=, |last=, |first=, their aliases, and enumerated equivalents (e.g. |author2=, |last2=, |first2=, etc.). This test displays an error message for multiple authors' names in a single parameter, as well as single author names that include a comma-separated list of post-nominals (|author=FC White, RN, MD, Ph.D) and comma-separated generational and regnal suffixes (|first=John F., Jr). To fix these errors in citations: Pages in this category should only be added by Module:Citation/CS1. Pages with this condition are automatically placed in Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list.[a] By default, Citation Style 1 and Citation Style 2 error messages are visible to all readers and maintenance messages are hidden from all readers. To display maintenance messages in the rendered article, include the following text in your common CSS page (common.css) or your specific skin's CSS page and (skin.css). (Note to new editors: those CSS pages are specific to you, and control your view of pages, by adding to your user account's CSS code. If you have not yet created such a page, then clicking one of the .css links above will yield a page that starts "Wikipedia does not have a user page with this exact name." Click the "Start the User:username/filename page" link, paste the text below, save the page, follow the instructions at the bottom of the new page on bypassing your browser's cache, and finally, in order to see the previously hidden maintenance messages, refresh the page you were editing earlier.) To display hidden-by-default error messages: Even with this CSS installed, older pages in Wikipedia's cache may not have been updated to show these error messages even though the page is listed in one of the tracking categories. A null edit will resolve that issue. After (error and/maintenance) messages are displayed, it might still not be easy to find them in a large article with a lot of citations. Messages can then be found by searching (with Ctrl-F) for "(help)" or "cs1". To hide normally-displayed error messages: You can personalize the display of these messages (such as changing the color), but you will need to ask someone who knows CSS or at the technical village pump if you do not understand how. Nota bene: these CSS rules are not obeyed by Navigation popups. They also do not hide script warning messages in the Preview box that begin with "This is only a preview; your changes have not yet been saved". Notes Pages in category "CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 74,084 total. This list may not reflect recent changes. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minecraft#cite_note-29] | [TOKENS: 12858] |
Contents Minecraft Minecraft is a sandbox game developed and published by Mojang Studios. Following its initial public alpha release in 2009, it was formally released in 2011 for personal computers. The game has since been ported to numerous platforms, including mobile devices and various video game consoles. In Minecraft, players explore a procedurally generated world with virtually infinite terrain made up of voxels (cubes). They can discover and extract raw materials, craft tools and items, build structures, fight hostile mobs, and cooperate with or compete against other players in multiplayer. The game's large community offers a wide variety of user-generated content, such as modifications, servers, player skins, texture packs, and custom maps, which add new game mechanics and possibilities. Originally created by Markus "Notch" Persson using the Java programming language, Jens "Jeb" Bergensten was handed control over the game's development following its full release. In 2014, Mojang and the Minecraft intellectual property were purchased by Microsoft for US$2.5 billion; Xbox Game Studios hold the publishing rights for the Bedrock Edition, the unified cross-platform version which evolved from the Pocket Edition codebase[i] and replaced the legacy console versions. Bedrock is updated concurrently with Mojang's original Java Edition, although with numerous, generally small, differences. Minecraft is the best-selling video game in history with over 350 million copies sold. It has received critical acclaim, winning several awards and being cited as one of the greatest video games of all time. Social media, parodies, adaptations, merchandise, and the annual Minecon conventions have played prominent roles in popularizing it. The wider Minecraft franchise includes several spin-off games, such as Minecraft: Story Mode, Minecraft Dungeons, and Minecraft Legends. A film adaptation, titled A Minecraft Movie, was released in 2025 and became the second highest-grossing video game film of all time. Gameplay Minecraft is a 3D sandbox video game that has no required goals to accomplish, giving players a large amount of freedom in choosing how to play the game. The game features an optional achievement system. Gameplay is in the first-person perspective by default, but players have the option of third-person perspectives. The game world is composed of rough 3D objects—mainly cubes, referred to as blocks—representing various materials, such as dirt, stone, ores, tree trunks, water, and lava. The core gameplay revolves around picking up and placing these objects. These blocks are arranged in a voxel grid, while players can move freely around the world. Players can break, or mine, blocks and then place them elsewhere, enabling them to build things. Very few blocks are affected by gravity, instead maintaining their voxel position in the air. Players can also craft a wide variety of items, such as armor, which mitigates damage from attacks; weapons (such as swords or bows and arrows), which allow monsters and animals to be killed more easily; and tools (such as pickaxes or shovels), which break certain types of blocks more quickly. Some items have multiple tiers depending on the material used to craft them, with higher-tier items being more effective and durable. They may also freely craft helpful blocks—such as furnaces which can cook food and smelt ores, and torches that produce light—or exchange items with villagers (NPC) through trading emeralds for different goods and vice versa. The game has an inventory system, allowing players to carry a limited number of items. The in-game time system follows a day and night cycle, with one full cycle lasting for 20 real-time minutes. The game also contains a material called redstone, which can be used to make primitive mechanical devices, electrical circuits, and logic gates, allowing for the construction of many complex systems. New players are given a randomly selected default character skin out of nine possibilities, including Steve or Alex, but are able to create and upload their own skins. Players encounter various mobs (short for mobile entities) including animals, villagers, and hostile creatures. Passive mobs, such as cows, pigs, and chickens, spawn during the daytime and can be hunted for food and crafting materials, while hostile mobs—including large spiders, witches, skeletons, and zombies—spawn during nighttime or in dark places such as caves. Some hostile mobs, such as zombies and skeletons, burn under the sun if they have no headgear and are not standing in water. Other creatures unique to Minecraft include the creeper (an exploding creature that sneaks up on the player) and the enderman (a creature with the ability to teleport as well as pick up and place blocks). There are also variants of mobs that spawn in different conditions; for example, zombies have husk and drowned variants that spawn in deserts and oceans, respectively. The Minecraft environment is procedurally generated as players explore it using a map seed that is randomly chosen at the time of world creation (or manually specified by the player). Divided into biomes representing different environments with unique resources and structures, worlds are designed to be effectively infinite in traditional gameplay, though technical limits on the player have existed throughout development, both intentionally and not. Implementation of horizontally infinite generation initially resulted in a glitch termed the "Far Lands" at over 12 million blocks away from the world center, where terrain generated as wall-like, fissured patterns. The Far Lands and associated glitches were considered the effective edge of the world until they were resolved, with the current horizontal limit instead being a special impassable barrier called the world border, located 30 million blocks away. Vertical space is comparatively limited, with an unbreakable bedrock layer at the bottom and a building limit several hundred blocks into the sky. Minecraft features three independent dimensions accessible through portals and providing alternate game environments. The Overworld is the starting dimension and represents the real world, with a terrestrial surface setting including plains, mountains, forests, oceans, caves, and small sources of lava. The Nether is a hell-like underworld dimension accessed via an obsidian portal and composed mainly of lava. Mobs that populate the Nether include shrieking, fireball-shooting ghasts, alongside anthropomorphic pigs called piglins and their zombified counterparts. Piglins in particular have a bartering system, where players can give them gold ingots and receive items in return. Structures known as Nether Fortresses generate in the Nether, containing mobs such as wither skeletons and blazes, which can drop blaze rods needed to access the End dimension. The player can also choose to build an optional boss mob known as the Wither, using skulls obtained from wither skeletons and soul sand. The End can be reached through an end portal, consisting of twelve end portal frames. End portals are found in underground structures in the Overworld known as strongholds. To find strongholds, players must craft eyes of ender using an ender pearl and blaze powder. Eyes of ender can then be thrown, traveling in the direction of the stronghold. Once the player reaches the stronghold, they can place eyes of ender into each portal frame to activate the end portal. The dimension consists of islands floating in a dark, bottomless void. A boss enemy called the Ender Dragon guards the largest, central island. Killing the dragon opens access to an exit portal, which, when entered, cues the game's ending credits and the End Poem, a roughly 1,500-word work written by Irish novelist Julian Gough, which takes about nine minutes to scroll past, is the game's only narrative text, and the only text of significant length directed at the player.: 10–12 At the conclusion of the credits, the player is teleported back to their respawn point and may continue the game indefinitely. In Survival mode, players have to gather natural resources such as wood and stone found in the environment in order to craft certain blocks and items. Depending on the difficulty, monsters spawn in darker areas outside a certain radius of the character, requiring players to build a shelter in order to survive at night. The mode also has a health bar which is depleted by attacks from mobs, falls, drowning, falling into lava, suffocation, starvation, and other events. Players also have a hunger bar, which must be periodically refilled by eating food in-game unless the player is playing on peaceful difficulty. If the hunger bar is empty, the player starves. Health replenishes when players have a full hunger bar or continuously on peaceful. Upon losing all health, players die. The items in the players' inventories are dropped unless the game is reconfigured not to do so. Players then re-spawn at their spawn point, which by default is where players first spawn in the game and can be changed by sleeping in a bed or using a respawn anchor. Dropped items can be recovered if players can reach them before they despawn after 5 minutes. Players may acquire experience points (commonly referred to as "xp" or "exp") by killing mobs and other players, mining, smelting ores, animal breeding, and cooking food. Experience can then be spent on enchanting tools, armor and weapons. Enchanted items are generally more powerful, last longer, or have other special effects. The game features two more game modes based on Survival, known as Hardcore mode and Adventure mode. Hardcore mode plays identically to Survival mode, but with the game's difficulty setting locked to "Hard" and with permadeath, forcing them to delete the world or explore it as a spectator after dying. Adventure mode was added to the game in a post-launch update, and prevents the player from directly modifying the game's world. It was designed primarily for use in custom maps, allowing map designers to let players experience it as intended. In Creative mode, players have access to an infinite number of all resources and items in the game through the inventory menu and can place or mine them instantly. Players can toggle the ability to fly freely around the game world at will, and their characters usually do not take any damage nor are affected by hunger. The game mode helps players focus on building and creating projects of any size without disturbance. Multiplayer in Minecraft enables multiple players to interact and communicate with each other on a single world. It is available through direct game-to-game multiplayer, local area network (LAN) play, local split screen (console-only), and servers (player-hosted and business-hosted). Players can run their own server by making a realm, using a host provider, hosting one themselves or connect directly to another player's game via Xbox Live, PlayStation Network or Nintendo Switch Online. Single-player worlds have LAN support, allowing players to join a world on locally interconnected computers without a server setup. Minecraft multiplayer servers are guided by server operators, who have access to server commands such as setting the time of day and teleporting players. Operators can also set up restrictions concerning which usernames or IP addresses are allowed or disallowed to enter the server. Multiplayer servers have a wide range of activities, with some servers having their own unique rules and customs. The largest and most popular server is Hypixel, which has been visited by over 14 million unique players. Player versus player combat (PvP) can be enabled to allow fighting between players. In 2013, Mojang announced Minecraft Realms, a server hosting service intended to enable players to run server multiplayer games easily and safely without having to set up their own. Unlike a standard server, only invited players can join Realms servers, and these servers do not use server addresses. Minecraft: Java Edition Realms server owners can invite up to twenty people to play on their server, with up to ten players online at a time. Minecraft Realms server owners can invite up to 3,000 people to play on their server, with up to ten players online at one time. The Minecraft: Java Edition Realms servers do not support user-made plugins, but players can play custom Minecraft maps. Minecraft Bedrock Realms servers support user-made add-ons, resource packs, behavior packs, and custom Minecraft maps. At Electronic Entertainment Expo 2016, support for cross-platform play between Windows 10, iOS, and Android platforms was added through Realms starting in June 2016, with Xbox One and Nintendo Switch support to come later in 2017, and support for virtual reality devices. On 31 July 2017, Mojang released the beta version of the update allowing cross-platform play. Nintendo Switch support for Realms was released in July 2018. The modding community consists of fans, users and third-party programmers. Using a variety of application program interfaces that have arisen over time, they have produced a wide variety of downloadable content for Minecraft, such as modifications, texture packs and custom maps. Modifications of the Minecraft code, called mods, add a variety of gameplay changes, ranging from new blocks, items, and mobs to entire arrays of mechanisms. The modding community is responsible for a substantial supply of mods from ones that enhance gameplay, such as mini-maps, waypoints, and durability counters, to ones that add to the game elements from other video games and media. While a variety of mod frameworks were independently developed by reverse engineering the code, Mojang has also enhanced vanilla Minecraft with official frameworks for modification, allowing the production of community-created resource packs, which alter certain game elements including textures and sounds. Players can also create their own "maps" (custom world save files) that often contain specific rules, challenges, puzzles and quests, and share them for others to play. Mojang added an adventure mode in August 2012 and "command blocks" in October 2012, which were created specially for custom maps in Java Edition. Data packs, introduced in version 1.13 of the Java Edition, allow further customization, including the ability to add new achievements, dimensions, functions, loot tables, predicates, recipes, structures, tags, and world generation. The Xbox 360 Edition supported downloadable content, which was available to purchase via the Xbox Games Store; these content packs usually contained additional character skins. It later received support for texture packs in its twelfth title update while introducing "mash-up packs", which combined texture packs with skin packs and changes to the game's sounds, music and user interface. The first mash-up pack (and by extension, the first texture pack) for the Xbox 360 Edition was released on 4 September 2013, and was themed after the Mass Effect franchise. Unlike Java Edition, however, the Xbox 360 Edition did not support player-made mods or custom maps. A cross-promotional resource pack based on the Super Mario franchise by Nintendo was released exclusively for the Wii U Edition worldwide on 17 May 2016, and later bundled free with the Nintendo Switch Edition at launch. Another based on Fallout was released on consoles that December, and for Windows and Mobile in April 2017. In April 2018, malware was discovered in several downloadable user-made Minecraft skins for use with the Java Edition of the game. Avast stated that nearly 50,000 accounts were infected, and when activated, the malware would attempt to reformat the user's hard drive. Mojang promptly patched the issue, and released a statement stating that "the code would not be run or read by the game itself", and would run only when the image containing the skin itself was opened. In June 2017, Mojang released the "1.1 Discovery Update" to the Pocket Edition of the game, which later became the Bedrock Edition. The update introduced the "Marketplace", a catalogue of purchasable user-generated content intended to give Minecraft creators "another way to make a living from the game". Various skins, maps, texture packs and add-ons from different creators can be bought with "Minecoins", a digital currency that is purchased with real money. Additionally, users can access specific content with a subscription service titled "Marketplace Pass". Alongside content from independent creators, the Marketplace also houses items published by Mojang and Microsoft themselves, as well as official collaborations between Minecraft and other intellectual properties. By 2022, the Marketplace had over 1.7 billion content downloads, generating over $500 million in revenue. Development Before creating Minecraft, Markus "Notch" Persson was a game developer at King, where he worked until March 2009. At King, he primarily developed browser games and learned several programming languages. During his free time, he prototyped his own games, often drawing inspiration from other titles, and was an active participant on the TIGSource forums for independent developers. One such project was "RubyDung", a base-building game inspired by Dwarf Fortress, but with an isometric, three-dimensional perspective similar to RollerCoaster Tycoon. Among the features in RubyDung that he explored was a first-person view similar to Dungeon Keeper, though he ultimately discarded this idea, feeling the graphics were too pixelated at the time. Around March 2009, Persson left King and joined jAlbum, while continuing to work on his prototypes. Infiniminer, a block-based open-ended mining game first released in April 2009, inspired Persson's vision for RubyDung's future direction. Infiniminer heavily influenced the visual style of gameplay, including bringing back the first-person mode, the "blocky" visual style and the block-building fundamentals. However, unlike Infiniminer, Persson wanted Minecraft to have RPG elements. The first public alpha build of Minecraft was released on 17 May 2009 on TIGSource. Over the years, Persson regularly released test builds that added new features, including tools, mobs, and entire new dimensions. In 2011, partly due to the game's rising popularity, Persson decided to release a full 1.0 version—a second part of the "Adventure Update"—on 18 November 2011. Shortly after, Persson stepped down from development, handing the project's lead to Jens "Jeb" Bergensten. On 15 September 2014, Microsoft, the developer behind the Microsoft Windows operating system and Xbox video game console, announced a $2.5 billion acquisition of Mojang, which included the Minecraft intellectual property. Persson had suggested the deal on Twitter, asking a corporation to buy his stake in the game after receiving criticism for enforcing terms in the game's end-user license agreement (EULA), which had been in place for the past three years. According to Persson, Mojang CEO Carl Manneh received a call from a Microsoft executive shortly after the tweet, asking if Persson was serious about a deal. Mojang was also approached by other companies including Activision Blizzard and Electronic Arts. The deal with Microsoft was arbitrated on 6 November 2014 and led to Persson becoming one of Forbes' "World's Billionaires". After 2014, Minecraft's primary versions received usually annual major updates—free to players who have purchased the game— each primarily centered around a specific theme. For instance, version 1.13, the Update Aquatic, focused on ocean-related features, while version 1.16, the Nether Update, introduced significant changes to the Nether dimension. However, in late 2024, Mojang announced a shift in their update strategy; rather than releasing large updates annually, they opted for a more frequent release schedule with smaller, incremental updates, stating, "We know that you want new Minecraft content more often." The Bedrock Edition has also received regular updates, now matching the themes of the Java Edition updates. Other versions of the game, such as various console editions and the Pocket Edition, were either merged into Bedrock or discontinued and have not received further updates. On 7 May 2019, coinciding with Minecraft's 10th anniversary, a JavaScript recreation of an old 2009 Java Edition build named Minecraft Classic was made available to play online for free. On 16 April 2020, a Bedrock Edition-exclusive beta version of Minecraft, called Minecraft RTX, was released by Nvidia. It introduced physically-based rendering, real-time path tracing, and DLSS for RTX-enabled GPUs. The public release was made available on 8 December 2020. Path tracing can only be enabled in supported worlds, which can be downloaded for free via the in-game Minecraft Marketplace, with a texture pack from Nvidia's website, or with compatible third-party texture packs. It cannot be enabled by default with any texture pack on any world. Initially, Minecraft RTX was affected by many bugs, display errors, and instability issues. On 22 March 2025, a new visual mode called Vibrant Visuals, an optional graphical overhaul similar to Minecraft RTX, was announced. It promises modern rendering features—such as dynamic shadows, screen space reflections, volumetric fog, and bloom—without the need of RTX-capable hardware. Vibrant Visuals was released as a part of the Chase the Skies update on 17 June 2025 for Bedrock Edition and is planned to release on Java Edition at a later date. Development began for the original edition of Minecraft—then known as Cave Game, and now known as the Java Edition—in May 2009,[k] and ended on 13 May, when Persson released a test video on YouTube of an early version of the game, dubbed the "Cave game tech test" or the "Cave game tech demo". The game was named Minecraft: Order of the Stone the next day, after a suggestion made by a player. "Order of the Stone" came from the webcomic The Order of the Stick, and "Minecraft" was chosen "because it's a good name". The title was later shortened to just Minecraft, omitting the subtitle. Persson completed the game's base programming over a weekend in May 2009, and private testing began on TigIRC on 16 May. The first public release followed on 17 May 2009 as a developmental version shared on the TIGSource forums. Based on feedback from forum users, Persson continued updating the game. This initial public build later became known as Classic. Further developmental phases—dubbed Survival Test, Indev, and Infdev—were released throughout 2009 and 2010. The first major update, known as Alpha, was released on 30 June 2010. At the time, Persson was still working a day job at jAlbum but later resigned to focus on Minecraft full-time as sales of the alpha version surged. Updates were distributed automatically, introducing new blocks, items, mobs, and changes to game mechanics such as water flow. With revenue generated from the game, Persson founded Mojang, a video game studio, alongside former colleagues Jakob Porser and Carl Manneh. On 11 December 2010, Persson announced that Minecraft would enter its beta phase on 20 December. He assured players that bug fixes and all pre-release updates would remain free. As development progressed, Mojang expanded, hiring additional employees to work on the project. The game officially exited beta and launched in full on 18 November 2011. On 1 December 2011, Jens "Jeb" Bergensten took full creative control over Minecraft, replacing Persson as lead designer. On 28 February 2012, Mojang announced the hiring of the developers behind Bukkit, a popular developer API for Minecraft servers, to improve Minecraft's support of server modifications. This move included Mojang taking apparent ownership of the CraftBukkit server mod, though this apparent acquisition later became controversial, and its legitimacy was questioned due to CraftBukkit's open-source nature and licensing under the GNU General Public License and Lesser General Public License. In August 2011, Minecraft: Pocket Edition was released as an early alpha for the Xperia Play via the Android Market, later expanding to other Android devices on 8 October 2011. The iOS version followed on 17 November 2011. A port was made available for Windows Phones shortly after Microsoft acquired Mojang. Unlike Java Edition, Pocket Edition initially focused on Minecraft's creative building and basic survival elements but lacked many features of the PC version. Bergensten confirmed on Twitter that the Pocket Edition was written in C++ rather than Java, as iOS does not support Java. On 10 December 2014, a port of Pocket Edition was released for Windows Phone 8.1. In July 2015, a port of the Pocket Edition to Windows 10 was released as the Windows 10 Edition, with full crossplay to other Pocket versions. In January 2017, Microsoft announced that it would no longer maintain the Windows Phone versions of Pocket Edition. On 20 September 2017, with the "Better Together Update", the Pocket Edition was ported to the Xbox One, and was renamed to the Bedrock Edition. The console versions of Minecraft debuted with the Xbox 360 edition, developed by 4J Studios and released on 9 May 2012. Announced as part of the Xbox Live Arcade NEXT promotion, this version introduced a redesigned crafting system, a new control interface, in-game tutorials, split-screen multiplayer, and online play via Xbox Live. Unlike the PC version, its worlds were finite, bordered by invisible walls. Initially, the Xbox 360 version resembled outdated PC versions but received updates to bring it closer to Java Edition before eventually being discontinued. The Xbox One version launched on 5 September 2014, featuring larger worlds and support for more players. Minecraft expanded to PlayStation platforms with PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 editions released on 17 December 2013 and 4 September 2014, respectively. Originally planned as a PS4 launch title, it was delayed before its eventual release. A PlayStation Vita version followed in October 2014. Like the Xbox versions, the PlayStation editions were developed by 4J Studios. Nintendo platforms received Minecraft: Wii U Edition on 17 December 2015, with a physical release in North America on 17 June 2016 and in Europe on 30 June. The Nintendo Switch version launched via the eShop on 11 May 2017. During a Nintendo Direct presentation on 13 September 2017, Nintendo announced that Minecraft: New Nintendo 3DS Edition, based on the Pocket Edition, would be available for download immediately after the livestream, and a physical copy available on a later date. The game is compatible only with the New Nintendo 3DS or New Nintendo 2DS XL systems and does not work with the original 3DS or 2DS systems. On 20 September 2017, the Better Together Update introduced Bedrock Edition across Xbox One, Windows 10, VR, and mobile platforms, enabling cross-play between these versions. Bedrock Edition later expanded to Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4, with the latter receiving the update in December 2019, allowing cross-platform play for users with a free Xbox Live account. The Bedrock Edition released a native version for PlayStation 5 on 22 October 2024, while the Xbox Series X/S version launched on 17 June 2025. On 18 December 2018, the PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, Xbox 360, and Wii U versions of Minecraft received their final update and would later become known as "Legacy Console Editions". On 15 January 2019, the New Nintendo 3DS version of Minecraft received its final update, effectively becoming discontinued as well. An educational version of Minecraft, designed for use in schools, launched on 1 November 2016. It is available on Android, ChromeOS, iPadOS, iOS, MacOS, and Windows. On 20 August 2018, Mojang announced that it would bring Education Edition to iPadOS in Autumn 2018. It was released to the App Store on 6 September 2018. On 27 March 2019, it was announced that it would be operated by JD.com in China. On 26 June 2020, a public beta for the Education Edition was made available to Google Play Store compatible Chromebooks. The full game was released to the Google Play Store for Chromebooks on 7 August 2020. On 20 May 2016, China Edition (also known as My World) was announced as a localized edition for China, where it was released under a licensing agreement between NetEase and Mojang. The PC edition was released for public testing on 8 August 2017. The iOS version was released on 15 September 2017, and the Android version was released on 12 October 2017. The PC edition is based on the original Java Edition, while the iOS and Android mobile versions are based on the Bedrock Edition. The edition is free-to-play and had over 700 million registered accounts by September 2023. This version of Bedrock Edition is exclusive to Microsoft's Windows 10 and Windows 11 operating systems. The beta release for Windows 10 launched on the Windows Store on 29 July 2015. After nearly a year and a half in beta, Microsoft fully released the version on 19 December 2016. Called the "Ender Update", this release implemented new features to this version of Minecraft like world templates and add-on packs. On 7 June 2022, the Java and Bedrock Editions of Minecraft were merged into a single bundle for purchase on Windows; those who owned one version would automatically gain access to the other version. Both game versions would otherwise remain separate. Around 2011, prior to Minecraft's full release, Mojang collaborated with The Lego Group to create a Lego brick-based Minecraft game called Brickcraft. This would have modified the base Minecraft game to use Lego bricks, which meant adapting the basic 1×1 block to account for larger pieces typically used in Lego sets. Persson worked on an early version called "Project Rex Kwon Do", named after the character of the same name from the film Napoleon Dynamite. Although Lego approved the project and Mojang assigned two developers for six months, it was canceled due to the Lego Group's demands, according to Mojang's Daniel Kaplan. Lego considered buying Mojang to complete the game, but when Microsoft offered over $2 billion for the company, Lego stepped back, unsure of Minecraft's potential. On 26 June 2025, a build of Brickcraft dated 28 June 2012 was published on a community archive website Omniarchive. Initially, Markus Persson planned to support the Oculus Rift with a Minecraft port. However, after Facebook acquired Oculus in 2013, he abruptly canceled the plans, stating, "Facebook creeps me out." In 2016, a community-made mod, Minecraft VR, added VR support for Java Edition, followed by Vivecraft for HTC Vive. Later that year, Microsoft introduced official Oculus Rift support for Windows 10 Edition, leading to the discontinuation of the Minecraft VR mod due to trademark complaints. Vivecraft was endorsed by Minecraft VR contributors for its Rift support. Also available is a Gear VR version, titled Minecraft: Gear VR Edition. Windows Mixed Reality support was added in 2017. On 7 September 2020, Mojang Studios announced that the PlayStation 4 Bedrock version would receive PlayStation VR support later that month. In September 2024, the Minecraft team announced they would no longer support PlayStation VR, which received its final update in March 2025. Music and sound design Minecraft's music and sound effects were produced by German musician Daniel Rosenfeld, better known as C418. To create the sound effects for the game, Rosenfeld made extensive use of Foley techniques. On learning the processes for the game, he remarked, "Foley's an interesting thing, and I had to learn its subtleties. Early on, I wasn't that knowledgeable about it. It's a whole trial-and-error process. You just make a sound and eventually you go, 'Oh my God, that's it! Get the microphone!' There's no set way of doing anything at all." He reminisced on creating the in-game sound for grass blocks, stating "It turns out that to make grass sounds you don't actually walk on grass and record it, because grass sounds like nothing. What you want to do is get a VHS, break it apart, and just lightly touch the tape." According to Rosenfeld, his favorite sound to design for the game was the hisses of spiders. He elaborates, "I like the spiders. Recording that was a whole day of me researching what a spider sounds like. Turns out, there are spiders that make little screeching sounds, so I think I got this recording of a fire hose, put it in a sampler, and just pitched it around until it sounded like a weird spider was talking to you." Many of the sound design decisions by Rosenfeld were done accidentally or spontaneously. The creeper notably lacks any specific noises apart from a loud fuse-like sound when about to explode; Rosenfeld later recalled "That was just a complete accident by Markus and me [sic]. We just put in a placeholder sound of burning a matchstick. It seemed to work hilariously well, so we kept it." On other sounds, such as those of the zombie, Rosenfeld remarked, "I actually never wanted the zombies so scary. I intentionally made them sound comical. It's nice to hear that they work so well [...]." Rosenfeld remarked that the sound engine was "terrible" to work with, remembering "If you had two song files at once, it [the game engine] would actually crash. There were so many more weird glitches like that the guys never really fixed because they were too busy with the actual game and not the sound engine." The background music in Minecraft consists of instrumental ambient music. To compose the music of Minecraft, Rosenfeld used the package from Ableton Live, along with several additional plug-ins. Speaking on them, Rosenfeld said "They can be pretty much everything from an effect to an entire orchestra. Additionally, I've got some synthesizers that are attached to the computer. Like a Moog Voyager, Dave Smith Prophet 08 and a Virus TI." On 4 March 2011, Rosenfeld released a soundtrack titled Minecraft – Volume Alpha; it includes most of the tracks featured in Minecraft, as well as other music not featured in the game. Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku chose the music in Minecraft as one of the best video game soundtracks of 2011. On 9 November 2013, Rosenfeld released the second official soundtrack, titled Minecraft – Volume Beta, which included the music that was added in a 2013 "Music Update" for the game. A physical release of Volume Alpha, consisting of CDs, black vinyl, and limited-edition transparent green vinyl LPs, was issued by indie electronic label Ghostly International on 21 August 2015. On 14 August 2020, Ghostly released Volume Beta on CD and vinyl, with alternate color LPs and lenticular cover pressings released in limited quantities. The final update Rosenfeld worked on was 2018's 1.13 Update Aquatic. His music remained the only music in the game until 2020's "Nether Update", introducing pieces from Lena Raine. Since then, other composers have made contributions, including Kumi Tanioka, Samuel Åberg, Aaron Cherof, and Amos Roddy, with Raine remaining as the new primary composer. Ownership of all music besides Rosenfeld's independently released albums has been retained by Microsoft, with their label publishing all of the other artists' releases. Gareth Coker also composed some of the music for the game's mini games from the Legacy Console editions. Rosenfeld had stated his intent to create a third album of music for the game in a 2015 interview with Fact, and confirmed its existence in a 2017 tweet, stating that his work on the record as of then had tallied up to be longer than the previous two albums combined, which in total clocks in at over 3 hours and 18 minutes. However, due to licensing issues with Microsoft, the third volume has since not seen release. On 8 January 2021, Rosenfeld was asked in an interview with Anthony Fantano whether or not there was still a third volume of his music intended for release. Rosenfeld responded, saying, "I have something—I consider it finished—but things have become complicated, especially as Minecraft is now a big property, so I don't know." Reception Minecraft has received critical acclaim, with praise for the creative freedom it grants players in-game, as well as the ease of enabling emergent gameplay. Critics have expressed enjoyment in Minecraft's complex crafting system, commenting that it is an important aspect of the game's open-ended gameplay. Most publications were impressed by the game's "blocky" graphics, with IGN describing them as "instantly memorable". Reviewers also liked the game's adventure elements, noting that the game creates a good balance between exploring and building. The game's multiplayer feature has been generally received favorably, with IGN commenting that "adventuring is always better with friends". Jaz McDougall of PC Gamer said Minecraft is "intuitively interesting and contagiously fun, with an unparalleled scope for creativity and memorable experiences". It has been regarded as having introduced millions of children to the digital world, insofar as its basic game mechanics are logically analogous to computer commands. IGN was disappointed about the troublesome steps needed to set up multiplayer servers, calling it a "hassle". Critics also said that visual glitches occur periodically. Despite its release out of beta in 2011, GameSpot said the game had an "unfinished feel", adding that some game elements seem "incomplete or thrown together in haste". A review of the alpha version, by Scott Munro of the Daily Record, called it "already something special" and urged readers to buy it. Jim Rossignol of Rock Paper Shotgun also recommended the alpha of the game, calling it "a kind of generative 8-bit Lego Stalker". On 17 September 2010, gaming webcomic Penny Arcade began a series of comics and news posts about the addictiveness of the game. The Xbox 360 version was generally received positively by critics, but did not receive as much praise as the PC version. Although reviewers were disappointed by the lack of features such as mod support and content from the PC version, they acclaimed the port's addition of a tutorial and in-game tips and crafting recipes, saying that they make the game more user-friendly. The Xbox One Edition was one of the best received ports, being praised for its relatively large worlds. The PlayStation 3 Edition also received generally favorable reviews, being compared to the Xbox 360 Edition and praised for its well-adapted controls. The PlayStation 4 edition was the best received port to date, being praised for having 36 times larger worlds than the PlayStation 3 edition and described as nearly identical to the Xbox One edition. The PlayStation Vita Edition received generally positive reviews from critics but was noted for its technical limitations. The Wii U version received generally positive reviews from critics but was noted for a lack of GamePad integration. The 3DS version received mixed reviews, being criticized for its high price, technical issues, and lack of cross-platform play. The Nintendo Switch Edition received fairly positive reviews from critics, being praised, like other modern ports, for its relatively larger worlds. Minecraft: Pocket Edition initially received mixed reviews from critics. Although reviewers appreciated the game's intuitive controls, they were disappointed by the lack of content. The inability to collect resources and craft items, as well as the limited types of blocks and lack of hostile mobs, were especially criticized. After updates added more content, Pocket Edition started receiving more positive reviews. Reviewers complimented the controls and the graphics, but still noted a lack of content. Minecraft surpassed over a million purchases less than a month after entering its beta phase in early 2011. At the same time, the game had no publisher backing and has never been commercially advertised except through word of mouth, and various unpaid references in popular media such as the Penny Arcade webcomic. By April 2011, Persson estimated that Minecraft had made €23 million (US$33 million) in revenue, with 800,000 sales of the alpha version of the game, and over 1 million sales of the beta version. In November 2011, prior to the game's full release, Minecraft beta surpassed 16 million registered users and 4 million purchases. By March 2012, Minecraft had become the 6th best-selling PC game of all time. As of 10 October 2014[update], the game had sold 17 million copies on PC, becoming the best-selling PC game of all time. On 25 February 2014, the game reached 100 million registered users. By May 2019, 180 million copies had been sold across all platforms, making it the single best-selling video game of all time. The free-to-play Minecraft China version had over 700 million registered accounts by September 2023. By 2023, the game had sold over 300 million copies. As of April 2025, Minecraft has sold over 350 million copies. The Xbox 360 version of Minecraft became profitable within the first day of the game's release in 2012, when the game broke the Xbox Live sales records with 400,000 players online. Within a week of being on the Xbox Live Marketplace, Minecraft sold a million copies. GameSpot announced in December 2012 that Minecraft sold over 4.48 million copies since the game debuted on Xbox Live Arcade in May 2012. In 2012, Minecraft was the most purchased title on Xbox Live Arcade; it was also the fourth most played title on Xbox Live based on average unique users per day. As of 4 April 2014[update], the Xbox 360 version has sold 12 million copies. In addition, Minecraft: Pocket Edition has reached a figure of 21 million in sales. The PlayStation 3 Edition sold one million copies in five weeks. The release of the game's PlayStation Vita version boosted Minecraft sales by 79%, outselling both PS3 and PS4 debut releases and becoming the largest Minecraft launch on a PlayStation console. The PS Vita version sold 100,000 digital copies in Japan within the first two months of release, according to an announcement by SCE Japan Asia. By January 2015, 500,000 digital copies of Minecraft were sold in Japan across all PlayStation platforms, with a surge in primary school children purchasing the PS Vita version. As of 2022, the Vita version has sold over 1.65 million physical copies in Japan, making it the best-selling Vita game in the country. Minecraft helped improve Microsoft's total first-party revenue by $63 million for the 2015 second quarter. The game, including all of its versions, had over 112 million monthly active players by September 2019. On its 11th anniversary in May 2020, the company announced that Minecraft had reached over 200 million copies sold across platforms with over 126 million monthly active players. By April 2021, the number of active monthly users had climbed to 140 million. In July 2010, PC Gamer listed Minecraft as the fourth-best game to play at work. In December of that year, Good Game selected Minecraft as their choice for Best Downloadable Game of 2010, Gamasutra named it the eighth best game of the year as well as the eighth best indie game of the year, and Rock, Paper, Shotgun named it the "game of the year". Indie DB awarded the game the 2010 Indie of the Year award as chosen by voters, in addition to two out of five Editor's Choice awards for Most Innovative and Best Singleplayer Indie. It was also awarded Game of the Year by PC Gamer UK. The game was nominated for the Seumas McNally Grand Prize, Technical Excellence, and Excellence in Design awards at the March 2011 Independent Games Festival and won the Grand Prize and the community-voted Audience Award. At Game Developers Choice Awards 2011, Minecraft won awards in the categories for Best Debut Game, Best Downloadable Game and Innovation Award, winning every award for which it was nominated. It also won GameCity's video game arts award. On 5 May 2011, Minecraft was selected as one of the 80 games that would be displayed at the Smithsonian American Art Museum as part of The Art of Video Games exhibit that opened on 16 March 2012. At the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards, Minecraft won the award for Best Independent Game and was nominated in the Best PC Game category. In 2012, at the British Academy Video Games Awards, Minecraft was nominated in the GAME Award of 2011 category and Persson received The Special Award. In 2012, Minecraft XBLA was awarded a Golden Joystick Award in the Best Downloadable Game category, and a TIGA Games Industry Award in the Best Arcade Game category. In 2013, it was nominated as the family game of the year at the British Academy Video Games Awards. During the 16th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated the Xbox 360 version of Minecraft for "Strategy/Simulation Game of the Year". Minecraft Console Edition won the award for TIGA Game Of The Year in 2014. In 2015, the game placed 6th on USgamer's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list. In 2016, Minecraft placed 6th on Time's The 50 Best Video Games of All Time list. Minecraft was nominated for the 2013 Kids' Choice Awards for Favorite App, but lost to Temple Run. It was nominated for the 2014 Kids' Choice Awards for Favorite Video Game, but lost to Just Dance 2014. The game later won the award for the Most Addicting Game at the 2015 Kids' Choice Awards. In addition, the Java Edition was nominated for "Favorite Video Game" at the 2018 Kids' Choice Awards, while the game itself won the "Still Playing" award at the 2019 Golden Joystick Awards, as well as the "Favorite Video Game" award at the 2020 Kids' Choice Awards. Minecraft also won "Stream Game of the Year" at inaugural Streamer Awards in 2021. The game later garnered a Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Award nomination for Favorite Video Game in 2021, and won the same category in 2022 and 2023. At the Golden Joystick Awards 2025, it won the Still Playing Award - PC and Console. Minecraft has been subject to several notable controversies. In June 2014, Mojang announced that it would begin enforcing the portion of Minecraft's end-user license agreement (EULA) which prohibits servers from giving in-game advantages to players in exchange for donations or payments. Spokesperson Owen Hill stated that servers could still require players to pay a fee to access the server and could sell in-game cosmetic items. The change was supported by Persson, citing emails he received from parents of children who had spent hundreds of dollars on servers. The Minecraft community and server owners protested, arguing that the EULA's terms were more broad than Mojang was claiming, that the crackdown would force smaller servers to shut down for financial reasons, and that Mojang was suppressing competition for its own Minecraft Realms subscription service. The controversy contributed to Notch's decision to sell Mojang. In 2020, Mojang announced an eventual change to the Java Edition to require a login from a Microsoft account rather than a Mojang account, the latter of which would be sunsetted. This also required Java Edition players to create Xbox network Gamertags. Mojang defended the move to Microsoft accounts by saying that improved security could be offered, including two-factor authentication, blocking cyberbullies in chat, and improved parental controls. The community responded with intense backlash, citing various technical difficulties encountered in the process and how account migration would be mandatory, even for those who do not play on servers. As of 10 March 2022, Microsoft required that all players migrate in order to maintain access the Java Edition of Minecraft. Mojang announced a deadline of 19 September 2023 for account migration, after which all legacy Mojang accounts became inaccessible and unable to be migrated. In June 2022, Mojang added a player-reporting feature in Java Edition. Players could report other players on multiplayer servers for sending messages prohibited by the Xbox Live Code of Conduct; report categories included profane language,[l] substance abuse, hate speech, threats of violence, and nudity. If a player was found to be in violation of Xbox Community Standards, they would be banned from all servers for a specific period of time or permanently. The update containing the report feature (1.19.1) was released on 27 July 2022. Mojang received substantial backlash and protest from community members, one of the most common complaints being that banned players would be forbidden from joining any server, even private ones. Others took issue to what they saw as Microsoft increasing control over its player base and exercising censorship, leading some to start a hashtag #saveminecraft and dub the version "1.19.84", a reference to the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. The "Mob Vote" was an online event organized by Mojang in which the Minecraft community voted between three original mob concepts; initially, the winning mob was to be implemented in a future update, while the losing mobs were scrapped, though after the first mob vote this was changed, and losing mobs would now have a chance to come to the game in the future. The first Mob Vote was held during Minecon Earth 2017 and became an annual event starting with Minecraft Live 2020. The Mob Vote was often criticized for forcing players to choose one mob instead of implementing all three, causing divisions and flaming within the community, and potentially allowing internet bots and Minecraft content creators with large fanbases to conduct vote brigading. The Mob Vote was also blamed for a perceived lack of new content added to Minecraft since Microsoft's acquisition of Mojang in 2014. The 2023 Mob Vote featured three passive mobs—the crab, the penguin, and the armadillo—with voting scheduled to start on 13 October. In response, a Change.org petition was created on 6 October, demanding that Mojang eliminate the Mob Vote and instead implement all three mobs going forward. The petition received approximately 445,000 signatures by 13 October and was joined by calls to boycott the Mob Vote, as well as a partially tongue-in-cheek "revolutionary" propaganda campaign in which sympathizers created anti-Mojang and pro-boycott posters in the vein of real 20th century propaganda posters. Mojang did not release an official response to the boycott, and the Mob Vote otherwise proceeded normally, with the armadillo winning the vote. In September 2024, as part of a blog post detailing their future plans for Minecraft's development, Mojang announced the Mob Vote would be retired. Cultural impact In September 2019, The Guardian classified Minecraft as the best video game of the 21st century to date, and in November 2019, Polygon called it the "most important game of the decade" in its 2010s "decade in review". In June 2020, Minecraft was inducted into the World Video Game Hall of Fame. Minecraft is recognized as one of the first successful games to use an early access model to draw in sales prior to its full release version to help fund development. As Minecraft helped to bolster indie game development in the early 2010s, it also helped to popularize the use of the early access model in indie game development. Social media sites such as YouTube, Facebook, and Reddit have played a significant role in popularizing Minecraft. Research conducted by the Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania showed that one-third of Minecraft players learned about the game via Internet videos. In 2010, Minecraft-related videos began to gain influence on YouTube, often made by commentators. The videos usually contain screen-capture footage of the game and voice-overs. Common coverage in the videos includes creations made by players, walkthroughs of various tasks, and parodies of works in popular culture. By May 2012, over four million Minecraft-related YouTube videos had been uploaded. The game would go on to be a prominent fixture within YouTube's gaming scene during the entire 2010s; in 2014, it was the second-most searched term on the entire platform. By 2018, it was still YouTube's biggest game globally. Some popular commentators have received employment at Machinima, a now-defunct gaming video company that owned a highly watched entertainment channel on YouTube. The Yogscast is a British company that regularly produces Minecraft videos; their YouTube channel has attained billions of views, and their panel at Minecon 2011 had the highest attendance. Another well-known YouTube personality is Jordan Maron, known online as CaptainSparklez, who has also created many Minecraft music parodies, including "Revenge", a parody of Usher's "DJ Got Us Fallin' in Love". Minecraft's popularity on YouTube was described by Polygon as quietly dominant, although in 2019, thanks in part to PewDiePie's playthroughs of the game, Minecraft experienced a visible uptick in popularity on the platform. Longer-running series include Far Lands or Bust, dedicated to reaching the obsolete "Far Lands" glitch by foot on an older version of the game. YouTube announced that on 14 December 2021 that the total amount of Minecraft-related views on the website had exceeded one trillion. Minecraft has been referenced by other video games, such as Torchlight II, Team Fortress 2, Borderlands 2, Choplifter HD, Super Meat Boy, The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, The Binding of Isaac, The Stanley Parable, and FTL: Faster Than Light. Minecraft is officially represented in downloadable content for the crossover fighter Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, with Steve as a playable character with a moveset including references to building, crafting, and redstone, alongside an Overworld-themed stage. It was also referenced by electronic music artist Deadmau5 in his performances. The game is also referenced heavily in "Informative Murder Porn", the second episode of the seventeenth season of the animated television series South Park. In 2025, A Minecraft Movie was released. It made $313 million in the box office in the first week, a record-breaking opening for a video game adaptation. Minecraft has been noted as a cultural touchstone for Generation Z, as many of the generation's members played the game at a young age. The possible applications of Minecraft have been discussed extensively, especially in the fields of computer-aided design (CAD) and education. In a panel at Minecon 2011, a Swedish developer discussed the possibility of using the game to redesign public buildings and parks, stating that rendering using Minecraft was much more user-friendly for the community, making it easier to envision the functionality of new buildings and parks. In 2012, a member of the Human Dynamics group at the MIT Media Lab, Cody Sumter, said: "Notch hasn't just built a game. He's tricked 40 million people into learning to use a CAD program." Various software has been developed to allow virtual designs to be printed using professional 3D printers or personal printers such as MakerBot and RepRap. In September 2012, Mojang began the Block by Block project in cooperation with UN Habitat to create real-world environments in Minecraft. The project allows young people who live in those environments to participate in designing the changes they would like to see. Using Minecraft, the community has helped reconstruct the areas of concern, and citizens are invited to enter the Minecraft servers and modify their own neighborhood. Carl Manneh, Mojang's managing director, called the game "the perfect tool to facilitate this process", adding "The three-year partnership will support UN-Habitat's Sustainable Urban Development Network to upgrade 300 public spaces by 2016." Mojang signed Minecraft building community, FyreUK, to help render the environments into Minecraft. The first pilot project began in Kibera, one of Nairobi's informal settlements and is in the planning phase. The Block by Block project is based on an earlier initiative started in October 2011, Mina Kvarter (My Block), which gave young people in Swedish communities a tool to visualize how they wanted to change their part of town. According to Manneh, the project was a helpful way to visualize urban planning ideas without necessarily having a training in architecture. The ideas presented by the citizens were a template for political decisions. In April 2014, the Danish Geodata Agency generated all of Denmark in fullscale in Minecraft based on their own geodata. This is possible because Denmark is one of the flattest countries with the highest point at 171 meters (ranking as the country with the 30th smallest elevation span), where the limit in default Minecraft was around 192 meters above in-game sea level when the project was completed. Taking advantage of the game's accessibility where other websites are censored, the non-governmental organization Reporters Without Borders has used an open Minecraft server to create the Uncensored Library, a repository within the game of journalism by authors from countries (including Egypt, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia and Vietnam) who have been censored and arrested, such as Jamal Khashoggi. The neoclassical virtual building was created over about 250 hours by an international team of 24 people. Despite its unpredictable nature, Minecraft speedrunning, where players time themselves from spawning into a new world to reaching The End and defeating the Ender Dragon boss, is popular. Some speedrunners use a combination of mods, external programs, and debug menus, while other runners play the game in a more vanilla or more consistency-oriented way. Minecraft has been used in educational settings through initiatives such as MinecraftEdu, founded in 2011 to make the game affordable and accessible for schools in collaboration with Mojang. MinecraftEdu provided features allowing teachers to monitor student progress, including screenshot submissions as evidence of lesson completion, and by 2012 reported that approximately 250,000 students worldwide had access to the platform. Mojang also developed Minecraft: Education Edition with pre-built lesson plans for up to 30 students in a closed environment. Educators have used Minecraft to teach subjects such as history, language arts, and science through custom-built environments, including reconstructions of historical landmarks and large-scale models of biological structures such as animal cells. The introduction of redstone blocks enabled the construction of functional virtual machines such as a hard drive and an 8-bit computer. Mods have been created to use these mechanics for teaching programming. In 2014, the British Museum announced a project to reproduce its building and exhibits in Minecraft in collaboration with the public. Microsoft and Code.org have offered Minecraft-based tutorials and activities designed to teach programming, reporting by 2018 that more than 85 million children had used their resources. In 2025, the Musée de Minéralogie in Paris held a temporary exhibition titled "Minerals in Minecraft." Following the initial surge in popularity of Minecraft in 2010, other video games were criticised for having various similarities to Minecraft, and some were described as being "clones", often due to a direct inspiration from Minecraft, or a superficial similarity. Examples include Ace of Spades, CastleMiner, CraftWorld, FortressCraft, Terraria, BlockWorld 3D, Total Miner, and Luanti (formerly Minetest). David Frampton, designer of The Blockheads, reported that one failure of his 2D game was the "low resolution pixel art" that too closely resembled the art in Minecraft, which resulted in "some resistance" from fans. A homebrew adaptation of the alpha version of Minecraft for the Nintendo DS, titled DScraft, has been released; it has been noted for its similarity to the original game considering the technical limitations of the system. In response to Microsoft's acquisition of Mojang and their Minecraft IP, various developers announced further clone titles developed specifically for Nintendo's consoles, as they were the only major platforms not to officially receive Minecraft at the time. These clone titles include UCraft (Nexis Games), Cube Life: Island Survival (Cypronia), Discovery (Noowanda), Battleminer (Wobbly Tooth Games), Cube Creator 3D (Big John Games), and Stone Shire (Finger Gun Games). Despite this, the fears of fans were unfounded, with official Minecraft releases on Nintendo consoles eventually resuming. Markus Persson made another similar game, Minicraft, for a Ludum Dare competition in 2011. In 2025, Persson announced through a poll on his X account that he was considering developing a spiritual successor to Minecraft. He later clarified that he was "100% serious", and that he had "basically announced Minecraft 2". Within days, however, Persson cancelled the plans after speaking to his team. In November 2024, artificial intelligence companies Decart and Etched released Oasis, an artificially generated version of Minecraft, as a proof of concept. Every in-game element is completely AI-generated in real time and the model does not store world data, leading to "hallucinations" such as items and blocks appearing that were not there before. In January 2026, indie game developer Unomelon announced that their voxel sandbox game Allumeria would be playable in Steam Next Fest that year. On 10 February, Mojang issued a DMCA takedown of Allumeria on Steam through Valve, alleging the game was infringing on Minecraft's copyright. Some reports suggested that the takedown may have used an automatic AI copyright claiming service. The DMCA was later withdrawn. Minecon was an annual official fan convention dedicated to Minecraft. The first full Minecon was held in November 2011 at the Mandalay Bay Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. The event included the official launch of Minecraft; keynote speeches, including one by Persson; building and costume contests; Minecraft-themed breakout classes; exhibits by leading gaming and Minecraft-related companies; commemorative merchandise; and autograph and picture times with Mojang employees and well-known contributors from the Minecraft community. In 2016, Minecon was held in-person for the last time, with the following years featuring annual "Minecon Earth" livestreams on minecraft.net and YouTube instead. These livestreams, later rebranded to "Minecraft Live", included the mob/biome votes, and announcements of new game updates. In 2025, "Minecraft Live" became a biannual event as part of Minecraft's changing update schedule.[citation needed] Notes References External links |
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Contents Pig The pig (Sus domesticus), also called swine (pl.: swine) or hog, is an omnivorous, domesticated, even-toed, hoofed mammal. It is named the domestic pig when distinguishing it from other members of the genus Sus. Some authorities consider it a subspecies of Sus scrofa (the wild boar or Eurasian boar); other authorities consider it a distinct species. Pigs were domesticated independently twice during the Neolithic, in the Near East around the Tigris Basin, and in China. When domesticated pigs arrived in Europe from the Near East, they extensively interbred with wild boar in Europe but retained their domesticated features. Pigs are farmed primarily for meat, called pork. The animal's skin or hide is used for leather. China is the world's largest pork producer, followed by the European Union and then the United States. Around 1.5 billion pigs are raised each year, producing some 120 million tonnes of meat, often cured as bacon. Some are kept as pets. Pigs have featured in human culture since Neolithic times, appearing in art and literature for children and adults, and celebrated in cities such as Bologna for their meat products. Description The pig has a large head, with a long snout strengthened by a special prenasal bone and a disk of cartilage at the tip. The snout is used to dig into the soil to find food and is an acute sense organ. The dental formula of adult pigs is 3.1.4.33.1.4.3, giving a total of 44 teeth. The rear teeth are adapted for crushing. In males, the canine teeth can form tusks, which grow continuously and are sharpened by grinding against each other. There are four hoofed toes on each foot; the two larger central toes bear most of the weight, while the outer two are also used in soft ground. Most pigs have rather sparsely bristled hair on their skin, though there are some woolly-coated breeds such as the Mangalitsa. Adult pigs generally weigh between 140 and 300 kg (310 and 660 lb), though some breeds can exceed this range. Exceptionally, a pig called Big Bill weighed 1,157 kg (2,551 lb) and had a shoulder height of 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in). Pigs possess both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, although the latter are limited to the snout. Pigs, like other "hairless" mammals such as elephants, do not use thermal sweat glands in cooling. Pigs are less able than many other mammals to dissipate heat from wet mucous membranes in the mouth by panting. Their thermoneutral zone is 16–22 °C (61–72 °F). At higher temperatures, pigs lose heat by wallowing in mud or water via evaporative cooling, although it has been suggested that wallowing may serve other functions, such as protection from sunburn, ecto-parasite control, and scent-marking. Pigs are among four mammalian species with mutations in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake venom. Mongooses, honey badgers, hedgehogs, and pigs all have different modifications to the receptor pocket which prevents α-neurotoxin from binding. Pigs have small lungs for their body size, and are thus more susceptible than other domesticated animals to fatal bronchitis and pneumonia. The genome of the pig has been sequenced; it contains about 22,342 protein-coding genes. Evolution Domestic pigs are related to other pig species as shown in the cladogram, based on phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial DNA. Babirusa Red river hog Warthogs Visayan warty pig Philippine warty pig Bornean bearded pig Javan warty pig East Asian pigs European pigs The pig is most often considered to be a subspecies of the wild boar, which was given the name Sus scrofa by Carl Linnaeus in 1758; following from this, the formal name of the pig is Sus scrofa domesticus. However, in 1777, Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben classified the pig as a separate species from the wild boar. He gave it the name Sus domesticus, still used by some taxonomists. The American Society of Mammalogists considers it a separate species. History Archaeological evidence shows that pigs were domesticated from wild boar in the Near East in or around the Tigris Basin, being managed in a semi-wild state much as they are managed by some modern New Guineans. There were pigs in Cyprus more than 11,400 years ago, introduced from the mainland, implying domestication in the adjacent mainland by then. Pigs were separately domesticated in China, starting some 8,000 years ago. In the Near East, pig husbandry spread for the next few millennia. It reduced gradually during the Bronze Age, as rural populations instead focused on commodity-producing livestock, but it was sustained in cities. Domestication did not involve reproductive isolation with population bottlenecks. Western Asian pigs were introduced into Europe, where they crossed with wild boar. There appears to have been interbreeding with a now extinct ghost population of wild pigs during the Pleistocene. The genomes of domestic pigs show strong selection for genes affecting behavior and morphology. Human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars and created domestication islands in the genome. Pigs arrived in Europe from the Near East at least 8,500 years ago. Over the next 3,000 years they interbred with European wild boar until their genome showed less than 5% Near Eastern ancestry, yet retained their domesticated features. DNA evidence from subfossil remains of teeth and jawbones of Neolithic pigs shows that the first domestic pigs in Europe were brought from the Near East. This stimulated the domestication of local European wild boar, resulting in a third domestication event with the Near Eastern genes dying out in European pig stock. More recently there have been complex exchanges, with European domesticated lines being exported, in turn, to the ancient Near East. Historical records indicate that Asian pigs were again introduced into Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Domesticated pigs were among the three main domesticated animals (with chickens and dogs) carried by the seaborne Neolithic migrations of the Austronesian peoples to Island Southeast Asia and Oceania, around 4000 years ago. Most free-living and domesticated pigs from the Philippines to Hawai'i are descended from domesticated pigs (Sus scrofa) introduced by Austronesians from southeastern China and Taiwan via the Philippines. Other species of pigs (Sus celebensis, Sus barbatus, Sus cebifrons, and Sus verrucosus), also spread much earlier from Mainland Southeast Asia to Island Southeast Asia west of the Wallace Line, via natural means or earlier (non-Austronesian) hunter-gatherer groups. Many of these endemic pigs later hybridized with the S. scrofa carried by Austronesians. But pigs in Near and Remote Oceania don't exhibit admixture. Among the animals that the Spanish introduced to the Chiloé Archipelago in the 16th century Columbian Exchange, pigs were the most successful in adapting to local conditions. The pigs benefited from abundant shellfish and algae exposed by the large tides of the archipelago. Pigs were brought to southeastern North America from Europe by de Soto and other early Spanish explorers. Escaped pigs became feral. Pigs have escaped from farms and gone feral in many parts of the world. Feral pigs in the southeastern United States have migrated north to the Midwest, where many state agencies have programs to remove them. Feral pigs in New Zealand and northern Queensland have caused substantial environmental damage. Feral hybrids of the European wild boar with the domestic pig are disruptive to both environment and agriculture, as they destroy crops, spread animal diseases including foot-and-mouth disease, and consume wildlife such as juvenile seabirds and young tortoises. Feral pig damage is especially an issue in southeastern South America. Reproduction Female pigs reach sexual maturity at 3–12 months of age and come into estrus every 18–24 days if they are not successfully bred. The variation in ovulation rate can be attributed to intrinsic factors such as age and genotype, as well as extrinsic factors like nutrition, environment, and the supplementation of exogenous hormones. The gestation period averages 112–120 days. Estrus lasts two to three days, and the female's displayed receptiveness to mate is known as standing heat. Standing heat is a reflexive response that is stimulated when the female is in contact with the saliva of a sexually mature boar. Androstenol is one of the pheromones produced in the submaxillary salivary glands of boars that trigger the female's response. The female cervix contains a series of five interdigitating pads, or folds, that hold the boar's corkscrew-shaped penis during copulation. Females have bicornuate uteruses and two conceptuses must be present in both uterine horns to enable pregnancy to proceed. The mother's body recognises that it is pregnant on days 11 to 12 of pregnancy, and is marked by the corpus luteum's producing the sex hormone progesterone. To sustain the pregnancy, the embryo signals to the corpus luteum with the hormones estradiol and prostaglandin E2. This signaling acts on both the endometrium and luteal tissue to prevent the regression of the corpus luteum by activation of genes that are responsible for corpus luteum maintenance. During mid to late pregnancy, the corpus luteum relies primarily on luteinizing hormone for maintenance until birth. Archeological evidence indicates that medieval European pigs farrowed, or bore a litter of piglets, once per year. By the nineteenth century, European piglets routinely double-farrowed, or bore two litters of piglets per year. It is unclear when this shift occurred. Pigs have a maximum life span of about 27 years. A characteristic of pigs which they share with carnivores is nest-building. Sows root in the ground to create depressions the size of their body, and then build nest mounds, using twigs and leaves, softer in the middle, in which to give birth. When the mound reaches the desired height, she places large branches, up to 2 metres in length, on the surface. She enters the mound and roots around to create a depression within the gathered material. She then gives birth in a lying position, unlike other artiodactyls which usually stand while birthing. Nest-building occurs during the last 24 hours before the onset of farrowing, and becomes most intense 12 to 6 hours before farrowing. The sow separates from the group and seeks a suitable nest site with well-drained soil and shelter from rain and wind. This provides the offspring with shelter, comfort, and thermoregulation. The nest provides protection against weather and predators, while keeping the piglets close to the sow and away from the rest of the herd. This ensures they do not get trampled on, and prevents other piglets from stealing milk from the sow. The onset of nest-building is triggered by a rise in prolactin level, caused by a decrease in progesterone and an increase in prostaglandin; the gathering of nest material seems to be regulated more by external stimuli such as temperature. Pigs have complex nursing and suckling behaviour. Nursing occurs every 50–60 minutes, and the sow requires stimulation from piglets before milk let-down. Sensory inputs (vocalisation, odours from mammary and birth fluids, and hair patterns of the sow) are particularly important immediately post-birth to facilitate teat location by the piglets. Initially, the piglets compete for position at the udder; then the piglets massage around their respective teats with their snouts, during which time the sow grunts at slow, regular intervals. Each series of grunts varies in frequency, tone and magnitude, indicating the stages of nursing to the piglets. The phase of competition for teats and of nosing the udder lasts for about a minute, ending when milk begins to flow. The piglets then hold the teats in their mouths and suck with slow mouth movements (one per second), and the rate of the sow's grunting increases for approximately 20 seconds. The grunt peak in the third phase of suckling does not coincide with milk ejection, but rather the release of oxytocin from the pituitary into the bloodstream. Phase four coincides with the period of main milk flow (10–20 seconds) when the piglets suddenly withdraw slightly from the udder and start sucking with rapid mouth movements of about three per second. The sow grunts rapidly, lower in tone and often in quick runs of three or four, during this phase. Finally, the flow stops and so does the grunting of the sow. The piglets may dart from teat to teat and recommence suckling with slow movements, or nosing the udder. Piglets massage and suckle the sow's teats after milk flow ceases as a way of letting the sow know their nutritional status. This helps her to regulate the amount of milk released from that teat in future sucklings. The more intense the post-feed massaging of a teat, the more milk that teat later releases. In pigs, dominance hierarchies are formed at an early age. Piglets are precocious, and attempt to suckle soon after being born. The piglets are born with sharp teeth and fight for the anterior teats, as these produce more milk. Once established, this teat order remains stable; each piglet tends to feed on a particular teat or group of teats. Stimulation of the anterior teats appears to be important in causing milk letdown, so it might be advantageous to the entire litter to have these teats occupied by healthy piglets. Piglets locate teats by sight and then by olfaction. Behaviour Pig behaviour is intermediate between that of other artiodactyls and of carnivores. Pigs seek out the company of other pigs and often huddle to maintain physical contact, but they do not naturally form large herds. They live in groups of about 8–10 adult sows, some young individuals, and some single males. Pigs confined in a simplified, crowded, or uncomfortable environment may resort to tail-biting; farmers sometimes dock the tails of pigs to prevent the problem, or may enrich the environment with toys or other objects to reduce the risk. Because of their relative lack of sweat glands, pigs often control their body temperature using behavioural thermoregulation. Wallowing, coating the body with mud, is a common behaviour. They do not submerge completely under the mud, but vary the depth and duration of wallowing depending on environmental conditions. Adult pigs start wallowing once the ambient temperature is around 17–21 °C (63–70 °F). They cover themselves in mud from head to tail. They may use mud as a sunscreen, or to keep parasites away. Most bristled pigs "blow their coat", meaning that they shed most of the longer, coarser stiff hair once a year, usually in spring or early summer, to prepare for the warmer months ahead. Where pigs are allowed to roam freely, they walk roughly 4 km daily, scavenging within a home range of around a hectare. Farmers in Africa often choose such a low-input, free-range production system. If conditions permit, pigs feed continuously for many hours and then sleep for many hours, in contrast to ruminants, which tend to feed for a short time and then sleep for a short time. Pigs are omnivorous and versatile in their feeding behaviour. They primarily eat leaves, stems, roots, fruits, and flowers. Rooting is an instinctual comforting behaviour in pigs characterized by nudging the snout into something. It first happens when piglets are born to obtain their mother's milk, and can become a habitual, obsessive behaviour, most prominent in animals weaned too early. Pigs root and dig into the ground to forage for food. Rooting is also a means of communication. Pigs are relatively intelligent animals, roughly on par with dogs. They distinguish each other as individuals, spend time in play, and form structured communities. They have good long-term memory and they experience emotions, changing their behaviour in response to the emotional states of other pigs. In terms of experimental tasks, pigs can perform tasks that require them to identify the locations of objects; they can solve mazes; and they can work with a simple language of symbols. They display self-recognition in a mirror. Pigs have been trained to associate different sorts of music (Bach and a military march) with food and social isolation respectively, and could communicate the resulting positive or negative emotion to untrained pigs. Pigs can be trained to use a joystick with their snout to select a target on screen. Pigs have panoramic vision of approximately 310° and binocular vision of 35° to 50°. It is thought they have no eye accommodation. Other animals that have no accommodation, e.g. sheep, lift their heads to see distant objects. The extent to which pigs have colour vision is still a source of some debate; however, the presence of cone cells in the retina with two distinct wavelength sensitivities (blue and green) suggests that at least some colour vision is present. Pigs have a well-developed sense of smell; this is exploited in Europe where trained pigs find underground truffles. Pigs have 1,113 genes for smell receptors, compared to 1,094 in dogs; this may indicate an acute sense of smell, but against this, insects have only around 50 to 100 such genes but make extensive use of olfaction. Olfactory rather than visual stimuli are used in the identification of other pigs. Hearing is well developed; sounds are localised by moving the head. Pigs use auditory stimuli extensively for communication in all social activities. Alarm or aversive stimuli are transmitted to other pigs not only by auditory cues but also by pheromones. Similarly, recognition between the sow and her piglets is by olfactory and vocal cues. Pests and diseases Pigs are subject to many pests and diseases which can seriously affect productivity and cause death. These include parasites such as Ascaris roundworms, virus diseases such as the tick-borne African Swine Fever, bacterial infections such as Clostridium, arthritis caused by Mycoplasma, and stillbirths caused by Parvovirus. Some parasites of pigs are a public health risk as they can be transmitted to humans in undercooked pork. These are the pork tapeworm Taenia solium; a protozoan, Toxoplasma gondii; and a nematode, Trichinella spiralis. Transmission can be prevented by thorough sanitation on the farm; by meat inspection and careful commercial processing; and by thorough cooking, or alternatively by sufficient freezing and curing. In agriculture Pigs have been raised outdoors, and sometimes allowed to forage in woods or pastures. In industrialized nations, pig production has largely switched to large-scale intensive pig farming. This has lowered production costs but has caused concern about possible cruelty. As consumers have become concerned with the humane treatment of livestock, demand for pasture-raised pork in these nations has increased. Most pigs in the US receive ractopamine, a beta-agonist drug, which promotes muscle instead of fat and quicker weight gain, requiring less feed to reach finishing weight, and producing less manure. China has requested that pork exports be ractopamine-free. With a population of around 1 billion individuals, the domesticated pig is one of the most numerous large mammals on the planet. Like all animals, pigs are susceptible to adverse impacts from climate change, such as heat stress from increased annual temperatures and more intense heatwaves. Heat stress has increased rapidly between 1981 and 2017 on pig farms in Europe. Installing a ground-coupled heat exchanger is an effective intervention. Around 600 breeds of pig have been created by farmers around the world, mainly in Europe and Asia, differing in coloration, shape, and size. According to The Livestock Conservancy, as of 2016, three breeds of pig are critically rare (having a global population of fewer than 2000). They are the Choctaw hog, the Mulefoot, and the Ossabaw Island hog. The smallest known pig breed in the world is the Göttingen minipig, typically weighing about 26 kilograms (57 lb) as a healthy, full-grown adult. As pets Given pigs are bred primarily as livestock and have not been bred as companion animals for very long, selective breeding for a placid or biddable temperament is not well established. Pigs have radically different psychology and behaviours compared to dogs, and exhibit fight-or-flight instincts, an independent nature, and natural assertiveness. Male and female swine that have not been de-sexed may express unwanted aggressive behavior, and are prone to serious health issues. Economy Approximately 1.5 billion pigs are slaughtered each year for meat. The pork belly futures contract became an icon of commodities trading. It appears in depictions of the arena in popular entertainment, such as the 1983 film Trading Places. Trade in pork bellies declined, and they were delisted from the Chicago Mercantile Exchange in 2011. In 2023, China produced more pork than any other country, 55 million tonnes, followed by the European Union with 22.8 million tonnes and the United States with 12.5 million tonnes. Global production in 2023 was 120 million tonnes. India, despite its large population, consumed under 0.3 million tonnes of pork in 2023. International trade in pork (meat not consumed in the producing country) reached 13 million tonnes in 2020. Uses Pigs are farmed primarily for meat, called pork. Pork is eaten in the form of pork chops, loin or rib roasts, shoulder joints, steaks, and loin (also called fillet). The many meat products made from pork include ham, bacon (mainly from the back and belly), and sausages. Pork is further made into charcuterie products such as terrines, galantines, pâtés and confits. Some sausages such as salami are fermented and air-dried, to be eaten raw. There are many types, the original Italian varieties including Genovese, Milanese, and Cacciatorino, with spicier kinds from the South of Italy including Calabrese, Napoletano, and Peperone. The hide is made into pigskin leather, which is soft and durable; it can be brushed to form suede leather. These are used for products such as gloves, wallets, suede shoes, and leather jackets. In the 16th century, pig skin was the most popular book-binding material in Germany, though calf skin was more common elsewhere. Pigs, both as live animals and as a source of post-mortem tissues, are valuable animal models because of their biological, physiological, and anatomical similarities to human beings. For instance, human skin is very similar to the pigskin, therefore pigskin has been used in many preclinical studies. Pigs are good non-human candidates for organ donation to humans, and in 2021 became the first animal to successfully donate an organ to a human body. The procedure used a donor pig genetically engineered not to have a specific carbohydrate that the human body considers a threat–Galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose. Pigs are good for human donation as the risk of cross-species disease transmission is reduced by the considerable phylogenetic distance from humans. They are readily available, and the danger of creating new human diseases is low as domesticated pigs have been in close contact with humans for thousands of years. Impact of pig husbandry Pig farms can serve as reservoirs of viral diseases that are dangerous to humans and so contribute to their outbreaks in human populations. The 2009 swine flu pandemic was caused by an influenza A variant which had first emerged in pigs. Pigs were also essential to the first outbreak of the Nipah virus in 1999, with 93% of the infected humans having had contact with pigs. While Japanese encephalitis is primarily spread by mosquitoes, pigs are a known intermediary host. There is also a potential for porcine coronaviruses such as porcine epidemic diarrhea virus or swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus to spill over into human populations. As with the other forms of meat, producing pork is more energy-intensive than plant-based foods, and it is associated with more greenhouse gas emissions per calorie. However, emissions from pork are many times smaller than those of beef, veal and mutton, though larger than of chicken meat. Intensive pig production is also associated with water pollution concerns, as the swine waste is often stored above ground in so-called lagoons. These lagoons typically have high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus, and can contain toxic heavy metals like zinc and copper, microbial pathogens, or hold elevated concentrations of pharmaceuticals from subtherapeutic antibiotic use in swine. This wastewater from lagoons is liable to reach groundwater on farms, though there is little evidence for it reaching deeper into local drinking water supplies. However, lagoon spills, such as from heavy rains in the wake of a hurricane, can lead to fish kills and algal blooms in local rivers. In the United States, 35,000 mi (56,000 km) of river across over 20 states were estimated to have been contaminated by manure leakage as of 2015. There is also evidence that evaporation from lagoons can cause nitrogen and phosphorus to spread through the air as dry particles then reach other water basins when they fall out through dry deposition. This process then also contributes to water eutrophication. Intensive pig production involves practices such as castration, earmarking, tattooing for litter identification, tail docking, which are often done without the use of anesthetic. Painful teeth clipping of piglets is also done to curtail cannibalism, behavioural instability and aggression, and tail biting, which are induced by the cramped environment. In English indoor farming, young pigs (less than 110kg in weight) are allowed to be kept with less than one square meter of space per pig. Pigs often begin life in a farrowing or gestation crate, which is a small pen with a central cage, designed to allow the piglets to feed from their mother while preventing her from attacking or crushing them. The crates are so small that the mother sows cannot turn around. While wild piglets remain with their mothers for around 12 to 14 weeks, farmed piglets are weaned and removed from their mothers at between two and five weeks old. Of the piglets born alive, 10% to 18% will not reach weaning age, instead succumbing to disease, starvation, dehydration, or accidental crushing by their mothers. Unusually small runt piglets are typically killed immediately by staff through blunt trauma to the head. Further, intensive farming involves sows giving birth to large litter sizes at an unnatural frequency, which increases the rate of stillborn piglets, and causes as many as 25%-50% of sows to die of prolapse. In culture Pigs, widespread in societies around the world since Neolithic times, have been used for many purposes in art, literature, and other expressions of human culture. In classical times, the Romans considered pork the finest of meats, enjoying sausages, and depicting them in their art. Across Europe, pigs have been celebrated in carnivals since the Middle Ages, becoming specially important in Medieval Germany in cities such as Nuremberg, and in Early Modern Italy in cities such as Bologna. Pigs, especially miniature breeds, are occasionally kept as pets. In literature, both for children and adults, pig characters appear in allegories, comic stories, and serious novels. In art, pigs have been represented in a wide range of media and styles from the earliest times in many cultures. Pig names are used in idioms and animal epithets, often derogatory, since pigs have long been linked with dirtiness and greed, while places such as Swindon are named for their association with swine. The eating of pork is forbidden in Islam and Judaism, but pigs are sacred in some other religions. References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/afrique] | [TOKENS: 2029] |
BBC News, Afrique - Accueil À la une Le gouvernement du Sénégal a adopté un projet de loi controversé visant à durcir la répression de l'homosexualité dans un pays tenu en haleine depuis deux semaines par un scandale impliquant de présumés homosexuels dont des personnalités publiques. Pendant l'hiver en Grande-Bretagne, des produits frais sont expédiés chaque semaine par cargo depuis ce pays d'Afrique occidentale. Les chercheurs affirment que jeûner certains jours comme le font certaines personnes, ou s’abstenir de certains aliments auxquels on est habitué dans le but de perdre du poids, n’aide pas réellement à maigrir. L'économie russe oscille entre stagnation et déclin, et les consommateurs russes commencent à en ressentir les effets dans leur portefeuille. Cette année, le Carême et le Ramadan ont débuté simultanément, un fait relativement rare dans les calendriers religieux. L'ancien prince a été libéré jeudi soir après 11 heures de détention, suite à son arrestation pour suspicion de faute professionnelle dans l'exercice de ses fonctions publiques. Les musulmans du monde entier passeront 29 ou 30 jours à s'abstenir de manger, de boire, d'avoir des relations sexuelles et de toute autre activité susceptible de rompre le jeûne, de l'aube jusqu'au coucher du soleil. Dans une longue interview accordée à Newsnight, la femme au cœur du plus grand procès pour viol en France parle de trahison, de guérison et du choix de la bonne voie. Alors que les voyages internationaux reprennent, la croissance la plus rapide se produit en dehors des destinations touristiques habituelles, de l'Éthiopie au Bhoutan. L'actualité africaine La suspension des réseaux sociaux au Gabon suscite des réactions diverses parmi les citoyens. Le procureur de Dakar a affirmé mardi que l’étudiant récemment décédé lors d’une intervention policière dans une université de la capitale n’avait pas été brutalisé, mais qu’il était mort après avoir “sauté du quatrième étage” pour fuir un incendie. Les supporters nigérians espèrent toujours que la FIFA pourrait statuer en leur faveur concernant les accusations selon lesquelles la RD Congo aurait aligné des joueurs inéligibles lors des barrages africains pour la Coupe du monde 2026. Le Ghana a demandé à la Russie d'extrader l'homme, accusé d'avoir enregistré des rapports sexuels sans consentement. Les musulmans sont traditionnellement tenus de jeûner entre le lever et le coucher du soleil pendant le ramadan, ce qui rend la vie particulièrement difficile dans les régions où le soleil brille presque toute la journée. Le président américain a bouleversé les relations internationales et le continent cherche à définir sa position. Yameogo Aminata affirme que ses quatre fils ont été massacrés et que sa fille est portée disparue. Imaginez que nous sommes en 2099 et qu'un traité historique visant à restituer des objets africains est en train de s'effondrer. Les accidents miniers ont suscité l'émotion parmi les analystes, qui soulignent que le développement de l'Afrique s'est construit sur le dos de mineurs sans voix et à l'aide d'outils rudimentaires. La chaîne BBC News Afrique sur votre WhatsApp Soyez les premiers à recevoir le meilleur de l’actualité africaine et mondiale, des analyses pertinentes, des portraits inspirants et des articles éducatifs. Regardez ! Pour regarder ce contenu, veuillez activer JavaScript ou essayer un autre navigateur. Actualités internationales La Nouvelle-Zélande a été frappée par une nouvelle vague d'exode de ses citoyens. Plus de 70 000 personnes ont quitté le pays en seulement un an, soit environ 1,4 % de ses 5,1 millions d'habitants. Le niveau de corruption dans chaque pays est évalué en considérant son score, de 0 à 100. Un score de 0 signifie que le pays est très corrompu, tandis qu'un score de 100 signifie qu'il n'a aucun problème de corruption. Les scientifiques pensent actuellement qu'une mystérieuse planète de la taille de Mars est entrée en collision avec la jeune Terre il y a 4,5 milliards d'années et a peut-être été absorbée par notre planète. Après un arrêt cardiaque, Patrick Charnley était cliniquement mort. Il est revenu à la vie, transformé. Les législateurs ont accusé le ministère de la Justice de Bondi d'avoir procédé à des expurgations inappropriées dans les dossiers Epstein, ce à quoi elle a répliqué. Une histoire de coupe de cheveux qui est devenue virale : voici Frank Ilett, le fan de Manchester United à la célèbre coiffure bouffante. Le président américain a déclaré qu'« aucune décision définitive » n'avait été prise lors de la réunion entre les deux dirigeants à la Maison Blanche mercredi, alors que les négociations sur le nucléaire s'intensifient. Deux équipes nationales peuvent encore se qualifier et rejoindre les 46 autres qui ont déjà obtenu leurs billets. Qui sont-elles ? Des millions de documents liés à Epstein publiés par le ministère américain de la Justice mentionnent les noms de personnalités riches et puissantes du monde entier. Vous voulez économiser des données ? Passez à notre version texte uniquement pour économiser vos données Journaux et Magazines Du lundi au vendredi les auditeurs réagissent à chaud sur les sujets qui rythment l'actualité Un jour, un thème pour aller plus en profondeur sur les sujets qui font bouger l’Afrique Du lundi au vendredi les auditeurs réagissent à chaud sur les sujets qui rythment l'actualité Le premier rendez-vous d'information de la matinée. Choix de la rédaction Joëlla Buhendwa, la vingtaine, fondatrice et PDG d'AstiFerme, s'est spécialisée dans la valorisation des déchets ménagers grâce à l'élevage de la mouche soldat noire. À 13 ans, arrachée à son terroir natal du royaume du Djolof, au centre-nord du Sénégal, Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley, née Anta Madjiguène Ndiaye, traversa l'Atlantique sous chaîne. Trente ans plus tard, elle possédait en toute liberté des terres en Floride. Des membres de la famille au Sénégal ressassent cette tragédie et partagent avec BBC Afrique ce qu'ils savent de cette histoire digne d'un conte de fée. La rupture brutale avec la France qui s'en est suivie donnera lieu à la volonté de Paris de punir le téméraire dirigeant africain qui a osé infliger un affront à de Gaulle. Bien que le dollar américain soit la devise la plus échangée, cela ne signifie pas pour autant qu'il soit la plus précieuse au monde. De plus en plus de femmes en Afrique utilisent des tisanes naturelles pour faciliter et accélérer l’accouchement. Mais est ce réellement bénéfique ? Le dollar américain est la devise la plus échangée au monde, même s'il n'est pas la devise la plus forte au niveau mondial (cette place revient actuellement au dinar koweïtien). Considéré comme symbole de la résistance anticoloniale française, Béhanzin le roi de Dahomey reste une figure importante de la mémoire béninoise contemporaine. Depuis quelques années, des travaux d'historiens ont révélé que les Noirs ont fait l'objet de massacres et d'atrocités inhumaines de la part des Nazis. Togoville, l’âme du Togo, reste une ville historique et culturelle qui attire beaucoup de chercheurs et de touristes avec ses 10 000 habitants environ qu’elle abrite aujourd’hui. 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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/dari] | [TOKENS: 3106] |
BBC News, دری - صفحه اول مهمترین خبرها در واکنش به سخنان دونالد ترامپ، رئیس جمهوری امریکا که برای اولین بار درباره کشتار معترضان ماه جدی در ایران گفته بود که « ۳۲ هزار نفر در یک بازه کوتاه کشته شدند.» عباس عراقچی، وزیر خارجه ایران از او خواست تا «مدرک» در این خصوص ارائه کند. در روزهای اخیر امریکا حضور نظامی خود را در خاورمیانه افزایش داده و بیبیسی عبور بزرگترین ناو هواپیمابر هستهای جهان را از تنگه جبلالطارق رصد کرده است. تاجران افغان میگویند که بیش از شصت درصد کالاهای ترانزیتی را که در پاکستان متوقف مانده بودند، از طریق بندر کراچی از این کشور خارج کردهاند. مقامهای اتاق تجارت مشترک افغانستان و پاکستان میگویند که بیشتر این محمولهها دوباره به کشورهای مبدأ فرستاده شده و بخشی از آن نیز به بندرعباس و چابهار منتقل شده است. رئیسجمهور امریکا، میگوید «احتمالا در ۱۰ روز آینده» جهان خواهد دانست «که آیا ایالات متحده به توافقی با ایران خواهد رسید یا به اقدام نظامی متوسل خواهد شد.» دونالد ترامپ، رئیس جمهور امریکا، گفته است که به وزارت دفاع دستور خواهد داد تا «روند شناسایی و انتشار» پروندههای دولتی مربوط به موجودات بیگانه و حیات فرازمینی و همچنین اشیاء پرنده ناشناس (یوفو) را آغاز کند. او گفته است که «با توجه به علاقهی فوقالعاده» عمومی خواستار انتشار پروندههای مربوط به موجودات فضایی خواهد شد. نکته جالب این فلم که نزدیک به چهار دهه پیش به نمایش درآمد، این است که فلمنامه آن را «ارونداتی روی»، نویسنده مشهور هندی و برنده جایزه بوکر، نوشته و خودش نیز در آن بازی کرده است. در این فلم در کنار شاهرخخان و ارونداتی روی، منوج باجپای نیز نقشآفرینی کرده است. اندرو مونتباتن–وینزر، برادر پادشاه بریتانیا، پس از بازداشت «به ظن سوءرفتار در دوران تصدی مقام دولتی»، با ادامه تحقیقات آزاد شده است. قرار است پولیس امروز بازرسیهایی خود را از خانهٔ سابق او در املاک سلطنتی از سر بگیرد. ثروت طبیعی ایران تنها به نفت و گاز محدود نمیشود. گزارشهای بینالمللی نشان میدهند که این کشور بیش از ۶ هزار معدن دارد و بیش از ۶۰ نوع ماده معدنی. از آهن و مس گرفته تا طلا و اورانیوم، تولید میکند. ذخایر معدنی ایران دهها میلیارد تن برآورد شده است. در یک روز گرم ماه جولای تابستان سال گذشته، یکی از بازدیدکنندگان باغ وحش شهر ایچیکاوا جاپان به نگهبانان خبرداد که یک چوچه شادی در داخل محوطه، توسط شادیهای دیگر تنها رها شده است. نگهبانان این چوچه شادی را که یک ماکاک چاپانی به نام «پانچ» بود بیرون آوردند و در باغوحشی در حومه شهر توکیو، پایخت جاپان، از او مراقبت کردند. ده عکس برنده بخش مسابقه آزاد جوایز عکاسی جهانی سونی ۲۰۲۶ از میان بیش از ۴۳۰ هزار اثر ارسالی از بیش از دوصد کشور و سرزمین انتخاب شدند. تحلیل و گزارش ما رنگ آبی آسمان را بدیهی میدانیم، اما آسمان زمین همیشه به این رنگ نبوده و همیشه هم به این شکل باقی نخواهد ماند. فین بوریج، از رصدخانه سلطنتی گرینویچ در بریتانیا، تخمین میزند که حداقل یک میلیارد سال دیگر فرصت داریم از رنگ آبی آسمان لذت ببریم. رمضان در حالی فرا رسیده است که در نیمکرهٔ جنوبی زمین تابستان است و روزها طولانیتراند، در حالیکه در نیمکرهٔ شمالی هنوز زمستان است و روزها کوتاهتراند. طولانی بودن روز در برخی کشورها، روزهداری را، مخصوصا بر بیماران و افراد سالمند، دشوار میسازد. آیا راهحل شرعیای وجود دارد تا از ساعات آن کاسته شود؟ شهرهای چین برای خوشامدگویی به سال نو چینی در ۱۷ فبروری آماده میشوند، زمانی که نشان فلکی از سال مار به سال اسپ تغییر خواهد کرد. سرویس جهانی بیبیسی روایتهای تکاندهندهای از تعرضهایی شنیده است که به نظر میرسد پیروان زن اقلیت علوی را هدف قرار داده است. شاخهای از مذهب شیعه که بشار اسد، رئیسجمهور پیشین، نیز به آن تعلق داشت. در درس این هفته با دانشآموز نخبهای در هند آشنا میشوید که به رغم نظریات ناپسند مردم در مورد ظاهر و موهای صورتش روی رویاهای خود تمرکز میکند. در دو بخش آموزش زبان انگلیسی٬ مکالمه در مورد ماههای سال و در بخش ریاضی این هفته جمع و تفریق کسرها را میآموزید. تماشای دریچه این هفته که سراسر خبرهای جالب و دیدنی دارد را نیز از دست ندهید. بیبیسی دری اکنون در واتساپ خبرها، گزارشها و مطالب ویژهٔ بیبیسی دری را در تلفون همراهتان دریافت کنید و از مهمترین رویدادهای افغانستان، ایران و جهان، زودتر از دیگران آگاه شوید. زنان پخش زنده تلویزیون ماهوارهای بیبیسی برای افغانستان برنامههای تلویزیون ماهوارهای بیبیسی برای افغانستان، هر روز به طور مستقیم و زنده از طربق ماهواره و این وبسایت به زبانهای فارسیدری و پشتو پخش میشوند. تغییرات اقلیمی رادیو بیبیسی افغانستان بیبیسی برای افغانستان تازهترین و دقیقترین خبرهای افغانستان ، منطقه و جهان را با تحلیل های همه جانبه ارایه میکند. برنامههای رادیو شبکه های اجتماعی مطالب پرخواننده اخبار به زبانهای دیگر © 2026 بی بی سی. بی بی سی مسئول محتوای سایت های دیگر نیست. سیاست ما درباره لینک دادن به سایت های دیگر. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/hausa] | [TOKENS: 2033] |
BBC News, Hausa - Labaran Duniya Babban Labari Ana dai alaƙanta fitaccen malamin addinin da tsayawa takarar gwamnan jihar Gombe da ke arewa maso gabashin Najeriya. Wannan shafi ne da ke kawo muku labaran abubuwan da ke faruwa a Najeriya da sauran sassan duniya, Asabar 21/02/2026 Da alama matashin ɗan wasan Wolves Mateus Mane ai bar Molineux, ana neman Liam Delap a Merseyside, kungiyoyin Turai da na Arewacin Amurka na sha'awar Casemiro. Wannan ne dai karon farko da INEC za ta gudanar zaɓe ƙarƙashin sabuwar dokar zaɓen Najeriya, wadda shugaba Bola Ahmed Tinubu ya sanya wa hannu ƴan kwanakin da suka gabata. Sau da yawa yara kan yi ɗokin fara azumin watan Ramadana, inda sukan so su yi koyi da iyayensu wajen gudanar da ibadar, duk da cewa ba lallai ne su iya jure wa yunwa da kuma ƙishirwar da ke tattare da azumin ba. Ci gaba da girke dakarun Amurka a Gabas ta Tsakiya na ƙara nuna yadda Amurkar ke shirin far wa Iran. Wannan shafi ne da ke kawo muku abubuwan da ke faruwa a Najeriya da sauran sassan duniya na ranar Jum a'a 20 ga watan Fabrairun 2026. Ana dai zargar ƙungiyar Lakurawa da kai hare-hare a yankuna da dama na jihohin Kebbi da Sokoto da ke arewa maso yammacin ƙasar. Tsohon yariman ya fuskanci tuhume-tuhume da dama kan alaƙarsa da mutumin nan da aka samu da laifin lalata da ƙananan yara, Jeffrey Epstein, amma kama shi da aka yi yanzu ba ya da alaƙa da tuhume-tuhumen da suka shafi lalata. Shirye-shiryenmu Shiri ne na minti 30 wanda ya kunshi labaru da rahotanni daga sassa daban-daban na duniya. Shiri ne na minti 30 wanda ya kunshi labaru da rahotanni daga sassa daban na duniya. Shiri ne na minti 30 wanda ya kunshi labaru da rahotanni daga sassa daban na duniya. Shiri ne a duk ranar Juma'a da ke baiwa masu sauraro damar bayyana ra'ayoyinsu. Wasanni Wannan shafi ne da ke kawo muku muhimman abubuwan da ke faruwa a duniyar wasanni daga Lahadi 15 zuwa 20 ga Fabrairu 2026 Wannan ne karo na 20 da Vinicius ya yi zargin an masa kalaman nuna wariyar launin fata a cikin shekara 8 da ya yi a ƙungiyar Real Madrid. Har yanzu ƴan Najeriya na fatan Fifa za ta yanke hukuncin da zai yi musu daɗi bayan zargin DR Congo da yin amfani da ƴan wasan da ba su dace ba a karawar ƙasashen biyu na neman gurbin gasar cin kofdin duniya ta 2026. Manchester United ta yi nadama kan yarjejeniyar Marcus Rashford a Barcelona, Marcos Senesi na son zuwa Barcelona, yayin da Liam Delap ke shirin barin Chelsea a bazara. Ivan Toney ya buɗe ƙofar dawowa gasar Premier, Liverpool ba ta son sayar da Dominik Szoboszlai, amma Nick Woltemade na da tabbacin komawa taka leda a Bundesliga. Man Utd na son ɗauko ɗanwasan Liverpool Alexis Mac Allister, Man City ba ta son sayar da James Trafford, Nicolas Jackson zai dawo Chelsea daga Bayern Munich. Tashar WhatsApp ta BBC Hausa A wannan shafin za ku samu labarai daga ƙasashen Afrika da kuma sauran sassan duniya da ɗumi-ɗuminsu domin masu bibiyar mu a WhatsApp. Kashe ƙwarƙwatar ido Na'urarku na da matsalar sauraren sauti Ramadan 2026 Kuna son tattalin datarku? Shiga shafinmu na labarai maras hoto domin rage zuƙar data Labarai da Rahotanni Na Musamman Rashin sahur gaba-ɗaya zai iya shafar lafiyar mutum saboda akwai ma'aunin abin da jiki yake da shi idan an ci abinci, to idan ba a ci komai ba lokacin narkewar abincin zai wuce, in ji likita. A wannan shekarar jihohin ƙasar da dama ne suka yi kasafin da ya haura naira tiriliyan ɗaya, kamar yadda wasu bayanai da ƙungiyar BudgIT mai nazari kan kasafin kuɗi a ƙasar suka nuna. Paris St-Germain na son Erling Haaland, ƙungiyoyin Turai da dama na son Bernardo Silva yayin da Carlo Ancelotti ke son ci gaba da zama kocin Brazil. Wannan shafi ne da ke kawo muku abubuwan da ke faruwa a Najeriya da sauran sassan duniya na ranar Alhamis19 ga watan Fabrairun 2026. "Ya kamata a raba abincin buɗe-baki zuwa kashi uku, kuma a riƙa cin kowane kashi bayan minti shidda-shidda". China ta musanta zargin Amurka cewa ta yi gwajin makamin nukiliya a 2020. Amma shin yaya ake gwajin nukiliya? Ku sanya bidiyon abincin buɗe-baki na musamman da kuka haɗa wa iyalanku ta yadda wasu za su iya kallo su kwaikwaya. Hukumar ƙididdiga ta Najeriya ta ce hauhawar farashin kaya a ƙasar ya ragu da kashi 15.1% a watan Janairun 2026. Ƴansandan Thames Valley Police sun ce mutumin na tsare a wajensu, a yayin da suke ci gaba bincike. A lokacin sanya hannu kan dokar, Tinubu ya ce "babu batun siyasa a cikin wannan gyare-gyare. Abu ne na tsari. Ƙoƙari ne na cike giɓi da ƙarfafa tsari da kuma samar da tsaftatacciyar hanya ga masu tsarawa da kuma masu yin zaɓuka." Malamai na cewa akwai wasu ibadu na musamman da suka keɓanta da kwanaki goma-goma na wannan wata mafi tsarki a kalandar Musulmai. Daruruwan al'ummar jihar Neja da ke Najeriya, sun tsere zuwa Jamhuriyar Benin domin neman mafaka, sakamakon hare-haren da ‘yanbindiga ke kai wa a yankunan Labaran Bidiyo KAI TSAYE - Labaran BBC Hausa Saurari labaran BBC Hausa Kai Tsaye Litinin zuwa Juma’a da karfe 0530, 0630, 1400 da 1930 GMT, sai kuma Asabar da Lahadi da karfe 0530, 0630 da 1930 GMT. Nishadi Kimiyya da Fasaha Hotuna Labaran da suka fi shahara Shafukan Sada Zumunta Domin ma'abota BBC Domin samun labarai cikin Pidgin, Yoruba da Igbo © 2026 BBC. BBC ba za ta dauki alhakin abubuwan da wasu shafukan daban suka wallafa ba. Karanta hanyoyin da muke bi dangane da adireshin waje. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/hindi] | [TOKENS: 6847] |
BBC News, हिंदी - होम पेज प्रमुख समाचार अमेरिकी सुप्रीम कोर्ट ने ट्रंप की एक अहम नीति को झटका दिया है लेकिन राष्ट्रपति पीछे हटने के लिए तैयार नहीं हैं. सुप्रीम कोर्ट के फ़ैसले के बाद क्या भारत पर टैरिफ़ 18 प्रतिशत से घटकर 10 प्रतिशत हो जाएगा? इंडियन यूथ कांग्रेस के जिन कार्यकर्ता़ओं ने एआई समिट में टी-शर्ट उतारकर विरोध प्रदर्शन किया था, उनमें से चार अभियुक्तों को पांच दिन की पुलिस हिरासत में भेज दिया गया है. अमेरिका के सुप्रीम कोर्ट ने डोनाल्ड ट्रंप की वैश्विक टैरिफ़ नीति को गहरा झटका दिया है. ऐसे में सवाल उठ रहा है कि भारत को क्या इसका फ़ायदा होगा? ट्रंप ने इसका जवाब भी दे दिया है. अमेरिका के सुप्रीम कोर्ट ने ट्रंप के टैरिफ़ को अवैध बताकर रद्द कर दिया है लेकिन इससे एक दूसरी लड़ाई भी शुरू हो सकती है. जानिए जिन देशों पर टैरिफ़ लगा है, वे अमेरिकी सुप्रीम कोर्ट के फ़ैसले का जश्न क्यों नहीं मना रहे. ट्रंप ने कहा कि टैरिफ़ के ख़िलाफ़ वोट करने वाले सभी छह न्यायाधीशों को 'बिल्कुल शर्मिंदा' होना चाहिए. ट्रंप ने इन जजों पर व्यक्तिगत हमले भी किए. इंग्लैंड एंड वेल्स क्रिकेट बोर्ड के एक वरिष्ठ अधिकारी ने एक एजेंट को संकेत दिया कि 'द हंड्रेड' लीग में पाकिस्तान के खिलाड़ियों में रुचि केवल उन टीमों तक सीमित रहेगी जो आईपीएल से जुड़ी नहीं हैं. भारत अब अमेरिका की अगुआई वाली उस स्ट्रैटिजिक पहल में शामिल हो गया है. अमेरिका के सुप्रीम कोर्ट ने राष्ट्रपति डोनाल्ड ट्रंप के उन ग्लोबल टैरिफ़ के ख़िलाफ़ फ़ैसला सुनाया है, जो पिछले साल लागू किए गए थे. अमेरिका खाड़ी क्षेत्र में अपनी सैन्य तैनाती बढ़ा रहा है तो वहीं ईरान भी सैन्य अभ्यास कर रहा है. ताक़तवर अमेरिका के सामने ईरान के पास क्या-क्या विकल्प हैं? शॉर्ट वीडियो प्लेबैक आपके उपकरण पर नहीं हो पा रहा करियर कनेक्ट भारत में इस समय 39 लाख से ज्यादा नर्स हैं. सुनने में ये संख्या बड़ी लगती है, लेकिन 140 करोड़ की आबादी के हिसाब से ये संख्या कम ही है. किसी को ये पेशा अपनाना हो तो क्या रास्ता? शुभांशु शुक्ला अंतरिक्ष जाने वाले दूसरे भारतीय हैं. हालांकि, वह कमर्शियल मिशन के तहत स्पेस गए थे. मगर भारत में एस्ट्रोनॉट बनने का रास्ता क्या है? भारत की टेक्सटाइल और अपैरल इंडस्ट्री करीब 4.5 करोड़ लोगों को रोज़गार देती है. इसे कृषि के बाद रोज़गार देने वाला देश का दूसरे सबसे बड़ा सेक्टर कहा जाता है. लेकिन इसमें करियर के कौन से मौके होते हैं और इस पेशे में कमाई कितनी होती है? कंपनी सेक्रेटरी बनने का पूरा प्रोसेस क्या है, इसकी पढ़ाई में क्या-क्या होता है, और इसकी राह चार्टर्ड अकाउंटेंट बनने वालों से कितनी अलग होती है? बारहवीं में पढ़ने वाले स्टूडेंट्स पर बोर्ड परीक्षा और फिर किसी अच्छे कॉलेज में दाखिला लेने के लिए होने वाले एंट्रेंस एग्ज़ाम CUET दोनों की तैयारी का दबाव होता है. मगर वे इन दोनों परीक्षाओं में अच्छे मार्क्स ला सकते हैं, बस ज़रूरत है सही रणनीति की. हाई सैलरी, दुनिया के कई देश घूमने का मौक़ा और कम उम्र में बड़ी ज़िम्मेदारी, ये सब इस करियर को आकर्षक तो बनाते हैं, लेकिन इसमें चुनौतियां भी कम नहीं हैं. कई यूनिवर्सिटी इंजीनियरिंग कोर्स को बीई कहती हैं और कई संस्थान बीटेक. मगर इन दो अलग-अलग कोर्स के पीछे क्या लॉजिक होता है? क्रिकेट में जितने ज़रूरी खिलाड़ी होते हैं, उतने ही अहम हैं मैदान में खड़े दो ऐसे शख़्स, जिनका किसी टीम से कोई ताल्लुक नहीं होता, लेकिन इनके बग़ैर कोई मैच नहीं खेला जाता. यानी अंपायर. मगर अंपायर बनने का रास्ता क्या है? आईआईटी समेत देश में इंजीनियरिंग के शीर्ष कॉलेजों में दाखिला पाने के लिए तैयारी की सही रणनीति क्या होनी चाहिए. करियर कनेक्ट में आज इसी पर बात. बीबीसी विशेष तारिक़ रहमान के प्रधानमंत्री बनते ही बांग्लादेश के कई ज़िलों में अवामी लीग के दफ़्तर फिर से खुलने की रिपोर्ट आ रही है. बांग्लादेश की संसद में विपक्ष के मुख्य सचेतक नाहिद इस्लाम को लगता है कि इस चुनाव में भारत, अवामी लीग और बीएनपी के बीच एक प्रकार की मिलीभगत थी. विपक्ष के हमलों के बीच केंद्रीय मंत्री हरदीप सिंह पुरी ने कहा है कि एपस्टीन से उनके संबंधों में कुछ भी आपत्तिजनक नहीं है. जानिए, अब तक सामने आए ईमेलों में क्या लिखा है? लालिबर्टे की निजी ज़िंदगी उनके शोज़ जितनी रंगीन रही है. दो पार्टनरों से उनके पाँच बच्चे हैं और उन्होंने कभी सुपरमॉडल नाओमी कैंपबेल को डेट भी किया था. वीडियो में दिखाई दे रहा है कि कम से कम दो लोगों पर हमलावरों के एक समूह ने हमला किया. यह घटना किसी सार्वजनिक पार्क में होती दिखाई दे रही है. अमेरिकी मीडिया की रिपोर्ट के अनुसार, ट्रंप ने अपने सलाहकारों के साथ हमले के विकल्पों पर चर्चा की है, और ऐसा हमला शनिवार तक हो सकता है. यह घटनाक्रम तब सामने आया है जब टेम्स वैली पुलिस ने कहा कि वह पूर्व प्रिंस की ओर से यौन अपराधी जेफ़री एपस्टीन के साथ कथित रूप से गोपनीय जानकारी साझा किए जाने की शिकायत की जांच कर रही है. सेब और ड्राई फ़्रूट्स उद्योग से जुड़े लोगों को डर है कि ज़ीरो ड्यूटी पर आने वाले अमेरिकी सेब और ड्राई फ़्रूट्स की वजह से उनका बाज़ार ख़त्म हो जाएगा. एक तरफ़ अमेरिकी राष्ट्रपति डोनाल्ड ट्रंप पाकिस्तान को ख़ासा तवज्जो दे रहे हैं तो दूसरी तरफ़ इसराइल में पाकिस्तान को लेकर संदेह बढ़ रहा है. इसराइल के पूर्व प्रधानमंत्री ने पाकिस्तान को लेकर ऐसा क्यों कहा? टी-20 वर्ल्ड कप 2026 में भारत ने ग्रुप स्टेज के अपने चारों मुक़ाबले जीत लिए, लेकिन कई ऐसे फैक्टर्स हैं जो टीम इंडिया की कमज़ोरी के तौर पर सामने आए हैं. बीबीसी हिंदी अब व्हाट्सऐप चैनल पर चर्चित रिपोर्टें भारत में आयोजित एआई समिट में ओपन एआई और एंथ्रोपिक के सीईओ के बीच दिखी असहजता को लेकर अमेरिकी मीडिया में कई तरह की बातें की जा रही हैं. सोशल मीडिया पर वायरल हुए एक वीडियो में जिब्रान रियाज़ नाम के एक छात्र को भारत का राष्ट्रगान गाते हुए सुना जा सकता है, जबकि वहां मौजूद कुछ अन्य छात्र भी उनका साथ दे रहे हैं. बीबीसी इंडियन स्पोर्ट्सवुमन ऑफ़ द ईयर अवॉर्ड की विजेता की घोषणा हो गई है. भारतीय महिला क्रिकेटर स्मृति मंधाना को बीबीसी इंडियन स्पोर्ट्सवुमन ऑफ़ द ईयर 2025 चुना गया. डोनाल्ड ट्रंप की ग्रीनलैंड ख़रीदने की इच्छा के पीछे इतिहास की ऐसी मिसालें हैं जब अमेरिका ने कई जगहों को ख़रीदा. इसके बाद ही अमेरिका आज इतना विशाल देश बन पाया है. दुनिया के सबसे बड़े शिक्षा बोर्डों में से एक केंद्रीय माध्यमिक शिक्षा बोर्ड की 10वीं और 12वीं कक्षा की परीक्षाएं 17 फ़रवरी से शुरू हो चुकी हैं. इस बार 46 लाख से अधिक छात्र इन बोर्ड परीक्षाओं में शामिल हो रहे हैं. तारिक़ रहमान का भारत खुली बाँहों से स्वागत कर रहा है लेकिन मोहम्मद यूनुस को लेकर ऐसा बिल्कुल नहीं था. क्या तारिक़ रहमान के आने से बांग्लादेश इतना बदल गया है कि भारत की नीति बदल गई? कुँवर सिंह की ख़ासियत ये थी कि वे 1857 के विद्रोह के दौरान तकरीबन एक साल तक ज़ोरदार छापामार युद्ध लड़ते रहे. इस इंटरेक्टिव गेम के ज़रिए क्रिकेट के बारे में अपनी जानकारी को जांचिए. यहां आपको मिलेगा एक अनोखा मौक़ा BBC के स्पेशल वर्चुअल स्टोररूम का, जहां आप चुनेंगे अपना ग्राउंड रिपोर्टिंग असाइनमेंट और फिर एक BBC जर्नलिस्ट की तरह हमारे वर्चुअल स्टोररूम से सही चीज़ें चुनकर अपना किट बैग करेंगे तैयार. मल्टीमीडिया बीबीसी दुनिया देखने के लिए यहाँ क्लिक करें देखिए सोमवार से शुक्रवार हर रात 10 बजे से BBC News Hindi के होम पेज पर. पॉडकास्ट कहानी उन लड़कियों की जो खेल के ज़रिए अपनी ज़िंदगी बदलने की कोशिश कर रही हैं. बीरबल की अकबर से दोस्ती और हाज़िरजवाबी के क़िस्से भारतीय जनमानस में मशहूर हैं. देश दुनिया की बड़ी ख़बरें शॉपलिफ़्टिंग से दुनिया भर में दुकानों को हर साल अरबों डॉलर का नुकसान होता है. वो तरीके जिनसे आप खुद को सेहतमंद रख सकते हैं दिनभर: पूरा दिन, पूरी ख़बर सुनने के लिए यहाँ क्लिक करें सोमवार से शुक्रवार शाम 7.30 बजे बीबीसी हिंदी के YouTube चैनल पर विदेश मनोरंजन खेल विज्ञान-टेक्नॉलॉजी सोशल मीडिया पर फ़ॉलो करें सबसे अधिक लोकप्रिय बीबीसी के लिए कलेक्टिव न्यूज़रूम की ओर से प्रकाशित © 2026 BBC. बाहरी साइटों की सामग्री के लिए बीबीसी ज़िम्मेदार नहीं है. बाहरी साइटों का लिंक देने की हमारी नीति के बारे में पढ़ें. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/indonesia] | [TOKENS: 1286] |
BBC News, Indonesia - Berita Berita utama Apa isi putusan Mahkamah Agung AS itu, bagaimana respons Donald Trump, dan apa implikasinya bagi Indonesia? Kapal induk kedua AS terlihat bergerak menuju Timur Tengah, selagi Washington terus menekan Iran terkait program militernya dan tindakan keras mematikan terhadap para demonstran baru-baru ini. Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor merayakan ulang tahunnya yang ke-66 dalam sel penjara polisi. Apa yang menyebabkan mantan pangeran dan veteran Perang Falkland ini jatuh dari puncak kejayaannya? Sebuah kota di Jepang menerima sumbangan besar berupa 21 kilogram emas batangan untuk membantu memperbaiki sistem airnya yang sudah tua. Emas batangan yang diperkirakan bernilai 560 juta yen (atau setara Rp60 miliar) diberikan pada November lalu oleh seorang donatur anonim. Indonesia dan Amerika Serikat (AS) sepakat menurunkan tarif barang asal Indonesia menjadi 19%, sementara Indonesia menghapus 99% hambatan tarif bagi produk AS. Seorang pria divonis bersalah oleh pengadilan Austria akibat kelalaian, setelah kekasihnya tewas membeku di gunung tertinggi Austria. Kasus ini menjadi perhatian para pendaki di seluruh dunia. Belakangan, sejumlah orang Indonesia mulai menggunakan layanan psikolog untuk menceritakan persoalan kesehatan mental mereka yang dipicu oleh kebijakan negara. Menurut pengamat hubungan internasional, Indonesia akan lebih punya peran lebih kuat dalam memperjuangkan keadilan bagi Palestina. Asalkan punya agenda yang jelas. Tanpa itu, hanya akan jadi "antek asing", kata pengamat. Mantan Presiden Korea Selatan, Yoon Suk Yeol, dijatuhi hukuman penjara seumur hidup karena terbukti memimpin pemberontakan, satu tahun setelah ia berusaha menerapkan darurat militer. BBC News Indonesia hadir di WhatsApp Jadilah yang pertama mendapatkan berita, investigasi dan liputan mendalam dari BBC News Indonesia, langsung di WhatsApp Anda. Berita pilihan Mantan pangeran dan adik Raja Charles III, Andrew Mountbatten Windsor, ditangkap pada Kamis (19/02) waktu setempat atas kecurigaan adanya pelanggaran hukum saat memangku jabatan publik. Komisi Pencari Fakta (KPF) yang dibentuk oleh KontraS, YLBHI, dan LBH Jakarta menemukan bahwa rangkaian demonstrasi dan kerusuhan pada Agustus 2025 lalu merupakan akumulasi kemarahan publik atas ketegangan elite, tarik-tambang kekuasaan dan tekanan ekonomi. Jutaan umat Muslim di seluruh dunia akan melakukan hal yang sama saat matahari terbenam di Ramadan kali ini, yaitu berbuka puasa dengan kurma. Mengapa Anda harus berbuka puasa dengan kurma? Langkah kepolisian yang berstatus penegak hukum turut menjalankan program pemerintah disebut pegiat antikorupsi sebagai "jeruk makan jeruk". Apa dampaknya jika terjadi penyelewengan anggaran? Di Aceh Tamiang, Aceh, warga menggambarkan permukiman mereka seperti wilayah yang habis terkena bom. Seisi kota diselimuti debu tebal yang berasal dari lumpur mengering. Dan di Pidie Jaya, sebagian rumah bahkan masih tertimbun lumpur kering. Mereka menyebut Ramadan bakal berbeda dengan tahun-tahun sebelumnya. Survei audiens BBC News Indonesia Mohon bantuan meningkatkan kualitas situs BBC News Indonesia dengan mengisi kuesioner singkat kami Berita lain Jika pada tahun-tahun sebelumnya, rata-rata setiap desa menerima Rp1 miliar, maka setelah dipotong hanya mendapatkan Rp200 juta-Rp300 juta saja. BBC News Indonesia menelusuri sekitar 70 video pidato Presiden Prabowo dari sejak dia dilantik hingga awal tahun 2026. Swasensor atau sensor mandiri media massa di Indonesia dalam pemberitaannya banyak terjadi pada isu Makanan Bergizi Gratis (MBG) dan Program Strategis Nasional (PSN), menurut temuan riset. Pengamat berkata swasensor yang merupakan tanda kemunduran demokrasi ini berbahaya. Di Longyearbyen, Norwegia, puasa hanya berlangsung sekitar 2,5 jam pada awal bulan Ramadan. Jeda berbuka puasa mulai diterapkan di Liga Inggris pada 2021. Sejumlah bintang di ajang sepakbola itu akan kembali memanfaatkannya pada Ramadan kali ini. Sejak peristiwa 7 Oktober 2023, isu wajib militer di kalangan Yahudi ultra-ortodoks di Israel memanas. Video Pendek Untuk memutar video ini, aktifkan JavaScript atau coba di mesin pencari lain Sorotan Gaya hidup Sejarah Kesehatan Lingkungan Sains dan Teknologi Artikel terpopuler Kami hadir di media sosial © 2026 BBC. BBC tidak bertanggung jawab atas konten dari situs eksternal. Baca tentang peraturan baru terkait link eksternal. |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/japanese] | [TOKENS: 5528] |
BBC News, ニュース - ホーム トップ記事 アメリカのドナルド・トランプ大統領は20日、世界的に10％の追加関税を課す大統領令に署名したと発表した。米最高裁判所が同日、トランプ氏が昨年導入した関税措置の大部分を無効と判断したことを受けた措置。トランプ氏は、最高裁は「ひどい」判断を下した、自分の通商政策を退けた判事たちは「愚か者」だと非難した。 アメリカのドナルド・トランプ大統領は20日、イランの核開発を制限するための合意をイラン側に迫るため、限定的な軍事攻撃を検討していると述べた。 イギリス王室のアンドリュー・マウントバッテン＝ウィンザー元王子が公務中の不正行為の疑いで19日朝に逮捕された事態を受け、王位継承順位8位の元王子を順位から外すための法案提出をイギリス政府が検討していることが明らかになった。元王子は同日夜に釈放されたが、捜査は続いている。 アンドリュー元英王子は19日朝に王邸の敷地内で逮捕されてから警察施設に留置された後、同日夜に釈放された。その11時間はどういうものだったのか。 イギリス王室のアンドリュー・マウントバッテン＝ウィンザー元王子は公務中の不正行為の疑いで19日朝に逮捕された後、約11時間後に釈放された。警察施設を出る車内の後部座席で、目を見開き、口も軽く開いた表情で、背もたれに寄りかかっている写真は、世界中の新聞やウェブサイトに掲載された。この写真を撮影したロイター通信のカメラマン、フィル・ノーブル記者は、この瞬間を捉えられたのは「判断よりも運」のおかげだったと言う。 イギリス王室のアンドリュー・マウントバッテン＝ウィンザー元王子（66）が19日午前8時ごろ、逮捕された。きっかけとなったのは、今年1月に米司法省が追加公開した、性犯罪で有罪とされた米富豪ジェフリー・エプスティーン元被告（故人）に関する膨大な資料だった。ただ、私たちがいま目にしているのは「氷山の一角」にすぎない。 イギリス王室のアンドリュー・マウントバッテン＝ウィンザー氏（66）が19日朝、貿易特使としての公式業務で得た機密情報を故ジェフリー・エプスティーン元被告に渡していた疑いで、テムズ・ヴァレー警察に逮捕された。同日夜には釈放されたが、捜査は続く。アンドリュー元王子の兄、チャールズ国王は国民への声明で、「捜査当局に全面的かつ誠心誠意、支持と協力を提供する」と述べている。この身内の事件で王室はどれくらいダメージを被るのか。 イギリス王室のアンドリュー・マウントバッテン＝ウィンザー氏（66）が19日朝、テムズ・ヴァレー警察に逮捕された。同警察は声明で「ノーフォーク在住の60代男性を公務中の不正行為の疑いで逮捕した」と発表。「国の指針に従い、逮捕された男性の氏名は発表しない」とした。元王子の兄、チャールズ国王は同日、「全面的かつ公正で適切な手続きによる捜査」が行われなくてはならず、「法に沿った対応が必要だ」と声明を出した。元王子は同日夜、釈放され、王邸サンドリンガムに戻る姿が確認された。 イギリス王室のアンドリュー・マウントバッテン＝ウィンザー氏（66）が19日朝、テムズ・ヴァレー警察に逮捕された。同警察は声明で「ノーフォーク在住の60代男性を公務中の不正行為の疑いで逮捕した」と発表した。アンドリュー元王子は同日夜、釈放された。捜査は継続される。 話題のニュース アメリカのトランプ大統領は19日、イランの核開発をめぐって同国と進めている協議について、合意に達するか、それともアメリカが軍事行動に出ることになるか、「今後おそらく10日以内に」明らかになるだろうと述べた。こうしたなか、イギリスはアメリカがイラン攻撃のために英軍基地を使うことを認めていないとみられる。 一つのワクチンで、あらゆるせき症状や風邪、インフルエンザ、さらには細菌性肺感染症を予防し、複数のアレルギー症状の緩和すらできるかもしれない――。そんな研究結果が19日、科学誌「サイエンス」に掲載された。 イギリス王室のアンドリュー・マウントバッテン＝ウィンザー氏（66）が19日朝、テムズ・ヴァレー警察に逮捕された。貿易特使としての公式業務で得た機密情報を、アメリカで性犯罪で有罪となった故ジェフリー・エプスティーン元被告に渡していた疑いが出ている。これを受け、アメリカでは一部の議員が、なぜ同国で刑事捜査の対象となっている人がいないのかと疑問を呈している。 ミラノ・コルティナ・オリンピック（五輪）は競技13日目の19日、フィギュアスケート女子シングルで、坂本花織が銀メダル、中井亜美が銅メダルを獲得した。金メダルはアリサ・リュウ（アメリカ）が逆転で獲得した。今季での引退を表明している坂本は2大会連続でメダルを手にした。 国際パラリンピック委員会（IPC）は17 日、ウクライナへの全面侵攻を続けるロシアと、その同盟国ベラルーシの選手計10人について、来月開幕するミラノ・コルティナ・パラリンピックに国を代表して出場することを認めた。 アメリカのトランプ大統領は19日、自らが主導する、パレスチナ・ガザ地区での和平計画を遂行する「平和評議会」に複数の国が参加し、ガザ向けの「救済パッケージ」に70億ドル（約1兆1000億円）超を拠出したと発表した。「平和評議会」はこの日、米首都ワシントンで初会合を開いた。 イギリスがインド洋のチャゴス諸島の主権をモーリシャスに移譲する合意について、アメリカのトランプ大統領は18日、ソーシャルメディアに、「ディエゴ・ガルシアを渡すな」と書き込み、批判的な姿勢を示した。アメリカ政府は前日、この計画を正式に支持すると表明したばかり。トランプ氏のこの問題に対する立場は、この数カ月で急速に転換している。 韓国の裁判所は19日、内乱を首謀した罪などに問われ、死刑を求刑された尹錫悦（ユン・ソンニョル）前大統領（65）に対し、無期懲役の判決を言い渡した。 米実業家イーロン・マスク氏が所有する衛星通信サービス「スターリンク」はこのほど、ロシア軍のアクセスを拒否した。この判断が、ウクライナとの戦争の前線でロシア側の進軍を鈍らせ、ロシア兵に混乱をもたらしている一方、防衛するウクライナ側に有利に働いていることを示す証拠が積み上がっている。 中東危機 イランは17日、核計画をめぐるアメリカとの対立解消に向け、主要な「指針となる原則」について同国と理解に達したと述べた。アメリカ側は「進展があった」と述べた。イランの核計画と死者を出している反政府抗議への弾圧をめぐり、アメリカは繰り返し軍事的な脅威を示している。 パレスチナ・ガザ地区で15日朝、イスラエル軍の攻撃により11人が殺害された。ガザの民間防衛隊と医療当局が発表した。イスラエルとガザの武装組織ハマスは、昨年10月10日の停戦発効以降、ほぼ毎日のように、互いの合意違反を非難している。こうしたなか、アメリカが仲介した和平計画の第2段階の実施に向けた準備が続いている。 アメリカのトランプ大統領は11日、ホワイトハウスでイスラエルのネタニヤフ首相と会談し、イランとの核協議を継続する考えを強調した。ただ、合意に至らない場合には、イランへの対抗策を講じる可能性があると警告した。 イスラエルの安全保障内閣が8日に、占領するパレスチナ・ヨルダン川西岸への入植を容易にするさまざまな措置を承認したことを受け、パレスチナ人とアラブ諸国、入植に反対するイスラエルの複数団体、およびイギリス政府は、イスラエル政府の動きを事実上の併合だと非難した。 ドナルド・トランプ米大統領は6日、イランとの貿易を続ける国々に追加関税を課すとする大統領令に署名した。 ロシア・ウクライナ戦争 ロシアとウクライナの代表団は18日、アメリカが仲介したスイス・ジュネーヴでの和平協議の最終日を終えた。ロシアによるウクライナでの戦争の終結に関して、突破口は見出せなかった。 ロシアとウクライナの代表団は17日、アメリカが仲介したジュネーヴでの和平協議の初日を終えた。ロシアによるウクライナへの全面侵攻は、来週で丸4年を迎える。三者協議はこれで3回目となるが、ロシアはウクライナ領土に対する拡大主義的な要求を変えておらず、突破口への期待は低いとされている。こうしたなかでもロシア軍によるウクライナへの攻撃は連日続いており、すでに損傷が激しい同国の電力網にさらなる被害が出ている。 ウクライナ当局は15日、元エネルギー相が国外に出ようとしたところを拘束したと明らかにした。ヘルマン・ハルシュチェンコ氏は、ウクライナを出る列車の中で拘束されたと報じられている。どこへ向かうつもりだったのかは明らかになっていない。 スポーツ仲裁裁判所（CAS）は13日、ミラノ・コルティナ・オリンピック（五輪）で、国際オリンピック委員会（IOC）が使用禁止としたヘルメットをめぐって失格となった、ウクライナのスケルトン男子選手の異議申し立てを却下した。開会式でウクライナの旗手を務めたウラジスラフ・ヘラスケヴィッチ選手（26）は、ロシアによるウクライナ侵攻で殺されたアスリートらの写真をちりばめたヘルメットを、大会の競技中に被ると表明。IOCがこれを受けてヘラスケヴィッチ選手を失格としたため、同選手はCASに緊急に訴えを起こし、出場資格の回復を求めていた。 ロシアは12日、米メタが運営するメッセージアプリ「ワッツアップ」の遮断を命じた。ワッツアップは前日、ロシア政府が同国内でワッツアップを「完全に遮断しようとしている」と発表していた。クレムリン（ロシア大統領府）は複数のメッセージアプリに関して規制強化を進めている。 ビデオ 読み物・解説 1960年代のアメリカ公民権運動で重要な存在だったジェシー・ジャクソン牧師は、アフリカ系アメリカ人として初めて、活動家から身を転じて、主要政党の大統領候補を目指して活動した。大統領を目指したアフリカ系の候補者はほかにいたが、実際に多くの票を獲得したのはジャクソン師が初めてだった。そしてその成功が、バラク・オバマ氏やカマラ・ハリス氏など、後に続いた人々のための道を切り開いた。 パンダの返還から民間機の運航停止まで、日本の高市首相による台湾発言以降、中国は報復措置を継続している。 イランの核計画と反政府抗議への弾圧をめぐり、アメリカが同国への圧力をさらに強めている。BBCヴェリファイ（検証チーム）は、人工衛星画像を用いて、米海軍の空母「エイブラハム・リンカーン」が、イランにさらに近づいていることを確認した。 アメリカのクリントン元国務長官は16日、BBCの単独インタビューで、性犯罪で有罪となった富豪エプスティーン元被告（故人）に関連する文書の扱いについて、トランプ大統領の政権が「もみ消した」と非難した。また、「文書を公開すべきだ。政権側は対応を引き延ばしている」と語った。 オバマ元米大統領は14日公開のポッドキャストで、自分と妻についてトランプ大統領が人種差別動画をソーシャルメディアに投稿した問題について、間接的ながら初めて公に言及し、かつて公職者というのは「恥」や「品位」の概念を持ち合わせ、それに導かれているものだったが、今やそれは失われてしまったと述べた。トランプ氏について名指しはしなかった。 元米海軍大佐のケリー上院議員（民主党）をはじめ計6人の民主党議員が昨年11月、上官による違法な命令は拒否するよう米兵に呼びかける動画を公開したことを受け、ヘグセス国防長官がケリー議員の階級を引き下げると決定した問題で、首都ワシントンの連邦地裁は12日、国防長官の命令を一時的に差し止めた。これに先立ちワシントンの大陪審は、動画を発表した民主党議員6人を反逆共謀罪で起訴しようとする動きを退けていた。 注目の記事 ソーシャルメディア公式アカウント © 2026 BBC. BBCは外部サイトの内容に責任を負いません。 本サイトの外部リンク方針はこちら |
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[SOURCE: https://www.bbc.com/igbo] | [TOKENS: 1086] |
BBC News, Ìgbò - Akụkọ Isi akụkọ Nchịkọta akụkọ ndị kachasị mkpa mere na mbaụwa n'izu a. Onyeisiala Amerịka kpughere atụmatụ a n'ime obere oge ndị Ọkaikpe ahụ kachapụrụ ọtụtụ ụtụisi White House manyere mbaụwa dị iche iche n'afọ gara aga. A hụrụ Mountbatten-Windsor n'abalị Tọzde ka ọ na-alọghachi n'ụlọ obibi Sandringham Estate mgbe ejidechara ya maka ebubo ime ihe ọjọọ oge ọ nọ n'ụlọọrụ ọha. Aliero mere ka o doo anya na-akwụkwọ osisi dawa mgbe ọbụla maọbụ azụ osisi ahụ tụgharịwa nke bụ na ọdịghị etu o si adị mbụ, nke ahụ pụtara na osisi ahụ nwere nsogbu "ICPC na-ekwupụta na Malam Nasiru El-Rufai, onye bụbu gọvanọ Kaduna steeti nọ n'ụlọọrụ anyị ka anyị mechiri ọrụ n'ụbọchị Wenezde abalị iri na asatọ nke ọnwa Febụwarị maka nyocha nke na-aga n'ihu" Kọwaara m isi akụkọ Nchikọta akụkọ ndị kachasị mkpa n'ụwa taa bụ Fraịde 20 Febụwarị, 2026 Tupu ndị ụlọomeiwu akwado iwu ntụliaka 2022 nke emegharịrị emegharị n'afọ 2026 n'ụbọchị Tuzde abalị iri na asaa nke ọnwa Febụwarị, e nwere obere ogbaghara dịka ha maliteghachiri nzuko. Ogochukwu Nwite bụ nwanne Ikechukwu Nwite nwaodibo ya kugburu n'Onitsha Anambra Steeti akọwaala etu ihe a si mee. Nke a na-abịa dịka a kachaara ya ụka olili ozu n'ụlọụka St Pius Catholic Church Nara Unateze dị n'Enugwu Steeti Vidio Ngwaọrụ gị akwadoghi ọkpụkpọ mgbasa ozi BBC News Igbo nọ na WhatsApp gị Nweta akụkọ na mgbasaozi niile ndị ọrụ anyị haziri n'Igbo, ma bụrụkwa onye mbụ ga-anụ akụkọ niile dị mkpa na-akpọtụ na Naịjirịa nakwa n'ụwa niile. Kuziere m Kpalite mmụọ m Egwuruegwu Iko Mba Afrịka 2025 Ọgbaabọọlụ bụ Francis Uzoho akọwala etu o siri banye otu egwu bọọlụ 'Super Eagles'. Semi Ajayi na Ademola Lookman gosiri nke ha ji biri. Lee etu asọmpi Iko Mba Afrịka nke afọ 2025 si kwụrụ ugbua na tebụlụ. Ndị ọgbaa bọọlụ foto ha dị ebe a ka e kwuru ga-anọchite anya otu egwu bọọlụ Super Eagles dịka ha na-agba mbọ ịmabute iko Afcon nke afọ 2025. Ụlọọrụ BBC Sport Afrịka nnyochara ndị ọgbaa bọọlụ isii a na-elejere anya n'asọmpi Afcon 2025 ga-ebido na Moroko na 21 Disemba ruo 18 Jenụwarị Asọmpi Afcon 2025 ga-amalite n'ụbọchị Sọnde 21 Disemba, 2025 na mba Moroko. Ọgba Mbọ Soro anyị na Akụkọ akachasị gụọ © 2026 BBC. BBC anaghị ahụta maka ọdịnaya nke saịtị ndị dị na mpụga. Usoro anyị maka njikọ dị na mpụga. |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World#cite_note-Ranganathan-61] | [TOKENS: 5641] |
Contents World The world is the totality of entities, the whole of reality, or everything that exists. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the world as unique, while others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some treat the world as one simple object, while others analyze the world as a complex made up of parts. In scientific cosmology, the world or universe is commonly defined as "the totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Theories of modality talk of possible worlds as complete and consistent ways how things could have been. Phenomenology, starting from the horizon of co-given objects present in the periphery of every experience, defines the world as the biggest horizon, or the "horizon of all horizons". In philosophy of mind, the world is contrasted with the mind as that which is represented by the mind. Theology conceptualizes the world in relation to God, for example, as God's creation, as identical to God, or as the two being interdependent. In religions, there is a tendency to downgrade the material or sensory world in favor of a spiritual world to be sought through religious practice. A comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it, as is found in religions, is known as a worldview. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world, while eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. In various contexts, the term "world" takes a more restricted meaning associated, for example, with the Earth and all life on it, with humanity as a whole, or with an international or intercontinental scope. In this sense, world history refers to the history of humanity as a whole, and world politics is the discipline of political science studying issues that transcend nations and continents. Other examples include terms such as "world religion", "world language", "world government", "world war", "world population", "world economy", or "world championship". Etymology The English word world comes from the Old English weorold. The Old English is a reflex of the Common Germanic *weraldiz, a compound of weraz 'man' and aldiz 'age', thus literally meaning roughly 'age of man'; this word led to Old Frisian warld, Old Saxon werold, Old Dutch werolt, Old High German weralt, and Old Norse verǫld. The corresponding word in Latin is mundus, literally 'clean, elegant', itself a loan translation of Greek cosmos 'orderly arrangement'. While the Germanic word thus reflects a mythological notion of a "domain of Man" (compare Midgard), presumably as opposed to the divine sphere on the one hand and the chthonic sphere of the underworld on the other, the Greco-Latin term expresses a notion of creation as an act of establishing order out of chaos. Conceptions Different fields often work with quite different conceptions of the essential features associated with the term "world". Some conceptions see the world as unique: there can be no more than one world. Others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some see worlds as complex things composed of many substances as their parts while others hold that worlds are simple in the sense that there is only one substance: the world as a whole. Some characterize worlds in terms of objective spacetime while others define them relative to the horizon present in each experience. These different characterizations are not always exclusive: it may be possible to combine some without leading to a contradiction. Most of them agree that worlds are unified totalities. Monism is a thesis about oneness: that only one thing exists in a certain sense. The denial of monism is pluralism, the thesis that, in a certain sense, more than one thing exists. There are many forms of monism and pluralism, but in relation to the world as a whole, two are of special interest: existence monism/pluralism and priority monism/pluralism. Existence monism states that the world is the only concrete object there is. This means that all the concrete "objects" we encounter in our daily lives, including apples, cars and ourselves, are not truly objects in a strict sense. Instead, they are just dependent aspects of the world-object. Such a world-object is simple in the sense that it does not have any genuine parts. For this reason, it has also been referred to as "blobject" since it lacks an internal structure like a blob. Priority monism allows that there are other concrete objects besides the world. But it holds that these objects do not have the most fundamental form of existence, that they somehow depend on the existence of the world. The corresponding forms of pluralism state that the world is complex in the sense that it is made up of concrete, independent objects. Scientific cosmology can be defined as the science of the universe as a whole. In it, the terms "universe" and "cosmos" are usually used as synonyms for the term "world". One common definition of the world/universe found in this field is as "[t]he totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Some definitions emphasize that there are two other aspects to the universe besides spacetime: forms of energy or matter, like stars and particles, and laws of nature. World-conceptions in this field differ both concerning their notion of spacetime and of the contents of spacetime. The theory of relativity plays a central role in modern cosmology and its conception of space and time. A difference from its predecessors is that it conceives space and time not as distinct dimensions but as a single four-dimensional manifold called spacetime. This can be seen in special relativity in relation to the Minkowski metric, which includes both spatial and temporal components in its definition of distance. General relativity goes one step further by integrating the concept of mass into the concept of spacetime as its curvature. Quantum cosmology uses a classical notion of spacetime and conceives the whole world as one big wave function expressing the probability of finding particles in a given location. The world-concept plays a role in many modern theories of modality, sometimes in the form of possible worlds. A possible world is a complete and consistent way how things could have been. The actual world is a possible world since the way things are is a way things could have been. There are many other ways things could have been besides how they actually are. For example, Hillary Clinton did not win the 2016 US election, but she could have won. So there is a possible world in which she did. There is a vast number of possible worlds, one corresponding to each such difference, no matter how small or big, as long as no outright contradictions are introduced this way. Possible worlds are often conceived as abstract objects, for example, in terms of non-obtaining states of affairs or as maximally consistent sets of propositions. On such a view, they can even be seen as belonging to the actual world. Another way to conceive possible worlds, made famous by David Lewis, is as concrete entities. On this conception, there is no important difference between the actual world and possible worlds: both are conceived as concrete, inclusive and spatiotemporally connected. The only difference is that the actual world is the world we live in, while other possible worlds are not inhabited by us but by our counterparts. Everything within a world is spatiotemporally connected to everything else but the different worlds do not share a common spacetime: They are spatiotemporally isolated from each other. This is what makes them separate worlds. It has been suggested that, besides possible worlds, there are also impossible worlds. Possible worlds are ways things could have been, so impossible worlds are ways things could not have been. Such worlds involve a contradiction, like a world in which Hillary Clinton both won and lost the 2016 US election. Both possible and impossible worlds have in common the idea that they are totalities of their constituents. Within phenomenology, worlds are defined in terms of horizons of experiences. When we perceive an object, like a house, we do not just experience this object at the center of our attention but also various other objects surrounding it, given in the periphery. The term "horizon" refers to these co-given objects, which are usually experienced only in a vague, indeterminate manner. The perception of a house involves various horizons, corresponding to the neighborhood, the city, the country, the Earth, etc. In this context, the world is the biggest horizon or the "horizon of all horizons". It is common among phenomenologists to understand the world not just as a spatiotemporal collection of objects but as additionally incorporating various other relations between these objects. These relations include, for example, indication-relations that help us anticipate one object given the appearances of another object and means-end-relations or functional involvements relevant for practical concerns. In philosophy of mind, the term "world" is commonly used in contrast to the term "mind" as that which is represented by the mind. This is sometimes expressed by stating that there is a gap between mind and world and that this gap needs to be overcome for representation to be successful. One problem in philosophy of mind is to explain how the mind is able to bridge this gap and to enter into genuine mind-world-relations, for example, in the form of perception, knowledge or action. This is necessary for the world to be able to rationally constrain the activity of the mind. According to a realist position, the world is something distinct and independent from the mind. Idealists conceive of the world as partially or fully determined by the mind. Immanuel Kant's transcendental idealism, for example, posits that the spatiotemporal structure of the world is imposed by the mind on reality but lacks independent existence otherwise. A more radical idealist conception of the world can be found in Berkeley's subjective idealism, which holds that the world as a whole, including all everyday objects like tables, cats, trees and ourselves, "consists of nothing but minds and ideas". Different theological positions hold different conceptions of the world based on its relation to God. Classical theism states that God is wholly distinct from the world. But the world depends for its existence on God, both because God created the world and because He maintains or conserves it. This is sometimes understood in analogy to how humans create and conserve ideas in their imagination, with the difference being that the divine mind is vastly more powerful. On such a view, God has absolute, ultimate reality in contrast to the lower ontological status ascribed to the world. God's involvement in the world is often understood along the lines of a personal, benevolent God who looks after and guides His creation. Deists agree with theists that God created the world but deny any subsequent, personal involvement in it. Pantheists reject the separation between God and world. Instead, they claim that the two are identical. This means that there is nothing to the world that does not belong to God and that there is nothing to God beyond what is found in the world. Panentheism constitutes a middle ground between theism and pantheism. Against theism, it holds that God and the world are interrelated and depend on each other. Against pantheism, it holds that there is no outright identity between the two. History of philosophy In philosophy, the term world has several possible meanings. In some contexts, it refers to everything that makes up reality or the physical universe. In others, it can mean have a specific ontological sense (see world disclosure). While clarifying the concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western philosophy, this theme appears to have been raised explicitly only at the start of the twentieth century, Plato is well known for his theory of forms, which posits the existence of two different worlds: the sensible world and the intelligible world. The sensible world is the world we live in, filled with changing physical things we can see, touch and interact with. The intelligible world is the world of invisible, eternal, changeless forms like goodness, beauty, unity and sameness. Plato ascribes a lower ontological status to the sensible world, which only imitates the world of forms. This is due to the fact that physical things exist only to the extent that they participate in the forms that characterize them, while the forms themselves have an independent manner of existence. In this sense, the sensible world is a mere replication of the perfect exemplars found in the world of forms: it never lives up to the original. In the allegory of the cave, Plato compares the physical things we are familiar with to mere shadows of the real things. But not knowing the difference, the prisoners in the cave mistake the shadows for the real things. Two definitions that were both put forward in the 1920s, however, suggest the range of available opinion. "The world is everything that is the case", wrote Ludwig Wittgenstein in his influential Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first published in 1921. Martin Heidegger, meanwhile, argued that "the surrounding world is different for each of us, and notwithstanding that we move about in a common world". "World" is one of the key terms in Eugen Fink's philosophy. He thinks that there is a misguided tendency in western philosophy to understand the world as one enormously big thing containing all the small everyday things we are familiar with. He sees this view as a form of forgetfulness of the world and tries to oppose it by what he calls the "cosmological difference": the difference between the world and the inner-worldly things it contains. On his view, the world is the totality of the inner-worldly things that transcends them. It is itself groundless but it provides a ground for things. It therefore cannot be identified with a mere container. Instead, the world gives appearance to inner-worldly things, it provides them with a place, a beginning and an end. One difficulty in investigating the world is that we never encounter it since it is not just one more thing that appears to us. This is why Fink uses the notion of play or playing to elucidate the nature of the world. He sees play as a symbol of the world that is both part of it and that represents it. Play usually comes with a form of imaginary play-world involving various things relevant to the play. But just like the play is more than the imaginary realities appearing in it so the world is more than the actual things appearing in it. The concept of worlds plays a central role in Nelson Goodman's late philosophy. He argues that we need to posit different worlds in order to account for the fact that there are different incompatible truths found in reality. Two truths are incompatible if they ascribe incompatible properties to the same thing. This happens, for example, when we assert both that the earth moves and that the earth is at rest. These incompatible truths correspond to two different ways of describing the world: heliocentrism and geocentrism. Goodman terms such descriptions "world versions". He holds a correspondence theory of truth: a world version is true if it corresponds to a world. Incompatible true world versions correspond to different worlds. It is common for theories of modality to posit the existence of a plurality of possible worlds. But Goodman's theory is different since it posits a plurality not of possible but of actual worlds. Such a position is in danger of involving a contradiction: there cannot be a plurality of actual worlds if worlds are defined as maximally inclusive wholes. This danger may be avoided by interpreting Goodman's world-concept not as maximally inclusive wholes in the absolute sense but in relation to its corresponding world-version: a world contains all and only the entities that its world-version describes. Religion Mythological cosmologies depict the world as centered on an axis mundi and delimited by a boundary such as a world ocean, a world serpent or similar. Hinduism constitutes a family of religious-philosophical views. These views present perspectives on the nature and role of the world. Samkhya philosophy, for example, is a metaphysical dualism that understands reality as comprising 2 parts: purusha and prakriti. The term "purusha" stands for the individual conscious self that each of "us" possesses. Prakriti, on the other hand, is the 1 world inhabited by all these selves. Samkhya understands this world as a world of matter governed by the law of cause and effect. The term "matter" is understood in a sense in this tradition including physical and mental aspects. This is reflected in the doctrine of tattvas, according to which prakriti is made up of 23 principles or elements of reality. These principles include physical elements, like water or earth, and mental aspects, like intelligence or sense-impressions. The relation between purusha and prakriti is conceived as 1 of observation: purusha is the conscious self aware of the world of prakriti and does not causally interact with it. A conception of the world is present in Advaita Vedanta, the monist school among the Vedanta schools. Unlike the realist position defended in Samkhya philosophy, Advaita Vedanta sees the world of multiplicity as an illusion, referred to as Maya. This illusion includes impression of existing as separate experiencing selfs called Jivas. Instead, Advaita Vedanta teaches that on the most fundamental level of reality, referred to as Brahman, there exists no plurality or difference. All there is is 1 all-encompassing self: Atman. Ignorance is seen as the source of this illusion, which results in bondage to the world of mere appearances. Liberation is possible in the course of overcoming this illusion by acquiring the knowledge of Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Contemptus mundi is the name given to the belief that the world, in all its vanity, is nothing more than a futile attempt to hide from God by stifling our desire for the good and the holy. This view has been characterised as a "pastoral of fear" by historian Jean Delumeau. "The world, the flesh, and the devil" is a traditional division of the sources of temptation. Orbis Catholicus is a Latin phrase meaning "Catholic world", per the expression Urbi et Orbi, and refers to that area of Christendom under papal supremacy. In Islam, the term "dunya" is used for the world. Its meaning is derived from the root word "dana", a term for "near". It is associated with the temporal, sensory world and earthly concerns, i.e. with this world in contrast to the spiritual world. Religious teachings warn of a tendency to seek happiness in this world and advise a more ascetic lifestyle concerned with the afterlife. Other strands in Islam recommend a balanced approach. In Mandaean cosmology, the world or earthly realm is known as Tibil. It is separated from the World of Light (alma d-nhūra) above and the World of Darkness (alma d-hšuka) below by aether (ayar). Related terms and problems A worldview is a comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it. As a representation, it is a subjective perspective of the world and thereby different from the world it represents. All higher animals need to represent their environment in some way in order to navigate it. But it has been argued that only humans possess a representation encompassing enough to merit the term "worldview". Philosophers of worldviews commonly hold that the understanding of any object depends on a worldview constituting the background on which this understanding can take place. This may affect not just our intellectual understanding of the object in question but the experience of it in general. It is therefore impossible to assess one's worldview from a neutral perspective since this assessment already presupposes the worldview as its background. Some hold that each worldview is based on a single hypothesis that promises to solve all the problems of our existence we may encounter. On this interpretation, the term is closely associated to the worldviews given by different religions. Worldviews offer orientation not just in theoretical matters but also in practical matters. For this reason, they usually include answers to the question of the meaning of life and other evaluative components about what matters and how we should act. A worldview can be unique to one individual but worldviews are usually shared by many people within a certain culture or religion. The idea that there exist many different worlds is found in various fields. For example, theories of modality talk about a plurality of possible worlds and the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics carries this reference even in its name. Talk of different worlds is also common in everyday language, for example, with reference to the world of music, the world of business, the world of football, the world of experience or the Asian world. But at the same time, worlds are usually defined as all-inclusive totalities. This seems to contradict the very idea of a plurality of worlds since if a world is total and all-inclusive then it cannot have anything outside itself. Understood this way, a world can neither have other worlds besides itself or be part of something bigger. One way to resolve this paradox while holding onto the notion of a plurality of worlds is to restrict the sense in which worlds are totalities. On this view, worlds are not totalities in an absolute sense. This might be even understood in the sense that, strictly speaking, there are no worlds at all. Another approach understands worlds in a schematic sense: as context-dependent expressions that stand for the current domain of discourse. So in the expression "Around the World in Eighty Days", the term "world" refers to the earth while in the colonial expression "the New World" it refers to the landmass of North and South America. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world. This includes both scientific cosmogony and creation myths found in various religions. The dominant theory in scientific cosmogony is the Big Bang theory, according to which both space, time and matter have their origin in one initial singularity occurring about 13.8 billion years ago. This singularity was followed by an expansion that allowed the universe to sufficiently cool down for the formation of subatomic particles and later atoms. These initial elements formed giant clouds, which would then coalesce into stars and galaxies. Non-scientific creation myths are found in many cultures and are often enacted in rituals expressing their symbolic meaning. They can be categorized concerning their contents. Types often found include creation from nothing, from chaos or from a cosmic egg. Eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. It is traditionally associated with religion, specifically with the Abrahamic religions. In this form, it may include teachings both of the end of each individual human life and of the end of the world as a whole. But it has been applied to other fields as well, for example, in the form of physical eschatology, which includes scientifically based speculations about the far future of the universe. According to some models, there will be a Big Crunch in which the whole universe collapses back into a singularity, possibly resulting in a second Big Bang afterward. But current astronomical evidence seems to suggest that our universe will continue to expand indefinitely. World history studies the world from a historical perspective. Unlike other approaches to history, it employs a global viewpoint. It deals less with individual nations and civilizations, which it usually approaches at a high level of abstraction. Instead, it concentrates on wider regions and zones of interaction, often interested in how people, goods and ideas move from one region to another. It includes comparisons of different societies and civilizations as well as considering wide-ranging developments with a long-term global impact like the process of industrialization. Contemporary world history is dominated by three main research paradigms determining the periodization into different epochs. One is based on productive relations between humans and nature. The two most important changes in history in this respect were the introduction of agriculture and husbandry concerning the production of food, which started around 10,000 to 8,000 BCE and is sometimes termed the Neolithic Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution, which started around 1760 CE and involved the transition from manual to industrial manufacturing. Another paradigm, focusing on culture and religion instead, is based on Karl Jaspers' theories about the Axial Age, a time in which various new forms of religious and philosophical thoughts appeared in several separate parts of the world around the time between 800 and 200 BCE. A third periodization is based on the relations between civilizations and societies. According to this paradigm, history can be divided into three periods in relation to the dominant region in the world: Middle Eastern dominance before 500 BCE, Eurasian cultural balance until 1500 CE and Western dominance since 1500 CE. Big History employs an even wider framework than world history by putting human history into the context of the history of the universe as a whole. It starts with the Big Bang and traces the formation of galaxies, the Solar System, the Earth, its geological eras, the evolution of life and humans until the present day. World politics, also referred to as global politics or international relations, is the discipline of political science studying issues of interest to the world that transcend nations and continents. It aims to explain complex patterns found in the social world that are often related to the pursuit of power, order and justice, usually in the context of globalization. It focuses not just on the relations between nation-states but also considers other transnational actors, like multinational corporations, terrorist groups, or non-governmental organizations. For example, it tries to explain events such as the September 11 attacks, the 2003 invasion of Iraq or the 2008 financial crisis. Various theories have been proposed in order to deal with the complexity involved in formulating such explanations. These theories are sometimes divided into realism, liberalism and constructivism. Realists see nation-states as the main actors in world politics. They constitute an anarchical international system without any overarching power to control their behavior. They are seen as sovereign agents that, determined by human nature, act according to their national self-interest. Military force may play an important role in the ensuing struggle for power between states, but diplomacy and cooperation are also key mechanisms for nations to achieve their goals. Liberalists acknowledge the importance of states but they also emphasize the role of transnational actors, like the United Nations or the World Trade Organization. They see humans as perfectible and stress the role of democracy in this process. The emergent order in world politics, on this perspective, is more complex than a mere balance of power since more different agents and interests are involved in its production. Constructivism ascribes more importance to the agency of individual humans than realism and liberalism. It understands the social world as a construction of the people living in it. This leads to an emphasis on the possibility of change. If the international system is an anarchy of nation-states, as the realists hold, then this is only so because we made it this way and may change since this is not prefigured by human nature, according to the constructivists. See also References External links Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Afro-Eurasia Americas Eurasia Oceania |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World#cite_note-60] | [TOKENS: 5641] |
Contents World The world is the totality of entities, the whole of reality, or everything that exists. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the world as unique, while others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some treat the world as one simple object, while others analyze the world as a complex made up of parts. In scientific cosmology, the world or universe is commonly defined as "the totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Theories of modality talk of possible worlds as complete and consistent ways how things could have been. Phenomenology, starting from the horizon of co-given objects present in the periphery of every experience, defines the world as the biggest horizon, or the "horizon of all horizons". In philosophy of mind, the world is contrasted with the mind as that which is represented by the mind. Theology conceptualizes the world in relation to God, for example, as God's creation, as identical to God, or as the two being interdependent. In religions, there is a tendency to downgrade the material or sensory world in favor of a spiritual world to be sought through religious practice. A comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it, as is found in religions, is known as a worldview. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world, while eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. In various contexts, the term "world" takes a more restricted meaning associated, for example, with the Earth and all life on it, with humanity as a whole, or with an international or intercontinental scope. In this sense, world history refers to the history of humanity as a whole, and world politics is the discipline of political science studying issues that transcend nations and continents. Other examples include terms such as "world religion", "world language", "world government", "world war", "world population", "world economy", or "world championship". Etymology The English word world comes from the Old English weorold. The Old English is a reflex of the Common Germanic *weraldiz, a compound of weraz 'man' and aldiz 'age', thus literally meaning roughly 'age of man'; this word led to Old Frisian warld, Old Saxon werold, Old Dutch werolt, Old High German weralt, and Old Norse verǫld. The corresponding word in Latin is mundus, literally 'clean, elegant', itself a loan translation of Greek cosmos 'orderly arrangement'. While the Germanic word thus reflects a mythological notion of a "domain of Man" (compare Midgard), presumably as opposed to the divine sphere on the one hand and the chthonic sphere of the underworld on the other, the Greco-Latin term expresses a notion of creation as an act of establishing order out of chaos. Conceptions Different fields often work with quite different conceptions of the essential features associated with the term "world". Some conceptions see the world as unique: there can be no more than one world. Others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some see worlds as complex things composed of many substances as their parts while others hold that worlds are simple in the sense that there is only one substance: the world as a whole. Some characterize worlds in terms of objective spacetime while others define them relative to the horizon present in each experience. These different characterizations are not always exclusive: it may be possible to combine some without leading to a contradiction. Most of them agree that worlds are unified totalities. Monism is a thesis about oneness: that only one thing exists in a certain sense. The denial of monism is pluralism, the thesis that, in a certain sense, more than one thing exists. There are many forms of monism and pluralism, but in relation to the world as a whole, two are of special interest: existence monism/pluralism and priority monism/pluralism. Existence monism states that the world is the only concrete object there is. This means that all the concrete "objects" we encounter in our daily lives, including apples, cars and ourselves, are not truly objects in a strict sense. Instead, they are just dependent aspects of the world-object. Such a world-object is simple in the sense that it does not have any genuine parts. For this reason, it has also been referred to as "blobject" since it lacks an internal structure like a blob. Priority monism allows that there are other concrete objects besides the world. But it holds that these objects do not have the most fundamental form of existence, that they somehow depend on the existence of the world. The corresponding forms of pluralism state that the world is complex in the sense that it is made up of concrete, independent objects. Scientific cosmology can be defined as the science of the universe as a whole. In it, the terms "universe" and "cosmos" are usually used as synonyms for the term "world". One common definition of the world/universe found in this field is as "[t]he totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". Some definitions emphasize that there are two other aspects to the universe besides spacetime: forms of energy or matter, like stars and particles, and laws of nature. World-conceptions in this field differ both concerning their notion of spacetime and of the contents of spacetime. The theory of relativity plays a central role in modern cosmology and its conception of space and time. A difference from its predecessors is that it conceives space and time not as distinct dimensions but as a single four-dimensional manifold called spacetime. This can be seen in special relativity in relation to the Minkowski metric, which includes both spatial and temporal components in its definition of distance. General relativity goes one step further by integrating the concept of mass into the concept of spacetime as its curvature. Quantum cosmology uses a classical notion of spacetime and conceives the whole world as one big wave function expressing the probability of finding particles in a given location. The world-concept plays a role in many modern theories of modality, sometimes in the form of possible worlds. A possible world is a complete and consistent way how things could have been. The actual world is a possible world since the way things are is a way things could have been. There are many other ways things could have been besides how they actually are. For example, Hillary Clinton did not win the 2016 US election, but she could have won. So there is a possible world in which she did. There is a vast number of possible worlds, one corresponding to each such difference, no matter how small or big, as long as no outright contradictions are introduced this way. Possible worlds are often conceived as abstract objects, for example, in terms of non-obtaining states of affairs or as maximally consistent sets of propositions. On such a view, they can even be seen as belonging to the actual world. Another way to conceive possible worlds, made famous by David Lewis, is as concrete entities. On this conception, there is no important difference between the actual world and possible worlds: both are conceived as concrete, inclusive and spatiotemporally connected. The only difference is that the actual world is the world we live in, while other possible worlds are not inhabited by us but by our counterparts. Everything within a world is spatiotemporally connected to everything else but the different worlds do not share a common spacetime: They are spatiotemporally isolated from each other. This is what makes them separate worlds. It has been suggested that, besides possible worlds, there are also impossible worlds. Possible worlds are ways things could have been, so impossible worlds are ways things could not have been. Such worlds involve a contradiction, like a world in which Hillary Clinton both won and lost the 2016 US election. Both possible and impossible worlds have in common the idea that they are totalities of their constituents. Within phenomenology, worlds are defined in terms of horizons of experiences. When we perceive an object, like a house, we do not just experience this object at the center of our attention but also various other objects surrounding it, given in the periphery. The term "horizon" refers to these co-given objects, which are usually experienced only in a vague, indeterminate manner. The perception of a house involves various horizons, corresponding to the neighborhood, the city, the country, the Earth, etc. In this context, the world is the biggest horizon or the "horizon of all horizons". It is common among phenomenologists to understand the world not just as a spatiotemporal collection of objects but as additionally incorporating various other relations between these objects. These relations include, for example, indication-relations that help us anticipate one object given the appearances of another object and means-end-relations or functional involvements relevant for practical concerns. In philosophy of mind, the term "world" is commonly used in contrast to the term "mind" as that which is represented by the mind. This is sometimes expressed by stating that there is a gap between mind and world and that this gap needs to be overcome for representation to be successful. One problem in philosophy of mind is to explain how the mind is able to bridge this gap and to enter into genuine mind-world-relations, for example, in the form of perception, knowledge or action. This is necessary for the world to be able to rationally constrain the activity of the mind. According to a realist position, the world is something distinct and independent from the mind. Idealists conceive of the world as partially or fully determined by the mind. Immanuel Kant's transcendental idealism, for example, posits that the spatiotemporal structure of the world is imposed by the mind on reality but lacks independent existence otherwise. A more radical idealist conception of the world can be found in Berkeley's subjective idealism, which holds that the world as a whole, including all everyday objects like tables, cats, trees and ourselves, "consists of nothing but minds and ideas". Different theological positions hold different conceptions of the world based on its relation to God. Classical theism states that God is wholly distinct from the world. But the world depends for its existence on God, both because God created the world and because He maintains or conserves it. This is sometimes understood in analogy to how humans create and conserve ideas in their imagination, with the difference being that the divine mind is vastly more powerful. On such a view, God has absolute, ultimate reality in contrast to the lower ontological status ascribed to the world. God's involvement in the world is often understood along the lines of a personal, benevolent God who looks after and guides His creation. Deists agree with theists that God created the world but deny any subsequent, personal involvement in it. Pantheists reject the separation between God and world. Instead, they claim that the two are identical. This means that there is nothing to the world that does not belong to God and that there is nothing to God beyond what is found in the world. Panentheism constitutes a middle ground between theism and pantheism. Against theism, it holds that God and the world are interrelated and depend on each other. Against pantheism, it holds that there is no outright identity between the two. History of philosophy In philosophy, the term world has several possible meanings. In some contexts, it refers to everything that makes up reality or the physical universe. In others, it can mean have a specific ontological sense (see world disclosure). While clarifying the concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western philosophy, this theme appears to have been raised explicitly only at the start of the twentieth century, Plato is well known for his theory of forms, which posits the existence of two different worlds: the sensible world and the intelligible world. The sensible world is the world we live in, filled with changing physical things we can see, touch and interact with. The intelligible world is the world of invisible, eternal, changeless forms like goodness, beauty, unity and sameness. Plato ascribes a lower ontological status to the sensible world, which only imitates the world of forms. This is due to the fact that physical things exist only to the extent that they participate in the forms that characterize them, while the forms themselves have an independent manner of existence. In this sense, the sensible world is a mere replication of the perfect exemplars found in the world of forms: it never lives up to the original. In the allegory of the cave, Plato compares the physical things we are familiar with to mere shadows of the real things. But not knowing the difference, the prisoners in the cave mistake the shadows for the real things. Two definitions that were both put forward in the 1920s, however, suggest the range of available opinion. "The world is everything that is the case", wrote Ludwig Wittgenstein in his influential Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first published in 1921. Martin Heidegger, meanwhile, argued that "the surrounding world is different for each of us, and notwithstanding that we move about in a common world". "World" is one of the key terms in Eugen Fink's philosophy. He thinks that there is a misguided tendency in western philosophy to understand the world as one enormously big thing containing all the small everyday things we are familiar with. He sees this view as a form of forgetfulness of the world and tries to oppose it by what he calls the "cosmological difference": the difference between the world and the inner-worldly things it contains. On his view, the world is the totality of the inner-worldly things that transcends them. It is itself groundless but it provides a ground for things. It therefore cannot be identified with a mere container. Instead, the world gives appearance to inner-worldly things, it provides them with a place, a beginning and an end. One difficulty in investigating the world is that we never encounter it since it is not just one more thing that appears to us. This is why Fink uses the notion of play or playing to elucidate the nature of the world. He sees play as a symbol of the world that is both part of it and that represents it. Play usually comes with a form of imaginary play-world involving various things relevant to the play. But just like the play is more than the imaginary realities appearing in it so the world is more than the actual things appearing in it. The concept of worlds plays a central role in Nelson Goodman's late philosophy. He argues that we need to posit different worlds in order to account for the fact that there are different incompatible truths found in reality. Two truths are incompatible if they ascribe incompatible properties to the same thing. This happens, for example, when we assert both that the earth moves and that the earth is at rest. These incompatible truths correspond to two different ways of describing the world: heliocentrism and geocentrism. Goodman terms such descriptions "world versions". He holds a correspondence theory of truth: a world version is true if it corresponds to a world. Incompatible true world versions correspond to different worlds. It is common for theories of modality to posit the existence of a plurality of possible worlds. But Goodman's theory is different since it posits a plurality not of possible but of actual worlds. Such a position is in danger of involving a contradiction: there cannot be a plurality of actual worlds if worlds are defined as maximally inclusive wholes. This danger may be avoided by interpreting Goodman's world-concept not as maximally inclusive wholes in the absolute sense but in relation to its corresponding world-version: a world contains all and only the entities that its world-version describes. Religion Mythological cosmologies depict the world as centered on an axis mundi and delimited by a boundary such as a world ocean, a world serpent or similar. Hinduism constitutes a family of religious-philosophical views. These views present perspectives on the nature and role of the world. Samkhya philosophy, for example, is a metaphysical dualism that understands reality as comprising 2 parts: purusha and prakriti. The term "purusha" stands for the individual conscious self that each of "us" possesses. Prakriti, on the other hand, is the 1 world inhabited by all these selves. Samkhya understands this world as a world of matter governed by the law of cause and effect. The term "matter" is understood in a sense in this tradition including physical and mental aspects. This is reflected in the doctrine of tattvas, according to which prakriti is made up of 23 principles or elements of reality. These principles include physical elements, like water or earth, and mental aspects, like intelligence or sense-impressions. The relation between purusha and prakriti is conceived as 1 of observation: purusha is the conscious self aware of the world of prakriti and does not causally interact with it. A conception of the world is present in Advaita Vedanta, the monist school among the Vedanta schools. Unlike the realist position defended in Samkhya philosophy, Advaita Vedanta sees the world of multiplicity as an illusion, referred to as Maya. This illusion includes impression of existing as separate experiencing selfs called Jivas. Instead, Advaita Vedanta teaches that on the most fundamental level of reality, referred to as Brahman, there exists no plurality or difference. All there is is 1 all-encompassing self: Atman. Ignorance is seen as the source of this illusion, which results in bondage to the world of mere appearances. Liberation is possible in the course of overcoming this illusion by acquiring the knowledge of Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Contemptus mundi is the name given to the belief that the world, in all its vanity, is nothing more than a futile attempt to hide from God by stifling our desire for the good and the holy. This view has been characterised as a "pastoral of fear" by historian Jean Delumeau. "The world, the flesh, and the devil" is a traditional division of the sources of temptation. Orbis Catholicus is a Latin phrase meaning "Catholic world", per the expression Urbi et Orbi, and refers to that area of Christendom under papal supremacy. In Islam, the term "dunya" is used for the world. Its meaning is derived from the root word "dana", a term for "near". It is associated with the temporal, sensory world and earthly concerns, i.e. with this world in contrast to the spiritual world. Religious teachings warn of a tendency to seek happiness in this world and advise a more ascetic lifestyle concerned with the afterlife. Other strands in Islam recommend a balanced approach. In Mandaean cosmology, the world or earthly realm is known as Tibil. It is separated from the World of Light (alma d-nhūra) above and the World of Darkness (alma d-hšuka) below by aether (ayar). Related terms and problems A worldview is a comprehensive representation of the world and our place in it. As a representation, it is a subjective perspective of the world and thereby different from the world it represents. All higher animals need to represent their environment in some way in order to navigate it. But it has been argued that only humans possess a representation encompassing enough to merit the term "worldview". Philosophers of worldviews commonly hold that the understanding of any object depends on a worldview constituting the background on which this understanding can take place. This may affect not just our intellectual understanding of the object in question but the experience of it in general. It is therefore impossible to assess one's worldview from a neutral perspective since this assessment already presupposes the worldview as its background. Some hold that each worldview is based on a single hypothesis that promises to solve all the problems of our existence we may encounter. On this interpretation, the term is closely associated to the worldviews given by different religions. Worldviews offer orientation not just in theoretical matters but also in practical matters. For this reason, they usually include answers to the question of the meaning of life and other evaluative components about what matters and how we should act. A worldview can be unique to one individual but worldviews are usually shared by many people within a certain culture or religion. The idea that there exist many different worlds is found in various fields. For example, theories of modality talk about a plurality of possible worlds and the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics carries this reference even in its name. Talk of different worlds is also common in everyday language, for example, with reference to the world of music, the world of business, the world of football, the world of experience or the Asian world. But at the same time, worlds are usually defined as all-inclusive totalities. This seems to contradict the very idea of a plurality of worlds since if a world is total and all-inclusive then it cannot have anything outside itself. Understood this way, a world can neither have other worlds besides itself or be part of something bigger. One way to resolve this paradox while holding onto the notion of a plurality of worlds is to restrict the sense in which worlds are totalities. On this view, worlds are not totalities in an absolute sense. This might be even understood in the sense that, strictly speaking, there are no worlds at all. Another approach understands worlds in a schematic sense: as context-dependent expressions that stand for the current domain of discourse. So in the expression "Around the World in Eighty Days", the term "world" refers to the earth while in the colonial expression "the New World" it refers to the landmass of North and South America. Cosmogony is the field that studies the origin or creation of the world. This includes both scientific cosmogony and creation myths found in various religions. The dominant theory in scientific cosmogony is the Big Bang theory, according to which both space, time and matter have their origin in one initial singularity occurring about 13.8 billion years ago. This singularity was followed by an expansion that allowed the universe to sufficiently cool down for the formation of subatomic particles and later atoms. These initial elements formed giant clouds, which would then coalesce into stars and galaxies. Non-scientific creation myths are found in many cultures and are often enacted in rituals expressing their symbolic meaning. They can be categorized concerning their contents. Types often found include creation from nothing, from chaos or from a cosmic egg. Eschatology refers to the science or doctrine of the last things or of the end of the world. It is traditionally associated with religion, specifically with the Abrahamic religions. In this form, it may include teachings both of the end of each individual human life and of the end of the world as a whole. But it has been applied to other fields as well, for example, in the form of physical eschatology, which includes scientifically based speculations about the far future of the universe. According to some models, there will be a Big Crunch in which the whole universe collapses back into a singularity, possibly resulting in a second Big Bang afterward. But current astronomical evidence seems to suggest that our universe will continue to expand indefinitely. World history studies the world from a historical perspective. Unlike other approaches to history, it employs a global viewpoint. It deals less with individual nations and civilizations, which it usually approaches at a high level of abstraction. Instead, it concentrates on wider regions and zones of interaction, often interested in how people, goods and ideas move from one region to another. It includes comparisons of different societies and civilizations as well as considering wide-ranging developments with a long-term global impact like the process of industrialization. Contemporary world history is dominated by three main research paradigms determining the periodization into different epochs. One is based on productive relations between humans and nature. The two most important changes in history in this respect were the introduction of agriculture and husbandry concerning the production of food, which started around 10,000 to 8,000 BCE and is sometimes termed the Neolithic Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution, which started around 1760 CE and involved the transition from manual to industrial manufacturing. Another paradigm, focusing on culture and religion instead, is based on Karl Jaspers' theories about the Axial Age, a time in which various new forms of religious and philosophical thoughts appeared in several separate parts of the world around the time between 800 and 200 BCE. A third periodization is based on the relations between civilizations and societies. According to this paradigm, history can be divided into three periods in relation to the dominant region in the world: Middle Eastern dominance before 500 BCE, Eurasian cultural balance until 1500 CE and Western dominance since 1500 CE. Big History employs an even wider framework than world history by putting human history into the context of the history of the universe as a whole. It starts with the Big Bang and traces the formation of galaxies, the Solar System, the Earth, its geological eras, the evolution of life and humans until the present day. World politics, also referred to as global politics or international relations, is the discipline of political science studying issues of interest to the world that transcend nations and continents. It aims to explain complex patterns found in the social world that are often related to the pursuit of power, order and justice, usually in the context of globalization. It focuses not just on the relations between nation-states but also considers other transnational actors, like multinational corporations, terrorist groups, or non-governmental organizations. For example, it tries to explain events such as the September 11 attacks, the 2003 invasion of Iraq or the 2008 financial crisis. Various theories have been proposed in order to deal with the complexity involved in formulating such explanations. These theories are sometimes divided into realism, liberalism and constructivism. Realists see nation-states as the main actors in world politics. They constitute an anarchical international system without any overarching power to control their behavior. They are seen as sovereign agents that, determined by human nature, act according to their national self-interest. Military force may play an important role in the ensuing struggle for power between states, but diplomacy and cooperation are also key mechanisms for nations to achieve their goals. Liberalists acknowledge the importance of states but they also emphasize the role of transnational actors, like the United Nations or the World Trade Organization. They see humans as perfectible and stress the role of democracy in this process. The emergent order in world politics, on this perspective, is more complex than a mere balance of power since more different agents and interests are involved in its production. Constructivism ascribes more importance to the agency of individual humans than realism and liberalism. It understands the social world as a construction of the people living in it. This leads to an emphasis on the possibility of change. If the international system is an anarchy of nation-states, as the realists hold, then this is only so because we made it this way and may change since this is not prefigured by human nature, according to the constructivists. See also References External links Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Afro-Eurasia Americas Eurasia Oceania |
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BBC News, ગુજરાતી - સમાચાર નવાજૂની અમેરિકાના તત્કાલીન રાષ્ટ્રપતિ થૉમસ જેફરસને વર્ષ 1803માં ફ્રાન્સ પાસેથી લુઇસિયાના ખરીદવાનો નિર્ણય કર્યો હતો. આ એક મહત્ત્વનો વળાંક હતો. 20 લાખ ચોરસ કિલોમીટરથી વધુ વિસ્તારને આવરી લેતા લ્યુઇસિયાનાની ખરીદી, અમેરિકા માટે એક મોટો વળાંક હતો, જેણે ખંડ પર એક નવો દેશ અને એક મુખ્ય શક્તિ સ્થાપી. ગુજરાત હાઇકોર્ટે આપેલી તે રાહતનાં બે જ અઠવાડિયાં બાદ જંગલેશ્વરમાં ફરી એક વાર ડિમોલિશનના ભણકારા વાગી રહ્યા છે. હાઇકોર્ટે ડિમોલિશન માટે મામલતદારે આપેલી નોટિસ રદબાતલ કરી હતી. હિંદી ફિલ્મોમાં ટ્રેજેડી કિંગ તરીકે ઇમેજ ઊભી કરનારા દિલીપકુમાર અને ચંચળ સ્વભાવના મધુબાલાની અંગત જિંદગી પણ રસપ્રદ હતી. મુગલ-એ-આઝમ જેવી યાદગાર ફિલ્મ આપનાર આ જોડીના આંતરિક સંબંધોની વાત. 21મી ફેબ્રુઆરીથી આઈસીસી મૅન્સ ટી20 વર્લ્ડકપના સુપર-8 મુકાબલા શરૂ થઈ રહ્યા છે. સુપર-8માં લીગ મૅચમાં ટૉપમાં રહેલી 8 ટીમો સામેલ છે. આ 8 ટીમો 4-4ના બે ગ્રૂપમાં વહેંચાઈ ગઈ છે. જે એકબીજા સાથે ત્રણ-ત્રણ મૅચ રમશે. પરંતુ શું આ વિશ્વકપમાં ભારત અને પાકિસ્તાન ફરી ટકરાઈ શકે છે? ગુજરાત સહિત દેશ અને દુનિયાના મહત્ત્વપૂર્ણ સમાચારો જાણવા માટે જોડાયેલા રહો બીબીસી ગુજરાતીના આ પેજ સાથે. ગુજરાત વિધાનસભામાં ગુજરાતના ઉપમુખ્ય મંત્રી હર્ષ સંઘવી દ્વારા લગ્નનોંધણીના કાયદા અંગે એક જાહેરાત કરાઈ છે, જે અનુસાર ગુજરાત સરકાર 'ગુજરાત રજિસ્ટ્રેશન ઑફ મૅરેજ ઍક્ટ 2006'માં સુધારો કરવા જઈ રહી છે. જાહેરાત અનુસાર, લગ્નની નોંધણી કરતી વખતે હવે માતા-પિતાને જાણ કરવામાં આવશે અને તે માટે એક અલગથી પોર્ટલ પણ બનાવાશે. અમેરિકાના રાષ્ટ્રપતિ ડોનાલ્ડ ટ્રમ્પે વિશ્વના અનેક દેશો સાથેની વેપારખાધને પૂરવા માટે આ દેશો પર ટેરિફ લાદ્યા હતા. ત્યારે યુએસની સર્વોચ્ચ અદાલતે ટ્રમ્પ દ્વારા લાદવામાં આવેલા ટેરિફને ગેરકાયદેસર ગણાવીને રદ કરી દીધા છે. સુપ્રીમ કોર્ટના ચુકાદાની અમેરિકાના શૅરબજારો પર સકારાત્મક અસર જોવા મળી હતી અને નાસ્ડેક, એસઍન્ડપી 500 તથા ડાઉ જોન્સમાં ઉછાળો જોવા મળ્યો હતો. નવી દિલ્હીમાં ચાલી રહેલી ઇન્ડિયા એઆઇ (આર્ટિફિશિયલ ઇન્ટેલિજન્સ) ઇમ્પૅક્ટ સમિટ સમાચારોનાં મથાળાંમાં ચમકી રહી છે. એક તરફ આ સમિટ દરમિયાન અવ્યવસ્થા અને ગેરવહીવટના આરોપ થઈ રહ્યા છે, તો બીજી તરફ તેમાં ભાગ લેવાની બાબતમાં એક ખાનગી યુનિવર્સિટી ચર્ચામાં છે. ગલગોટિયા યુનિવર્સિટી પર આરોપ થયો છે કે તેણે ચીનનિર્મિત એક રોબૉ ડૉગને પોતાનો જણાવીને સમિટમાં પ્રસ્તુત કર્યો. ભાલ પંથકમાં બિનપિયત ભાલિયા ઘઉંના વાવેતર વિસ્તારમાં આ વર્ષે નોંધપાત્ર ઘટાડો નોંધાયો છે. ગત વર્ષે પણ વાવેતર વિસ્તાર ઘટ્યો હતો. તેથી હવે આ ઘઉંનું ઉત્પાદન કેટલું થશે તે ચર્ચાનો વિષય બન્યો છે. શૉર્ટ વીડિયો તમારું ડિવાઇસ મીડિયા પ્લેબૅક સપોર્ટ નથી કરતું ભારત/વિદેશ સેમિફાઇનલમાં જગ્યા બનાવવા ભારતે બે મૅચ જીતવાની છે. તેથી તે તેના મજબૂત હરીફ દક્ષિણ આફ્રિકા સામે હારી પણ જાય તો બાકીની બે મૅચ ઝિમ્બાબ્વે અને વેસ્ટ ઇન્ડીઝ સામે જીતવી પડશે. વેસ્ટ ઇન્ડીઝ તેની ચારેય લીગ મૅચ જીતીને સુપર-8માં પ્રવેશ્યું છે. બીબીસી વર્લ્ડ સર્વિસની ટીમે સ્ક્વાયર સાથે તથા પોર્ટુગલ, બ્રાઝિલ તેમજ રશિયાનાં અન્ય તપાસ એકમો સાથે મળીને પાંચ વર્ષ સુધી ફિલ્માંકન કર્યું છે. આ ફિલ્માંકનોમાં રશિયામાં સાત વર્ષના એક બાળકના અપહરણ કરાયેલા અને મૃત ધારી લેવાયાના કેસો ઉકેલાતા દર્શાવાયા છે અને ડાર્ક વેબ પર પાંચ સૌથી મોટાં બાળ શોષણ મંચો માટે જવાબદાર બ્રાઝિલના એક નાગરિકની ધરપકડ થતી બતાવાઈ છે. વિપક્ષના હુમલા દરમિયાન પુરીએ કહ્યું છે કે ઍપસ્ટીન સાથેના તેમના સંબંધોમાં કશું જ વાંધાજનક નથી, અત્યાર સુધીમાં જાહેર થયેલા ઇમેલ્સમાં શું લખ્યું છે? ઝિમ્બાબ્વેનું આઈસીસી મૅન્સ ટી20 વિશ્વકપ 2026માં જબરદસ્ત પ્રદર્શન યથાવત્ છે. ટી20 વિશ્વકપમાં વધુ એક ઉલટફેર જોવા મળ્યો. ઝિમ્બાબ્વેએ શ્રીલંકાને 6 વિકેટે પરાજિત કરીને એ બતાવી દીધું છે કે કોઈ પણ ટીમ તેને નબળી ટીમ માનવાની કોશિશ ન કરે. આ પહેલા ઝિમ્બાબ્વેએ ઑસ્ટ્રેલિયા અને ઓમાન સામે પણ જીત નોંધાવી હતી. ઝિમ્બાબ્વેના આ શાનદાર ખેલમાં બ્રાયન બેનેટ સ્ટાર બનીને ઉભર્યા છે. ઇટાલીમાં ચાલી રહેલા વિન્ટર ઑલિમ્પિકનું લાઇવ રિપોર્ટિંગ કરતા સમયે જીભ લડખડાતી હોવાનો વીડિયો વાઇરલ થયા બાદ ઑસ્ટ્રેલિયાનાં મહિલા સ્પૉર્ટ્સ પત્રકારે માફી માગી છે. આ મામલે ઑસ્ટ્રેલિયાના વડા પ્રધાને શું કહ્યું? ડિસેમ્બર 2024માં બશર અલ-અસદની સરમુખત્યારશાહીના પતન પછી ડઝનબંધ મહિલાઓનું અપહરણ કરવામાં આવ્યું છે. બ્રિટનના પૂર્વ પ્રિન્સ ઍન્ડ્રયુ માઉન્ટબેટન-વિંડસરની ધરપકડ કરાઈ છે. બ્રિટનના કિંગ ચાર્લ્સના ભાઈ ઍન્ડ્ર્યુ માઉન્ટબેટન-વિંડસરની સાર્વજનિક પદનો દુરુપયોગ કરવાની આશંકામાં ધરપકડ કરવામાં આવી છે. પાકિસ્તાનના ખૈબરપખ્તૂનખ્વા જિલ્લાના લોઅર દીરના મુરાદ ખાનનો વીડિયો સોશિયલ મીડિયા ઉપર વાઇરલ થયો હતો. તેમની સાથે ત્રણ અન્ય વિદ્યાર્થી પણ હતા. આ વિદ્યાર્થીઓને યુનિવર્સિટીમાંથી કાઢી મૂકવામાં આવ્યા હતા. એ વીડિયોમાં એક વિદ્યાર્થી ભારતનું રાષ્ટ્રગીત ગાઈ રહ્યો હતો, જ્યારે અન્ય કેટલાક વિદ્યાર્થીઓ તેનો સાથ આપી રહ્યા હતા. આ રમઝાન માસમાં દુનિયાભરના સેંકડો મુસ્લિમો સૂર્યાસ્ત થતાંની સાથે જ ખજૂર ખાઈને રોજા ખોલશે. પૉડકાસ્ટ : દુનિયા જહાન આંતરરાષ્ટ્રીય ઘટનાઓને સમજાવતો કાર્યક્રમ બીબીસી વિશેષ બીબીસી ગુજરાતી વૉટ્સઍપ પર ગુજરાત રિપોર્ટ બીબીસી ગુજરાતી ઍક્સપ્લેનર દૃષ્ટિકોણ હેલ્થ વીડિયો રિપોર્ટ સોશિયલ મીડિયા પર ફૉલો કરો સૌથી વધુ વંચાયેલી સ્ટોરીઝ બીબીસી માટે કલેક્ટિવ ન્યૂઝરૂમનું પ્રકાશન © 2026 BBC. બહારની વેબસાઇટ્સની સામગ્રી માટે બીબીસી જવાબદાર નથી. બહારની વેબસાઇટ્સની લિંક આપવા અંગેની અમારી નીતિ વિશે વાંચો |
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