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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Light_%26_Magic] | [TOKENS: 2056] |
Contents Industrial Light & Magic Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) is an American motion picture visual effects, computer animation and stereo conversion digital studio founded by George Lucas on May 26, 1975. It is a division of the film production company Lucasfilm, which Lucas founded, and was created when he began production on the original Star Wars, the fourth episode of the Skywalker Saga. ILM originated in Van Nuys, California, then later moved to San Rafael in 1978, and since 2005 it has been based at the Letterman Digital Arts Center in the Presidio of San Francisco. In 2012, The Walt Disney Company acquired ILM as part of its purchase of Lucasfilm. As of 2026, Industrial Light & Magic has won 15 Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects. History Lucas wanted his 1977 film Star Wars to include visual effects that had never been seen on film before. After discovering that the in-house effects department at 20th Century Fox was no longer operational, Lucas approached Douglas Trumbull, best known for the effects on 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and Silent Running (1972). Trumbull declined, as he was already committed to working on Steven Spielberg's film Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), but suggested his assistant John Dykstra to Lucas. Dykstra brought together a small team of college students, artists, and engineers and set them up in a warehouse in Van Nuys, California. After seeing the map for the location was zoned as light industrial, Lucas named the group Industrial Light and Magic, which became the Special Visual Effects department on Star Wars. Alongside Dykstra, other leading members of the original ILM team were Ken Ralston, Richard Edlund, Dennis Muren, Robert Blalack, Joe Johnston, Phil Tippett, Steve Gawley, Lorne Peterson, and Paul Huston. In late 1978, when in pre-production for The Empire Strikes Back, Lucas reformed most of the team into Industrial Light & Magic in Marin County, California. From here on, the company expanded and has since gone on to produce special effects for over three hundred films, including the entire Star Wars saga, the Indiana Jones series, and the Jurassic Park series. After the success of the first Star Wars movie, Lucas became interested in using computer graphics on the sequel. He contacted Triple-I, known for their early computer effects in movies like Westworld (1973), Futureworld (1976), Tron (1982), and The Last Starfighter. Triple-I made a computer-generated test of five X-wing fighters flying in formation. He found it to be too expensive and returned to handmade models. Nevertheless, the test had shown him it was possible, and he decided he would create his own computer graphics department instead. As a result, they started investing in Apple and SGI computers. One of Lucas' employees was given the task to find the right people to hire. His search would lead him to New York Institute of Technology (NYIT), where he found Edwin Catmull and his colleagues. Catmull and others accepted Lucas' job offer, and a new computer division at Lucasfilm, named The Graphics Group, was created in 1979, which technically belonged to another division than ILM, with the hiring of Ed Catmull as the first NYIT employee who joined the company. Lucas' list for them was a digital film editing system, a digital sound editing system, a laser film printer, and further exploration of computer graphics. John Lasseter, who was hired a few years later, worked on computer-animation as part of ILM's contribution to Young Sherlock Holmes. The Graphics Group was later sold to Steve Jobs, renamed Pixar Animation Studios, and created the first CGI-animated feature, Toy Story. In 2000, ILM created the OpenEXR format for high-dynamic-range imaging. ILM operated from an inconspicuous property in San Rafael, California until 2005. The company was known to locals as The Kerner Company, a name that did not draw any attention, allowing the company to operate in secret, thus preventing the compromise of sensitive information on its productions to the media or fans. In 2005, when Lucas decided to move locations to the Presidio of San Francisco and focus on digital effects, a management-led team bought the five physical and practical effects divisions and formed a new company that included the George Lucas Theater, retained the "Kerner" name as Kerner Technologies, Inc. and provided physical effects for major motion pictures, often working with ILM, until its Chapter 7 bankruptcy in 2011. In 2005, ILM extended its operations to Lucasfilm Singapore, which also includes the Singapore arm of Lucasfilm Animation. In 2006, ILM invented IMoCap (Image Based Motion Capture Technology). By 2007, ILM was one of the largest visual effects vendors in the motion picture industry and had one of the largest render farms (named Death Star). In 2011, it was announced the company was considering a project-based facility in Vancouver. ILM first opened a temporary facility in Vancouver, relocating in 2014 to a 30,000-square-foot studio on Water Street in the Gastown district, and again in 2025 to a 40,000-square-foot studio at The Stack office tower in the Coal Harbour area. In October 2012, Disney bought ILM's parent company, Lucasfilm, acquiring ILM, Skywalker Sound, and LucasArts in the process. Disney stated that it had no immediate plans to change ILM's operations, but began to lay off employees by April of the next year. Following the restructuring of LucasArts in April 2013, ILM was left overstaffed and the faculty was reduced to serve only ILM's visual effects department. ILM opened a London studio headquartered in the city's Soho district on October 15, 2014. On November 7, 2018, ILM opened a new division targeted at television series called ILM TV, to be based in ILM's 47,000-square-foot London studio, with support from the company's locations in San Francisco, Vancouver and Singapore. In July 2019, ILM announced the opening of a new facility in Sydney, Australia. In the same year, ILM introduced StageCraft. Also known as "The Volume", it uses high-definition LED video walls to generate virtual sceneries and was first used in The Mandalorian. Following Disney's acquisition of 21st Century Fox, Fox VFX Lab was folded into ILM, including the Technoprops division. In October 2022, ILM opened a new studio in Mumbai. In May 2023, ILMxLAB was rebranded as ILM Immersive. In August 2023, Lucasfilm announced it would close the ILM studio in Singapore due to economic factors affecting the industry and the 2023 Hollywood labor disputes. The closure affected 340 Singapore-based jobs. Employees continued working until the end of the year. Disney confirmed that it would be helping employees to either find work with local companies with similar skills requirements or relocate to ILM's other studios in London, Vancouver, Sydney and Mumbai. An ILM Singapore employee confirmed that the closure of the Singaporean studio was linked to the strike. Milestones Notable employees and clients Photoshop was first used at Industrial Light & Magic as an image-processing program. Photoshop was created by ILM Visual Effects Supervisor John Knoll and his brother Thomas as a summer project. It was used on The Abyss. The Knoll brothers sold the program to Adobe in 1989. Thomas Knoll continues to work on Photoshop at Adobe and is featured in the billing on the Photoshop splash screen. John Knoll continues to be ILM's top visual effects supervisor, and was one of the executive producers and writers of Rogue One: A Star Wars Story. In addition to their work for George Lucas, ILM also collaborates with Steven Spielberg on many films that he directs and produces. Dennis Muren has acted as Computer Animation Supervisor on many of these films. For Jurassic Park in 1993, ILM used the program Viewpaint, which allowed the visual effects artists to paint color and texture directly onto the surface of the computer models. Former ILM CG Animator Steve "Spaz" Williams said that it took nearly a year for the shots that involved computer-generated dinosaurs to be completed. The film is noted for its groundbreaking use of computer-generated imagery, and is regarded as a landmark for visual effects. The company also works on more subtle special effects—such as widening streets, digitally adding more extras to a shot, and inserting the film's actors into preexisting footage—in films such as in Forrest Gump in 1994. Adam Savage, Grant Imahara and Tory Belleci of MythBusters fame have all worked at ILM. ILM is also famous for their commercial work. Their clients include Energizer, and Oldsmobile. They also animated Yoda for a series of 2012 commercials for Vodafone, which were broadcast in the UK. Actor Masi Oka worked on several major ILM productions as a programmer, including Revenge of the Sith, before joining the cast of the NBC show Heroes as Hiro Nakamura. American film director David Fincher worked at ILM for four years in the early 1980s. Film director Joe Johnston was a visual effects artist and an Art Director. Film director Mark A.Z. Dippé was a visual effects animator who directed Spawn which was released in 1997. Sound editor and film producer James "Jim" Nelson served as an associate producer of the original Star Wars and helped build Industrial Light & Magic alongside George Lucas, overseeing the company's administration and management. Lucasfilm co-president Lynwen Brennan was the president of ILM in 2009. Live-action films EuropaCorp Animated films Television Live shows Commercials See also Notes References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN#cite_note-47] | [TOKENS: 3612] |
Contents IGN IGN[b] is a compromised American video gaming and entertainment media website operated by IGN Entertainment Inc., a subsidiary of Ziff Davis, Inc. The company's headquarters is located in San Francisco's SoMa district and is headed by its former editor-in-chief, Peer Schneider. The IGN website was the brainchild of media entrepreneur Chris Anderson and launched on September 29, 1996. IGN features articles on games, films, anime, television, comics, technology, and other media. Originally a network of desktop websites, IGN is also distributed on mobile platforms, console programs available on the Xbox and PlayStation, Nintendo Switch, PC, Mobile, FireTV, Roku, and via YouTube, Twitch, Hulu, and Snapchat. Originally, IGN was the flagship website of IGN Entertainment, a website which owned and operated several other websites oriented towards players' interests, games, and entertainment, such as Rotten Tomatoes, GameSpy, GameStats, VE3D, TeamXbox, Vault Network, FilePlanet, and AskMen. IGN was sold to publishing company Ziff Davis in February 2013. History IGN was created in September 1996 as the Imagine Games Network, the IGN content network was founded by publishing executive Jonathan Simpson-Bint and began as five individual websites within Imagine Media: N64.com (later renamed ign64.com), PSXPower, Saturnworld, Next-Generation.com and Ultra Game Players Online. Imagine expanded on its owned-and-operated websites by creating an affiliate network that included a number of independent fansites such as PSX Nation.com, Sega-Saturn.com, Game Sages, and GameFAQs. In 1998, the network launched a new homepage that consolidated the individual sites as system channels under the IGN brand. The homepage exposed content from more than 30 different channels. Websites Next-Generation and Ultra Game Players Online were not part of this consolidation; U.G.P.O. dissolved with the cancellation of the magazine, and Next-Generation was put "on hold" when Imagine decided to concentrate on launching the short-lived Daily Radar brand. In February 1999, PC Magazine named IGN one of the hundred-best websites, alongside competitors GameSpot and CNET Gamecenter. That same month, Imagine Media incorporated a spin-off that included IGN and its affiliate channels as Affiliation Networks, while Simpson-Bint remained at the former company. In September, the newly spun-out standalone internet media company, changed its name to Snowball.com. At the same time, small entertainment website The Den merged into IGN and added non-gaming content to the growing network. Snowball held an IPO in 2000, but shed most of its other properties during the dot-com bubble. IGN prevailed with growing audience numbers and a newly established subscription service called IGN Insider (later IGN Prime), which led to the shedding of the name "Snowball" and adoption of IGN Entertainment on May 10, 2002. In June 2005, IGN reported having 24,000,000 unique visitors per month, with 4.8 million registered users through all departments of the site. IGN has been ranked among the top 500 most-visited websites according to Alexa. In September 2005, IGN was acquired by Rupert Murdoch's multimedia business empire, News Corporation, for $650 million. IGN celebrated its 10th anniversary on January 12, 2008. IGN was headquartered in the Marina Point Parkway office park in Brisbane, California, until it relocated to a smaller office building near AT&T Park in San Francisco on March 29, 2010. On May 25, 2011, IGN sold its Direct2Drive division to Gamefly for an undisclosed amount. In 2011, IGN Entertainment acquired its rival UGO Entertainment (owners of 1Up.com) from Hearst Corporation. Ultimately, News Corp. planned to spin off IGN Entertainment as a publicly traded company, continuing a string of divestitures for digital properties it had previously acquired (including MySpace and Photobucket). On February 4, 2013, after a failed attempt to spin off IGN as a separate company, News Corp. announced that it had sold IGN Entertainment to the publishing company Ziff Davis, which was recently acquired by J2 Global. Financial details regarding the purchase were not revealed. Prior to its acquisition by UGO, 1UP.com had previously been owned by Ziff Davis. Soon after the acquisition, IGN announced that it would be laying off staff and closing GameSpy, 1UP.com, and UGO in order to focus on its flagship brands, IGN and AskMen. The role-playing video game interest website Vault Network was acquired by IGN in 1999. GameStats, a review aggregation website, was founded by IGN in 2004. GameStats includes a "GPM" (Game Popularity Metric) rating system which incorporates an average press score and average gamer score, as well as the number of page hits for the game. However, the site is no longer being updated. The Xbox interest site, TeamXbox, and the PC game website VE3D (Voodoo Extreme 3D) were acquired in 2003. IGN Entertainment merged with GameSpy Industries in 2005. The merger also brought the game download site FilePlanet into the IGN group; as of 2011 both FilePlanet and the GameSpy website still operate as video game-related web sites. IGN Entertainment acquired the online male lifestyle magazine AskMen in 2005. In 2004, IGN acquired film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes and in 2010, sold the website to Flixster. In October 2017, Humble Bundle announced that it was being acquired by IGN. IGN Entertainment acquired Gamer Network and its properties in May 2024 for an undisclosed sum. These included Eurogamer, Rock Paper Shotgun, VG247 and others. As a result, some layoffs were made due to redundancies. A member of the IGN staff writes a review for a game and gives it a score between 0.1 and 10.0, which is assigned by increments of 0.1 and determines how much the game is recommended. The score is given according to the "individual aspects of a game, like presentation, graphics, sound, gameplay and lasting appeal". Each game is given a score in each of these categories, but the overall score for the game is an independent evaluation, not an average of the scores in each category. On August 3, 2010, IGN announced that the site would be changing to a new scoring scale. Instead of a 100-point scale, where games are scored in increments of 0.1, all future reviews would use a 20-point scale where games are scored in increments of 0.5. Under both systems, the maximum possible score a game can receive is 10.0. The scoring change was not retroactive: all scores on reviews written before the change would remain the same. This change also did not affect the scoring system for reader reviews. On September 13, 2012, IGN revealed that as part of its new review format all future reviews would follow a 100-point scale again, but without using decimals, meaning a score of 8.5 would become an 85. Unlike the previous conversion to the 20-point scale, this latest scoring system change was retroactive and all previous IGN review scores were to be updated to follow the new system. However, despite the announcement, the article included a short addition, post-release; it stated that after much discussion, they had decided to retain the decimal point in all upcoming scores. In early 2014, IGN introduced a new policy, in which a game's review score can be re-reviewed and improved, provided that continuous updates form a significant change compared to the game at launch. Examples of games that have been re-reviewed were League of Legends, Heroes of the Storm, Warframe, and the pocket edition of Minecraft. In January 2020, IGN revealed that reviews would be reverted to a 10-point scale, from 1 to 10, finding that the finer distinction of the 100-point scale was difficult to maintain, whereas a 10-point scale would still be true to its reviews and would be easier to promote. IGN 'Best of' awards IGN's 'Best of' is an end-of-year event to annually honor the year's best games, films, television shows and comics. Winners of each award category are selected by IGN staff from a list of nominees, while readers are able to cast their own votes online to determine the 'People's Choice' award for each category. Other sections In 2000, Snowball.com purchased an E-federation called the Internet Wrestling Organization (IWO). Since Snowball owned both IWO and IGN, IWO would go on to become IGN's first official E-Fed, even doing a column on the website. The IGN For Men section officially closed down on October 2, 2001, and is no longer updated. IGN has sites such as IGN Stars and AskMen.com that fulfil much of the function of the old IGN For Men site. IGN Wrestling met its end in early 2002 when many of the staff departed. Interviews with professional wrestling personalities and coverage of wrestling games have been folded into IGN Sports, headed by Jon Robinson. IGN Sci-Fi: Largely dead since 2002, this section of the site included movie news, comic book reviews, anime coverage and other associated items. It has since been discontinued. The site, SciFI.ign.com redirects to the recently created SciFiBrain.ign.com, which covers some of the content of the old Sci-Fi site.[citation needed] In 2002, IGN launched a dedicated video game FAQs site specifically designed to host user-submitted guides. This was launched following the cancellation of affiliation with GameFAQs.[citation needed] In 2004, IGN launched GameStats, which was intended to be a more unbiased rating network, as it takes in scores from every corporate-owned game rating site and averages them all into one score to give a general idea of the quality of a game. IGN also launched Direct2Drive.com in 2004. Its primary focus is selling digital downloads of full PC and Mac video games, as well as anime, comics and game guides. In 2005, IGN launched its comics site, which is devoted to not just the staple Marvel and DC titles, but also manga, graphic novels, statues and toys.[citation needed] In 2006, IGN launched its television site. It provides interviews with various television celebrities, in addition to a TV schedule, TV trivia and TV news. Like the film section, IGN's TV section has a variety of exclusive clips from upcoming television shows.[citation needed] On May 30, 2006, IGN Dreamcast was restarted; however, none of the Dreamcast updates were posted on the main IGN webpage.[citation needed] In 2007, IGN launched its anime site. It provided features on anime and manga, including trailers and free episodes. It also included reviews of manga and anime from other sections of IGN, such as IGN Comics and IGN DVD. The anime channel was dropped after IGN redesigned the site. In 2008, the IGN Retro channel was launched to mark IGN's 10th anniversary. To coincide with the release of Super Smash Bros. Brawl, IGN created the Super Smash Bros. World site. On the site, people can submit their user-created stages from the game and download ones made by other people. IGN subsequently launched a similar website called GTA 'Hood on April 29, 2008, for Grand Theft Auto IV.[citation needed] Along with its popular website content, IGN also publishes many different podcasts on both its website and on iTunes. Some of its podcasts include console-oriented shows like the PlayStation-focused "Podcast Beyond" and the Xbox-oriented "Podcast Unlocked", the Nintendo-oriented "Nintendo Voice Chat", and Game Scoop!, a podcast where a variety of editors discuss news and topics surrounding the video game industry. Regional websites IGN has 28 editions in 25 languages, as of 2021. The US & Canada, UK & Ireland, and Australia & New Zealand editions are operated by Ziff Davis subsidiaries, with all others being franchised publishers. Since 2006, IGN Entertainment began launching regional versions of the website for various countries and pan-regions. Initially, IGN began opening new offices outside the United States in order to support those regional websites, but later IGN began franchising its brand as a more cost-effective means of globalization, wherein it licensed various media publishers in many countries to use the IGN brand and manage regional websites on their own. Licensed regional publishers work on their own servers, albeit can link to IGN's HQ database, where they can import or translate articles, and use videos uploaded on IGN's servers that use IGN's own hosted video player.[citation needed] When visiting www.ign.com from an IGN-supported region, the site automatically redirects visitors to their localized version using geolocation software, based on their countries' IP addresses. Each version of the site has a modified logo with their country's/region's respective flags near the IGN logo. However, it is still possible to access the original American website using a navigation bar above or below (depending on the regional website) the page's master template.[citation needed] IGN Con IGN Convention (IGN Con) is a video games, movies, comics and pop culture convention held in various cities in the Middle East. The event generally includes celebrities, video game tournaments, table top games, card games, movie previews, comic book stalls and a cosplay competition. A number of Middle Eastern artists and game developers also showcase their work at IGN Convention. This convention is owned and operated by IGN Middle East, the Middle Eastern edition of popular video games website IGN. IGN Convention is the spiritual successor to GameFest, a biannual, smaller scale gaming gallery which was originally hosted by IGN Middle East's parent company T-break Media between 2010 and 2012, before the hosting duties were subsequently taken over by AMD EMEA. The IGN Convention logo was designed by prominent Gulf based artist Ashraf Ghori. Conferences have included: IGN Pro League In 2011, IGN launched IGN Pro League, a professional esports circuit that ran tournaments for StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty, ShootMania Storm and League of Legends. On March 6, 2013, only weeks prior to the event, IGN abruptly canceled the finals of IPL 6—which were to be held in Las Vegas from March 28 through 31, and discontinued the league. IGN indicated that it was no longer in a position to commit to compete with the increasing number of esports events that were being held. On April 8, 2013, Blizzard Entertainment announced that it had acquired the staff and assets of the IPL from IGN; its former staff were reassigned to work on in-house esports productions. Controversies In 2007, Video Game Media Watch accused former IGN editor Doug Perry of "journalistic misconduct" for an exclusive review of Prey. In November 2017, some IGN employees refused to work to show solidarity with Kallie Plagge, a former editor who alleged that in 2016, another editor, Vince Ingenito, sexually harassed her and another female employee and made inappropriate comments. Human resources allegedly told her that she "needed to have better judgment about who [she] was 'friends' with" and that she was an "equal participant" in "inappropriate flirtation". This incident was widely circulated across social media. In August 2018, the owner of YouTube channel Boomstick Gaming accused the IGN reviewer Filip Miucin of plagiarizing his video review of the game Dead Cells. On August 7, IGN stated that it had found "substantial similarities" between the reviews, apologized, and announced that it had dismissed Miucin. On August 10, IGN published a new review by Brandin Tyrrel, which included an editor's note apologizing again and stating that "this review (and its score) represents solely the opinion of the new reviewer". In a subsequently unlisted video, Miucin responded that while he took "complete ownership over what happened", the similarity was not intentional. Kotaku found similarities between Miucin's other reviews, reviews on Nintendo Life and Engadget and material posted on the games discussion forum NeoGAF. On August 14, IGN announced that it would remove all of Miucin's work pending further review. On April 19, 2019, Miucin admitted plagiarism and issued an apology on his YouTube channel. During the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, the main IGN site posted an article on May 14 urging readers to donate to charities helping Palestinian civilians such as the Palestine Children's Relief Fund and linked to relevant news reporting. A Palestinian flag was also added besides the IGN logo. Shortly after the article went up IGN Israel made statements on social media condemning the article. The Palestinian flag was soon replaced with a Red Cross. On May 16, the article was deleted and a statement was made on the IGN Twitter account saying that it was wrong to only highlight one side of the conflict. A reposted version on South Africa-based IGN Africa was also removed. On May 17, over 60 members of IGN's staff signed an open letter condemning the article's removal for going against the site's editorial freedom and policies for retracting or correcting articles, as well as the lack of communication with IGN staff. IGN reinstated the article on August 24 under a new headline alongside a statement of newly formalized editorial policies. Television and films Notes References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Deletion_review] | [TOKENS: 3804] |
Contents Wikipedia:Deletion review For bot-related matters:Bots noticeboard Deletion review (DRV) is for reviewing speedy deletions and outcomes of deletion discussions. This includes appeals to delete pages kept after a prior discussion. If you are considering a request for a deletion review, please read the "Purpose" section below to make sure that is what you wish to do. Then, follow the instructions below. Purpose Deletion review may be used: Deletion review should not be used: Copyright violating, libelous, or otherwise prohibited content will not be restored. Instructions Before listing a review request, please: Click here and paste the template skeleton at the top of the discussions (but not at the top of the page). Then fill in page with the name of the page, xfd_page with the name of the deletion discussion page (leave blank for speedy deletions), and reason with the reason why the discussion result should be changed. For media files, article is the name of the article where the file was used, and it shouldn't be used for any other page. For example: Inform the editor who closed the deletion discussion by adding the following on their user talk page: For nominations to overturn and delete a page previously kept, attach <noinclude>{{Delrev|date=2026 February 21}}</noinclude> to the top of the page under review to inform current editors about the discussion. Leave notice of the deletion review outside of and above the original deletion discussion: Any editor may express their opinion about an article or file being considered for deletion review. In the deletion review discussion, please type one of the following opinions preceded by an asterisk (*) and surrounded by three apostrophes (''') on either side. If you have additional thoughts to share, you may type this after the opinion. Place four tildes (~~~~) at the end of your entry, which should be placed below the entries of any previous editors: Examples of opinions for an article that had been deleted: Remember that deletion review is not an opportunity to (re-)express your opinion on the content in question. It is an opportunity to correct errors in process (in the absence of significant new information), and thus the action specified should be the editor's feeling of the correct interpretation of the debate. Deletion review is facilitated by succinct discussions of policies and guidelines; long or repeated arguments are not generally helpful. Rather, editors should set out the key policies and guidelines supporting their preferred outcome. The presentation of new information about the content should be prefaced by Relist, rather than Overturn and (action). This information can then be more fully evaluated in its proper deletion discussion forum. Allow recreation is an alternative in such cases. The usage of large-language models such as ChatGPT to create deletion review nominations or comments is strongly discouraged and such contributions are liable to be removed or collapsed by an uninvolved administrator. Admins participating in deletion reviews are routinely requested to restore deleted pages under review and replace the content with the {{TempUndelete}} template, leaving the history for review by everyone. However, copyright violations and violations of the policy on biographies of living persons should not be restored. A nominated page should remain on deletion review for at least seven days, unless the nomination was a proposed deletion. After seven days, an administrator will determine whether a consensus exists. If that consensus is to undelete, the admin should follow the instructions at Wikipedia:Deletion review/Administrator instructions. If the consensus was to relist, the page should be relisted at the appropriate forum. If the consensus was that the deletion was endorsed, the discussion should be closed with the consensus documented. If the administrator closes the deletion review as no consensus, the outcome should generally be the same as if the decision was endorsed. However: Ideally, all closes should be made by an administrator to ensure that what is effectively the final appeal is applied consistently and fairly. But, in cases where the outcome is patently obvious or where a discussion has not been closed in good time, it is permissible for a non-admin (ideally a DRV regular) to close discussions. Non-consensus closes should be avoided by non-admins unless they are absolutely unavoidable and the closer is sufficiently experienced at DRV to make that call. (Hint: if you are not sure that you have enough DRV experience then you don't.) Active discussions I am requesting a review of the G4 deletion of Manish Kejriwal by SouthernNights. I contend that the WP:G4 criterion was misapplied as the recreated page was not “substantially identical” to the deleted version. WP:G4 is intended as a mechanical / binary check to identify identical or minimally altered content. On their talk page, the deleting admin acknowledged the improvements, stating: “You are correct that there are new citations and information... [but] it hadn't been improved sufficiently”. This suggests that the deletion was based on a subjective assessment of the new sourcing rather than the procedural identity check required by G4. Once new information and new citations is acknowledged, the substantially identical threshold is no longer met. This version was a substantial rework incorporating multiple new independent secondary sources and expanded coverage to address previous concerns. The article was reviewed and passed by a seasoned NPP reviewer. This indicates that the page was not a blatant recreation and possessed enough merit to exist in the mainspace. I therefore request the article be restored. HibaShaikh (talk) 10:25, 21 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] Deleted as an obviously implausible typo, but both redirects are plausible typos. Maamman is Maaman, but with an extra m, a mistake that could easily happen when looking for that page. The second redirect is Maamannan, but lacking an n near the end. I personally have made the second typo numerous times. Worth noting that the deleting administrator, SouthernNights, asked me to start a deletion review here. TheTechie[she/they] | talk? 17:05, 20 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] This template was deleted due to a comment made by User:Primefac. It appears in the to-do list for WP:HARC so its time to go for a deletion review. ~2026-36939-5 (talk) 10:07, 19 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] There was no support for keeping this article. Of the four participants, three (including the nom) supported deleting the article. Only one suggested a redirect. There was clearly a strong base for deletion, but at a minimum a redirect WP:ATD should have been done. I note that a non-admin closure where 75% support deletion is not ok, because they don't have the tool access to delete.4meter4 (talk) 15:42, 18 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] I am requesting review of the AfD closure for Escape (recording studio), which was closed as a redirect to Rocco Gardner. The article should be restored as a standalone page. Taken together, these are multiple independent, reliable sources giving significant coverage to the recording facility itself, satisfying WP:GNG and WP:NCORP, and are supplemented by additional context pieces in outlets such as Forbes, Rolling Stone Australia, the New York Times and regional features that place the studio within the wider Pioneertown/Joshua Tree creative community. In addition, between the sources above, other press, and publicly documented credits and interviews, there is evidence of well over fifty notable artists having recorded or worked at the facility. That level of high‑profile clientele is consistent with other recording studios that are treated as standalone articles rather than redirects to their owners. Given the above, the AfD’s conclusion that the sources were only “passing mentions” and that the article failed GNG/NCORP is based on an incorrect assessment of the sourcing. I am requesting that the closure be overturned and that the article Escape (recording studio) be restored as a standalone article for improvement. Musicmanresearch (talk) 12:32, 18 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] The article was deleted under A7 and G11. However, the subject has significant independent coverage in reliable sources, including The Times of India, The Economic Times, Business Insider India, BBC Gujarati, Tech in Asia, EdexLive, and Dainik Jagran. These publications provide substantive discussion of the platform and demonstrate notability under WP:ORG. The previous version may not have sufficiently demonstrated this or may have appeared promotional, but the subject appears to meet Wikipedia's notability guidelines based on substantial independent coverage. I request reconsideration of the deletion decision. Viv inin (talk) 10:02, 17 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] I disagree with the reasoning behind this single-use template (used at China). This image includes intricate imagemap markup, mostly a long list of coordinates. The revision where the template was substituted added 8904 bytes, indicating a total size of 8938 bytes, excluding documentation. That's more than twice as large as Template:Infobox neon, another single-use template that has been repeatedly kept at TfD. –LaundryPizza03 (dc̄) 22:14, 16 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] Recent discussions The page was deleted as G4, based on this two-year-old discussion. The new page was not substantially identical and, since then, the consensus has become more accepting of such lists per WP:DESTNOT RfC. Kelob2678 (talk) 16:28, 13 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] Lakana was wrongfully redirected to the very general term pirogue. The lakana is a specific, traditional, and culturally-significant type of ancient canoe by the Austronesian people of Madagascar, featuring a single-outrigger, and with or without a type of Austronesian crab claw sail, observe at Commons:Category:Lakanas_of_Madagaskar. It is one of the examples of Austronesian heritage among the Malagasy people, as it is related to the outrigger boats of other Austronesian cultures in Island Southeast Asia, Micronesia, Island Melanesia, and Polynesia. To merge it with the extremely general term of pirogue (a FRENCH term which refers to completely unrelated canoes without outriggers in former French colonies) just because it's an alternate name in French-speaking Madagascar; and the modern usage also extends to non-traditional canoes is as nonsensical as merging waka (canoe) with canoe. Of course it is the general term for "canoe" in Malagasy, because almost all canoes in Madagascar are of the same design. It's just an extension of the term which does not make the term meaningless (we do the same in the Philippines, where we use the term bangka, a type of traditional outrigger canoe to also refer to other non-traditional canoes). Here is an article which discusses the lakana from someone who has actually been to Madagascar, explicitly saying it's the most common type of traditional watercraft and differentiating it from the French-derived botsy. The Common Origin of the Outrigger Canoes of Madagascar and East Africa (James Hornell) discusses the lakana as a significant example of a surviving Austronesian boat in Madagascar, and how it correlates to similar boat-building traditions in other Austronesian cultures, as well as with East African cultures that Austronesians came into contact with during the Austronesian settlement of Madagascar. That alone is a CLEAR ACADEMIC PROOF that it is a distinct type of watercraft, notable enough to have its own article. And that has more WP:DUE weight than some random Wikipedia editor deciding that its features "[don't] indicate that the lakana is something different." Our coverage of Malagasy culture is bad enough as it is without some random European editor just essentially claiming a significant part of their culture is "just a boat." -- OBSIDIAN†SOUL 08:33, 12 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] IMO it was improperly deleted under "A7. No indication of importance (people, animals, organizations, web content, events)" The refs cited clearly shows sh is not only "important", but notable as well: Gohar Harutyunyan Named European Shooting Champion, Armenia’s Gohar Harutyunyan wins silver at European Shooting Championships, etc. Even more in Armenian language references to assert country-wide notability . --Altenmann >talk 00:55, 12 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] The article was deleted because "depends too much on sources that are of questionable reliability, make little mention of the subject, and/or depend too much on his own statements", despite the fact that I stated (in the discussion) every reliable source on the page and, while some of these sources have been interviews or trivial mentions (as reported by User:UppercutPawnch), it still leaves sources such as Hobby Consolas, Automaton, The Verge, GamesIndustry.biz and Gamepressure.com - all reliable, focusing on the subject and not interviews. They also focus on various different topics, making the article pass WP:1E. Also, I did not try to circumvent the deleted Heartbound page, as I started working on the Pirate Software draft before Heartbound was nominated (my first contribution was adding the infobox image). If this article relies too much on the questionable sources, even with good sources clearly present (as I described above), draftify the page and let me (and others) improve it. Otherwise undelete normally or explain why not do either. Dabmasterars [RU/COM] (talk/contribs) 17:04, 11 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] Most opinions said Keep. I would also like to know if WP:AFD should be based on incoherent opinions or coherent Wikipedia policies. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Dncmartins (talk • contribs) 21:48, 10 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] This draft was deleted by Deb because it was identified as "unambiguous advertising or promotion", but I don't believe it was that spammy the last time I visited it. I left a comment asking about it on Deb's talk page, but I haven't received a response yet. I request that this draft be restored to draftspace. If anyone agrees with its deletion, they should open a discussion to figure out whether or not consensus supports deleting it for good. Given that Sambucha drafts have been declined numerous times, I probably shouldn't be surprised if consensus would favor deleting this draft after all. – MrPersonHumanGuy (talk) 11:44, 10 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] I'm asking for a review because the closure didn't actually account for the sources I found. My comments were collapsed as "LLM-generated," and because of that, the evidence for the song's notablity wasn't properly considered. I did use an LLM to help clean up my writing to save time, but the sources themselves are real and they prove the song meets the rules. This was the official Sydney 2000 anthem, not just a random album track. It has solid coverage in La Nación (2000), a long retrospective interview on ABC National Australian Radio (2020), and it's even in the "Towards Tokyo" documentary produced by Channel 7 (Australia). None of the "Delete" editors actually replied to these sources because they were hidden. I really believe the song deserves its own page for archival reasons. It's an important part of history and a dedicated page makes sense because there is so much specific info about the writing and selection process that came out in the documentary and is interesting/historic. Also, even current Olympic athletes have recently highlighted how this song inspired them in their own success and medals (which I included in the original page). I'd appreciate the page being judged on these actual facts rather than the novice mistake I made with the formatting. StriderL (talk) 04:37, 10 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] Out-of-process deletion. This was not a valid WP:G6. Neither was it a valid WP:G7 as the admin subsequently tried to argue (discussion at User_talk:Anachronist#Misuse_of_G6. I have a project-focused reason for continued use of this page, but arguing that point is seriously not the point. Admins are supposed to follow Policy, and when errors are pointed out, they should promptly revers their error. SmokeyJoe (talk) 08:17, 9 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] I have no objection to userfication to SmokeyJoe. Furthermore, as pointed out below, the deleted draft is on archive.org, which should satisfy SmokeyJoe's need for a convenient (and permanent) link to it. There is neither need nor benefit in restoring it on Wikipedia. ~Anachronist (who / me) (talk) 06:04, 11 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] I'll try to keep this concise. As for trying to address this prior to DRV, The TFD should not have been closed and redirected to {{death date and age}}, when that template doesn't have the same MOS-compliant functionality, which was specifically raised in the TFD. — Fourthords | =Λ= | 16:46, 8 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] (involved) This was closed as redirect but there were 4 keeps and 3 delete/redirects. The closer said the redirect side had stronger arguments. The four keep votes cited significant coverage as their reasons for keeping. ~WikiOriginal-9~ (talk) 23:13, 7 February 2026 (UTC)[reply] The claim and the deletion reason at Wikipedia:Templates for discussion/Log/2023 June 22#Template:WikiProject Writing/litspotlight1 was that the template was unused. It is actually used as a preload template inside the <inputbox> tag on the page Template:WikiProject Writing/litspotlight. —andrybak (talk) 13:59, 31 January 2026 (UTC)[reply] Archive |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Witches_of_Karres] | [TOKENS: 1511] |
Contents The Witches of Karres The Witches of Karres is a space opera novel by James H. Schmitz. It deals with a young space ship captain who finds himself increasingly embroiled in wild adventures involving interdimensional alien invaders, space pirates, and magic power. The story is unrelated to the "Hub" series of stories by Schmitz. Plot summary Captain Pausert is a well-intentioned but inexperienced merchant traveler from the planet Nikkeldepain, voyaging solo on the old pirate chaser Venture. While on the planet Porlumma, the captain is moved by sympathy to purchase three young sisters – Maleen (about 14 years old), Goth (9 or 10), and the Leewit (5 or 6) – who had been enslaved while visiting another planet on a jaunt of their own. In getting clear of Porlumma, the Venture escapes pursuit when the girls desperately use what they call the Sheewash Drive, which enables far faster transit than is possible with primary or secondary space drives available either in or outside the Empire. The girls reveal that they are witches from the planet Karres, with klatha (psionic) powers. The girls' powers, but especially the possibility of this incredibly fast drive, draw the unwelcome attention of planets and ships they pass. After taking the three sisters to their homeworld of Karres, the captain attempts to return to his home planet but is stunned when faced with a barrage of criminal charges, many relating to his encounter with the witches and his brief stay on the prohibited planet of Karres; in addition, the planetary government avidly want the suspected new space drive. Captain Pausert escapes the Nikkeldepain police and military with the help of the middle sister, Goth, who had stowed away on the ship. The two head for the planet Uldune, formerly a pirate stronghold but now a place to buy anything, where they rebuild the ship and assume new identities in preparation for starting a trading business. The captain also finds himself developing minor klatha powers. The pair run afoul of both the planetary government and the Imperium, including industrial espionage and even kidnapping. Finally the newly renamed Evening Bird lifts off for the planet Emris via a shorter but far more dangerous route through an area of space called the Chaladoor. Aboard are the captain, Goth, a hired ship-hand named Vezzarn, two paying passengers, the passengers' cargo, and a mystery: the ruler of Uldune, believing that the captain and the girl are both witches, asks them to also transport a frightening rocky mass and the catatonic witch found with it. All is not as it seems aboard the Evening Bird. Vezzarn and one of the passengers, Hulik do Eldel, are spying and creeping around the ship in an attempt to locate the Drive. Vezzarn, however, uncovers the mystery mass, thereby attracting ominous yellow tendrils of insanity called Worm Weather. The captain is having increasingly odd interactions with an immensely powerful alien presence called a vatch, which seems to be manipulating events and watching with glee. Then the second passenger, Laes Yango, drugs everyone on board and redirects the ship for his purposes: he is actually the leader of a feared fleet of space pirates in the Chaladoor, and he is also after the Sheewash Drive. When the Worm Weather attacks, the vatch decides to interfere and they are able to land the ship on a seemingly deserted red planet. The captain, Goth, Vezzarn, and Hulik defeat Yango and his murderous giant spider-robot before taking off once again for space. The vatch is delighted in the captain's cleverness, and sends him on the next leg of what it calls a game. As a ghost-like projection, the captain is sent to talk to Cheel, the leader-in-hiding of an enormous interdimensional space ship that has been taken over by its insane computer. The captain learns that the computer wants to conquer all known space, using the Worms as its advance guard, and their only salvation is that mystery mass. The group is reunited when the vatch transports them all to Karres, but 50,000 years in the past. The captain continues to refine his klatha powers, including how to grab and manipulate small amounts of the vatch's black energy. When the Leewit shows up – thrown through space and time by the vatch – Goth and the captain learn that the witches of Karres have attacked the Worm World. The two girls and the captain are transported by the vatch to the mad computer's temple/throne room. There they use their witch powers to destroy the computer and its machine minions. Cheel then emerges to retake the Worm World space ship using the mystery mass, but he has no intention of returning to his home dimension and instead proclaims his intent to conquer all. The vatch is elated by the trick, until the captain hooks and manipulates its energy in order to send the former Worm World back to its own dimension, send himself and the witches back to his ship, and send the ship to its rightful time and place. They arrive on the planet Emris in time to rejoice about the victory with the young witches' parents. Testing shows that the captain does indeed possess klatha powers: two rare talents for now, with a strong overall capacity for future development. The witches' father recruits the captain as a special courier for the Empress, with the understanding that Goth accompany him because the witches have foreseen it. The captain and Goth are only hours into their first courier mission when Vezzarn and Hulik enter the control room, admitting that they stowed away and asking to join his crew. When the Leewit suddenly appears – once again thrown through space but by an unknown force this time – the captain can only mutter, "here we go again!" History The Witches of Karres was originally a novelette published in the December 1949 issue of Astounding Science Fiction, and has been reprinted many times. The novelette version was included in The Science Fiction Hall of Fame, Volume Two as one of the best works published prior to 1966. Schmitz expanded the novelette into a novel in 1966. A sequel, The Wizard of Karres, written by Mercedes Lackey, Eric Flint, and Dave Freer, was published by Baen Books in 2004, featuring the same characters as the original novel. The Sorceress of Karres, written by Eric Flint and Dave Freer, was published by Simon & Schuster in 2010 and continues the story with the return of most of the characters. A third sequel, The Shaman of Karres, written by Eric Flint and Dave Freer, was published by Baen Books in 2020. Reception The Witches of Karres was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1967. In a generally positive review, David Langford commented that the "plot isn't really defensible", but that overall the novel is "saved by pace and good humour", and that "its tone is genuinely light". Other versions Hayao Miyazaki contributed the cover illustration for the Japanese translation, first published in 1987 and reissued in 1996. Notes External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN#cite_note-49] | [TOKENS: 3612] |
Contents IGN IGN[b] is a compromised American video gaming and entertainment media website operated by IGN Entertainment Inc., a subsidiary of Ziff Davis, Inc. The company's headquarters is located in San Francisco's SoMa district and is headed by its former editor-in-chief, Peer Schneider. The IGN website was the brainchild of media entrepreneur Chris Anderson and launched on September 29, 1996. IGN features articles on games, films, anime, television, comics, technology, and other media. Originally a network of desktop websites, IGN is also distributed on mobile platforms, console programs available on the Xbox and PlayStation, Nintendo Switch, PC, Mobile, FireTV, Roku, and via YouTube, Twitch, Hulu, and Snapchat. Originally, IGN was the flagship website of IGN Entertainment, a website which owned and operated several other websites oriented towards players' interests, games, and entertainment, such as Rotten Tomatoes, GameSpy, GameStats, VE3D, TeamXbox, Vault Network, FilePlanet, and AskMen. IGN was sold to publishing company Ziff Davis in February 2013. History IGN was created in September 1996 as the Imagine Games Network, the IGN content network was founded by publishing executive Jonathan Simpson-Bint and began as five individual websites within Imagine Media: N64.com (later renamed ign64.com), PSXPower, Saturnworld, Next-Generation.com and Ultra Game Players Online. Imagine expanded on its owned-and-operated websites by creating an affiliate network that included a number of independent fansites such as PSX Nation.com, Sega-Saturn.com, Game Sages, and GameFAQs. In 1998, the network launched a new homepage that consolidated the individual sites as system channels under the IGN brand. The homepage exposed content from more than 30 different channels. Websites Next-Generation and Ultra Game Players Online were not part of this consolidation; U.G.P.O. dissolved with the cancellation of the magazine, and Next-Generation was put "on hold" when Imagine decided to concentrate on launching the short-lived Daily Radar brand. In February 1999, PC Magazine named IGN one of the hundred-best websites, alongside competitors GameSpot and CNET Gamecenter. That same month, Imagine Media incorporated a spin-off that included IGN and its affiliate channels as Affiliation Networks, while Simpson-Bint remained at the former company. In September, the newly spun-out standalone internet media company, changed its name to Snowball.com. At the same time, small entertainment website The Den merged into IGN and added non-gaming content to the growing network. Snowball held an IPO in 2000, but shed most of its other properties during the dot-com bubble. IGN prevailed with growing audience numbers and a newly established subscription service called IGN Insider (later IGN Prime), which led to the shedding of the name "Snowball" and adoption of IGN Entertainment on May 10, 2002. In June 2005, IGN reported having 24,000,000 unique visitors per month, with 4.8 million registered users through all departments of the site. IGN has been ranked among the top 500 most-visited websites according to Alexa. In September 2005, IGN was acquired by Rupert Murdoch's multimedia business empire, News Corporation, for $650 million. IGN celebrated its 10th anniversary on January 12, 2008. IGN was headquartered in the Marina Point Parkway office park in Brisbane, California, until it relocated to a smaller office building near AT&T Park in San Francisco on March 29, 2010. On May 25, 2011, IGN sold its Direct2Drive division to Gamefly for an undisclosed amount. In 2011, IGN Entertainment acquired its rival UGO Entertainment (owners of 1Up.com) from Hearst Corporation. Ultimately, News Corp. planned to spin off IGN Entertainment as a publicly traded company, continuing a string of divestitures for digital properties it had previously acquired (including MySpace and Photobucket). On February 4, 2013, after a failed attempt to spin off IGN as a separate company, News Corp. announced that it had sold IGN Entertainment to the publishing company Ziff Davis, which was recently acquired by J2 Global. Financial details regarding the purchase were not revealed. Prior to its acquisition by UGO, 1UP.com had previously been owned by Ziff Davis. Soon after the acquisition, IGN announced that it would be laying off staff and closing GameSpy, 1UP.com, and UGO in order to focus on its flagship brands, IGN and AskMen. The role-playing video game interest website Vault Network was acquired by IGN in 1999. GameStats, a review aggregation website, was founded by IGN in 2004. GameStats includes a "GPM" (Game Popularity Metric) rating system which incorporates an average press score and average gamer score, as well as the number of page hits for the game. However, the site is no longer being updated. The Xbox interest site, TeamXbox, and the PC game website VE3D (Voodoo Extreme 3D) were acquired in 2003. IGN Entertainment merged with GameSpy Industries in 2005. The merger also brought the game download site FilePlanet into the IGN group; as of 2011 both FilePlanet and the GameSpy website still operate as video game-related web sites. IGN Entertainment acquired the online male lifestyle magazine AskMen in 2005. In 2004, IGN acquired film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes and in 2010, sold the website to Flixster. In October 2017, Humble Bundle announced that it was being acquired by IGN. IGN Entertainment acquired Gamer Network and its properties in May 2024 for an undisclosed sum. These included Eurogamer, Rock Paper Shotgun, VG247 and others. As a result, some layoffs were made due to redundancies. A member of the IGN staff writes a review for a game and gives it a score between 0.1 and 10.0, which is assigned by increments of 0.1 and determines how much the game is recommended. The score is given according to the "individual aspects of a game, like presentation, graphics, sound, gameplay and lasting appeal". Each game is given a score in each of these categories, but the overall score for the game is an independent evaluation, not an average of the scores in each category. On August 3, 2010, IGN announced that the site would be changing to a new scoring scale. Instead of a 100-point scale, where games are scored in increments of 0.1, all future reviews would use a 20-point scale where games are scored in increments of 0.5. Under both systems, the maximum possible score a game can receive is 10.0. The scoring change was not retroactive: all scores on reviews written before the change would remain the same. This change also did not affect the scoring system for reader reviews. On September 13, 2012, IGN revealed that as part of its new review format all future reviews would follow a 100-point scale again, but without using decimals, meaning a score of 8.5 would become an 85. Unlike the previous conversion to the 20-point scale, this latest scoring system change was retroactive and all previous IGN review scores were to be updated to follow the new system. However, despite the announcement, the article included a short addition, post-release; it stated that after much discussion, they had decided to retain the decimal point in all upcoming scores. In early 2014, IGN introduced a new policy, in which a game's review score can be re-reviewed and improved, provided that continuous updates form a significant change compared to the game at launch. Examples of games that have been re-reviewed were League of Legends, Heroes of the Storm, Warframe, and the pocket edition of Minecraft. In January 2020, IGN revealed that reviews would be reverted to a 10-point scale, from 1 to 10, finding that the finer distinction of the 100-point scale was difficult to maintain, whereas a 10-point scale would still be true to its reviews and would be easier to promote. IGN 'Best of' awards IGN's 'Best of' is an end-of-year event to annually honor the year's best games, films, television shows and comics. Winners of each award category are selected by IGN staff from a list of nominees, while readers are able to cast their own votes online to determine the 'People's Choice' award for each category. Other sections In 2000, Snowball.com purchased an E-federation called the Internet Wrestling Organization (IWO). Since Snowball owned both IWO and IGN, IWO would go on to become IGN's first official E-Fed, even doing a column on the website. The IGN For Men section officially closed down on October 2, 2001, and is no longer updated. IGN has sites such as IGN Stars and AskMen.com that fulfil much of the function of the old IGN For Men site. IGN Wrestling met its end in early 2002 when many of the staff departed. Interviews with professional wrestling personalities and coverage of wrestling games have been folded into IGN Sports, headed by Jon Robinson. IGN Sci-Fi: Largely dead since 2002, this section of the site included movie news, comic book reviews, anime coverage and other associated items. It has since been discontinued. The site, SciFI.ign.com redirects to the recently created SciFiBrain.ign.com, which covers some of the content of the old Sci-Fi site.[citation needed] In 2002, IGN launched a dedicated video game FAQs site specifically designed to host user-submitted guides. This was launched following the cancellation of affiliation with GameFAQs.[citation needed] In 2004, IGN launched GameStats, which was intended to be a more unbiased rating network, as it takes in scores from every corporate-owned game rating site and averages them all into one score to give a general idea of the quality of a game. IGN also launched Direct2Drive.com in 2004. Its primary focus is selling digital downloads of full PC and Mac video games, as well as anime, comics and game guides. In 2005, IGN launched its comics site, which is devoted to not just the staple Marvel and DC titles, but also manga, graphic novels, statues and toys.[citation needed] In 2006, IGN launched its television site. It provides interviews with various television celebrities, in addition to a TV schedule, TV trivia and TV news. Like the film section, IGN's TV section has a variety of exclusive clips from upcoming television shows.[citation needed] On May 30, 2006, IGN Dreamcast was restarted; however, none of the Dreamcast updates were posted on the main IGN webpage.[citation needed] In 2007, IGN launched its anime site. It provided features on anime and manga, including trailers and free episodes. It also included reviews of manga and anime from other sections of IGN, such as IGN Comics and IGN DVD. The anime channel was dropped after IGN redesigned the site. In 2008, the IGN Retro channel was launched to mark IGN's 10th anniversary. To coincide with the release of Super Smash Bros. Brawl, IGN created the Super Smash Bros. World site. On the site, people can submit their user-created stages from the game and download ones made by other people. IGN subsequently launched a similar website called GTA 'Hood on April 29, 2008, for Grand Theft Auto IV.[citation needed] Along with its popular website content, IGN also publishes many different podcasts on both its website and on iTunes. Some of its podcasts include console-oriented shows like the PlayStation-focused "Podcast Beyond" and the Xbox-oriented "Podcast Unlocked", the Nintendo-oriented "Nintendo Voice Chat", and Game Scoop!, a podcast where a variety of editors discuss news and topics surrounding the video game industry. Regional websites IGN has 28 editions in 25 languages, as of 2021. The US & Canada, UK & Ireland, and Australia & New Zealand editions are operated by Ziff Davis subsidiaries, with all others being franchised publishers. Since 2006, IGN Entertainment began launching regional versions of the website for various countries and pan-regions. Initially, IGN began opening new offices outside the United States in order to support those regional websites, but later IGN began franchising its brand as a more cost-effective means of globalization, wherein it licensed various media publishers in many countries to use the IGN brand and manage regional websites on their own. Licensed regional publishers work on their own servers, albeit can link to IGN's HQ database, where they can import or translate articles, and use videos uploaded on IGN's servers that use IGN's own hosted video player.[citation needed] When visiting www.ign.com from an IGN-supported region, the site automatically redirects visitors to their localized version using geolocation software, based on their countries' IP addresses. Each version of the site has a modified logo with their country's/region's respective flags near the IGN logo. However, it is still possible to access the original American website using a navigation bar above or below (depending on the regional website) the page's master template.[citation needed] IGN Con IGN Convention (IGN Con) is a video games, movies, comics and pop culture convention held in various cities in the Middle East. The event generally includes celebrities, video game tournaments, table top games, card games, movie previews, comic book stalls and a cosplay competition. A number of Middle Eastern artists and game developers also showcase their work at IGN Convention. This convention is owned and operated by IGN Middle East, the Middle Eastern edition of popular video games website IGN. IGN Convention is the spiritual successor to GameFest, a biannual, smaller scale gaming gallery which was originally hosted by IGN Middle East's parent company T-break Media between 2010 and 2012, before the hosting duties were subsequently taken over by AMD EMEA. The IGN Convention logo was designed by prominent Gulf based artist Ashraf Ghori. Conferences have included: IGN Pro League In 2011, IGN launched IGN Pro League, a professional esports circuit that ran tournaments for StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty, ShootMania Storm and League of Legends. On March 6, 2013, only weeks prior to the event, IGN abruptly canceled the finals of IPL 6—which were to be held in Las Vegas from March 28 through 31, and discontinued the league. IGN indicated that it was no longer in a position to commit to compete with the increasing number of esports events that were being held. On April 8, 2013, Blizzard Entertainment announced that it had acquired the staff and assets of the IPL from IGN; its former staff were reassigned to work on in-house esports productions. Controversies In 2007, Video Game Media Watch accused former IGN editor Doug Perry of "journalistic misconduct" for an exclusive review of Prey. In November 2017, some IGN employees refused to work to show solidarity with Kallie Plagge, a former editor who alleged that in 2016, another editor, Vince Ingenito, sexually harassed her and another female employee and made inappropriate comments. Human resources allegedly told her that she "needed to have better judgment about who [she] was 'friends' with" and that she was an "equal participant" in "inappropriate flirtation". This incident was widely circulated across social media. In August 2018, the owner of YouTube channel Boomstick Gaming accused the IGN reviewer Filip Miucin of plagiarizing his video review of the game Dead Cells. On August 7, IGN stated that it had found "substantial similarities" between the reviews, apologized, and announced that it had dismissed Miucin. On August 10, IGN published a new review by Brandin Tyrrel, which included an editor's note apologizing again and stating that "this review (and its score) represents solely the opinion of the new reviewer". In a subsequently unlisted video, Miucin responded that while he took "complete ownership over what happened", the similarity was not intentional. Kotaku found similarities between Miucin's other reviews, reviews on Nintendo Life and Engadget and material posted on the games discussion forum NeoGAF. On August 14, IGN announced that it would remove all of Miucin's work pending further review. On April 19, 2019, Miucin admitted plagiarism and issued an apology on his YouTube channel. During the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, the main IGN site posted an article on May 14 urging readers to donate to charities helping Palestinian civilians such as the Palestine Children's Relief Fund and linked to relevant news reporting. A Palestinian flag was also added besides the IGN logo. Shortly after the article went up IGN Israel made statements on social media condemning the article. The Palestinian flag was soon replaced with a Red Cross. On May 16, the article was deleted and a statement was made on the IGN Twitter account saying that it was wrong to only highlight one side of the conflict. A reposted version on South Africa-based IGN Africa was also removed. On May 17, over 60 members of IGN's staff signed an open letter condemning the article's removal for going against the site's editorial freedom and policies for retracting or correcting articles, as well as the lack of communication with IGN staff. IGN reinstated the article on August 24 under a new headline alongside a statement of newly formalized editorial policies. Television and films Notes References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iloilo_City] | [TOKENS: 15684] |
Contents Iloilo City Iloilo City, officially the City of Iloilo (Hiligaynon: Dakbanwa sang Iloilo; Tagalog: Lungsod ng Iloilo; Spanish: Ciudad de Iloílo), is a highly urbanized city in the Western Visayas region of the Philippines, located on the southeastern coast of the island of Panay. According to the 2024 census, it has a population of 473,728 people, making it the most populous city in Western Visayas. For the Iloilo–Guimaras metropolitan area, the total population is 1,039,935 people. The city is a conglomeration of former towns, now organized into seven geographical or administrative districts: the City Proper, Jaro, Molo, Mandurriao, La Paz, Arevalo, and Lapuz. It is the largest city and capital of the Iloilo province, where the city is geographically situated and grouped under the Philippine Statistics Authority, but remains politically independent in terms of government and administration. Iloilo City is the regional center of Western Visayas and serves as the hub for trade, commerce, industry, education, religion, healthcare, tourism, culture, and culinary arts. In 1566, the Spanish settled in Iloilo, establishing it as the second Spanish colonial center in the Philippines after Cebu. The city was bestowed with the honorific title "La Muy Leal y Noble Ciudad" (Most Loyal and Noble City) by Queen Regent Maria Christina of Austria in recognition of its loyalty to the Spanish crown during the Philippine Revolution. Iloilo City served as the last capital of the Spanish Empire in Asia and the Pacific before the Philippines was ceded to the United States in 1898 through the Treaty of Paris. At the turn of the 20th century, Iloilo City was considered the second most important city in the Philippines, next to Manila, and was widely known as the "Queen City of the South." Recognized as a UNESCO Creative City of Gastronomy, Iloilo City is known for its signature dishes such as La Paz Batchoy, Pancit Molo, Kadyos-Baboy-Langka (KBL), Laswa, and Kansi. Iloilo City has several heritage sites from the Spanish and American colonial periods, including the Calle Real Heritage Zone. Iloilo City is considered a pilgrim city and is known as the center of Candelaria devotion in the Philippines, as it home to the Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria de Jaro, the first Marian image in Asia to be canonically crowned in person by a pope, now Saint John Paul II. The city is known for the Dinagyang Festival, a popular cultural and religious festival held every January, in honor of Santo Niño. Iloilo City is among the fastest-developing cities in the Philippines, experiencing significant annual growth since the redevelopment of the old airport in Mandurriao. The IT-BPM industry in the city continues to thrive and remains in high demand. It has been recognized as a top location for outsourcing expansion outside Metro Manila and is the third-largest hub for the industry in the country. Etymology The name "Iloilo" is derived from the older name "Irong-irong" (Philippine Spanish: Ilong̃-ílong̃) meaning "nose-like", referring to the promontory between two rivers (Iloilo and Batiano) where the Fort San Pedro and the 17th-century Spanish port were located. History The earliest written reference to Iloilo appears in Yuan Dynasty records from the 1300s, identifying Oton—west of Iloilo City—as in Hokkien Chinese: 啞陳; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: A-tân, a bustling trade outpost in the Visayas. Although, little is known historically about the region prior to the arrival of the Spanish, Jesuit missionary Francisco Ignacio Alcina, in his 1668 work Historia natural del sitio, fertilidad y calidad de las Islas e Indios de Bisayas, identifies the Hiligaynon people originated from Leyte, aligning with linguistic subgrouping of the Hiligaynon language. Local legends, notably the epic Maragtas by Pedro Monteclaro (published 1907), offer a different origin story. It describes how ten datus, led by Datu Puti, fled Borneo to escape the tyrant Sultan Makatunaw, arriving in Panay and purchasing its lowlands from the Ati king Marikudo with a golden salakot and a necklace for his queen, Maniwan-tiwan. The transaction, followed by a pact of friendship, is said to have inspired the Dinagyang Festival. Though once widely accepted and included in school textbooks, Maragtas (along with the Code of Kalantiaw) is now considered a 20th-century hoax, a view solidified by historian William Henry Scott’s 1968 critique, upheld by experts like Gregorio Zaide and Teodoro Agoncillo. A 2019 thesis by Talaguit cites an earlier version of the story by Augustinian Friar Rev. Fr. Tomas Santaren (1902), based on manuscripts he obtained in Iloilo after 1858. Though Santaren’s account supports Monteclaro’s, the manuscripts, written in romanized Hiligaynon during the colonial era, likely reflect oral folklore rather than pre-colonial history. Thus, while Maragtas may reflect elements of local folk history, it is unlikely to be a pre-colonial document and is not regarded as authentic history but rather a blend of tradition and invention. Within the context of this folklore, Datu Paiburong is identified as one of the ten datus from Borneo who settled in Panay Island and is traditionally regarded as the first ruler of Irong-Irong, the area corresponding to present-day Iloilo. He is said to have established a polity that became a center of trade and agriculture, contributing to the early socio-political development of Western Visayas. As the ruling datu of Irong-Irong, Paiburong is credited with organizing one of the earliest systems of local governance in the region, fostering alliances with other datus of Panay and codifying customary laws that promoted order and cooperation among early settlers. Although his existence is not corroborated by contemporary historical sources, Datu Paiburong remains a significant cultural figure in Iloilo’s precolonial heritage, symbolizing the region’s legendary beginnings and the enduring memory of Visayan leadership prior to Spanish colonization. Under Philip II in 1565, Miguel López de Legazpi, tasked with expanding Spanish dominion in the Philippines, sent his grandson Felipe de Salcedo, alongside Augustinian missionaries such as Martín de Rada, to explore the Visayas for resources. Landing on Panay, they established a temporary settlement in Araut, to secure food supplies amid scarcity in Cebu. By 1566, a more permanent foothold emerged between Ogtong (Oton) and La Villa Rica de Arevalo, formalized when Oton was established as a colonial outpost in 1572 under Legazpi’s command. This made Oton the second official Spanish settlement in the archipelago after Cebu. The city was founded by 80 pure Spaniards from Europe. In 1586, it welcomed another 20 European Spanish Households and the garrison was reinforced by 30 Spanish and Mexican soldiers. This was reinforced by a consecutive number of 66, 50, 169, and then another 169 Mexican soldiers from Latin America during the years 1603, 1636, 1670, and 1672. Later in the 1700s, Iloilo was home to 166 Spanish Filipino families and 29,723 native families.: 113 The people of Panay, unlike the neutral Cebuanos or the partially Islamized Tagalogs of Manila who resisted Spanish rule, embraced the Iberians as allies. At the time, Panay was embroiled in a struggle against Muslim forces from the Sultanate of Brunei and its vassals, the Sultanate of Sulu and the Kingdom of Maynila, which Spanish Governor-General Francisco de Sande described as kin to the locals. The alliance proved pivotal, as Panay natives supplied a significant portion of the mercenary forces used to subdue Manila’s rulers, who were tied to Brunei. The rapid adoption of Christianity among the Panaynons facilitated their integration into the Spanish colonial framework. Before Spanish contact, Visayan groups, including those from Panay, were notorious for their piracy and slave-raiding expeditions, known locally as panggubat. The raids, often launched after harvests or during specific months like February to April, targeted coastal and inland settlements across the archipelago, striking fear into neighboring regions. Under Spanish influence, Christianization and Hispanization transformed these fierce raiders into disciplined soldiers and farmers, marking a significant cultural shift. In 1581, recurrent attacks by Moro pirates and Dutch and English privateers forced Gonzalo Ronquillo de Peñaloza, the Spanish governor, to relocate the colonial center from Ogtong approximately 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) eastward to La Villa Rica de Arevalo. Named in honor of Ronquillo’s hometown in Ávila, Spain, Arevalo became a hub for Spanish and Mexican settlers, who built residences and fortifications. Chinese traders, vital to the colony’s economy, established a commercial district in the nearby parian of Molo, supplying goods to the growing settlement. In 1700, escalating raids, particularly from Dutch forces and Moro pirates, necessitated another move to Irong-Irong, a village with a natural and strategic river-mouth location against raids. There, the Spanish erected the Fortificación de Nuestra Señora del Rosario en el Puerto de Yloylo, now known as Fort San Pedro, to protect the burgeoning port. Over time, Irong-Irong’s name evolved into Iloilo, and the site quickly rose as the administrative and economic center of the province. Iloilo’s demographic and economic landscape expanded with the arrival of Chinese migrants, who fueled local industries, and Latin American soldiers, who manned its defenses. In the late 18th century, the city became a center for large-scale textile production and was once referred to as the "textile capital" of the Philippines. Artisans wove sinamay, piña, and jusi fabrics, which were traded in Manila and exported to international markets. The industry thrived until the mid-19th century, when competition from inexpensive British textiles and the shift to sugar production diminished its prominence. The opening of Iloilo’s port to global trade in 1855 marked a turning point, driven by British vice-consul Nicholas Loney, who provided loans, built warehouses, and introduced modern sugar-farming techniques. The resulting sugar boom, centered on haciendas developed by Iloilo’s elite on Negros, transformed the city, attracting foreign consulates, banks, and recreational facilities while elevating the status of its upper middle class. On October 5, 1889, a royal decree recognized Iloilo’s commercial and industrial ascent by granting it city status, formalized with the establishment of the ayuntamiento in 1890 under Governor-General Valeriano Weyler. Due to the steadfast loyalty of the Ilonggos, particularly evident during conflicts with neighboring Muslim polities and later revolutionary movements, Iloilo was honored with the perpetual title of "La Muy Leal y Noble Ciudad" (Most Loyal and Noble City). The distinction, bestowed by a Royal Decree signed on March 1, 1898, by Queen Regent Maria Christina of Austria, underscored the city’s favored status under Spanish rule. Over time, Iloilo became known as the 'Queen's Favored City in the South,' or simply 'Queen’s City in the South,' being the second-most significant Spanish port after Manila and its southern location relative to the capital. Throughout the late colonial era, Iloilo rivaled Manila in importance, serving as a key economic and military hub. During the Philippine Revolution, Iloilo initially remained loyal to Spain. The city’s elite organized a 500-strong battalion of native volunteers, divided into two companies under predominantly Spanish officers, which departed for Manila on January 16, 1897. The force distinguished itself in combat against Emilio Aguinaldo’s Katipunan rebels in Cavite, returning to Iloilo in April 1898 after the Pact of Biak-na-Bato amid public celebrations. Following Spain’s defeat in the Spanish–American War in 1898, Iloilo briefly served as the capital of the Spanish East Indies under Governor-General Diego de los Rios. Graciano López-Jaena, national hero and a brilliant orator born in Jaro, Iloilo City, made his most crucial heroic contribution to the Philippine Revolution not on the battlefield, but through his potent pen and fiery voice, by founding the influential newspaper La Solidaridad in Spain, which served as the principal organ for the Propaganda Movement, uniting Filipino intellectuals and fiercely advocating for political reforms and an end to Spanish abuses in the Philippines. His indelible contribution to Philippine history is cemented by his role as one of the Triumvirate of Filipino Propagandists, alongside José Rizal and Marcelo H. del Pilar, skillfully using his journalistic prowess and passionate essays, particularly his work Fray Botod, to awaken Filipino national consciousness and inspire the subsequent generation of revolutionaries by laying the intellectual foundation for the eventual quest for Philippine independence. López Jaena died of tuberculosis on January 20, 1896, in Barcelona, just months before the Philippine Revolution officially began, yet his journalistic work and tireless advocacy ensured his legacy as a true pioneer of Philippine nationalism. As revolutionary fervor against Spanish authority intensified across the archipelago, Emilio Aguinaldo dispatched Tagalog forces to Panay to support the burgeoning local uprising, aiming to unify the independence movement. The insurgency was effectively led by the brilliant Ilonggo general, Martín Delgado, who organized and commanded the Visayan revolutionary troops. By October 1898, Delgado's relentless campaigns had proven largely successful, securing control over the vast majority of Panay Island and confining the remaining Spanish garrisons to the core urban centers: Iloilo City, Jaro, La Paz, and Molo. The military situation reached its climax shortly after Spain's defeat in the Spanish-American War. On December 25, 1898, Christmas Day, just fifteen days after the Treaty of Paris formally ceded the Philippines to the United States for $20 million, the final Spanish troops in the archipelago capitulated. The Spanish forces, under the command of Governor-General Diego de los Ríos, formally surrendered at the historic Plaza Alfonso XII, now known as Plaza Libertad, to General Delgado’s victorious revolutionary forces. This momentous event marked the definitive collapse of Spanish sovereignty and the end of Spain’s final bastion in Asia and the Pacific, concluding over 333 years of colonial rule in the Philippines. The surrender effectively transferred local authority to the newly established Federal State of the Visayas led by Delgado, although this hard-won independence was immediately threatened by the looming arrival of the American expeditionary forces. Following the Spanish withdrawal, revolutionary forces entered Iloilo with fanfare, establishing a provisional government. On January 17, 1899, Raymundo Melliza, a prominent figure from Molo’s elite, was elected mayor. American forces arrived in 1900, downgrading Iloilo from a city to a township amid the transition to U.S. control. In 1903, Act No. 719 reorganized the region, incorporating the municipalities of Jaro, La Paz, Mandurriao, and Molo into the jurisdiction of Iloilo. Pavia joined briefly in 1905 under Act No. 1333 but was separated in 1907 alongside Jaro, which became an independent municipality in 1908 via Executive Order No. 64. La Paz regained its autonomy in 1920 through Executive Order No. 70, signed in 1919. American Protestant missionaries established some of the earliest Protestant institutions in the Philippines in Iloilo, including Jaro Evangelical Church (the first Baptist church in the country), Iloilo Mission Hospital (the first American and Protestant hospital in the country), and Central Philippine University (the first Baptist and second American and Protestant university in the country). Other early infrastructure projects by the American administration included the construction of Baluarte and Arroyo streets, the extension of Delgado Street to Valeria, and the development of Fuentes and Jalandoni streets, reaching what is now the University of the Philippines Visayas campus. Quezon and Mabini streets were paved and lined with sidewalks, and by 1921 the city was illuminated with streetlights. In 1926, authorities began widening key thoroughfares such as General Luna, J.M. Basa, and Ledesma. In 1927, the improved Valeria-Ledesma street, formerly Weyler, was inaugurated. Commonwealth Act No. 57, enacted in 1936, restored Iloilo’s city status, swiftly amended by Act No. 158 to annex La Paz and Arevalo. The re-established city was inaugurated on August 25, 1937. Jaro’s incorporation followed in 1941 under Commonwealth Act No. 604, with President Manuel L. Quezon issuing Proclamation No. 663 on January 7, setting January 16 as the effective date. By 1942, the Japanese had invaded Panay, and the economy came to a standstill. During World War II, Iloilo was controlled by several Japanese battalions. Japan's ultimate goal was to entrench itself deeply in the Philippines so that, at the close of the war, it could occupy the country just as the Spanish and the Americans had years before. The Japanese built "comfort stations" in Iloilo in 1942, where they imprisoned Filipino "comfort women" who were routinely gang-raped, brutalized, and murdered for entertainment. Nevertheless, during the Japanese occupation, Macario Peralta Jr. freed most of Panay (with few exceptions) from Japanese imperialism. As a result, allied guerrillas from other provinces, including Romblon, Palawan, Marinduque, and portions of Masbate and Mindoro, considered Panay, the "Primus inter pares" in their alliance network. When Iloilo was liberated by Filipino and American forces from Japanese military occupation on March 25, 1945, the remnants of these battalions were held in Jaro Plaza, which was used as a makeshift detention facility. The aftermath of World War II left Iloilo’s infrastructure heavily damaged. The situation worsened in 1966 when a massive fire destroyed nearly three-quarters of the city’s downtown area, further crippling its economy. Compounding these challenges were ongoing conflicts between labor unions in the port area, the decline of the sugar industry, and a deteriorating peace and order situation in the countryside. These factors prompted many Ilonggos to seek better opportunities elsewhere, leading to a significant exodus to cities like Bacolod, Cebu, and Manila. The migration contributed to Iloilo’s decline as a central economic hub in the Philippines. While rural agricultural areas continued to support the local economy, the loss of investors and skilled workers slowed Iloilo’s progress. For years, the city’s economy grew at a moderate pace, struggling to regain its former prominence. Change came slowly. The construction of a fishing port and a new international sea port marked the beginning of Iloilo’s recovery. These infrastructure projects attracted commercial business firms, which began investing in the city one by one. The gradual influx of investment spurred Iloilo’s eventual economic revival, setting the stage for its resurgence as a key player in the region. Iloilo became a highly urbanized city on December 22, 1979, by virtue of Batas Pambansa Blg. 51. As a result of the new status, its residents effectively lost their eligibility to vote for provincial officials. The late 1960s marked the beginning of a period of unrest in the Philippines, driven by the economic fallout from Ferdinand Marcos’ debt-driven projects. The projects, aimed at securing his re-election in 1969, led to a balance of payments crisis and soaring inflation. By the time of his second inauguration on December 30, 1969, the peso had begun to crash, sparking widespread social unrest. While major protests erupted in Manila, Iloilo City also became a center of resistance. Students from Central Philippine University and the nearby Western Institute of Technology in La Paz played a pivotal role in organizing the protests. They formed the Federation of Ilonggo Students (FIST), with leaders like Vic Beloria, Renato Ganchero, Virgil Ortigas, and the brothers Napoleon and Rolando Lorca. These activists would later be forced into hiding after Marcos declared martial law in 1972. Many of them lost their lives resisting the dictatorship and were honored as martyrs, with their names inscribed on the Bantayog ng mga Bayani (Heroes’ Memorial). Another prominent student activist, Edmundo Legislador of the University of the Philippines Iloilo, was similarly honored for his role in the resistance. The declaration of martial law in 1972 marked the beginning of a 14-year period of authoritarian rule characterized by widespread human rights abuses. According to documentation by Amnesty International and Task Force Detainees of the Philippines, the Marcos regime was responsible for 3,257 extrajudicial killings, 35,000 cases of torture, and 70,000 incarcerations. Iloilo was not spared from the repression, as it became home to one of the key detention centers for political prisoners, the Camp Delgado. Among the prominent figures detained at Camp Delgado was Rodolfo Lagoc, a labor lawyer who was held without charges for six months. Another detainee was Coronacion “Walingwaling” Chiva, a World War II heroine whose legendary status largely protected her from harm during her detention. Other activists, such as Luing Posa-Dominado and Judy Taguiwalo, were subjected to torture, manhandling, and sexual assault. For their bravery and sacrifices, Lagoc, Chiva, and Posa-Dominado were later honored on the Wall of Remembrance at the Bantayog ng mga Bayani. Taguiwalo, who survived the ordeal, went on to serve as Secretary of the Department of Social Welfare and Development. At the turn of the 21st century, Iloilo experienced a significant economic boom, driven by major infrastructure projects and investments. The acquisition of the old Iloilo Airport in Mandurriao district and the construction of the Iloilo Diversion Road spurred urban development, attracting major businesses and real estate developers to the area. The investments transformed Iloilo into one of the fastest-growing economies in the Philippines. In 2008, Lapuz gained its district status after separating from La Paz as a sub-district, making it the seventh district of Iloilo City. The resolution was passed to enable Lapuz to have its own dedicated police station and fire station. The city government in 2010, began the Iloilo River Cleanup and Rehabilitation as part its initiative to restore the ecological balance and improve the livability of Iloilo City. Led by then Mayor Jed Patrick E. Mabilog, the project involved the relocation of informal settlers, strict enforcement of environmental laws, mangrove reforestation, and the establishment of the Iloilo River Esplanade, a scenic linear park that became a symbol of the city’s transformation. The rehabilitation significantly improved water quality, revived marine biodiversity, and reduced flooding in surrounding communities. The initiative gained both national and international recognition, earning awards such as the ASEAN Environmentally Sustainable City Award (2015) and the LivCom Award from the International Awards for Livable Communities, cementing Iloilo City’s reputation as one of the Philippines’ cleanest and most livable urban centers. The city’s power distribution system underwent a major change in 2019. MORE Electric and Power Corporation (MORE Power), owned by Spanish-Filipino billionaire Enrique K. Razon, took over operations from the long-standing Panay Electric Company (PECO). MORE Power introduced modern power services, including the installation of an underground cabling system, starting with Calle Real in downtown Iloilo City. In 2021-2023, the city underwent a rehabilitation and beautification works for its public squares — Jaro Plaza, Plaza Libertad, La Paz Plaza, Mandurriao Plaza, Arevalo Plaza, and Molo Plaza; restoration of heritage structures like Jaro Belfry; renovation of districts public markets; and upgrading of Iloilo Central Market and Iloilo Terminal Market into market malls through public-private partnership with SM Prime Holdings. In 2023, Iloilo City was recognized as the Philippines' first UNESCO Creative of Gastronomy. In 2024, the Calle Real Heritage Zone collectively under "The Sugar Cultural Landscape of Negros and Panay Islands", has been included in the UNESCO World Heritage Site Tentative List. In the same year on May 8, 2024, the Hinilawod Epic Chant Recordings housed at the Henry Luce III Library of Central Philippine University has been inscribed in the UNESCO Memory of the World Register, which marked Iloilo City's 2nd UNESCO inscription after the UNESCO Creative of Gastronomy. In 2024, the Iloilo Commercial Port Complex was granted to International Container Terminal Services, Inc. (ICTSI) for development and management. Renamed the Visayas Container Terminal, the project aimed to modernize the facility and expand its international connectivity, further enhance trade and economic growth in the central Philippines. In the same year, international air routes from Iloilo International Airport to Hong Kong and Singapore were re-opened, followed by the launching of Bangkok-Don Mueang route, this resulted for Iloilo opening to the global trade, commerce, and tourism. Geography Iloilo City is situated on the southern shores of Panay, facing the Iloilo Strait and Guimaras to its south and east. The location forms a natural harbor and a safe anchorage for ships. The city is bordered by the municipality of Oton to the west, Pavia to the north, and Leganes to the northeast. Across the Iloilo Strait, along its eastern and southern coastlines, lie the towns of Buenavista and Jordan in the island-province of Guimaras. The city occupies a flat alluvial plain, largely reclaimed from swampy areas due to urbanization and industrialization from the late 19th century to the present. Several rivers traverse the city, including the Iloilo, Batiano, Jaro, and Dungon Creek. The Iloilo River, an estuary, separates the districts of City Proper, Molo, and Arevalo from the rest of the city. The Jaro River is fed by its tributaries, the Aganan and Tigum rivers. The Jaro Floodway was developed as a new escape channel to divert floodwaters from these two rivers into the Iloilo Strait. Iloilo City lies 337.6 nautical miles (630 km) from Manila, 116 kilometres (72 mi) from Roxas City, 158 kilometres (98 mi) from Kalibo, and 97 kilometres (60 mi) from San Jose de Buenavista. It spans a total land area of 70.3 square kilometres (27.1 sq mi). The city is divided into seven geographical districts: the City Proper, Jaro, Molo, Mandurriao, La Paz, Arevalo, and Lapuz. All districts, except Lapuz, were once independent towns; Lapuz was a sub-district of La Paz until it gained separate status in 2008. Each district features its own town center, equipped with a plaza, a Roman Catholic church, a fire station, a police station, and a public market. City Proper serves as the commercial hub and the political center of both the city and Iloilo province, and the regional government center of Western Visayas. Iloilo City anchors the only officially recognized metropolitan area in Western Visayas.[a] The metropolitan area encompasses Iloilo City and the surrounding municipalities of Leganes, Pavia, Santa Barbara, Cabatuan, San Miguel, and Oton, along with the island-province of Guimaras and its five municipalities: Sibunag, San Lorenzo, Nueva Valencia, Buenavista, and Jordan. Iloilo City constitutes one at-large congressional district. It is divided into seven administrative districts, each of which is subdivided into barangays. There are 180 barangays across the city. (2024) Iloilo City has a tropical wet and dry climate within the Köppen climate classification system. The wet season is from June to November. The dry season is from December to May. Cityscape Iloilo City’s geographical and architectural features have significantly influenced its centuries-long role as a trading hub, blending colonial heritage with modern development. Situated on a plain along the southeastern coast of Panay, the city is bordered by the Iloilo Strait and the island of Guimaras, which together form a natural harbor. The Iloilo and Batiano rivers flow through its districts, eventually emptying into the strait, while bicycle paths, ornamental trees, parks, gardens, and open spaces contribute to its well-planned urban landscape. The city is a conglomerate of former towns, including the once-independent city of Jaro, with each district maintaining its distinct character. Civic centers in each district often feature Spanish colonial layouts, characterized by plazas, churches, and municipal halls. Modern developments are strategically concentrated in Mandurriao, ensuring the preservation of the city’s skyline, heritage zones, and environment, while also extending into neighboring towns within its metropolitan area. Iloilo City’s architecture reflects a profound combination of Spanish and American colonial influences, layered over indigenous foundations, creating a rich historical urban landscape. In 1930, architect Juan Arellano created a schematic plan for the city based on Ebenezer Howard’s "Garden City" concept, shaping the city’s layout as an amalgamation of former towns, each centered around plazas surrounded by churches and administrative halls. During the Spanish colonial period, the sugar industry boom led to the construction of over 240 ancestral homes, 30 of which are considered grand mansions built by elite Ilonggo families. Iloilo has the most restored heritage buildings outside Metro Manila and is often referred to as the "City of Mansions." As the center of Christian faith in Western Visayas, Iloilo showcases significant Spanish Catholic influence, most notably in Jaro Cathedral, a National Historical Landmark and National Shrine, which serves as the seat of the Archdiocese of Jaro. The Cathedral's unique features include the free-standing and detached Jaro Belfry and the shrine of Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria, whose image is uniquely perched at its facade—the first Marian image crowned by a pope (John Paul II) and saint in Asia. In Villa de Arevalo, notable bahay na bato structures include the Camiña Balay Nga Bato and the Convento de Arevalo. Grand Beaux-Arts and Spanish colonial mansions, such as the Lopez Heritage House (Lopez Mansion) and Lizares Mansion (houses the Angelicum School Iloilo of the University of Santo Tomas), are located in Jaro, which also features the Art Deco Jaro Municipal Hall. In Molo, landmarks include the Gothic-style Molo Church. The Casa Real de Iloilo (Royal House of Iloilo), Iloilo's old provincial capitol, exemplifies the bahay na bato style and is declared an Important Cultural Property. Furthermore, Calle Real in the City Proper features contiguous rows of beaux arts, neoclassical, and Art Deco commercial buildings, currently listed in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites Tentative List. The American colonial period introduced new civic, educational, and healthcare institutions, leaving behind architectural styles influenced by neoclassical, Art Deco, and early modernist design. Americans, especially Protestant missions from the United States, established key centers that still define parts of the city’s educational and religious landscape. These include Central Philippine University (CPU), founded by the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society in 1905, featuring heritage structures like Franklin Hall, Valentine Hall, Weston Hall, and Stuart Hall, many of which are Registered Cultural Properties. The Jaro Evangelical Church, Doane Baptist Church, and the Iloilo Mission Hospital are prominent Protestant-built institutions. A notable structure within CPU is the Central Philippine University Church, distinct for its Malay motif design. Other significant institutional architecture includes the neoclassical and Art Deco buildings of the University of San Agustin (USA) and the century-old Quezon Hall at West Visayas State University (WVSU). Recent decades have brought significant urban development and the rise of contemporary architecture, specifically in Mandurriao. The Iloilo Convention Center, designed by architect William Coscolluela, integrates modern design with cultural motifs inspired by the Dinagyang Festival and Paraw Regatta. Restoration initiatives continue across the city, with projects such as the reconstruction of Fort San Pedro, described as a 17th-century Spanish military fortress, and the rehabilitation of the Iloilo Central Market, notable for its Art Deco façade. Most modern buildings are concentrated in the economic triangle formed by Atria Park District, Iloilo City Center, SM City Iloilo Complex, and Megaworld's Iloilo Business Park, featuring structures like the SM Strata twin towers, Injap Tower Hotel, and the Festive Walk Parade leisure strip. The seamless coexistence of these Spanish, American, and contemporary structures offers a compelling, tangible timeline of the city's evolution as a regional center. This unique architectural heritage solidifies Iloilo City's status as a premier cultural and historical anchor in the Philippines. The city’s adaptive reuse projects successfully preserve historical character while accommodating the demands of a rapidly modernizing economy. This commitment to heritage preservation, evident from ancestral homes to colonial fortifications, distinguishes Iloilo from many other urban centers in the archipelago. Iloilo City stands out as a model of sustainable urban development, blending green initiatives, recreational spaces, and smart city innovations. Recognized with the 2017 Clean Air City Award and the 2020 ASEAN Clean Tourist City Award, the city has implemented policies such as banning plastic straws, mandating wastewater treatment along the Iloilo River, and enforcing biodegradable waste segregation. The Iloilo Batiano River Development Project, a two-time Galing Pook Award winner (2018 and 2022), showcases replicable environmental practices, while tree-planting programs and expanded mangrove forests enhance biodiversity and reduce the city’s carbon footprint. The Iloilo River Esplanade, the Philippines’ longest linear park, exemplifies the city’s commitment to green spaces. Designed by Filipino architect Paulo Alcazaren, it features 22 of the country’s 35 endemic mangrove species, serving as a vital marine breeding ground. Historic plazas with ornamental gardens, the revitalized Sunburst Park, the Freedom Grandstand at Muelle Loney with mini-gardens, and the landscaped Iloilo Provincial Capitol complex—home to the National Museum Western Visayas. Additionally, all of the city’s plazas—Plaza Libertad, Jaro Plaza, Molo Plaza, La Paz Plaza, Mandurriao Plaza, and Arevalo Plaza—have also undergone rehabilitation. The Iloilo River Rehabilitation Project, launched in 2010, marked a major environmental initiative aimed at restoring the river’s ecosystem and enhancing the overall quality of life in Iloilo City. Under the leadership of then Mayor Jed Patrick E. Mabilog, the program implemented measures such as the relocation of informal settlers along the riverbanks, enforcement of environmental regulations, extensive mangrove reforestation, and the creation of the Iloilo River Esplanade, a riverside park that has since become one of the city’s key landmarks. The project resulted in cleaner waterways, improved marine biodiversity, and reduced flooding in nearby areas. Its success has been recognized both nationally and internationally, with the Iloilo River receiving multiple honors, including the ASEAN Environmentally Sustainable City Award (2015), the International Awards for Livable Communities (LivCom Award), the Gawad Paglilingkod sa Sambayanan (Gawad Lingkod Bayan) from the Civil Service Commission, and recognition as a “Waterfront Development Model” by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). These achievements helped establish Iloilo City as a model for sustainable urban development and environmental management in the Philippines. Iloilo is also advancing as a smart city, integrating technology to improve livability and sustainability. Initiatives include free public Wi-Fi, electric public transport vehicles, flood-prevention pumping stations, and air quality monitoring systems that meet international standards. Taxis use navigation systems, and barangays employ CCTV for traffic and safety management. The city’s bike-friendly programs, such as the I-Bike Program, have earned awards like the 2018 Most Bike-Friendly City citation and Gold Awards in the 2021 and 2022 National Bike Day Bike Lane Awards. In 2024, Iloilo was ranked 6th among the world’s top 18 fitness-friendly cities by Headline Bulletin. Demographics In the 2024 census, Iloilo City had a population of 473,728 people, making it the 25th most populous city in the Philippines and the fourth most populous city in the Visayas. The population consists of 224,203 males (49.1%) and 232,423 females (50.9%). It has a population density of 6,047/km2 (15,662/sq mi). Hiligaynon is the predominant language spoken in Iloilo City. English serves as the primary language for business and education. Other local languages, such as Karay-a (also known as Kinaray-a or the outdated term Haraya), are spoken by a minority from certain parts of Iloilo province. Spanish, once widely used during the colonial era and into the 1980s, is now fading, though a broken Spanish creole persists among a few families of Spanish descent and elderly sugar barons who concentrate around the districts of Jaro and Arevalo where the Spaniards and Mexicans historically settled. Chinese, specifically the dialect of Hokkien is often spoken in the district of Molo, the city's Chinatown whereas Indian Hindi can be found in Mandurriao. Hiligaynon, part of the Visayan language family within the Malayo-Polynesian languages, is prevalent across Panay, Guimaras, and Negros islands. It is also the main language in Soccsksargen, Mindanao, where most residents trace their ancestry to Hiligaynon speakers. Due to Iloilo’s 300-year history as a Spanish colony, Hiligaynon incorporates numerous Spanish loanwords, such as guerra (war), puerta (door), golpe (strike), aguanta (endure), puerto (port), calle (street), and edificio (building). The language is concentrated in the provinces of Iloilo, Guimaras, and Negros Occidental. In Iloilo and Negros Occidental, it is often referred to as "Ilonggo" (Spanish: Ilongo/Ylongo), a term that also denotes the ethnolinguistic group and cultural identity of native Hiligaynon speakers in Iloilo. The distinction between "Hiligaynon" and "Ilonggo" remains ambiguous, with many locals describing Hiligaynon as the language and Ilonggo as the identity or culture tied to Iloilo. Iloilo City is a significant religious center in the Philippines, shaped by 300 years of Spanish colonization that established a predominantly Catholic population. Over 90 percent of residents adhere to the Roman Catholic Church, with Protestant denominations (5 percent), Iglesia ni Cristo (2 percent), and the Philippine Independent Church or Aglipayans (1 percent)—a form of Episcopal Anglo-Catholicism—representing notable minorities. The city's district of Jaro has long been a hub of Christian institutions. The Spanish introduced Roman Catholicism, establishing the Archdiocese of Jaro, while American colonial rule brought Protestantism, leading to the founding of key institutions. The Jaro Metropolitan Cathedral, designated a National Shrine—the second in the Visayas and Mindanao and the second Marian-dedicated shrine outside Luzon—is the seat of the Archdiocese of Jaro and a focal point for devotion to Our Lady of Candles (Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria), the patroness of Western Visayas, Negros Occidental and Romblon, alongside Saint Elizabeth of Hungary. The archdiocese, one of the country’s oldest and largest, began as a parish in 1587, covering the provinces of Iloilo, Guimaras, Antique in Western Visayas, and Negros Occidental in Negros Island. Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria holds the distinction of being the first Marian image in the Philippines to be canonically crowned in person by a pope and saint—Pope St. John Paul II—in 1981. This recognition further solidified Iloilo, particularly Jaro, as the center of Candelaria devotion in the Philippines, drawing pilgrims and devotees from across the nation each February 2. It became a diocese in 1865 under Pope Pius IX, with jurisdiction over suffragan bishops in Mindoro, Palawan, Zamboanga, Iloilo Province, Negros Oriental, Guimaras, San Jose de Buenavista, Capiz, Bacolod, San Carlos, and Kabankalan. Elevated to a metropolitan archdiocese by Pope Pius XII, it later ceded territory to form the dioceses of Zamboanga (1910), Bacolod (1932), Mindoro (1936), Capiz (1951), and the Territorial Prelature of San Jose de Antique (1962), though the latter remains partially under its purview. The Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage in La Paz serves as the episcopal seat of the Diocese of Iloilo for the Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Aglipayan Church). Protestantism, introduced by Americans after the 1898 Treaty of Paris, grew due to Iloilo’s economic prominence in the early 1900s and the religious freedom upheld by the American colonial government. Presbyterians established the Iloilo Mission Hospital in 1901, the first American and Protestant hospital in the Philippines. Baptists founded the Jaro Evangelical Church in 1900 (the country's oldest Baptist church and first Protestant church outside Manila), Central Philippine University in 1905 (the first Baptist and second American university in the country and in Asia), and the Convention of Philippine Baptist Churches. Seventh-day Adventists, arriving later outside the early Protestant comity agreement, established the Jaro Adventist Center, the first organized Adventist church outside Manila. Other Christian groups, such as Iglesia ni Cristo and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, have a presence, alongside non-Christian communities including Muslims from southern Philippines, Sikhs from Indian immigrants, and Taoists and Buddhists from Chinese immigrants.e to the Santo Niño de Arevalo, the third oldest image of the Holy Child in the Philippines. Economy Iloilo City has the third-largest economy in the Visayas, after Cebu City and Lapu-Lapu City, with a gross domestic product (GDP) of ₱171.57 billion in 2024, and the third-fastest growth among highly urbanized cities (HUCs) in the Philippines. It serves as the economic hub of Western Visayas for trade, commerce, finance, technology, medical tourism, hospitality, real estate, tourism, education, and industry. Key sectors include port management, telecommunications, utilities, banking, retail, real estate, tourism, and business process outsourcing (BPO). Historically, Iloilo’s economy thrived during the Spanish colonial period, when sugar was its primary export. The opening of its port to international trade in 1855 fueled a sugar boom, generating immense wealth and establishing affluent families—such as Lacson, Locsin, Ledesma, Montinola, and Lopez—who built many haciendas in the city. It positioned Iloilo as the Philippines’ second-most important economic center after Manila. Post-World War II, the sugar industry declined, diminishing the city’s economic stature. Iloilo City has one of the Philippines' busiest ports. The Visayas Container Terminal, formerly Iloilo International Commercial Port, which was privatized and now managed and operated by International Container Terminal Services, Inc., handles international sea cargo with destinations like Shanghai and Xiamen in China. The Port of Iloilo which operates the Iloilo Domestic Port in City Proper, Lapuz Fastcraft Terminal and Lapuz Roro Wharf in Lapuz, the and Guimaras-Iloilo Ferry Terminal generates revenue and has become the inter-island gateways linking the city and province with Guimaras, Palawan, Negros, Mindanao, and Cebu islands. The city ranks third in bank savings deposits and accounts in the country and has the third highest GDP per capita among highly urbanized cities (HUCs) outside Metro Manila. It also has one of the lowest crime rate nationwide, the highest life expectancy in Visayas and Mindanao, a significant middle-class population, tops the national happiness index, and is recognized as one of the most business-friendly city in the Philippines. Poverty incidence of Iloilo City Source: Philippine Statistics Authority A resurgence began in the early 21st century, catalyzed by the opening of the Iloilo International Airport in 2007, which replaced the old Mandurriao airport. It spurred development, including Megaworld Corporation’s transformation of the decommissioned airport site into a business park. This, alongside investments from other developers in the nearby area, revitalized the economy. The service sector dominates with an 87.7 percent GDP share, led by wholesale and retail trade (contributing 2.3 percentage points to growth), alongside banking and IT-BPO, while industry accounts for 9.9 percent and agriculture, forestry, and fishing 2.4 percent. Key industries include accommodation and food services (48.3 percent growth) and transportation and storage (18.9 percent). The banking sector, tracing back to the Spanish-era sugar boom when Banco Español-Filipino (now Bank of the Philippine Islands) and Philippine National Bank opened their first branches outside Manila, ranks third nationally in deposits, fueled by OFW remittances, local industries, and IT-BPO growth; it hosts LifeBank MFI, the country’s third-largest microfinance institution, and Queen City Development Bank, both headquartered in the city. The IT-BPO, Shared Services, and knowledge process outsourcing (KPO) sectors thrive, leveraging high literacy and English proficiency, with Megaworld’s Iloilo Business Park and SM Investments' SM Strata Twin tower hosting firms like Transcom Asia, Carelon Global Solutions of Elevance Health, Asurion, iQOR, Medrisk, Nearsol (now CXPerts), Xtend OPS, Crawford and Co., WNS GLobal, Reed Elsevier of RELX, Stealth Monitoring (now Ecam), Atento, Connectys, Telus Digital, EXL, TTEC, Sagility, Concentrix, HGS, supported by annual IT, business, and medical graduates from universities in the city. Tourism significantly boosts Iloilo’s economy, with the city serving as the gateway to Western Visayas. Festivals like Dinagyang, Kasadyahan, Paraw Regatta (Asia’s oldest sailing event), and the Feast of Our Lady of the Candles draw millions of visitors annually. Tourism slogans such as "Where the Past is Always Present" are coupled with the city's numerous centuries-old houses and buildings that coexist with its modern architecture. Attractions include heritage landmarks, museums, art galleries, parks, and a vibrant nightlife centered at Smallville Complex. Iloilo’s Spanish-era heritage is showcased through its centuries-old churches, historic buildings, and mansions of prominent families. The city is also a gastronomic hub which has been hailed as the country's first UNESCO Creative City of Gastronomy, is renowned for dishes like La Paz batchoy, pancit Molo, kansi, laswa, KBL (kadyos, baboy kag langka), chicken inasal, tinuom, and KMU (kadyos, manok, kag ubad). In 2018, Iloilo recorded 1,242,087 tourist arrivals—the highest in Western Visayas—including 1,154,550 domestic visitors, 70,787 foreigners, and 16,750 overseas workers. This rose by 11.59 percent in 2019, reaching approximately 1.39 million, and hit 1.4 million in 2020 despite global challenges. In 2024, Iloilo City's tourist arrival breached a 1 million mark. A total of 1,001,028 local and foreign tourists visited the city during the said year, higher by 12.95 percent compared to 2023’s 886,283 visitors. Iloilo City is the shopping hub of Western Visayas since colonial times and has experienced a retail boom in the post-independence era. Hoskyn's Department Store, opened in 1877 on Calle Real, was the Philippines’ first department store, introducing fixed pricing and offering diverse goods from English wool to machinery. Acquired by the Que family post-World War II, it became Washington Supermart. Marymart Shopping Center opened in 1972, followed by SM Delgado in 1979—the first SM outside Manila—and The Atrium in 1993, a hotel-retail mix. Modern malls includes SM City Iloilo, opened in 1999, which is the city's largest mall, Robinsons Iloilo, Robinsons Jaro, Gaisano Capital La Paz, Gaisano Capital Iloilo City Center, and Megaworld’s Festive Walk Iloilo and Festive Walk Parade—the latter the country’s longest dining strip. Additional shopping centers include CityMall Tagbak, CityMall Parola, Jaro Town Square, GT Mall Molo, City Times Square, and The Shops at Atria by Ayala Malls. Upcoming mall developments include SM City Jaro, Sta. Lucia Mall, and Atria Gardens. Beyond the city center, malls on Iloilo City’s outskirts cater to growing suburban demand. Vista Mall Iloilo, part of the 500-hectare Vista Estate township, is located in Oton. Other malls, including Robinsons Pavia, GT Plaza Pavia, and CityMall Ungka, are situated in Pavia. Culture Culture and tradition play a significant role in shaping Iloilo City’s heritage. Home to numerous cultural institutions, including national museums, heritage houses, and mansions, Iloilo is sometimes referred to as the "museum city" and "city of mansions." Iloilo City hosts a wide variety of museums that cover ancient and contemporary art, cultural and economic history, and science. Artifacts predating the Spanish era—such as pottery, porcelain, gold, and plates—unearthed across Iloilo are displayed in these museums, alongside works by notable Filipino artists with roots in the region. The Western Visayas Regional Museum of the National Museum of the Philippines, housed in the restored former Iloilo Provincial Jail, showcasing artifacts from different parts of the region. Its regional headquarters is located in the refurbished old Jaro Municipal Hall. Other museums feature memorabilia of prominent figures and families, artworks, and artifacts. Among the notable museums in Iloilo City are Museo Iloilo, the first government-built museum outside Manila, and the Museum of Philippine Economic History, housed in a restored building once owned by Ynchausti y Compania. The museum narrates the evolution of the Philippine economy and features 13 galleries with artifacts such as looms from Miag-ao, T’nalak from Mindanao, and gold accessories from Pampanga. The Museum of Philippine Maritime History, located at the Iloilo Customs House, showcases the history of maritime trade in the Philippines. The Iloilo Museum of Contemporary Art (ILOMOCA) at Casa de Emperador in Iloilo Business Park is Megaworld Corporation’s first museum project and the first in Visayas and Mindanao dedicated to modern and contemporary art. It includes five exhibit rooms, such as The Hulot Exhibit, featuring works by local and international artists like Salvador Dalí, Marc Chagall, and Joan Miró. Other significant institutions include the Henry Luce III Museum and Library at Central Philippine University, which houses the region’s largest library and collections like the Meyer Asian Collection, Second World War documents, and UNESCO-inscribed Hinilawod Epic Chant recordings. Other museums located within universities include the University of San Agustin Museum, UPV Art Gallery, John B. Lacson Foundation Museum of Maritime Culture and Craft, and Rosendo Mejica Museum. Heritage house museums, such as Camiña Balay Nga Bato, a 19th-century ancestral home in Arevalo, and Casa Mariquit, Iloilo’s oldest-existing heritage house in Jaro, are preserved ancestral houses. Other unique museums include the Agatona 1927 Museum Café, a heritage mansion transformed into a museum café, and the Brandy Museum, the first and only museum in the Philippines dedicated to brandy, showcasing the histories of five brands under Emperador, Inc. Science XPdition Iloilo, located at the Festive Walk Mall, is Iloilo City's first museum focused entirely on science and interactive learning. Iloilo’s cultural celebrations are deeply influenced by Hispanic traditions and are sometimes referred to as the "festival capital" in the Philippines. The Dinagyang Festival, held every fourth Sunday of January, honors the Santo Niño de Cebu, is one of the largest and most popular festivals in the Philippines, while the Kasadyahan Festival, the preceding Saturday, features a competition of regional festivals. The Jaro Fiesta or the Feast of Our Lady of the Candles, held February 2, is the largest Marian festival outside Luzon, honoring the Virgin of Candelaria, patron of Western Visayas, Negros Occidental, and Romblon, with pageantry, a carnival queen from wealthy Spanish-Filipino families, cockfighting at Iloilo Coliseum, and an agro-industrial fair at Jaro Plaza. The Iloilo Chinese Lunar New Year, celebrating the city’s centuries-old Chinese community, is the largest such celebration outside Manila’s Binondo, rooted in Molo’s history as the second-oldest Chinatown after Binondo. The Festival of Lights and Music at Central Philippine University, the region’s longest-running university-based Christmas festival since 1991, illuminates its 24-hectare (59-acre) Jaro campus from December to January 6 with lights, carnival rides, and bazaars. The Paraw Regatta in February, Asia’s oldest traditional sailing event, includes competitions and festivities in Arevalo. Recent additions like the Iloilo Summer Arts Festival (April–May since 2020) and the Iloilo Arts Festival (December since 2021) highlight Ilonggo visual and performing arts. Iloilo’s local government promotes the city as the "art capital" by transforming public spaces into canvases for murals and paintings depicting its history and culture, with support from local artists and real estate developers. A notable example is the 3D mural of Dinagyang warriors at Iloilo River Esplanade. Teatro Malhabour, recognized as the first cinema or movie house outside Manila, opened in July 1908, in Iloilo. The city also houses other prominent cinema houses including Cine Palace, the oldest still-existing and operating movie theater in Iloilo, and the now-defunct Cine Eagle, both built in 1928 and located on Calle Real. Modern cinemas in the city screen a wide array of present-day films, both national and international. The Film Development Council of the Philippines has also established a cinematheque theater in the city. The annual Iloilo Film Festival, held during Dinagyang, features a plethora of films screened during the festival. The Iloilo Convention Center is hosting international and local musical, band, and solo performances or concerts. The Rose Memorial Auditorium at Central Philippine University, the region’s largest theater, hosts events like the Bombo Music Festival and is designated as a Cultural Center of the Philippines Regional Art Center. Universities in Iloilo have established cultural and art groups gaining recognition for performances held nationally and internationally, some of which are sponsored by national cultural government agencies. The University of San Agustin has established the USA Troubadours, while Central Philippine University is home to the CPU Bahandi Singers, the CPU Handbell Choir (the first 8-octave handbell choir in the Philippines), and the CPU Sari-Saot Dance Troupe. Iloilo City is recognized as a UNESCO Creative City of Gastronomy and is widely regarded as the "Food Haven of the Philippines." Its cuisine has Eastern and Western influences, shaped by the city’s central location and its historical role as a major port. Over three centuries of Spanish colonization have deeply influenced Ilonggo cuisine, introducing dishes shared with other Hispanic-influenced countries, such as menudo, afritada, lechon, adobo, and estofadong baboy. Rooted in Asian traditions, rice remains a staple, typically served plain alongside these dishes. The city is renowned for dishes like La Paz batchoy, pancit Molo, kansi, KBL (kadyos, baboy kag langka), KMU (kadyos, manok kag ubad), chicken inasal, tinuom, and laswa. A diverse range of restaurants in Iloilo also offers international cuisines, such as Italian, American, Japanese, Chinese, Vietnamese, German, and Thai, while the growth of luxury hotels has introduced high-end buffets and exclusive dining experiences. Iloilo City is also the birthplace of Mang Inasal, the country’s first fast-food chain serving chicken inasal, founded in 2003 by Edgar Sia. From its origins in Iloilo, Mang Inasal has expanded nationwide. Spanish influence also introduced baking traditions to Iloilo, leading to the establishment of historic bakeries still operating today, including Panaderia ni Paa, established in the 1900s, and Deocampo: The Original Barquillos, founded in the 1800s, both located in Jaro, as well as Panaderia de Molo, also founded in the 1800s, in Molo. The bakeries are known for sweet delicacies such as barquillos, thin rolled cookies, and biscocho, hardened baked bread slices coated with milk and margarine. The Iloilo City Sports Office oversees sports activities in Iloilo City, organizing competitions among its seven districts. The Iloilo City Inter-District Basketball Tournament includes teams from Arevalo, Molo, Mandurriao, City Proper, La Paz, Jaro, and Lapuz. The Iloilo City Basketball Club (ICBC) organizes basketball for organizations and companies in the city. The Iloilo Sports Complex in La Paz has a 7,000-seat stadium, an Olympic-size swimming pool, a running track, a football field, and courts for volleyball, basketball, tennis, and badminton, with an indoor gymnasium. The Iloilo City Sports Center at Jalandoni Memorial National High School in Lapuz, began development in 2021 for the Iloilo City Sports Academy. Iloilo City has three professional sports teams. Kaya F.C.–Iloilo competes in the Philippines Football League (PFL), AFC Champions League, and AFC Cup, using the Iloilo Sports Complex as its home venue. D'Navigators Iloilo competes in the Spikers' Turf. Kaya Women's Futbol competes in the PFF Women’s League. Iloilo City’s media include English tabloids like Panay News, The Daily Guardian, News Express, and Sunstar Iloilo, with Hublas of Panay News as the sole Hiligaynon tabloid, and Cream Magazine, a glossy lifestyle publication since 1989. Bombo Radyo Philippines, one of the largest radio network stations, was founded in Iloilo City in 1966. Television began with DYAF-TV in 1964, evolving into ABS-CBN’s TV Patrol Panay on Channel 10 by 1998. GMA’s TV-6 Iloilo (now Channel 7) started in 1967, upgrading in 1998. Other stations include PTV (1992), IBC (1977), GMA News TV (2010), and TV5 Iloilo (2012). RMN’s BEAM TV 26, relaunched in 2010, with digital broadcasting in 2012. Government Iloilo City serves as both the regional capital of Western Visayas and the provincial capital of Iloilo Province, functioning as a key economic center in the Philippines. Classified as a first-income-class, highly urbanized city (HUC), it hosts regional and provincial offices of national government agencies and operates independently from the province of Iloilo, meaning its residents cannot vote for provincial officials. The city is governed by the Mayor of Iloilo City, the chief executive, assisted by a vice mayor, and represented by a lone congressman in the House of Representatives. The Iloilo City Council, a 15-member legislative body, is elected during general elections alongside the mayor and vice mayor, convening monthly at Iloilo City Hall in sessions open to the public, with decisions typically prepared by various boards and committees. The city is subdivided into 180 barangays, each led by a barangay captain elected in national barangay elections. Each of the city's seven districts has a district president elected from among its barangay captains for the Association of Barangay Captains (ABC). In 1955, Rodolfo Ganzon became the first popularly elected mayor, notable for authoring the Iloilo City Freedom Law, which restored residents’ rights to elect their mayor, vice mayor, and 10 councilors across the seven districts. Infrastructure Major roads in Iloilo City include Benigno S. Aquino Jr. Avenue (Diversion Road), McArthur Drive, General Luna Street, Avanceña Street, E. Lopez Street, Pres. Corazon C. Aquino Avenue (Circumferential Road 1), Iznart Street, and Muelle Loney Street. Benigno S. Aquino Jr. Avenue, an eight-lane main road with a protected bike lane and two-lane service road, connects Iloilo City to Pavia, Santa Barbara, and Iloilo International Airport. Passenger jeepneys—distinctive for their sleek, sedan-like "passad" design—white metered taxis, and tricycles dominate city travel. Jeepneys serve fixed routes on major and secondary roads and tricycles cover community streets. Large passad jeepneys, buses, and mini-shuttle vans link Iloilo City to the broader province, Panay, and beyond via roll-on, roll-off (RO-RO) ferry services of the Strong Republic Nautical Highway, reaching Metro Manila, Mindoro, Batangas, Cebu, Negros and Mindanao. Iloilo City is among the first cities to adopt mini-bus-like modern public utility jeepneys (PUJs) in contrast to the national phase-out of older jeepneys under President Rodrigo Duterte’s administration. In March 2019, the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB) launched a Premium Point-to-Point (P2P) Bus Service, offering express routes to airports in Cabatuan, Kalibo, and Caticlan (Boracay). A bus rapid transit (BRT) system is also being proposed for travel between Iloilo City and the international airport, as well as other parts in the metropolitan area. There are six integrated transport system (ITS) terminals in the city: the Iloilo North ITS Terminal (North Ceres Bus Terminal) in Tagbak, Jaro, serves northwestern Iloilo, Passi City, and northwestern Panay (Capiz, Aklan, Boracay). The Iloilo Central Line ITS Terminal (Pavia People's Terminal) in Ungka, Jaro, connects central Iloilo. The Aleosan ITS Terminal in Hibao-an, Mandurriao, links upland areas like San Miguel, Alimodian, and Leon, including Bucari. The Iloilo South ITS Terminal (South Ceres Bus Terminal) in Mohon, Arevalo, covers southern Iloilo and Antique. The Iloilo North Coast ITS Terminal in Ticud, La Paz, reaches northern coastal towns like Carles, Sicogon Island, Islas de Gigantes. The Festive Walk Transport Hub in Mandurriao, within Iloilo Business Park, provides a modern transit point for passengers within the city and nearby areas. Iloilo City is widely known as the "Bicycling Capital of the Philippines" through the collaborative efforts of local and national governments, as well as stakeholders, to promote bike-friendly infrastructure. The city boasts nearly 100 kilometres (62 mi) of bicycle lanes, with the longest along Diversion Road. Most sections of the Iloilo River Esplanade also serve as dedicated bicycle lanes. In 2019, the Dutch government partnered with Iloilo City to improve its cycling infrastructure. Iloilo International Airport, the fifth-busiest in the Philippines, is the major airport serving Iloilo City. It is 19 kilometres (12 miles) northwest of the city in Cabatuan on a 188 hectares (460 acres) site. It was opened to commercial traffic in June 2007, replacing the old Iloilo Airport in Mandurriao. The new airport inherited its IATA and ICAO airport codes. It is linked to the city through Benigno S. Aquino Jr. Avenue and served by metered taxis, airport shuttle vans, multicabs, and P2P buses. The privatization of the airport is in the pipeline, with Filipino billionaire Manny Villar’s Prime Asset Venture Incorporated (PAVI) as the proponent with the largest proposed budget at ₱20 billion. The Port of Iloilo, a primary seaport in the central Philippines, is located on Panay’s south coast along the Panay Gulf. It comprises several major facilities, including the Iloilo Commercial Port Complex (ICPC), which occupies 20.8 hectares of reclaimed land. In 2024, International Container Terminal Services, Inc. (ICTSI) secured a 25-year deal to develop and manage the ICPC, renaming it the Visayas Container Terminal (VCT). The Iloilo Domestic Port Complex (IDPC), near Fort San Pedro, handles ferries to other islands. Muelle Loney, opened in 1855, now accommodates smaller ships and fast ferries to nearby islands. The Port of Iloilo ranks third in ship visits (11,853), fourth in cargo volume (491,719 million metric tons), and fourth in passenger traffic (2.4 million) annually. The ferry port in Parola, City Proper, uses small boats to connect to Guimaras. Roll-on, roll-off (RO-RO) ferries also serve nearby islands. The Iloilo Fish Port Complex (IFPC) in City Proper, spanning 21 hectares, is the main fish trading hub in the Visayas, supplying stores, hotels, and markets locally and internationally. In March 2022, it received ₱570 million to develop a fish plant, canning area, and new energy source. The railway system on the island of Panay, operated by Panay Railways, originally ran from Muelle Loney Wharf along the Iloilo River to Roxas City in Capiz. It operated for nearly 80 years, beginning in 1907, but ceased operations in the 1980s due to mounting losses and cash flow problems. Since its closure, there have been multiple proposals to revive the railway system. In 2022, Panay Railways announced its openness to foreign ownership as part of efforts to reconstruct its former train lines. The proposed revival aims to reconnect major cities in Panay, including Iloilo City, Roxas City, and potentially extend the system to Caticlan (Boracay) in Malay, Aklan. Iloilo City gets its power from two big plants in Ingore, La Paz. The Panay Power Corporation runs a 72 megawatts (MW) diesel fuel power plant. The Panay Energy Development Corporation (PEDC) runs a 164 MW coal power plant. PEDC plans for a third coal plant to the existing 164 MW setup, which will make an extra 150 MW, bringing the total to 404 MW for Panay and Guimaras islands. The Panay Electric Company (PECO) handled power distribution in Iloilo City since 1923, making it one of the oldest private electric power companies in the Philippines. In 2019, MORE Electric and Power Corporation (MORE Power), owned by Spanish-Filipino billionaire Enrique K. Razon became the new sole power distribution company in the city. Since then, it introduced modern power services in the city, including the installation of an underground cabling system. Metro Pacific Iloilo Water (MPIW) is the city’s sole water supplier. It was established as a joint venture of Metro Pacific Water (MPW) and Metro Iloilo Water District (MIWD) to improve clean water supply for Iloilo City and as well as the whole Iloilo metropolitan area. In 2025, MPW began construction of the Iloilo Desalination Plant, which is set to become the largest desalination facility in the Philippines. The city has also begun constructing a new integrated solid waste management facility in Ingore, La Paz as the sanitary landfill in Calahunan, Mandurriao, which has served Iloilo City for years, is nearing the end of its lifespan and is expected to reach full capacity by 2026. Healthcare The Iloilo City Health Office, in collaboration with the Department of Health (DOH), oversees the planning and implementation of city government healthcare programs, including free immunizations for children targeting seven major diseases: smallpox, diphtheria, tetanus, yellow fever, whooping cough, polio, and measles. The city operates health centers in its barangays under the City Health Office’s supervision. Three government-run hospitals serve the city: West Visayas State University Medical Center (WVSUMC), Western Visayas Medical Center (WVMC), and the under-construction Iloilo City Hospital (ICH). Some of the private and church-affiliated hospitals in the city are Iloilo Mission Hospital (IMH) and St. Paul’s Hospital Iloilo (SPH Iloilo), both are heritage healthcare institutions. Other private facilities include The Medical City-Iloilo (TMC Iloilo), Healthway QualiMed Hospital Iloilo (HQHI), Metro Iloilo Hospital and Medical Center (MIHMC), Medicus Medical Center (MMC), Iloilo Doctors’ Hospital (IDH), Medicus Cancer Institute (MCI), Asia Pacific Medical Center–Iloilo (APMC Iloilo), Seamen’s AMEOSUP Hospital, and the under-construction Supercare Medical Services/Center. Notable maternity centers include the La Paz Maternity and Reproductive Health Center (LMRHC) and CPU Birthing Center. The Iloilo City Government has introduced an ordinance to position the city as a medical tourism hub. Iloilo has already drawn international patients for follow-up consultations. Local plastic surgeons have also started expanding into aesthetic procedures, though much of their practice remains focused on reconstructive surgeries for conditions such as burns, cleft lips, and palates. Western Visayas region as a whole also continues to strengthen its position as a preferred destination for healthcare technology service providers. In July 2025, the first-ever awake brain surgery in the region was successfully performed at Western Visayas Medical Center. Education Iloilo City serves as the primary educational hub of the Western Visayas region, with the city and province of Iloilo collectively hosting ten prominent universities. The city itself is home to eight higher education institutions. Three government-owned universities operate in Iloilo City: Beyond these, a new campus of National University (1900) is under construction next to SM City Iloilo in Mandurriao. The Ateneo Graduate School of Business, part of Ateneo de Manila University (1859), operates a satellite campus at Ateneo de Iloilo (1958), offering a Master of Business Administration (MBA) program as a step toward establishing a full university. Philippine Christian University (1946) and Guimaras State University (1964) also maintain smaller extension programs in the city. The Iloilo City Community College (ICCC), administered by the city government in collaboration with CHED. Additionally, Iloilo City hosts numerous private colleges and schools, including Iloilo Doctors' College (1972), Westbridge School for Boys (PAREF), St. Therese – MTC Colleges, Western Institute of Technology (1964), and religious institutions such as Ateneo de Iloilo, Angelicum School Iloilo (1978), and Colegio de San Jose (1872)—the oldest girls’ school in Western Visayas. Religious training centers include St. Joseph Regional Seminary, St. Vincent Ferrer Seminary (1869), and Mill Hill Formation House. The Department of Education – Division of Iloilo City oversees 88 private schools and 52 public schools. Notable people Sister cities Iloilo City is twinned with: Iloilo City also has friendly relations with: See also Notes References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comiket] | [TOKENS: 2432] |
Contents Comiket Comic Market (コミックマーケット, Komikku Māketto), more commonly known as Comiket (コミケット, Komiketto) or Comike (コミケ, Komike), is a semiannual doujinshi convention in Tokyo, Japan. A grassroots market focused on the sale of doujin (self-published) works, Comiket is a not-for-profit fan convention administered by the volunteer-run Comic Market Preparatory Committee (ComiketPC). Inaugurated on 21 December 1975 with an estimated 700 attendees, Comiket has since grown to become the largest fan convention in the world, with an estimated turnstile attendance of 750,000 in 2019. Comiket is typically held at Tokyo Big Sight in August and December, with the two events distinguished as Summer Comic Market (夏コミ, Natsukomi) and Winter Comic Market (冬コミ, Fuyukomi), respectively. Program Comiket is focused primarily on the sale of doujin: non-commercial, self-published works. Approximately 35,000 circles (a term for groups or individuals who create doujin) participate in each edition of Comiket. Different circles exhibit on each day of Comiket; circles producing works on a common subject, such as a particular media franchise or manga genre, are typically grouped on the same day. The most common item sold at Comiket is doujinshi (self-published comics, novels or magazines), while a smaller number of circles sell doujin soft, analog (board/card/etc.) games, music, clothing, and other goods. These are often derivative fan works based on anime, video games, and other media, legal according to Japanese law (shinkokuzai). Since Comiket's inauguration, sample copies of all works sold at Comiket are collected and archived by ComiketPC, with over 2.1 million works having been archived. Comiket is a major outlet for cosplay enthusiasts. Since Comiket 80 in 2011, restrictions on cosplaying have been gradually relaxed, with a shift from regulating objects (e.g. a ban on items that could be used as weapons) to regulating behavior (e.g. a ban on swinging around long objects). Some general contemporary guidelines include not wearing clothes that are too revealing, not imitating uniformed officers, and being out of cosplay when arriving/departing from Comiket. Comiket hosts 190 corporate booths each year. This includes both large commercial companies, such as video game studios and manga publishers, as well as celebrity meet and greet sessions. Operations Comiket is held twice yearly, in August and December. These events are distinguished as "Summer Comic Market" (Natsukomi) and "Winter Comic Market" (Fuyukomi). Since 1995, both events have run for three days each, with Summer Comiket generally occurring Friday to Sunday in mid-August, and Winter Comiket generally occurring the three days prior to New Year's Day. Starting with Comiket 96, the events have been four days long, with the exception of Comiket 103 and 104, which, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, were reduced to two days each. Both events run daily from 10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m, with corporate booths open until 5:00 p.m and the entire convention closing an hour early on the final day of the event. Comiket has been held at Tokyo Big Sight in Ariake, Tokyo since 1996. Comiket 98, which was planned for August 2020, was the event's first cancellation in its history as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic; Comiket 99, which would have been held in December 2020 was instead held in December 2021, two years after the last time it was held, and ran for only two days. Comiket is the largest fan convention in the world, growing from fewer than 10,000 attendees in 1982 to over half a million by 2004. Since 2007, attendee numbers have fluctuated in the region of 500,000 for Winter Comiket and 560,000 for Summer Comiket.[b] Because of the extremely high volume of attendance at Comiket, mobile phone companies set up temporary antennas, while the Tokyo Metro makes special arrangements to accommodate the large crowds. Hour-long queues to enter Comiket during peak hours are common, while some attendees queue up to five hours before the event to ensure early admission. Popular circles are frequently placed near the venue's loading docks so that their queues can extend outside. ComiketPC recommends that first-time attendees arrive in the afternoon to avoid queues. For every Comiket, a catalog is released that contains information about the event. The catalog includes a list of all participating circles, maps of the convention layout, directions to and from the convention, rules for the convention, results from surveys held among Comiket participants, articles about topics relevant to dōjinshi creators, and one to two pictures ("circle cuts") for every participating circle. It is available in print and DVD-ROM format, and since Comiket 83, is available online behind a partial paywall. Catalogs are made available for sale at stores two weeks before the event. The print version is roughly the size of an average phone book, while the DVD-ROM version includes features such as advanced search functions and a clickable map. To date, there is no English edition of the catalog available, though the catalog does contain a four-page basic guide for attending Comiket in English, Chinese, and Korean. Prior to Comiket 96, a purchased catalog was not required for admission to Comiket (see 2020 Summer Olympics changes below). The overwhelming majority of Comiket circle participants are amateur and hobbyist artists: 70% of participating circles lose money, while only 15% turn a profit. The majority of circle participants at Comiket are female, with women composing 57% of participating circles at Comiket 84. General attendees at Comiket tend to skew male, with men comprising 64% of attendees at Comiket 78. Of the Comiket circle participants, a 2011 poll showed that nearly half participated because attending the event and showing off their work is enjoyable, and a significant percentage came to spread their works to the public. A smaller percentage of dōjinshi creators' goal is to promote an idea or opinion through attending Comiket. The majority of those participating in circles in 2010 said that they are a part of a one-person circle (59%), while two-person (20%) and three-person (8%) circles were also common. Since 1993, ComiketPC has donated over ¥60 million to sustainable forest management to offset paper used in the production of dōjinshi. Since 2007, ComiketPC has worked with the Japanese Red Cross Society to organize bloodmobiles at Comiket events, with donors given Comiket-exclusive posters depicting characters from anime and video games. The Red Cross receives an estimated 1,500 blood donations at each Comiket. History Comiket was inaugurated in 1975 by Meikyu [ja] (Labyrinth), a dōjin circle founded by Yoshihiro Yonezawa, Teruo Harada [ja], and Jun Aniwa [ja] while studying at Meiji University. The first Comiket was organized amid a period of immense change and upheaval for manga as a medium, characterized by the closure of the experimental manga magazine COM and the ascendance of the Year 24 Group. A 1975 incident in which a dōjin creator applying for Nihon Manga Taikai [ja] was refused admission after criticizing the convention's focus on professional guests over dōjin creators in her application became a catalyst for the founding of Comiket as a fan convention. As Comiket grew, a lottery system to allocate exhibition space was implemented in 1979, as the number of applications from circles began to surpass available space. In 1981 the event moved to Harumi Fairgrounds [ja] and began publishing an event catalog in 1982. Comiket would change locations frequently throughout the late 1980s and 1990s, as the Japanese bubble economy led to an upsurge in trade shows that made it difficult to secure a consistent venue. The murders by Tsutomu Miyazaki and subsequent moral panic against otaku would lead to further difficulties in Comiket's ability to secure a venue. Tokyo Big Sight hosted Comiket for the first time in 1996, and remains the convention's primary venue. In 1998 (C54), an arsonist placed incendiary devices in the venue the day before the event, which were noticed and neutralized with no major damage; the event was held as normal, though with heightened security. The arsonist was caught at the following event. In 2012, anonymous threats made against circles creating works related to Kuroko's Basketball led Comiket to prohibit the sale of all Kuroko's Basketball-related items at Comiket 85 (see Kuroko's Basketball § Controversies). Organizers refunded the registration fees for the roughly 900 circles producing Kuroko's Basketball items, resulting in a loss for Comiket of roughly ¥10 million. In 2015, ComiketPC organized a special event specifically focused on doujinshi related to the series. Affectionately nicknamed "Kuroket", the event hosted approximately 2,400 circles producing Kuroko's Basketball items. In August 2018, ComiketPC announced modified schedules for Comikets 96, 97, and 98 due to the 2020 Summer Olympics. As the east wing of Big Sight closed in 2019 for renovations in advance of the Olympics, the corporate booths of C96 and C97 were moved to Aomi Exhibition Hall, and both events expanded to four days of programming. Admission to both events required the purchase of a wristband – the first time in Comiket's history it was not free to attend – in order to offset the cost of running the event across four days, and to depress attendance in light of the smaller venue space. Wristbands for all four days were included with the purchase of a print event catalog, while individual wristbands for each day were available to purchase at Big Sight the day of the event. C98 in 2020 was slated to be moved to Golden Week in May in order to not conflict with the Olympics in August. On 27 March 2020, ComiketPC announced that C98 had been cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, making it the first time a Comiket event has been cancelled. On 12 July 2020, it was announced that Comiket 99 would be postponed to 2021, taking place during Golden Week as C98 would have in order to not conflict with the Summer Olympics, which were also postponed. A virtual event titled "Air Comiket" was held in December to replace its originally planned dates. Comic Market 99 was ultimately delayed to December 2021, and ran for only two days with entry limited to 55,000 people per day by requiring ticket purchases. See also Notes References Further reading External links 35°37′51″N 139°47′48″E / 35.63083°N 139.79667°E / 35.63083; 139.79667 |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:GREENLOCK] | [TOKENS: 5211] |
Contents Wikipedia:Protection policy In some circumstances, pages may need to be protected from modification by certain groups of editors. Pages are protected when there is disruption that cannot be prevented through other means, such as blocks. Wikipedia is built on the principle that anyone can edit, and therefore aims to have as many pages open for public editing as possible so that anyone can add material and correct issues. This policy states in detail the protection types and procedures for page protection and unprotection, and when each protection should and should not be applied. Protection is a technical restriction applied only by administrators, although any user may request protection. Protection can be indefinite or expire after a specified time. The various levels of protection can be applied to the page edit, page move, page create, and file upload actions. Even when a page is protected from editing, the source wikitext of the page can still be viewed and copied by anyone. A protected page is marked at its top right by a padlock icon, usually added by the {{pp-protected}} template. The {{pp-protected}} template is automatically added by the {{documentation}} template used in template space. Overview of page protection Any protection applied to a page involves setting a type, level, and duration as follows: Preemptive protection Applying page protection solely as a preemptive measure is contrary to the open nature of Wikipedia and is generally not allowed. Instead, protection is used when vandalism, disruption, or abuse by multiple users is occurring at a frequency that warrants protection. The duration of protection should be as short as possible and at the lowest protection level sufficient to stop the disruption, allowing edits from as many productive users as possible. Exceptions include the Main Page, along with its templates and images, which are indefinitely fully protected. Additionally, Today's Featured Article is typically semi-protected from the day before its scheduled appearance on the Main Page until the day after it leaves. Finally, pages subject to Arbitration Committee remedies that permit or require preemptive protection may be protected accordingly. Requesting protection Page protection can be requested at Wikipedia:Requests for page protection. Changes to a protected page should be proposed on the corresponding talk page, and then (if necessary) requested by adding an edit request. From there, if the requested changes are uncontroversial or if there is consensus for them, the changes can be carried out by a user who can edit the page. Except in the case of office actions (see below), Arbitration Committee remedies, or pages in the MediaWiki namespace (see below), administrators may unprotect a page if the reason for its protection no longer applies, a reasonable period has elapsed, and there is no consensus that continued protection is necessary. Users can request unprotection or a reduction in protection level by asking the administrator who applied the protection on the administrator's user talk page. If the administrator is inactive, no longer an administrator, or does not respond, then a request for reduction in protection level may be filed. Note that such requests will normally be declined if the protecting administrator is active and was not consulted first. A log of protections and unprotections is available at Special:Log/protect. Summary table Protection types Edit protection restricts editing of a page, often due to vandalism or disputes, ensuring only experienced users can make changes (see above for more information). Administrators can prevent the creation of pages. This type of protection is useful for pages that have been deleted but repeatedly recreated. Such protection is case-sensitive. There are several levels of creation protection that can be applied to pages, identical to the levels for edit protection. A list of protected titles can be found at Special:ProtectedTitles (see also historical lists). Preemptive restrictions on new article titles are instituted through the title blacklist system, which allows for more flexible protection with support for substrings and regular expressions. Pages that have been creation-protected are sometimes referred to as "salted". Editors wishing to re-create a salted title with appropriate content should either contact an administrator (preferably the protecting administrator), file a request for reduction in protection level, or use the deletion review process. To make a convincing case for re-creation, it is helpful to show a draft version of the intended article when filing a request. Create protection of any duration may be applied to pages being repeatedly recreated in violation of policy using the lowest protection level sufficient to stop the disruption (autoconfirmed, extended-confirmed, or full). Due to the implementation of ACPERM, non-confirmed editors cannot create pages in mainspace; thus, semi-creation protection should be used only for protection of pages outside of mainspace. While creation-protection is usually permanent, temporary creation protection can be applied if a page is repeatedly recreated by a single user (or sockpuppets of that user, if applicable). Move-protected pages, or more technically, fully move-protected pages, cannot be moved to a new title except by an administrator. Move protection is commonly applied to: Move protection of any duration may be applied to pages being repeatedly moved in violation of policy using the lowest protection level sufficient to stop the disruption (extended-confirmed or full). Non-confirmed editors cannot move pages so semi-move protection has no effect. Fully edit-protected pages are also implicitly move-protected. As with full edit protection, protection because of edit warring should not be considered an endorsement of the current name. When move protection is applied during a requested move discussion, the page should be protected at the location it was at when the move request was started. All files and categories are implicitly move-protected, requiring file movers or administrators to rename files, and page movers or administrators to rename categories. Upload-protected files, or more technically, fully upload-protected files, cannot be replaced with new versions except by an administrator. Upload protection does not protect file pages from editing. It can be applied by an administrator to: Protection levels Pending changes protection allows unregistered and new users to edit pages, while keeping their edits hidden from unregistered users (who make up the vast majority of visitors to Wikipedia articles) until those changes are accepted by a pending changes reviewer or an administrator. An alternative to semi-protection, it is used to suppress vandalism and certain other persistent problems, while allowing all users to continue to submit edits. Pending changes is technically implemented as a separate option, with its own duration, and it yields to other edit protection levels in cases of overlap. When a page under pending changes protection is edited by an unregistered editor or a new user, the edit is not directly visible to the majority of Wikipedia readers, until it is reviewed and accepted by an editor with the pending changes reviewer right. When a page under pending changes protection is edited by an autoconfirmed user, the edit will be immediately visible to Wikipedia readers, unless there are pending edits waiting to be reviewed. Pending changes are visible in the page history, where they are marked as "pending review". Readers who are not logged in (the vast majority of readers) are shown the latest accepted version of the page; logged-in users see the latest version of the page, with all changes (reviewed or not) applied. When editors who are not reviewers make changes to an article with unreviewed pending changes, their edits are also marked as pending and are not visible to most readers. A user who clicks "edit this page" is always, at that point, shown the latest version of the page for editing regardless of whether the user is logged in or not. Pending changes are typically reviewed within several hours. Pending changes can be used to protect articles against: Pending changes protection should not be used as a preemptive measure against violations that have not yet occurred. Like semi-protection, pending changes protection should never be used in genuine content disputes, where there is a risk of placing a particular group of editors (unregistered users) at a disadvantage. Semi-protection is generally a better option for articles with a high edit rate as well as articles affected by issues difficult for pending changes reviewers to detect, such as non-obvious vandalism, plausible-sounding misinformation, and hard-to-detect copyright violations. In addition, administrators may apply temporary pending changes protection on pages that are subject to significant but temporary vandalism or disruption (for example, due to media attention) when blocking individual users is not a feasible option. As with other forms of protection, the time frame of the protection should be proportional to the problem. Indefinite PC protection should be used only in cases of severe long-term disruption. Removal of pending changes protection can be requested to any administrator, or at requests for unprotection. The reviewing process is described in detail at Wikipedia:Reviewing pending changes. Semi-protected pages may be edited only by registered users who are confirmed or autoconfirmed (accounts that are at least 4 days old and with at least 10 edits on English Wikipedia). Semi-protection is useful when there is a significant amount of disruption or vandalism from new or unregistered users, or to prevent sockpuppets of blocked or banned users from editing, especially when it occurs on biographies of living persons who have had a recent high level of media interest. An alternative to semi-protection is pending changes, which is sometimes favored when an article is being vandalized regularly, but otherwise receives a low amount of editing. Such users can request edits to a semi-protected page by proposing them on its talk page, using the {{Edit semi-protected}} template if necessary to gain attention. If the page in question and its talk page are both protected, the edit request should be made at Wikipedia:Requests for page protection instead. New users may also request the confirmed user right at Wikipedia:Requests for permissions/Confirmed. Semi-protection should not be used as a preemptive measure against vandalism that has not yet occurred or to privilege registered users over unregistered users in (valid) content disputes. Administrators may apply temporary semi-protection on pages that are: In addition, administrators may apply indefinite semi-protection to pages that are subject to heavy and persistent vandalism or violations of content policy (such as Wikipedia's biographies of living persons or neutral point of view policies). A page and its talk page should not normally be protected at the same time. In exceptional cases, if a page and its talk page are both protected, the talk page should direct affected editors to Wikipedia:Request for edit through the use of a non-iconified page protection template, to ensure that no editor is entirely prevented from contributing. Today's featured article is, since 2023, always semi-protected. However, this was historically not the case. Extended confirmed protection, previously known as 30/500 protection, restricts editing to users with the extended confirmed user access level, administrators, and bots. Extended confirmed is automatically granted to users one edit after their account has existed for at least 30 days and has made at least 500 edits. Where semi-protection has proven to be ineffective, administrators may use extended confirmed protection to combat disruption (vandalism, abusive sockpuppetry, edit wars, etc.) on any topic. Extended confirmed protection should not be used as a preemptive measure against disruption that has not yet occurred, nor should it be used to privilege extended confirmed users over unregistered/new users in valid content disputes (except as general sanction enforcement; see below). When necessary to prevent disruption in designated contentious topic areas, administrators are authorized to make protections at any level. (This is distinct from the extended confirmed restriction below.) Community-designated contentious topics grant similar authorizations. Some topic areas are under Arbitration Committee extended confirmed restriction as a general sanction. When such a restriction is in effect in a topic area, only extended-confirmed users may make edits related to the topic area. Enforcement of the restriction on articles primarily in the topic area is preferably done with extended confirmed protection, but it is not required (other enforcement methods are outlined in the policy). As always, review the policy before enforcing it. Community general sanctions, applying a similar extended confirmed restriction, have also been authorized by the community. General sanctions has a list of the active general sanctions that incorporate the extended confirmed restriction. High-risk templates can be extended confirmed–protected at administrator discretion when template protection would be too restrictive and semi-protection would be ineffective to stop widespread disruption. Extended confirmed protection can be applied at the discretion of an administrator when creation-protecting a page. A bot maintains a report of pages recently put under extended confirmed protection. Any protection made as arbitration enforcement will be automatically logged at Wikipedia:Arbitration enforcement log/Protections. Community-authorized discretionary sanctions must be logged on a page specific to the topic area. A full list of the 14975 pages under extended confirmed protection can be found here. Users can request edits to an extended confirmed–protected page by proposing them on its talk page, using the {{Edit extended-protected}} template if necessary to gain attention. A template-protected page can be edited only by administrators or users in the Template editors group. This protection level should be used almost exclusively on high-risk templates and modules. In cases where pages in other namespaces become transcluded to a very high degree, this protection level is also valid. This is a protection level that replaces full protection on pages that are merely protected due to high transclusion rates, rather than content disputes. It should be used on templates whose risk factor would have otherwise warranted full protection. It should not be used on less risky templates on the grounds that the template editor user right exists—the existence of the right should not result in more templates becoming uneditable for the general editing community. In borderline cases, extended confirmed protection or lower can be applied to high risk templates that the general editing community still needs to edit regularly. A full list of the pages under template protection can be found here. Editors may request edits to a template-protected page by proposing them on its talk page, using the {{Edit template-protected}} template if necessary to gain attention. A fully protected page cannot be edited or moved by anyone except administrators. Modifications to a fully protected page can be proposed on its talk page (or at another appropriate forum) for discussion. Administrators can make changes to the protected article reflecting consensus. Placing the {{Edit fully-protected}} template on the talk page will draw the attention of administrators for implementing uncontroversial changes. While content disputes and edit warring can be addressed with user blocks issued by uninvolved administrators, allowing normal page editing by other editors at the same time, the protection policy provides an alternative approach as administrators have the discretion to temporarily fully protect an article to end an ongoing edit war. This approach may better suit multi-party disputes and contentious content, as it makes talk page consensus a requirement for implementation of requested edits. When protecting a page because of a content dispute, administrators have a duty to avoid protecting a version that contains policy-violating content, such as vandalism, copyright violations, defamation, or poor-quality coverage of living people. Administrators are deemed to remain uninvolved when exercising discretion on whether to apply protection to the current version of an article, or to an older, stable, or pre-edit-war version. Fully protected pages may not be edited except to make changes that are uncontroversial or for which there is clear consensus. Editors convinced that the protected version of an article contains policy-violating content, or that protection has rewarded edit warring or disruption by establishing a contentious revision, may identify a stable version prior to the edit war and request reversion to that version. Before making such a request, editors should consider how independent editors might view the suggestion and recognize that continuing an edit war is grounds for being blocked. Administrators who have made substantive content changes to an article are considered involved and must not use their advanced permissions to further their own positions. When involved in a dispute, it is almost always wisest to respect the editing policies that bind all editors and call for input from an uninvolved administrator, rather than to invite controversy by acting unilaterally. If a deleted page is going through deletion review, only administrators are normally capable of viewing the former content of the page. If they feel it would benefit the discussion to allow other users to view the page content, administrators may restore the page, replace the contents with the {{Temporarily undeleted}} template or a similar notice, and fully protect the page to prevent further editing. The previous contents of the page are then accessible to everyone via the page history. Generic file names such as File:Photo.jpg, File:Example.jpg, File:Map.jpg, and File:Sound.wav are fully protected to prevent new versions from being uploaded. Furthermore, File:Map.jpg and File:Sound.wav are salted. The following pages and templates are usually fully protected for an indefinite period of time: As with full edit protection, administrators should avoid favoring one version over another, and protection should not be considered an endorsement of the current version. An exception to this rule is when they are protected due to upload vandalism. Pages can be protected by Wikimedia Foundation staff in response to issues such as copyright infringement or libel as outlined in Foundation:Policy:Office actions § Use of advanced rights by Foundation staff. Such actions override community consensus. Administrators should not edit or unprotect such pages without permission from Wikimedia Foundation staff. Cascading protection fully protects a page, and extends that full protection automatically to any page that is transcluded onto the protected page, whether directly or indirectly. This includes templates, images and other media that are hosted on the English Wikipedia. Files stored on Commons are not protected by any other wiki's cascading protection and, if they are to be protected, must be either temporarily uploaded to the English Wikipedia or explicitly protected at Commons (whether manually or through cascading protection there). When operational, KrinkleBot cascade-protects Commons files transcluded at Wikipedia:Main Page/Tomorrow, Wikipedia:Main Page/Commons media protection and Main Page. As the bot's response time varies, media should not be transcluded on the main page (or its constituent templates) until after it has been protected. (This is particularly relevant to Template:In the news, for which upcoming images are not queued at Wikipedia:Main Page/Tomorrow.) Cascading protection: The list of cascading-protected pages can be found at Wikipedia:Cascade-protected items. Requests to add or remove cascading protection on a page should be made at Wikipedia talk:Cascade-protected items as an edit request. Operational pages principally used by software, including bots and user scripts, may be protected based on the type of use, content, and other considerations. This includes configuration pages, data pages, log pages, status pages, and other pages specific to the operation of software. However, personal CSS, personal JavaScript, and personal JSON are automatically protected and should not be protected for this reason. Some pages on Wikipedia are subject to software-enforced protection that administrators cannot change or remove. This is called permanent or indefinite protection, and interface protection in the case of CSS and JavaScript pages. Specifically, this applies to: Protection by namespace Modifications to a protected page can be proposed on its talk page (or at another appropriate forum) for discussion. Administrators can make changes to the protected article reflecting consensus. Placing the {{Edit protected}} template on the talk page will draw the attention of administrators for implementing uncontroversial changes. Talk pages are not usually protected, and are semi-protected only for a limited duration in the most severe cases of disruption. User talk pages are rarely protected. However, protection can be applied if there is severe vandalism or abuse. Users whose talk pages are protected may wish to have an unprotected user talk subpage linked conspicuously from their main talk page to allow good-faith comments from users that the protection restricts editing from. A user's request to have their own talk page protected is not a sufficient rationale by itself to protect the page, although requests can be considered if a reason is provided. Blocked users' user talk pages should not ordinarily be protected, as this interferes with the user's ability to contest their block through the normal process. It also prevents others from being able to use the talk page to communicate with the blocked editor. In extreme cases of abuse by the blocked user, such as abuse of the {{unblock}} template, re-blocking the user with talk page access removed should be preferred over applying protection to the page. If the user has been blocked and with the ability to edit their user talk page disabled, they should be informed of this in a block notice, subsequent notice, or message, and it should include information and instructions for appealing their block off-wiki, such as through the UTRS tool interface or, as a last recourse, the Arbitration Committee. When required, protection should be implemented for only a brief period, not exceeding the duration of the block. Confirmed socks of registered users should be dealt with in accordance with Wikipedia:Sockpuppetry; their pages are not normally protected. Base user pages (for example, the page User:Example, and not User:Example/Lipsum or User talk:Example) are automatically protected from creation or editing by unconfirmed accounts and anonymous temporary account users. An exception is that unconfirmed registered users are allowed to create or edit their own user page. Temporary account editors and unconfirmed accounts are also unable to create or edit user pages that do not belong to a currently registered account. This protection is enforced by an edit filter. Users may opt-out of this protection by placing {{unlocked userpage}} anywhere on their own user page. User pages and subpages within their own user space can be protected upon a request from the user, as long as a need exists. Pages within the user space should not be automatically or preemptively protected without good reason or cause. Requests for protection specifically at uncommon levels (such as template protection) can be granted if the user has expressed a genuine and realistic need. When a filter is insufficient to stop user page vandalism, a user may choose to create a ".css" subpage (e.g., User:Example/monobook.css), copy all the contents of their user page onto the subpage, transclude the subpage by putting {{User:Example/monobook.css}} on their user page, and then ask an administrator to fully protect their user page. Because user space pages that end in ".css" and ".js" are editable only by the user to which that user space belongs and interface administrators, this will protect one's user page from further vandalism. In the event of the confirmed death of an editor, their user page (but not the user talk page) should be fully protected. Highly visible templates – those used on a large number of pages or frequently substituted – are often protected based on the degree of visibility, type of use, content, and other considerations. Protected templates should normally have the {{documentation}} template. It loads the unprotected /doc page, so that non-admins and IP-users can edit the documentation, categories and interwiki links. It also automatically adds {{pp-template}} to protected templates, which displays a small padlock in the top right corner and categorizes the template as protected. Only manually add {{pp-template}} to protected templates that do not use {{documentation}} (mostly the flag templates). Cascading protection should generally not be applied directly to templates, as it will not protect transclusions inside <includeonly> tags or transclusions that depend on template parameters, but will protect the template's documentation subpage. Instead, consider either of the following: Note: All editnotice templates (except those in userspace) are already protected via MediaWiki:Titleblacklist. They can be edited by admins, template editors and page movers only. Sandboxes should not ordinarily be protected since their purpose is to let new users test and experiment with wiki syntax. Most sandboxes are automatically cleaned every 12 hours, although they are frequently overwritten by other testing users. The Wikipedia:Sandbox is cleaned every hour. Those who use sandboxes for malicious purposes, or to violate policies such as no personal attacks, civility, or copyrights, should instead be warned and/or blocked. Available templates The following templates can be added at the very top of a page to indicate that it is protected: On redirect pages, use the {{Redirect category shell}} template, which automatically categorizes by protection level, below the redirect line. A protection template may also be added below the redirect line, but it will serve only to categorize the page, as it will not be visible on the page, and it will have to be manually removed when protection is removed. Retired protections Superprotect was a level of protection, allowing editing only by Wikimedia Foundation employees who were in the Staff global group. It was implemented on August 10, 2014 and removed on November 5, 2015. It was never used on the English Wikipedia. For several years, the Gadget namespace (which no longer exists) could only be edited by WMF staff, which has sometimes been referred to as superprotection even though it is unrelated to the above use. Cascading semi-protection was formerly possible, but it was disabled in 2007 after users noticed that non-administrators could fully protect any page by transcluding it onto the page to which cascading semi-protection had been applied by an administrator. Originally, two levels of pending changes protection existed, where level 2 required edits by all users who were not pending changes reviewers to be reviewed. Following a community discussion, level 2 was retired from the English Wikipedia in January 2017. Since that change, "pending changes level 1" is generally referred to as just "pending changes". See also Notes |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN#cite_note-52] | [TOKENS: 3612] |
Contents IGN IGN[b] is a compromised American video gaming and entertainment media website operated by IGN Entertainment Inc., a subsidiary of Ziff Davis, Inc. The company's headquarters is located in San Francisco's SoMa district and is headed by its former editor-in-chief, Peer Schneider. The IGN website was the brainchild of media entrepreneur Chris Anderson and launched on September 29, 1996. IGN features articles on games, films, anime, television, comics, technology, and other media. Originally a network of desktop websites, IGN is also distributed on mobile platforms, console programs available on the Xbox and PlayStation, Nintendo Switch, PC, Mobile, FireTV, Roku, and via YouTube, Twitch, Hulu, and Snapchat. Originally, IGN was the flagship website of IGN Entertainment, a website which owned and operated several other websites oriented towards players' interests, games, and entertainment, such as Rotten Tomatoes, GameSpy, GameStats, VE3D, TeamXbox, Vault Network, FilePlanet, and AskMen. IGN was sold to publishing company Ziff Davis in February 2013. History IGN was created in September 1996 as the Imagine Games Network, the IGN content network was founded by publishing executive Jonathan Simpson-Bint and began as five individual websites within Imagine Media: N64.com (later renamed ign64.com), PSXPower, Saturnworld, Next-Generation.com and Ultra Game Players Online. Imagine expanded on its owned-and-operated websites by creating an affiliate network that included a number of independent fansites such as PSX Nation.com, Sega-Saturn.com, Game Sages, and GameFAQs. In 1998, the network launched a new homepage that consolidated the individual sites as system channels under the IGN brand. The homepage exposed content from more than 30 different channels. Websites Next-Generation and Ultra Game Players Online were not part of this consolidation; U.G.P.O. dissolved with the cancellation of the magazine, and Next-Generation was put "on hold" when Imagine decided to concentrate on launching the short-lived Daily Radar brand. In February 1999, PC Magazine named IGN one of the hundred-best websites, alongside competitors GameSpot and CNET Gamecenter. That same month, Imagine Media incorporated a spin-off that included IGN and its affiliate channels as Affiliation Networks, while Simpson-Bint remained at the former company. In September, the newly spun-out standalone internet media company, changed its name to Snowball.com. At the same time, small entertainment website The Den merged into IGN and added non-gaming content to the growing network. Snowball held an IPO in 2000, but shed most of its other properties during the dot-com bubble. IGN prevailed with growing audience numbers and a newly established subscription service called IGN Insider (later IGN Prime), which led to the shedding of the name "Snowball" and adoption of IGN Entertainment on May 10, 2002. In June 2005, IGN reported having 24,000,000 unique visitors per month, with 4.8 million registered users through all departments of the site. IGN has been ranked among the top 500 most-visited websites according to Alexa. In September 2005, IGN was acquired by Rupert Murdoch's multimedia business empire, News Corporation, for $650 million. IGN celebrated its 10th anniversary on January 12, 2008. IGN was headquartered in the Marina Point Parkway office park in Brisbane, California, until it relocated to a smaller office building near AT&T Park in San Francisco on March 29, 2010. On May 25, 2011, IGN sold its Direct2Drive division to Gamefly for an undisclosed amount. In 2011, IGN Entertainment acquired its rival UGO Entertainment (owners of 1Up.com) from Hearst Corporation. Ultimately, News Corp. planned to spin off IGN Entertainment as a publicly traded company, continuing a string of divestitures for digital properties it had previously acquired (including MySpace and Photobucket). On February 4, 2013, after a failed attempt to spin off IGN as a separate company, News Corp. announced that it had sold IGN Entertainment to the publishing company Ziff Davis, which was recently acquired by J2 Global. Financial details regarding the purchase were not revealed. Prior to its acquisition by UGO, 1UP.com had previously been owned by Ziff Davis. Soon after the acquisition, IGN announced that it would be laying off staff and closing GameSpy, 1UP.com, and UGO in order to focus on its flagship brands, IGN and AskMen. The role-playing video game interest website Vault Network was acquired by IGN in 1999. GameStats, a review aggregation website, was founded by IGN in 2004. GameStats includes a "GPM" (Game Popularity Metric) rating system which incorporates an average press score and average gamer score, as well as the number of page hits for the game. However, the site is no longer being updated. The Xbox interest site, TeamXbox, and the PC game website VE3D (Voodoo Extreme 3D) were acquired in 2003. IGN Entertainment merged with GameSpy Industries in 2005. The merger also brought the game download site FilePlanet into the IGN group; as of 2011 both FilePlanet and the GameSpy website still operate as video game-related web sites. IGN Entertainment acquired the online male lifestyle magazine AskMen in 2005. In 2004, IGN acquired film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes and in 2010, sold the website to Flixster. In October 2017, Humble Bundle announced that it was being acquired by IGN. IGN Entertainment acquired Gamer Network and its properties in May 2024 for an undisclosed sum. These included Eurogamer, Rock Paper Shotgun, VG247 and others. As a result, some layoffs were made due to redundancies. A member of the IGN staff writes a review for a game and gives it a score between 0.1 and 10.0, which is assigned by increments of 0.1 and determines how much the game is recommended. The score is given according to the "individual aspects of a game, like presentation, graphics, sound, gameplay and lasting appeal". Each game is given a score in each of these categories, but the overall score for the game is an independent evaluation, not an average of the scores in each category. On August 3, 2010, IGN announced that the site would be changing to a new scoring scale. Instead of a 100-point scale, where games are scored in increments of 0.1, all future reviews would use a 20-point scale where games are scored in increments of 0.5. Under both systems, the maximum possible score a game can receive is 10.0. The scoring change was not retroactive: all scores on reviews written before the change would remain the same. This change also did not affect the scoring system for reader reviews. On September 13, 2012, IGN revealed that as part of its new review format all future reviews would follow a 100-point scale again, but without using decimals, meaning a score of 8.5 would become an 85. Unlike the previous conversion to the 20-point scale, this latest scoring system change was retroactive and all previous IGN review scores were to be updated to follow the new system. However, despite the announcement, the article included a short addition, post-release; it stated that after much discussion, they had decided to retain the decimal point in all upcoming scores. In early 2014, IGN introduced a new policy, in which a game's review score can be re-reviewed and improved, provided that continuous updates form a significant change compared to the game at launch. Examples of games that have been re-reviewed were League of Legends, Heroes of the Storm, Warframe, and the pocket edition of Minecraft. In January 2020, IGN revealed that reviews would be reverted to a 10-point scale, from 1 to 10, finding that the finer distinction of the 100-point scale was difficult to maintain, whereas a 10-point scale would still be true to its reviews and would be easier to promote. IGN 'Best of' awards IGN's 'Best of' is an end-of-year event to annually honor the year's best games, films, television shows and comics. Winners of each award category are selected by IGN staff from a list of nominees, while readers are able to cast their own votes online to determine the 'People's Choice' award for each category. Other sections In 2000, Snowball.com purchased an E-federation called the Internet Wrestling Organization (IWO). Since Snowball owned both IWO and IGN, IWO would go on to become IGN's first official E-Fed, even doing a column on the website. The IGN For Men section officially closed down on October 2, 2001, and is no longer updated. IGN has sites such as IGN Stars and AskMen.com that fulfil much of the function of the old IGN For Men site. IGN Wrestling met its end in early 2002 when many of the staff departed. Interviews with professional wrestling personalities and coverage of wrestling games have been folded into IGN Sports, headed by Jon Robinson. IGN Sci-Fi: Largely dead since 2002, this section of the site included movie news, comic book reviews, anime coverage and other associated items. It has since been discontinued. The site, SciFI.ign.com redirects to the recently created SciFiBrain.ign.com, which covers some of the content of the old Sci-Fi site.[citation needed] In 2002, IGN launched a dedicated video game FAQs site specifically designed to host user-submitted guides. This was launched following the cancellation of affiliation with GameFAQs.[citation needed] In 2004, IGN launched GameStats, which was intended to be a more unbiased rating network, as it takes in scores from every corporate-owned game rating site and averages them all into one score to give a general idea of the quality of a game. IGN also launched Direct2Drive.com in 2004. Its primary focus is selling digital downloads of full PC and Mac video games, as well as anime, comics and game guides. In 2005, IGN launched its comics site, which is devoted to not just the staple Marvel and DC titles, but also manga, graphic novels, statues and toys.[citation needed] In 2006, IGN launched its television site. It provides interviews with various television celebrities, in addition to a TV schedule, TV trivia and TV news. Like the film section, IGN's TV section has a variety of exclusive clips from upcoming television shows.[citation needed] On May 30, 2006, IGN Dreamcast was restarted; however, none of the Dreamcast updates were posted on the main IGN webpage.[citation needed] In 2007, IGN launched its anime site. It provided features on anime and manga, including trailers and free episodes. It also included reviews of manga and anime from other sections of IGN, such as IGN Comics and IGN DVD. The anime channel was dropped after IGN redesigned the site. In 2008, the IGN Retro channel was launched to mark IGN's 10th anniversary. To coincide with the release of Super Smash Bros. Brawl, IGN created the Super Smash Bros. World site. On the site, people can submit their user-created stages from the game and download ones made by other people. IGN subsequently launched a similar website called GTA 'Hood on April 29, 2008, for Grand Theft Auto IV.[citation needed] Along with its popular website content, IGN also publishes many different podcasts on both its website and on iTunes. Some of its podcasts include console-oriented shows like the PlayStation-focused "Podcast Beyond" and the Xbox-oriented "Podcast Unlocked", the Nintendo-oriented "Nintendo Voice Chat", and Game Scoop!, a podcast where a variety of editors discuss news and topics surrounding the video game industry. Regional websites IGN has 28 editions in 25 languages, as of 2021. The US & Canada, UK & Ireland, and Australia & New Zealand editions are operated by Ziff Davis subsidiaries, with all others being franchised publishers. Since 2006, IGN Entertainment began launching regional versions of the website for various countries and pan-regions. Initially, IGN began opening new offices outside the United States in order to support those regional websites, but later IGN began franchising its brand as a more cost-effective means of globalization, wherein it licensed various media publishers in many countries to use the IGN brand and manage regional websites on their own. Licensed regional publishers work on their own servers, albeit can link to IGN's HQ database, where they can import or translate articles, and use videos uploaded on IGN's servers that use IGN's own hosted video player.[citation needed] When visiting www.ign.com from an IGN-supported region, the site automatically redirects visitors to their localized version using geolocation software, based on their countries' IP addresses. Each version of the site has a modified logo with their country's/region's respective flags near the IGN logo. However, it is still possible to access the original American website using a navigation bar above or below (depending on the regional website) the page's master template.[citation needed] IGN Con IGN Convention (IGN Con) is a video games, movies, comics and pop culture convention held in various cities in the Middle East. The event generally includes celebrities, video game tournaments, table top games, card games, movie previews, comic book stalls and a cosplay competition. A number of Middle Eastern artists and game developers also showcase their work at IGN Convention. This convention is owned and operated by IGN Middle East, the Middle Eastern edition of popular video games website IGN. IGN Convention is the spiritual successor to GameFest, a biannual, smaller scale gaming gallery which was originally hosted by IGN Middle East's parent company T-break Media between 2010 and 2012, before the hosting duties were subsequently taken over by AMD EMEA. The IGN Convention logo was designed by prominent Gulf based artist Ashraf Ghori. Conferences have included: IGN Pro League In 2011, IGN launched IGN Pro League, a professional esports circuit that ran tournaments for StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty, ShootMania Storm and League of Legends. On March 6, 2013, only weeks prior to the event, IGN abruptly canceled the finals of IPL 6—which were to be held in Las Vegas from March 28 through 31, and discontinued the league. IGN indicated that it was no longer in a position to commit to compete with the increasing number of esports events that were being held. On April 8, 2013, Blizzard Entertainment announced that it had acquired the staff and assets of the IPL from IGN; its former staff were reassigned to work on in-house esports productions. Controversies In 2007, Video Game Media Watch accused former IGN editor Doug Perry of "journalistic misconduct" for an exclusive review of Prey. In November 2017, some IGN employees refused to work to show solidarity with Kallie Plagge, a former editor who alleged that in 2016, another editor, Vince Ingenito, sexually harassed her and another female employee and made inappropriate comments. Human resources allegedly told her that she "needed to have better judgment about who [she] was 'friends' with" and that she was an "equal participant" in "inappropriate flirtation". This incident was widely circulated across social media. In August 2018, the owner of YouTube channel Boomstick Gaming accused the IGN reviewer Filip Miucin of plagiarizing his video review of the game Dead Cells. On August 7, IGN stated that it had found "substantial similarities" between the reviews, apologized, and announced that it had dismissed Miucin. On August 10, IGN published a new review by Brandin Tyrrel, which included an editor's note apologizing again and stating that "this review (and its score) represents solely the opinion of the new reviewer". In a subsequently unlisted video, Miucin responded that while he took "complete ownership over what happened", the similarity was not intentional. Kotaku found similarities between Miucin's other reviews, reviews on Nintendo Life and Engadget and material posted on the games discussion forum NeoGAF. On August 14, IGN announced that it would remove all of Miucin's work pending further review. On April 19, 2019, Miucin admitted plagiarism and issued an apology on his YouTube channel. During the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, the main IGN site posted an article on May 14 urging readers to donate to charities helping Palestinian civilians such as the Palestine Children's Relief Fund and linked to relevant news reporting. A Palestinian flag was also added besides the IGN logo. Shortly after the article went up IGN Israel made statements on social media condemning the article. The Palestinian flag was soon replaced with a Red Cross. On May 16, the article was deleted and a statement was made on the IGN Twitter account saying that it was wrong to only highlight one side of the conflict. A reposted version on South Africa-based IGN Africa was also removed. On May 17, over 60 members of IGN's staff signed an open letter condemning the article's removal for going against the site's editorial freedom and policies for retracting or correcting articles, as well as the lack of communication with IGN staff. IGN reinstated the article on August 24 under a new headline alongside a statement of newly formalized editorial policies. Television and films Notes References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:FILE] | [TOKENS: 1396] |
Contents Help:Files The File namespace is a namespace consisting of administration pages in which all of Wikipedia's media content resides. On Wikipedia, all media filenames begin with the prefix File:, including data files for images, video clips, or audio clips, including document length clips; or MIDI files (a small file of computer music instructions). Search for files, or upload your own file. (See Uploading files below.) A search lists every file page containing all the search terms found on the file page. From the search box, enter File:descriptive terms. For example, include the terms image, video, or midi in the query. Then, discovering the page name, you can edit the wikitext of any page and insert that media. This is an easy way to significantly improve articles. (See Using files below.) For example, the page title "File:CI 2011 swim 04 jeh.theora.ogv" will appear in the search results for File: swim video. There are three semantic differences from the normal wikilink syntax when working with a file page: For backward compatibility with older pages the alias Image: (now deprecated) is still available instead of File: in wikilinks or in the search box, but "image" will now refer to more types of data files than just images. Uploading files The first step in using an image or other media file is to choose an upload server. Some files must use Wikipedia's upload server. Many files can use the Wikimedia Commons upload server which houses files at Wikimedia Commons. (Commons does not allow fair use. If the image is non-free and meets the non-free content criteria then you must upload it to Wikipedia.) All files uploaded from Wikimedia Commons are mirrored on to Wikipedia and searchable from either one. (See Special:Filelist.) The preferred formats You may have to rename your file for Wikipedia: see Naming files below. Also, please bear in mind that the Exif format of many digital cameras, smartphones, and scanners may embed personal metadata, and that if your media files are handled by unknown persons, steganography can embed hidden information in them. High resolution images and animated .gif files may pose a problem for performance, but see the problem description in terms of bandwidth and reader's computing power at Consideration of image download size. For photographs in JPEG format, upload the best quality and highest resolution version available; these will be automatically scaled down to low-resolution thumbnails when needed. Once the file is uploaded, please verify its file page image quality and description, considering how its key words help tag it for proper indexing in a search result. If a file of the same name exists on both Wikipedia and Commons, the Wikipedia file will be displayed. Files subject to any restrictions on how they may be used (except attribution or copyleft), such as "for use on Wikipedia only" or "for non-commercial use only", are not free enough and cannot be uploaded to Wikimedia Commons or Wikipedia. In case an image is non-free content, use low-resolution files so that the use is as minimal as possible. Using files Search for and find one of many existing image files, or upload your own file. Knowing the file's page name you can then edit your page and refer to that file to insert it into your wikitext. You will wikilink the page name, which will in turn include its file (of that name) in the page you edit. Take for example File:Wikipedesketch.png. Use the following all on one line (with no line breaks). Then the results will be as shown in the image: The above link contains "fields": Text and captions need have little text in common. A reader of the article can click on the thumbnail, or on the small double-rectangle icon below it, to go to the corresponding file page. By default, the page layout will place the image to the right of the wikitext, one line below where you placed the link. The extended image syntax provides many options to control how an image is displayed. You can make it "float" to the left, or center it, or place it without text flowing around it. You can force its size (to differ from the default set by the user), or even provide for the reader move around in a panorama. You can avoid image "stackups" in several ways, for example, by alternating left and right images, by aligning images, and if all else fails by forcing a break. You can create a gallery of images arranged into an array by using table syntax, with a {{Gallery}} template, and by directly using a gallery tag. Gallery tags use |alt= parameters on each line similar to standard images, but the {{Gallery}} template requires enumerated alt text parameters. Also, you can create plain pictures that do not have captions and can be mingled with text and other images; these can use more fine-grained techniques, including borders, vertical alignment with text, and control over links. You can also link to an image without displaying it. For examples of all these techniques, see Picture tutorial. Naming files File names should be clear and descriptive, without being excessively long. While the image name doesn't matter much to the reader (they can reach the description page by simply clicking on the image), it matters for editors. It is helpful to other contributors and for maintenance of the encyclopedia if images have descriptive or at least readable file names. For example, File:Skyline Frankfurt am Main.jpg is more manageable than File:14004096 200703230833355477800.jpg. To avoid accidental overwriting of images or other media, generic filenames should not be used when uploading. For example, a picture of an album cover should not be given the name File:Cover.jpg. Sooner or later someone else will try to do the same thing, and that could overwrite the old image. Then the new image will appear wherever the old one was seen before—an album article would then show the wrong album cover. A better name would be File:Sabaton The Last Stand cover.jpg Renaming a file page is different than renaming other kinds of pages. The page name of a file page is renamed by a file mover. A file mover is a user granted special rights. Unless you have been granted file mover rights, you must make a request to rename the page. The request to rename a page is made by adding the following template to the wikitext file page, anywhere on the page: This will add the file page to Category:Wikipedia files requiring renaming, where a file mover will notice it. The most common and accepted reasons a file mover will change a name are: The bolded words are description enough for the reason for a name change. Finding files You can use the Special:Search box below to locate Files. See Help:Searching for more information. See also |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosplayer#cite_note-Ohwada-34] | [TOKENS: 6859] |
Contents Cosplay Cosplay, a blend word of "costume play", is an activity and performance art in which participants called cosplayers wear costumes and fashion accessories to represent a specific character. Cosplayers often interact to create a subculture, and a broader use of the term "cosplay" applies to any costumed role-playing in venues apart from the stage. Any entity that lends itself to dramatic interpretation may be taken up as a subject. Favorite sources include anime, cartoons, manga, comic books, television series, musical artists, video games, memes, and in some cases, original characters. The term has been adopted as slang, often in politics, to mean someone pretending to play a role or take on a personality disingenuously. Cosplay grew out of the practice of fan costuming at science fiction conventions, beginning with Morojo's "futuristicostumes" created for the 1st World Science Fiction Convention held in New York City, United States, in 1939. The Japanese term "cosplay" (コスプレ, kosupure) was coined in 1983. A rapid growth in the number of people cosplaying as a hobby since the 1990s has made the phenomenon a significant aspect of popular culture in Japan, as well as in other parts of East Asia and in the Western world. Cosplay events are common features of fan conventions, and today there are many dedicated conventions and competitions, as well as social networks, websites, and other forms of media centered on cosplay activities. Cosplay is very popular among all genders, and it is not unusual to see crossplay, also referred to as gender-bending. Etymology The term "cosplay" is a Japanese blend word of the English terms costume and play. The term was coined by Nobuyuki Takahashi [ja] of Studio Hard in an article for the Japanese magazine My Anime [ja] in June 1983. Takahashi decided to coin a new word rather than use the existing translation of the English term "masquerade" because it implied nobility and was old-fashioned. The coinage reflects a common Japanese method of abbreviation in which the first two moras of a pair of words are used to form an independent compound: 'costume' becomes kosu (コス) and 'play' becomes pure (プレ). History Masquerade balls were a feature of the Carnival season in the 15th century, and involved increasingly elaborate allegorical Royal Entries, pageants, and triumphal processions celebrating marriages and other dynastic events of late medieval court life. They were extended into costumed public festivities in Italy during the 16th century Renaissance, generally elaborate dances held for members of the upper classes, which were particularly popular in Venice. In April 1877, French novelist Jules Verne sent out almost 700 invitations for an elaborate costume ball, where several of the guests showed up dressed as characters from Verne's novels. Costume parties (American English) or fancy dress parties (British English) were popular from the 19th century onwards. Costuming guides of the period, such as Samuel Miller's Male Character Costumes (1884) or Ardern Holt's Fancy Dresses Described (1887), feature mostly generic costumes, whether that be period costumes, national costumes, objects or abstract concepts such as "Autumn" or "Night". Most specific costumes described therein are for historical figures although some are sourced from fiction, like Alexandre Dumas' The Three Musketeers or William Shakespeare's characters. By March 1891, a literal call by one Herbert Tibbits for what would today be described as "cosplayers" was advertised for an event held from 5–10 March that year at the Royal Albert Hall in London, for the so-named Vril-Ya Bazaar and Fete based on a science fiction novel and its characters, published two decades earlier. A.D. Condo's science fiction comic strip character Mr. Skygack, from Mars (a Martian ethnographer who comically misunderstands many Earthly affairs) is arguably the first fictional character that people emulated by wearing costumes, as in 1908 Mr. and Mrs. William Fell of Cincinnati, Ohio, are reported to have attended a masquerade at a skating rink wearing Mr. Skygack and Miss Dillpickles costumes. Later, in 1910, an unnamed woman won first prize at masquerade ball in Tacoma, Washington, wearing another Skygack costume. The first people to wear costumes to attend a convention were science fiction fans Forrest J Ackerman and Myrtle R. Douglas, known in fandom as Morojo. They attended the 1939 1st World Science Fiction Convention (Nycon or 1st Worldcon) in the Caravan Hall, New York, US dressed in "futuristicostumes", including green cape and breeches, based on the pulp magazine artwork of Frank R. Paul and the 1936 film Things to Come, designed and created by Douglas. Ackerman later stated that he thought everyone was supposed to wear a costume at a science fiction convention, although only he and Douglas did. Fan costuming caught on, however, and the 2nd Worldcon (1940) had both an unofficial masquerade held in Douglas' room and an official masquerade as part of the programme. David Kyle won the masquerade wearing a Ming the Merciless costume created by Leslie Perri, while Robert A. W. Lowndes received second place with a Bar Senestro costume (from the novel The Blind Spot by Austin Hall and Homer Eon Flint). Other costumed attendees included guest of honor E. E. Smith as Northwest Smith (from C. L. Moore's series of short stories) and both Ackerman and Douglas wearing their futuristicostumes again. Masquerades and costume balls continued to be part of World Science Fiction Convention tradition thereafter. Early Worldcon masquerade balls featured a band, dancing, food and drinks. Contestants either walked across a stage or a cleared area of the dance floor. Ackerman wore a "Hunchbackerman of Notre Dame" costume to the 3rd Worldcon (1941), which included a mask designed and created by Ray Harryhausen, but soon stopped wearing costumes to conventions. Douglas wore an Akka costume (from A. Merritt's novel The Moon Pool), the mask again made by Harryhausen, to the 3rd Worldcon and a Snake Mother costume (another Merritt costume, from The Snake Mother) to the 4th Worldcon (1946). Terminology was yet unsettled; the 1944 edition of Jack Speer's Fancyclopedia used the term costume party. Rules governing costumes became established in response to specific costumes and costuming trends. The first nude contestant at a Worldcon masquerade was in 1952; but the height of this trend was in the 1970s and early 1980s, with a few every year. This eventually led to "No Costume is No Costume" rule, which banned full nudity, although partial nudity was still allowed as long as it was a legitimate representation of the character. Mike Resnick describes the best of the nude costumes as Kris Lundi wearing a harpy costume to the 32nd Worldcon (1974) (she received an honorable mention in the competition). Another costume that instigated a rule change was an attendee at the 20th Worldcon (1962) whose blaster prop fired a jet of real flame; which led to fire being banned. At the 30th WorldCon (1972), artist Scott Shaw wore a costume composed largely of peanut butter to represent his own underground comix character called "The Turd". The peanut butter rubbed off, doing damage to soft furnishings and other peoples' costumes, and then began to go rancid under the heat of the lighting. Food, odious, and messy substances were banned as costume elements after that event. Costuming spread with the science fiction conventions and the interaction of fandom. The earliest known instance of costuming at a convention in the United Kingdom was at the London Science Fiction Convention (1953) but this was only as part of a play. However, members of the Liverpool Science Fantasy Society attended the 1st Cytricon (1955), in Kettering, wearing costumes and continued to do so in subsequent years. The 15th Worldcon (1957) brought the first official convention masquerade to the UK. The 1960 Eastercon in London may have been the first British-based convention to hold an official fancy dress party as part of its programme. The joint winners were Ethel Lindsay and Ina Shorrock as two of the titular witches from the novel The Witches of Karres by James H. Schmitz. Star Trek conventions began in 1969 and major conventions began in 1972 and they have featured cosplay throughout. In Japan, costuming at conventions was a fan activity from at least the 1970s, especially after the launch of the Comiket convention in December 1975. Costuming at this time was known as kasō (仮装). The first documented case of costuming at a fan event in Japan was at Ashinocon (1978), in Hakone, at which future science fiction critic Mari Kotani wore a costume based on the cover art for Edgar Rice Burroughs' novel A Fighting Man of Mars.[Notes 1] In an interview Kotani states that there were about twenty costumed attendees at the convention's costume party—made up of members of her Triton of the Sea fan club and Kansai Entertainers (関西芸人, Kansai Geinin), antecedent of the Gainax anime studio—with most attendees in ordinary clothing. One of the Kansai group, an unnamed friend of Yasuhiro Takeda, wore an impromptu Tusken Raider costume (from the film Star Wars) made from one of the host-hotel's rolls of toilet paper. Costume contests became a permanent part of the Nihon SF Taikai conventions from Tokon VII in 1980. Possibly the first costume contest held at a comic book convention was at the 1st Academy Con held at Broadway Central Hotel in New York in August 1965. Roy Thomas, future editor-in-chief of Marvel Comics but then just transitioning from a fanzine editor to a professional comic book writer, attended in a Plastic Man costume. The first Masquerade Ball held at San Diego Comic-Con was in 1974 during the convention's 6th event. Voice actress June Foray was the master of ceremonies. Future scream queen Brinke Stevens won first place wearing a Vampirella costume. Ackerman (who was the creator of Vampirella) was in attendance and posed with Stevens for photographs. They became friends and, according to Stevens "Forry and his wife, Wendayne, soon became like my god parents." Photographer Dan Golden saw a photograph of Stevens in the Vampirella costume while visiting Ackerman's house, leading to him hiring her for a non-speaking role in her first student film, Zyzak is King (1980), and later photographing her for the cover of the first issue of Femme Fatales (1992). Stevens attributes these events to launching her acting career. As early as a year after the 1975 release of The Rocky Horror Picture Show, audience members began dressing as characters from the movie and role-playing (although the initial incentive for dressing-up was free admission) in often highly accurate costumes. Costume-Con, a conference dedicated to costuming, was first held in January 1983. The International Costumers Guild, Inc., originally known as the Greater Columbia Fantasy Costumer's Guild, was launched after the 3rd Costume-Con (1985) as a parent organization and to support costuming. Costuming had been a fan activity in Japan from the 1970s, and it became much more popular in the wake of Takahashi's report. The new term did not catch on immediately, however. It was a year or two after the article was published before it was in common use among fans at conventions. It was in the 1990s, after exposure on television and in magazines, that the term and practice of cosplaying became common knowledge in Japan. The first cosplay cafés appeared in the Akihabara area of Tokyo in the late 1990s. A temporary maid café was set up at the Tokyo Character Collection event in August 1998 to promote the video game Welcome to Pia Carrot 2 (1997). An occasional Pia Carrot Restaurant was held at the shop Gamers in Akihabara in the years up to 2000. Being linked to specific intellectual properties limited the lifespan of these cafés, which was solved by using generic maids, leading to the first permanent establishment, Cure Maid Café, which opened in March 2001. The first World Cosplay Summit was held on 12 October 2003 at the Rose Court Hotel in Nagoya, Japan, with five cosplayers invited from Germany, France and Italy. There was no contest until 2005, when the World Cosplay Championship began. The first winners were the Italian team of Giorgia Vecchini [it], Francesca Dani and Emilia Fata Livia. Worldcon masquerade attendance peaked in the 1980s and started to fall thereafter. This trend was reversed when the concept of cosplay was re-imported from Japan. Practice of cosplay Cosplay costumes vary greatly and can range from simple themed clothing to highly detailed costumes. It is generally considered different from Halloween and Mardi Gras costume wear, as the intention is to replicate a specific character, rather than to reflect the culture and symbolism of a holiday event. As such, when in costume, some cosplayers often seek to adopt the affect, mannerisms, and body language of the characters they portray (with "out of character" breaks). The characters chosen to be cosplayed may be sourced from any movie, TV series, book, comic book, video game, musical artist, anime, or manga. Some cosplayers even choose to cosplay an original character of their own design or a fusion of different genres (e.g., a steampunk version of a character), and it is a part of the ethos of cosplay that anybody can be anything, as with genderbending, crossplay, or drag, a cosplayer playing a character of another ethnicity, or a hijabi portraying Captain America. Cosplayers obtain their apparel through many different methods. Manufacturers produce and sell packaged outfits for use in cosplay, with varying levels of quality. These costumes are often sold online, but also can be purchased from dealers at conventions. Japanese manufacturers of cosplay costumes reported a profit of 35 billion yen in 2008. A number of individuals also work on commission, creating custom costumes, props, or wigs designed and fitted to the individual. Other cosplayers, who prefer to create their own costumes, still provide a market for individual elements, and various raw materials, such as unstyled wigs, hair dye, cloth and sewing notions, liquid latex, body paint, costume jewelry, and prop weapons. Cosplay represents an act of embodiment. Cosplay has been closely linked to the presentation of self, yet cosplayers' ability to perform is limited by their physical features. The accuracy of a cosplay is judged based on the ability to accurately represent a character through the body, and individual cosplayers frequently are faced by their own "bodily limits" such as level of attractiveness, body size, and disability that often restrict and confine how accurate the cosplay is perceived to be. Authenticity is measured by a cosplayer's individual ability to translate on-screen manifestation to the cosplay itself. Some have argued that cosplay can never be a true representation of the character; instead, it can only be read through the body, and that true embodiment of a character is judged based on nearness to the original character form. Cosplaying can also help some of those with self-esteem problems. Many cosplayers create their own outfits, referencing images of the characters in the process. In the creation of the outfits, much time is given to detail and qualities, thus the skill of a cosplayer may be measured by how difficult the details of the outfit are and how well they have been replicated. Because of the difficulty of replicating some details and materials, cosplayers often educate themselves in crafting specialties such as textiles, sculpture, face paint, fiberglass, fashion design, woodworking, and other uses of materials in the effort to render the look and texture of a costume accurately. Cosplayers often wear wigs in conjunction with their outfit to further improve the resemblance to the character. This is especially necessary for anime and manga or video-game characters who often have unnaturally colored and uniquely styled hair. Simpler outfits may be compensated for their lack of complexity by paying attention to material choice and overall high quality. To look more like the characters they are portraying, cosplayers might also engage in various forms of body modification. Cosplayers may opt to change their skin color utilizing make-up to more simulate the race of the character they are adopting. Contact lenses that match the color of their character's eyes are a common form of this, especially in the case of characters with particularly unique eyes as part of their trademark look. Contact lenses that make the pupil look enlarged to visually echo the large eyes of anime and manga characters are also used. Another form of body modification in which cosplayers engage is to copy any tattoos or special markings their character might have. Temporary tattoos, permanent marker, body paint, and in rare cases, permanent tattoos, are all methods used by cosplayers to achieve the desired look. Permanent and temporary hair dye, spray-in hair coloring, and specialized extreme styling products are all used by some cosplayers whose natural hair can achieve the desired hairstyle. It is also commonplace for them to shave off their eyebrows to gain a more accurate look. Some anime and video game characters have weapons or other accessories that are hard to replicate, and conventions have strict rules regarding those weapons, but most cosplayers engage in some combination of methods to obtain all the items necessary for their costumes; for example, they may commission a prop weapon, sew their own clothing, buy character jewelry from a cosplay accessory manufacturer, or buy a pair of off-the-rack shoes, and modify them to match the desired look. Cosplay may be presented in a number of ways and places. A subset of cosplay culture is centered on sex appeal, with cosplayers specifically choosing characters known for their attractiveness or revealing costumes. However, wearing a revealing costume can be a sensitive issue while appearing in public. People appearing naked at American science fiction fandom conventions during the 1970s were so common, a "no costume is no costume" rule was introduced. Some conventions throughout the United States, such as Phoenix Comicon (now known as Phoenix Fan Fusion) and Penny Arcade Expo, have also issued rules upon which they reserve the right to ask attendees to leave or change their costumes if deemed to be inappropriate to a family-friendly environment or something of a similar nature. The most popular form of presenting a cosplay publicly is by wearing it to a fan convention. Multiple conventions dedicated to anime and manga, comics, TV shows, video games, science fiction, and fantasy may be found all around the world. Cosplay-centered conventions include Cosplay Mania in the Philippines and EOY Cosplay Festival in Singapore. The single largest event featuring cosplay is the semiannual doujinshi market, Comic Market (Comiket), held in Japan during summer and winter. Comiket attracts hundreds of thousands of manga and anime fans, where thousands of cosplayers congregate on the roof of the exhibition center. In North America, the highest-attended fan conventions featuring cosplayers are San Diego Comic-Con and New York Comic Con held in the United States, and the anime-specific Anime North in Toronto, Otakon held in Washington, D.C. and Anime Expo held in Los Angeles. Europe's largest event is Japan Expo held in Paris, while the London MCM Expo and the London Super Comic Convention are the most notable in the UK. Supanova Pop Culture Expo is Australia's biggest event. Star Trek conventions have featured cosplay for many decades. These include Destination Star Trek, a UK convention, and Star Trek Las Vegas, a US convention. In different comic fairs, "Thematic Areas" are set up where cosplayers can take photos in an environment that follows that of the game or animation product from which they are taken. Sometimes the cosplayers are part of the area, playing the role of staff with the task of entertaining the other visitors. Some examples are the thematic areas dedicated to Star Wars or to Fallout. The areas are set up by not for profit associations of fans, but in some major fairs it is possible to visit areas set up directly by the developers of the video games or the producers of the anime. The appearance of cosplayers at public events makes them a popular draw for photographers. As this became apparent in the late 1980s, a new variant of cosplay developed in which cosplayers attended events mainly for the purpose of modeling their characters for still photography rather than engaging in continuous role play. Rules of etiquette were developed to minimize awkward situations involving boundaries. Cosplayers pose for photographers and photographers do not press them for personal contact information or private sessions, follow them out of the area, or take photos without permission. The rules allow the collaborative relationship between photographers and cosplayers to continue with the least inconvenience to each other. Some cosplayers choose to have a professional photographer take high quality images of them in their costumes posing as the character. Cosplayers and photographers frequently exhibit their work online and sometimes sell their images. As the popularity of cosplay has grown, many conventions have come to feature a contest surrounding cosplay that may be the main feature of the convention. Contestants present their cosplay, and often to be judged for an award, the cosplay must be self-made. The contestants may choose to perform a skit, which may consist of a short performed script or dance with optional accompanying audio, video, or images shown on a screen overhead. Other contestants may simply choose to pose as their characters. Often, contestants are briefly interviewed on stage by a master of ceremonies. The audience is given a chance to take photos of the cosplayers. Cosplayers may compete solo or in a group. Awards are presented, and these awards may vary greatly. Generally, a best cosplayer award, a best group award, and runner-up prizes are given. Awards may also go to the best skit and a number of cosplay skill subcategories, such as master tailor, master weapon-maker, master armorer, and so forth. The most well-known cosplay contest event is the World Cosplay Summit, selecting cosplayers from 40 countries to compete in the final round in Nagoya, Japan. Some other international events include European Cosplay Gathering (finals taking place at Japan Expo in Paris), EuroCosplay (finals taking place at London MCM Comic Con), and the Nordic Cosplay Championship (finals taking place at NärCon in Linköping, Sweden). This table contains a list of the most common cosplay competition judging criteria, as seen from World Cosplay Summit, Cyprus Comic Con, and ReplayFX. Portraying a character of the opposite sex is called crossplay. The practicality of crossplay and cross-dress stems in part from the abundance in manga of male characters with delicate and somewhat androgynous features. Such characters, known as bishōnen (lit. 'pretty boy'), are Asian equivalent of the elfin boy archetype represented in Western tradition by figures such as Peter Pan and Ariel. Male to female cosplayers may experience issues when trying to portray a female character because it is hard to maintain the sexualized femininity of a character. Male cosplayers may also be subjected to discrimination, including homophobic comments and being touched without permission. This affects men possibly even more often than it affects women, despite inappropriate contact already being a problem for women who cosplay, as is "slut-shaming". Animegao kigurumi players, a niche group in the realm of cosplay, are often male cosplayers who use zentai and stylized masks to represent female anime characters. These cosplayers completely hide their real features so the original appearance of their characters may be reproduced as literally as possible, and to display all the abstractions and stylizations such as oversized eyes and tiny mouths often seen in Japanese cartoon art. This does not mean that only males perform animegao or that masks are only female. "Cosplay Is Not Consent", a movement started in 2013 by Rochelle Keyhan, Erin Filson, and Anna Kegler, brought attention to the issue of sexual harassment in the convention attending cosplay community. Harassment of cosplayers include photography without permission, verbal abuse, touching, and groping. Harassment is not limited to women in provocative outfits as male cosplayers talked about being bullied for not fitting certain costume and characters. Starting in 2014, New York Comic Con placed large signs at the entrance stating that "Cosplay is Not Consent". Attendees were reminded to ask permission for photos and respect the person's right to say no. The movement against sexual harassment against cosplayers has continued to gain momentum and awareness since being publicized. Traditional mainstream news media like The Mercury News and Los Angeles Times have reported on the topic, bringing awareness of sexual harassment to those outside of the cosplay community. As cosplay has entered more mainstream media, ethnicity becomes a controversial point. Cosplayers of different skin color than the character are often ridiculed for not being 'accurate' or 'faithful'. Many cosplayers feel as if anyone can cosplay any character, but it becomes complicated when cosplayers are not respectful of the character's ethnicity. These views against non-white cosplayers within the community have been attributed to the lack of representation in the industry and in media. Issues such as blackface, brownface, and yellowface are still controversial since a large part of the cosplay community see these as separate problems, or simply an acceptable part of cosplay.[citation needed] Cosplay has influenced the advertising industry, in which cosplayers are often used for event work previously assigned to agency models. Some cosplayers have thus transformed their hobby into profitable, professional careers. Japan's entertainment industry has been home to the professional cosplayers since the rise of Comiket and Tokyo Game Show. The phenomenon is most apparent in Japan but exists to some degree in other countries as well. Professional cosplayers who profit from their art may experience problems related to copyright infringement. A cosplay model, also known as a cosplay idol, cosplays costumes for anime and manga or video game companies. Good cosplayers are viewed as fictional characters in the flesh, in much the same way that film actors come to be identified in the public mind with specific roles. Cosplayers have modeled for print magazines like Cosmode and a successful cosplay model can become the brand ambassador for companies like Cospa. Some cosplay models can achieve significant recognition. While there are many significant cosplay models, Yaya Han was described as having emerged "as a well-recognized figure both within and outside cosplay circuits". Jessica Nigri, used her recognition in cosplay to gain other opportunities such as voice acting and her own documentary on Rooster Teeth. Liz Katz used her fanbase to take her cosplay from a hobby to a successful business venture, sparking debate through the cosplay community whether cosplayers should be allowed to fund and profit from their work. In the 2000s, cosplayers started to push the boundaries of cosplay into eroticism paving the way to "erocosplay". The advent of social media coupled with crowdfunding platforms like Patreon and OnlyFans have allowed cosplay models to turn cosplay into profitable full-time careers. During protests During various protests, cosplaying as a satirization of important people and political events. In Myanmar various protests after the 2021 coup d'état various protests occurred with cosplayers. Youth groups protested on the roads by wearing cosplay costumes, skirts, wedding dresses, and other unusual clothing for daily life while holding signboards and vinyl banners that break with the country's more traditional protest messages for the purpose of grabbing attention from both domestic and international press media. Other times fictional characters are used to convey a message such as women dressing like characters from The Handmaid's Tale to protest bodily restrictions in the United States. Cosplay by country or region Cosplayers in Japan formerly referred to themselves as reiyā (レイヤー), pronounced "layer". In contemporary Japan, however, cosplayers are more commonly referred to as kosupure (コスプレ), pronounced "ko-su-pray", as the term reiyā is now more frequently used to describe literal layers (for example, hair or clothing). Words such as kawaii (可愛い) (lit. 'cute') and kakko ī (かっこいい) (lit. 'cool') were often used to describe these changes, expressions that were closely tied to notions of femininity and masculinity. Those who photograph players are known as cameko (カメコ), a shortened form of camera kozō (カメラ小僧) (lit. 'camera boy'). Originally, cameko would give printed photographs to players as gifts. Growing interest in cosplay events—both among photographers and cosplayers willing to model—has led to the formalization of procedures at events such as Comiket. Photography is conducted in designated areas separate from the exhibit halls. In Japan, wearing costumes outside of conventions or other designated areas is generally discouraged. Since 1998, Tokyo's Akihabara district has contained a number of cosplay restaurants catering to devoted anime and manga fans, in which waitresses dress as characters from video games, anime, or manga; maid cafés are particularly popular. In Japan, Tokyo's Harajuku district serves as a favored informal gathering place for engaging in cosplay in public. Events held in Akihabara also attract large numbers of cosplayers. Ishoku-hada (異色肌) is a form of Japanese cosplay in which players use body paint to alter their skin color to match that of the character they portray. This practice allows for the representation of anime or manga characters, as well as video game characters, with non-human skin tones. A 2014 survey conducted for the Comiket convention in Japan reported that approximately 75% of cosplayers attending the event were female. Cosplay is common in many East Asian countries. For example, it is a major part of the Comic World conventions taking place regularly in South Korea, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Historically, the practice of dressing up as characters from works of fiction can be traced as far as the 17th century late Ming dynasty China. Western cosplay developed primarily from science fiction and fantasy fandoms. Compared with Japan, Western cosplayers are more likely to portray characters originating from live-action television series and films. Western costuming traditions also encompass a variety of related hobbyist subcultures, including participants in Renaissance faires, live action role-playing games, and historical reenactments. Costume competitions at science fiction conventions commonly feature masquerades, in which costumes are formally judged during stage presentations, as well as hall costumes that are evaluated informally throughout the event. The growing international popularity of Japanese cartoon during the late 2000s contributed to a rise in American and other Western cosplayers portraying characters from manga and anime. Over the following decade, anime conventions became increasingly common across Western countries, often rivaling long-established science fiction, comic book, and historical conventions in terms of attendance. At these events, cosplayers—much like their Japanese counterparts—gather to display their costumes, be photographed, and participate in competitive costume events. Convention attendees also frequently choose to dress as characters from Western comic books, animated works, films, and video games. Despite increasing global exchange, cultural differences in taste remain evident. Certain costume styles that may be worn without hesitation by Japanese cosplayers are often avoided in Western contexts, particularly those that resemble Nazi uniforms. Western cosplayers may also encounter debates regarding legitimacy when portraying characters whose canonical racial backgrounds differ from their own, and instances of insensitivity toward cosplayers depicting characters of different skin tones have been documented. Western cosplayers who portray anime characters may likewise experience targeted ridicule or misunderstanding. In comparison with Japan, wearing costumes in public spaces is generally more socially accepted in countries such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States, and Canada. These regions possess longer-standing traditions of Halloween costuming, fan dress, and related practices. Consequently, it is not uncommon for convention attendees in costume to be seen in nearby restaurants and public venues outside the immediate boundaries of the event itself. Media Japan is home to two especially popular cosplay magazines, Cosmode (コスモード) and ASCII Media Works' Dengeki Layers (電撃Layers). Cosmode has the largest share in the market and an English-language digital edition. Another magazine, aimed at a broader, worldwide audience is CosplayGen. In the United States, Cosplay Culture began publication in February 2015. Other magazines include CosplayZine featuring cosplayers from all over the world since October 2015, and Cosplay Realm Magazine which was started in April 2017. There are many books on the subject of cosplay as well. Cosplay groups and organizations See also Notes References Bibliography External links |
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Contents Guinness World Records Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Guinness World Records, known from its inception in 1955 until 1999 as The Guinness Book of Records and in previous United States editions as The Guinness Book of World Records, is a British reference book published annually, listing world records both of human achievements and the extremes of the natural world. Sir Hugh Beaver created the concept in order to settle arguments debated in pubs, and twin brothers Norris and Ross McWhirter co-founded the book in London in late August 1955. The first edition topped the bestseller list in the United Kingdom by Christmas 1955. The following year the book was launched internationally, and as of the 2026 edition, it is now in its 71st year of publication, published in 100 countries and 40 languages, and maintains over 53,000 records in its database. The international franchise has extended beyond print to include television series and museums. The popularity of the franchise has resulted in Guinness World Records becoming the primary international source for cataloguing and verification of a huge number of world records. The organization employs record adjudicators to verify the authenticity of the setting and breaking of records. Following a series of owners, the franchise has been owned by the Jim Pattison Group since 2008, with its headquarters moved to South Quay Plaza, Canary Wharf, London, in 2017. Since 2008, Guinness World Records has orientated its business model away from selling books, and towards creating new world records as publicity exercises for individuals and organizations, which has attracted criticism. History On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the managing director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford, Ireland. After missing a shot at a golden plover, he became involved in an argument over whether the golden plover or the red grouse was the fastest game bird in Europe (the plover is faster, but neither is the fastest game bird in Europe). That evening at Castlebridge House, he realized that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europe's fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must have been numerous other questions debated nightly among the public, but there was no book in the world with which to settle arguments about records. He realized then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. Beaver's idea became a reality when Guinness employee Christopher Chataway recommended university friends Norris and Ross McWhirter, who had been running a fact-finding agency in London. The twin brothers were commissioned in August 1954 to compile what became The Guinness Book of (Superlatives and now) Records.[clarification needed] A thousand copies were distributed for free to pubs across Britain and Ireland as a promotional asset for the Guinness brand, and they became immensely popular with customers. After the founding of The Guinness Book of Records office at the top of Ludgate House, 107 Fleet Street, London, the first 198-page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British bestseller list by Christmas. The following year, it was introduced into the United States by New York publisher David Boehm and sold 70,000 copies. Since then, Guinness World Records has sold more than 150 million copies in 100 countries and 40 languages. Due to the book's surprise success, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September/October, in time for Christmas. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years. Both brothers had an encyclopedic memory; on the British children's television series Record Breakers (based upon the book), which was broadcast on the BBC from 1972 to 2001, they would take questions posed by children in the audience on various world records and were able to give the correct answer. Ross McWhirter was assassinated by two members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army in 1975, in response to offering a £50,000 reward for information that would lead to the capture of members of the organization. Following Ross's assassination, the feature on the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called Norris on the Spot. Norris carried on as the book's sole editor. Guinness Superlatives, later Guinness World Records Limited, was incorporated in London in 1954 to publish the first book. Sterling Publishing owned the rights to the Guinness book in the US for decades until it was repurchased by Guinness in 1989 after an 18-month long lawsuit. The group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently Diageo until 2001, when it was purchased by Gullane Entertainment for £45.5 million ($65 million). Gullane was itself purchased by HIT Entertainment in 2002. In 2006, Apax Partners purchased HIT and subsequently sold Guinness World Records in early 2008 to the Jim Pattison Group, the parent company of Ripley Entertainment, which is licensed to operate Guinness World Records' Attractions. With offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records' global headquarters remain in South Quay Plaza in Canary Wharf, London, while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in Orlando, Florida. Recent editions have focused on record feats by individuals. Competitions range from obvious ones such as Olympic weightlifting to the longest egg tossing distances, or for the longest time spent playing Grand Theft Auto IV or the largest number of hot dogs consumed in three minutes. Besides records about competitions, it contains such facts such as the heaviest tumor, the most poisonous fungus, the longest-running soap opera and the most valuable life-insurance policy, among others. Many records also relate to the youngest people to have achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, currently held by Maurizio Giuliano. Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness World Records database, as well as select new records, with the criteria for inclusion changing from year to year. The latest edition is the 72nd, published in August 2025. The retirement of Norris McWhirter from his consulting role in 1995 and the subsequent decision by Diageo Plc to sell The Guinness Book of Records brand have shifted the focus of the books from text-oriented to illustrated reference. A selection of records are curated for the book from the full archive but all existing Guinness World Records titles can be accessed by creating a login on the company's website. Applications made by individuals for existing record categories are free of charge. There is an administration fee of £5 (or $5) to propose a new record title. A number of spin-off books and television series have also been produced. Guinness World Records bestowed the record of "Person with the most records" on Ashrita Furman of Queens, New York, in April 2009; at that time, he held 100 records. In 2005, Guinness designated 9 November as International Guinness World Records Day to encourage breaking of world records. In 2006, an estimated 100,000 people participated in over 10 countries. Guinness reported 2,244 new records in 12 months, which was a 173% increase over the previous year. In February 2008, NBC aired The Top 100 Guinness World Records of All Time and Guinness World Records made the complete list available on their website. The popularity of the franchise has resulted in Guinness World Records becoming the primary international authority on the cataloguing and verification of a huge number of world records. Over its history, numerous world record categories have been discontinued. This list may include that the record poses a threat to health or the environment. Defining records For many records, Guinness World Records is the effective authority on the exact requirements for them and with whom records reside, the company providing adjudicators to events to determine the veracity of record attempts. The list of records which the Guinness World Records covers is not fixed, records may be added and also removed for various reasons. The public is invited to submit applications for records, which can be either the bettering of existing records or substantial achievements which could constitute a new record. The company also provides corporate services for companies to "harness the power of record-breaking to deliver tangible success for their businesses." Guinness World Records states several types of records it will not accept for ethical reasons, such as those related to the killing or harming of animals. In the 2006 Guinness Book of World Records, Colombian serial killer Pedro López was listed as the "most prolific serial killer", having murdered at least 110 people (with Lopez himself claiming he murdered over 300 people) in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru in the late 1960s to 1980s. This was later removed after complaints that it made a competition out of murder, however the record was reinstated in the 2026 edition. Several world records that were once included in the book have been removed for ethical reasons, including concerns for the well-being of potential record breakers. For example, following publication of the "heaviest pet" record, many owners overfed their pets beyond the bounds of what was healthy, and therefore such entries were removed. The Guinness Book also dropped records within their "eating and drinking records" section of Human Achievements in 1991 over concerns that potential competitors could harm themselves and expose the publisher to potential litigation. These changes included the removal of all spirit, wine and beer drinking records, along with other unusual records for consuming such unlikely things as bicycles and trees. Other records, such as sword swallowing and rally driving (on public roads), were closed from further entry as the current holders had performed beyond what are considered safe human tolerance levels. There have been instances of closed categories being reopened. For example, the sword swallowing category was listed as closed in the 1990 Guinness Book of World Records, but has since been reopened with Johnny Strange breaking a sword swallowing record on Guinness World Records Live. Similarly, the speed beer drinking records which were dropped from the book in 1991, reappeared 17 years later in the 2008 edition, but were moved from the "Human Achievements" section of the older book to the "Modern Society" section of the newer edition. As of 2011[update], it is required in the guidelines of all "large food" type records that the item be fully edible, and distributed to the public for consumption, to prevent food wastage. Chain letters are also not allowed: "Guinness World Records does not accept any records relating to chain letters, sent by post or e-mail." After Roger Guy English set the record for sleeplessness in 1974, the category was discontinued for being too dangerous. At the request of the U.S. Mint, in 1984, the book stopped accepting claims of large hoardings of pennies or other currency. Environmentally unfriendly records (such as the releasing of sky lanterns and party balloons) are no longer accepted or monitored, in addition to records relating to tobacco or cannabis consumption or preparation. In 2024, Guinness World Records was accused of laundering the reputation of the oppressive governments as it set world records for the UAE's police forces and Egypt's military. By 2024, the UAE achieved 526 records, of which 21 were credited to the Emirates' police force. Matthew Hedges, a British academic who was forced to sign a false confession, asked the records body to take down the Abu Dhabi police department's certificate for "most signatures on a scroll", along with other such titles. Concerns were also raised around the activities around Egypt, which moved from 22 records to 110 within a decade until 2024. James Lynch, co-founder of FairSquare, said the records were legitimizing Abdel Fattah el-Sisi's regime. The Guinness World Records stated that its record titles "cannot be purchased". Guinness World Records has been accused of romanticizing diseases, such as Graves' Disease and Pica. For some potential categories, Guinness World Records has declined to list some records that are too difficult or impossible to determine. For example, its website states: "We do not accept any claims for beauty as it is not objectively measurable." On 10 December 2010, Guinness World Records stopped accepting submissions for the "dreadlock" category after an investigation of its first and only female title holder, Asha Mandela, determining it was impossible to judge this record accurately. Change in business model Traditionally, the company made a large amount of its revenue via book sales to interested readers, especially children. The rise of the Internet began to cut into book sales starting in the 2000s, part of a general decline in the book industry. According to a 2017 story by Planet Money of NPR, Guinness began to realize that a lucrative new revenue source to replace falling book sales was the would-be record-holders themselves. While any person can theoretically send in a record to be verified for free, the approval process is slow. Would-be record breakers that paid fees ranging from US$12,000 to US$500,000 would be given advisors, adjudicators, help in finding good records to break as well as suggestions for how to do it, prompt service, and so on. In particular, corporations and celebrities seeking a publicity stunt to launch a new product or draw attention to themselves began to hire Guinness World Records, paying them for finding a record to break or to create a new category just for them. As such, they have been described as a native advertising company, with no clear distinction between content and advertisement. Television talk show host John Oliver criticized Guinness World Records on the programme Last Week Tonight with John Oliver in August 2019, during an episode about President of Turkmenistan Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow. Oliver said Guinness took money from authoritarian governments for pointless vanity projects such as Berdimuhamedow's. Oliver asked Guinness to work with Last Week Tonight to adjudicate a record for "Largest cake featuring a picture of someone falling off a horse", but according to Oliver, the offer did not work out after Guinness insisted on a non-disparagement clause. Guinness World Records denied the accusations and stated that they declined Oliver's offer to participate because "it was merely an opportunity to mock one of our record-holders," and that Oliver did not specifically request the record for the largest marble cake. As of 2021, the Guinness World Record for "Largest marble cake" remains with Betty Crocker Middle East in Saudi Arabia. Following Oliver's episode, Guinness World Records' ethics were called into question by human rights groups. Museums In 1976, a Guinness Book of World Records museum opened in the Empire State Building. Speed shooter Bob Munden then went on tour promoting The Guinness Book of World Records by performing his record fast draws with a standard weight single-action revolver from a Western movie-type holster. His fastest time for a draw was 0.02 seconds. Among exhibits were life-size statues of the world's tallest man, Robert Wadlow, and world's largest earthworm, an X-ray photo of a sword swallower, repeated lightning strike victim Roy Sullivan's hat complete with lightning holes and a pair of gem-studded golf shoes on sale for $6,500. The museum closed in 1995. In more recent years, the Guinness company has permitted the franchising of small museums with displays based on the book, all currently (as of 2010[update]) located in towns popular with tourists: Tokyo, Copenhagen, San Antonio. There were once Guinness World Records museums and exhibitions at the London Trocadero, Bangalore, San Francisco, Myrtle Beach, Orlando, Atlantic City, and Las Vegas. The Orlando museum, which closed in 2002, was branded The Guinness Records Experience; the Hollywood, Niagara Falls, Copenhagen, and Gatlinburg museums also previously featured this branding. Retail and merchandise Guinness World Records operates an official online shop, the Guinness World Records Store, which offers items related to record-breaking achievements, including certificates of participation, apparel, and the annual Guinness World Records book. The shop provides record-holders and the general public with access to official Guinness World Records materials. Merchandise is part of the organization's broader engagement efforts beyond its publications and events. Television series Guinness World Records has commissioned various television series documenting world record breaking attempts, including: Rhianna Loren (2025) Specials: Gamer's edition In 2008, Guinness World Records released its gamer's edition, a supplement that keeps records for popular video game high scores, codes and feats in association with Twin Galaxies. The Gamer's Edition used to contain 258 pages, over 1,236 video game related world records and four interviews including one with Twin Galaxies founder Walter Day. Editions were published for the years 2008 through 2020, with the 2009 edition in hardcover. The 2025 edition is the first since 2020, returning after a five-year hiatus. Since 2020, the supplement has had 192 pages. The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles was a music reference book first published in 1977. It was compiled by BBC Radio 1 DJs Paul Gambaccini and Mike Read with brothers Tim Rice and Jonathan Rice. It was the first in a number of music reference books that were to be published by Guinness Publishing with sister publication The Guinness Book of British Hit Albums coming in 1983. After being sold to Hit Entertainment, the data concerning the Official Chart Company's singles and albums charts were combined under the title British Hit Singles & Albums, with Hit Entertainment publishing the book from 2003 to 2006 (under the Guinness World Records brand). After Guinness World Records was sold to The Jim Pattison Group, it was effectively replaced by a series of books published by Ebury Publishing/Random House with the Virgin Book of British Hit Singles first being published in 2007 and with a Hit Albums book following two years later. Other media and products In 1975, Parker Brothers marketed a board game, The Guinness Game of World Records, based on the book. Players compete by setting and breaking records for activities such as the longest streak of rolling dice before rolling doubles, stacking plastic pieces, and bouncing a ball off alternating sides of a card, as well as answering trivia questions based on the listings in the Guinness Book of World Records. A video game, Guinness World Records: The Videogame, was developed by TT Fusion and released for Nintendo DS, Wii and iOS in November 2008. In 2012, Warner Bros. announced the development of a live-action film version of Guinness World Records with Daniel Chun as scriptwriter. The film, however, never entered production. Dr. Sunil Gupta is listed in the Guinness World Records for participating in the largest multi-location diabetic neuropathy screening conducted on World Diabetes Day, 14 November 2013, during which 1,676 screenings were performed across 27 locations in India. References |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:CATEGORY] | [TOKENS: 5316] |
Contents Wikipedia:Categorization The primary purpose of the categorization system on Wikipedia is to provide navigational links within a structured, tree-like hierarchy of categories. By grouping pages according to their essential, defining characteristics, the system allows readers to browse and efficiently locate related topics. Proposals to delete, merge, or rename categories should follow the process outlined at Wikipedia:Categories for discussion. Please use that forum before undertaking extensive re-categorization of existing categories or the mass creation of new ones. Categorizing pages Every Wikipedia page should belong to at least one category, except for talk pages, redirects, and user pages, which may optionally be placed in categories where appropriate. Each categorized page should be placed only in the most specific categories to which it logically belongs, and subcategories should be categorized under only the most specific parent categories possible. Important: All categories form part of a tree-like hierarchy. Do not add categories to pages as if they are tags. Creating category pages Sometimes proper categorization requires the creation of a new category. Categories are not the only means of allowing users to browse sets of related pages, and have several disadvantages, including: So, consider whether a list would be more appropriate than a category (or in addition to a category) for a grouping of pages. As examples, a list of Nobel laureates could include dates, and a list formatted as a table can provide options for sorting the entries. Also consider whether the proposed category might be considered "category clutter", as described in Wikipedia:Overcategorization. A good category name is accurate and neutral, and, as much as possible, defines the category's inclusion criteria in the name itself. Important: Moving non-conventionally categorized pages to another category name (see {{Category redirect}}) imposes an additional overhead – an edit for every categorized page and subcategory. So, when choosing a name for the category, please be sure a category with a similar name or similar inclusion criteria does not already exist. (See also: WP:OVERLAPCAT.) One way to determine if suitable categories already exist for a particular page is to check the categories on pages concerning similar or related topics. You can also search existing category names as described here (top of page). Note: Eponymous categories (categories whose name and topic is the same as an article, such as a category named after a person) should only be created if enough directly related articles exist. After you have determined an appropriate category name for the category, next try to find a suitable place for the new category. (For example, categories of people should be in the tree of "people" categories.) Please see § Category tree organization for more information on this. Once you have determined where to categorize this new category, you should be ready to create the new category. To create a category: Important: If something goes wrong, double check to see if you followed the steps properly and check if the wikitext is correct. For example, if the category fails to list in the parent category, the wikitext should be [[Category:Parent category name]], not [[:Category:Parent category name]]. While it should typically be clear from the name of an existing category which pages it should contain, sometimes, a common-sense guess based on the name of the category is not enough to figure out whether a page should be listed in the category. So, rather than leave the text of a category page empty (other than parent categories), adding a hatnote linking to the main article or another page which describes the topic (see § Articles with eponymous categories) can help with that. However, only linking to a Wikipedia article explaining the title is often not sufficient as a description for a category. It can be helpful – to both readers and editors – to include a clear description of the category, indicating what pages it should contain, how they should be subcategorized, and so on, and linking to one or more pages as background information. In such cases, the desired contents of the category should be described on the category page, similar to how the list selection criteria are described in a stand-alone list. The category description should make direct statements about the criteria by which pages should be selected for inclusion in (or exclusion from) the category. This description, not the category's name, defines the proper content of the category. Do not leave future editors to guess about what or who should be included from the title of the category. Even if the selection criteria might seem obvious to you, an explicit standard is helpful to others, especially if they are less familiar with the subject. The description can also contain links to other Wikipedia pages, in particular to other related categories that do not appear directly as subcategories or parent categories, and to relevant categories at sister projects, such as Commons. Like disambiguation pages, category pages should contain neither citations nor external links. Various templates have been developed to make it easier to produce category descriptions; see Category namespace templates and Wikipedia:Category classification templates. There are hatnote templates including {{Category main article}} and {{Category see also}}; others are listed at Wikipedia:Hatnote#Categories. Categories may have hundreds or thousands of members, displayed over many pages, with up to 200 entries on a single page. To make navigating large categories easier, a table of contents can be used on the category page. The following templates are some of the ways of doing this: Likewise, a maximum of 200 subcategories are displayed at a time, so some subcategories may not be immediately visible. To display all subcategories at once, add a category tree to the text of the category page, as described at Help:Category § Displaying category trees and page counts. Category pages can have interlanguage links to corresponding categories in other language Wikipedias. Edit these on Wikidata by following the instructions at Help:Interlanguage links. Categorizing articles In general, categories of articles must be: If there are more than a few lists in a particular subject area, it may be appropriate to create a specific subcategory that contains only the list pages and no other types. When placing list pages in a lists category, use a sort key to adjust the page title to exclude the starting words "List of", otherwise all lists would appear under "L". A category that covers exactly the same topic as an article is known as the eponymous category for that article (e.g. New York City and Category:New York City; Mekong and Category:Mekong River; Abraham Lincoln and Category:Abraham Lincoln). An eponymous category is generally named the same as its main article, but exceptions sometimes apply. See § Naming conventions for more information. Eponymous categories should not be created unless enough directly related articles or subcategories exist. However, this should not be done simply to reduce the number of categories displayed in an article. An eponymous category should have only the categories of its article that are relevant to the category's content. For example: If eponymous categories are categorized separately from their articles, it will be helpful to make links between the category page containing the articles and the category page containing the eponymous categories. The template {{Category see also}} can be used for this. An example of this set-up is the linked categories Category:American politicians and Category:Wikipedia categories named after American politicians. Categorizing draft pages Drafts, no matter whether in the draft namespace or your userspace, are not articles and thus do not belong in content categories such as Category:Living people or Category:Biologists. If you copy an article from mainspace to draftspace or userspace and it already contains categories, disable those categories. This can be done in any of the following four ways (but only the first two ways are recommended, as a disadvantage of the last two ways is that the categories will not be linked on the page): After you move the draft into article space, remove the leading colons, uncomment out the categories or remove the <nowiki>...</nowiki> tags to re-enable the categories. If you use the draft categories template, the categories will automatically work as normal in mainspace, but the template should be removed. The same system may be used in a new draft to list the categories it may have when moved to mainspace. Two scripts are available to help with these tasks: User:DannyS712/Draft no cat and User:DannyS712/Draft re cat. Categorizing project pages A distinction is made between two types of categories: Administrative categories include stub categories (generally produced by stub templates), maintenance categories (often produced by cleanup templates such as {{Cleanup}} and {{Citation needed}}, or those used for maintenance projects), and categories of pages in non-article namespaces, such as WikiProject assessment categories and categories holding Wikipedia policies and guidelines. Article pages should be kept out of administrative categories if possible. For example, the templates that generate WikiProject and assessment categories should be placed on talk pages, not on the articles themselves. If it is unavoidable that an administrative category appears on article pages (usually because it is generated by a maintenance template that is placed on articles), then in most cases the category should be made a hidden category, as described in § Hiding categories below. Maintenance categories should never be added to articles directly. Instead, the categories should be added using templates. There are separate administrative categories for different kinds of non-article pages, such as project page categories, template categories, disambiguation page categories, etc. In some administrative categories, pages may be included regardless of type or namespace. For example, in an error-tracking category, it makes sense to group templates separately, because addressing the errors there may require different skills compared to fixing an ordinary article. For sorting each namespace separately, see § Sort keys below. Category tags should be added to file pages of files that have been uploaded to Wikipedia. When categorized, files are not included in the count of articles in the category, but are displayed in a separate section with a thumbnail and the name for each. A category can mix articles and images, or a separate file/image category can be created. A file category is typically a subcategory of the general category about the same subject, and a subcategory of the wider category for files, Category:Wikipedia files. To categorize a new file when uploading, simply add the category tag to the upload summary. Freely licensed files should be uploaded to, and categorized on, Wikimedia Commons, instead of uploading and categorizing on Wikipedia. Existing freely licensed files should usually be moved from Wikipedia to Commons, with a mirror page automatically remaining on Wikipedia. (For an example of one such mirror page, see here.) Categories should not be added to these Wikipedia mirror pages, because doing so creates a new Wikipedia page that is subject to speedy deletion. Exceptions to this principle are made for mirror pages of images that are nominated as featured pictures and for those that appear on the Wikipedia Main Page in the Did You Know? column. Images that are used in Wikipedia that are non-free or fair use should not appear as thumbnail images in categories. To prevent the thumbnail preview of images from appearing in a category, __NOGALLERY__ should be added to the text of the category. In such cases, the file will still appear in the category, but the image preview will not. Templates are not articles and thus do not belong in content categories. They should, however, be placed in template categories – subcategories of Category:Wikipedia templates – to assist when looking for templates of a certain type. For example, Template:The Beatles albums is categorized under Category:England rock music group navigational boxes, which is ultimately a subcategory of Category:Music navigational boxes (type), but Template:The Beatles albums should not be categorized under Category:The Beatles or Category:Albums (content). Pages using a template should rarely be placed in the same categories as the template itself. To ensure a template's categories are not applied to a page using the template, template categories should be placed on the template's documentation page, normally after the two pipes in a <includeonly>{{Sandbox other||...}}</includeonly> block. Because template documentation is rarely protected, template categorization can be modified by all editors even when the template code itself is protected from editing by most editors. When there is no documentation page, the categories for the template may be placed at the bottom of the template itself, within a <noinclude>...</noinclude> block. There should be no spaces or new lines between the last part of the template proper and the opening <noinclude> tag. User pages are not articles and thus do not belong in content categories such as Category:Living people or Category:Biologists. Similarly, draft versions of articles should be kept out of content categories. Also, do not transclude full articles into your user pages, as this will result in the user page being included in all the article's categories. You also may not leave userspace pages sitting in red-linked categories that do not exist. Although it may seem less serious than mixing userspace content with mainspace content in conventional categories, red-linked categories in userspace get picked up by the category cleanup reports just the same as red-linked categories in mainspace, and thus actively disrupt the process of cleaning up mainspace category errors. The sole exception is that you are allowed to file your user page in Category:Wikipedians with red-linked categories on their user page, a harmless joke category that consensus has deemed a standalone exception to the rule – however, you must use that exact category itself, and are not free to use differently worded or differently spelled variants of it, and your page cannot be left in any other red-linked categories besides that. However, user pages can optionally be placed in user categories – subcategories of Category:Wikipedians, such as Category:Wikipedian biologists – which assist collaboration between users. Also, certain user sub-pages that are non-article drafts are permitted in project categories, such as Category:User essays. Note also that Wikipedia policy around ownership of content means that other editors are allowed to edit pages in your personal userspace. If your page is in categories that it cannot be in under USERNOCAT, other editors are free to remove it from those categories and do not need to ask you for permission to edit "your" content. A list of article-space categories with user pages is maintained at Wikipedia:Database reports/Polluted categories. Categorization using templates Many templates include category declarations in their transcludable text, for the purpose of placing the pages containing those templates into specific categories. This technique is very commonly used for populating certain kinds of administrative categories, including stub categories and maintenance categories. See Template:Infobox roller coaster for an example that only adds a category by manufacturer if it exists, and otherwise uses a hidden category. However, it is recommended that articles not be placed in ordinary content categories using templates in this way. There are many reasons for this: editors cannot see the category in the wikitext; removing or restructuring the category is made more difficult (partly because automated processes will not work); inappropriate articles and non-article pages may get added to the category; sort keys may be unavailable to be customized per category; and ordering of categories on the page is less controllable. When templates are used to populate administrative categories, ensure that the code cannot generate nonsensical or non-existent categories, particularly when the category name depends on a parameter. See Wikipedia:Category suppression for ways of keeping inappropriate pages out of template-generated categories. Category declarations in templates often use {{PAGENAME}} as the sort key, because this overrides any DEFAULTSORT defined on the page. Do not create inter-category redirects by adding #REDIRECT [[Target page]] to a category page. Unlike when renaming articles, categories cannot be redirected using "hard" redirects. Articles added to a redirected category will not show up in the target category. And since redirected categories do not become "red links", editors will not be aware when they add an article to a redirected category. Instead, a form of "soft redirect" may be used in limited circumstances. You can create a category redirect by adding {{Category redirect|target}} to the category page. Bots patrol these categories and move articles to the "target" of the redirect. If you need to add a redirect category to a {{Category redirect}}, use the template's second parameter. For example: {{Category redirect | Years of the 19th century in Ceylon | {{R from category navigation}} {{R from template-generated category}} }} Category redirects are costly. While placing a page in a category redirect is not a big problem, it is a problem. There are plenty of helpful uses of category redirects, but category redirects are not as cheap as regular redirects. Links to article redirects are not broken: i.e. click on the link and you are automatically redirected to its target. However, links to category redirects are broken and need to be fixed, except when resolved by a template (i.e. the template generates categories using a pattern, and some of the resulting category names are intentionally resolved by the use of {{Resolve category redirect}} within the template, as in the Ceylon example above). Placing a page into a category redirect makes it show up in the category redirect – not its target – until a bot comes along and fixes the link. If a category is renamed because it is ambiguous, and categories exist for two or more meanings, then create a category disambiguation page at the old name, using {{Category disambiguation}}. See also Category:Disambiguation categories. In cases where, for technical reasons, administrative categories appear directly on articles rather than talk pages, they should be made into hidden categories, so that they are not displayed to readers. This rule does not apply to stub categories – these are not hidden. To hide a category, add the template {{Maintenance category|hidden=yes}} to the category page (the template uses the magic word __HIDDENCAT__). This also places the page in Category:Hidden categories. A logged-in user may elect to view all hidden categories, by checking "Show hidden categories" in the "Appearance" tab of their Preferences. "Hidden" parent categories are never in fact hidden on category pages (although they are listed separately). Hidden categories are listed at the bottom when previewing. All users of the desktop version can see hidden categories for a page by clicking "Page information" on the right-hand side, or by editing the whole page with the source editor. For more information, see mw:Help:Categories § Hidden categories. Stub templates categorize stub articles for maintenance purposes into administrative categories, not for user browsing, so they do not count as categorization for the purposes of Wikipedia's categorization policies. An article which has a "stubs" category on it must still be filed in the most appropriate content categories, even if one of them is a direct parent of the stubs category in question. Category tree organization Categories are organized as overlapping "trees", formed by creating links between inter-related categories (in mathematics or computer science this structure is called a partially ordered set). There is one top-level category: Category:Contents. All other categories are subcategorized below this category. If logical membership of one category implies logical membership of a second category (an is-a relationship), then the first category should be made a subcategory (directly or indirectly) of the second category (the "parent" category). Any category may potentially contain (or "branch into") subcategories. When making one category a subcategory of another, ensure that the members of the subcategory really can be expected (with possibly a few exceptions) to belong to the parent also. A subcategory may potentially have two or more parent categories. If two categories are closely related but are not in a subset relation, then links between them can be included in the category description of the category pages. Pages (and subcategories) should not usually be placed in both a given category and any of its subcategories or parent categories. For some exceptions to this, see § Eponymous categories and § Non-diffusing subcategories. Category chains formed by parent–child relationships should never form closed loops; that is, no category should be contained as a subcategory of one of its own subcategories. Although there is no limit on the size of categories, a large category will often be broken down ("diffused") into smaller, more specific subcategories. For example, Category:Rivers of Europe contains no articles about specific rivers directly; they are all in subcategories. A category may be diffused using several coexisting schemes; for example, Category:Albums is broken down by artist, by date, by genre, etc. Metacategories may be created as ways of organizing schemes of subcategories. For example, Category:The Beatles albums is not placed directly into Category:Albums but into the metacategory Category:Albums by artist, which itself appears in Category:Albums by person then Category:Albums. (See Category:Categories by parameter.) It is possible for a category to be only partially diffused – some members are placed in subcategories, while others remain in the main category. Information about how a category is diffused may be given on the category page. Categories which are intended to be fully broken down into subcategories can be marked with the {{Category diffuse}} template, which indicates that any pages which editors might add to the main category should be moved to the appropriate subcategories when sufficient information is available. (If the proper subcategory for an article does not exist yet, either create the subcategory or leave the article in the parent category for the time being. However, avoid creating subcategories for just one article.) To suggest that a category is so large that it ought to be diffused, or substantially diffused, into subcategories, you can add the {{Overpopulated category}} template to the category page. Not all subcategories serve the "diffusion" function described above; some are simply subsets which have some special characteristic of interest, such as Best Actor Academy Award winners as a subcategory of Film actors. They provide an exception to the general rule that pages are not placed in both a category and its subcategory: there is no need to take pages out of the parent category purely because of their membership of a non-diffusing subcategory. (Of course, if the pages also belong to other subcategories that do cause diffusion, then they will not appear in the parent category directly.) Non-diffusing categories should be identified with a template on the category page: Subcategories defined by gender, ethnicity, religion, and sexuality should almost always be non-diffusing subcategories to prevent othering. The Wikipedia:Categorizing articles about people guideline outlines the rules on these categories in more detail. Note that some categories can be non-diffusing on some parents and diffusing on others. For example, Category:British women novelists is a non-diffusing subcategory of Category:British novelists, but it is a diffusing subcategory of Category:Women novelists by nationality. Sort keys By default, a category page will list its member pages and subcategories alphabetically by their page titles. Sometimes, this is undesirable, so sort keys are needed to produce a better ordering. A sort key can be added to a page using the magic word {{DEFAULTSORT}}, which will cause the page to be sorted in categories under a different specified title. (Per MOS:ORDER, this is placed just before the list of category declarations.) The page title and DEFAULTSORT can also be overridden for individual categories. For the mechanics, see Help:Category § Sorting category pages. People are usually sorted by last name rather than first name, so "Last name, First name" sort keys are used (e.g. Washington, George for George Washington). There are many other rules for sorting people's names; for more information, see Wikipedia:Categorization/Sorting names. Other sort key considerations (in no particular order): Inappropriate categorization Anyone who can edit a page may remove a questionable categorization. If an article has an "incorrect" or "inappropriate" category, remove that category from the article, and replace it (if applicable) with a more correct category. Even if an article may occupy the grey areas of a category's inclusion criteria, that is not a valid reason to keep the article in a category. If a particular article does not fit the inclusion criteria of a category, then the article simply should not be added to it. If categorization of any particular page is disputed, please discuss the categorization on the talk page of the page in question. If the category seems reasonable, but questionable in some cases, consider whether you can solve (part of) the problem by writing a clearer category description. If you have a proposal for a better name for the category or for a wider re-arrangement of the categorization scheme, or if you have a concern that may apply to several members of the category (such as if the category violates one or more sections on this page, Wikipedia:Categorizing articles about people, Wikipedia:Overcategorization, or other Wikipedia policies and guidelines), you can start or participate in a discussion about the category. Category talk pages are not always widely watched. Consider whether you can invite more potentially interested people to take part in a discussion, such as by discussing it at a relevant WikiProject, or at Wikipedia:WikiProject Categories. Another option could be to nominate the category for discussion at Wikipedia:Categories for discussion, or if the category name has an obvious typographical error, you can list it for speedy renaming at Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/Speedy. See Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/How-to for instructions on how to use the templates for: deletion ({{cfd}}), renaming ({{cfr}}), or merging ({{cfm}}). If you are in a content dispute, see Wikipedia:Dispute resolution for what to do next. Category cleanup templates See also Notes |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_effects] | [TOKENS: 3244] |
Contents Special effect Special effects (often abbreviated as F/X or simply FX) are illusions or visual tricks used in the theater, film, television, video game, amusement park and simulator industries to simulate the fictional events in a story or virtual world. It is sometimes abbreviated as SFX, but this may also refer to sound effects. Special effects are traditionally divided into the categories of mechanical effects and optical effects. With the emergence of digital filmmaking a distinction between special effects and visual effects has grown, with the latter referring to digital post-production and optical effects, while "special effects" refers to mechanical effects. Mechanical effects (also called practical or physical effects) are usually accomplished during the live-action shooting. This includes the use of mechanised props, scenery, scale models, animatronics, pyrotechnics and atmospheric effects: creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds, making a car appear to drive by itself and blowing up a building, etc. Mechanical effects are also often incorporated into set design and make-up. For example, prosthetic make-up can be used to make an actor look like a non-human creature. Optical effects (also called photographic effects) are the techniques in which images or film frames are created photographically, either "in-camera" using multiple exposure, mattes or the Schüfftan process or in post-production using an optical printer. An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background. Since the 1990s, computer-generated imagery (CGI) has come to the forefront of special effects technologies. It gives filmmakers greater control, and allows many effects to be accomplished more safely and convincingly and—as technology improves—at lower costs. As a result, many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been superseded by CGI. Developmental history In 1857, Oscar Rejlander created the world's first "special effects" image by combining different sections of 32 negatives into a single image, making a montaged combination print. In 1895, Alfred Clark created what is commonly accepted as the first-ever motion picture special effect. While filming a reenactment of the beheading of Mary, Queen of Scots, Clark instructed an actor to step up to the block in Mary's costume. As the executioner brought the axe above his head, Clark stopped the camera, had all of the actors freeze, and had the person playing Mary step off the set. He placed a Mary dummy in the actor's place, restarted filming, and allowed the executioner to bring the axe down, severing the dummy's head. Techniques like these would dominate the production of special effects for a century. It wasn't only the first use of trickery in cinema, it was also the first type of photographic trickery that was only possible in a motion picture, and referred to as the "stop trick". Georges Méliès, an early motion picture pioneer, accidentally discovered the same "stop trick." According to Méliès, his camera jammed while filming a street scene in Paris. When he screened the film, he found that the "stop trick" had caused a truck to turn into a hearse, pedestrians to change direction, and men to turn into women. Méliès, the stage manager at the Theatre Robert-Houdin, was inspired to develop a series of more than 500 short films between 1896 and 1914, in the process developing or inventing such techniques as multiple exposures, time-lapse photography, dissolves, and hand painted colour. Because of his ability to seemingly manipulate and transform reality with the cinematograph, the prolific Méliès is sometimes referred to as the "Cinemagician." His most famous film, Le Voyage dans la lune (1902), a whimsical parody of Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon, featured a combination of live action and animation, and also incorporated extensive miniature and matte painting work. From 1910 to 1920, the main innovations in special effects were the improvements on the matte shot by Norman Dawn. With the original matte shot, pieces of cardboard were placed to block the exposure of the film, which would be exposed later. Dawn combined this technique with the "glass shot." Rather than using cardboard to block certain areas of the film exposure, Dawn simply painted certain areas black to prevent any light from exposing the film. From the partially exposed film, a single frame is then projected onto an easel, where the matte is then drawn. By creating the matte from an image directly from the film, it became incredibly easy to paint an image with proper respect to scale and perspective (the main flaw of the glass shot). Dawn's technique became the textbook for matte shots due to the natural images it created. During the 1920s and 1930s, special effects techniques were improved and refined by the motion picture industry. Many techniques—such as the Schüfftan process—were modifications of illusions from the theatre (such as pepper's ghost) and still photography (such as double exposure and matte compositing). Rear projection was a refinement of the use of painted backgrounds in the theatre, substituting moving pictures to create moving backgrounds. Lifecasting of faces was imported from traditional maskmaking. Along with make-up advances, fantastic masks could be created which fit the actor perfectly. As material science advanced, horror film maskmaking followed closely. Many studios established in-house "special effects" departments, which were responsible for nearly all optical and mechanical aspects of motion-picture trickery. Also, the challenge of simulating spectacle in motion encouraged the development of the use of miniatures. Animation, creating the illusion of motion, was accomplished with drawings (most notably by Winsor McCay in Gertie the Dinosaur) and with three-dimensional models (most notably by Willis O'Brien in The Lost World and King Kong). Naval battles could be depicted with models in studio. Tanks and aeroplanes could be flown (and crashed) without risk of life and limb. Most impressively, miniatures and matte paintings could be used to depict worlds that never existed. Fritz Lang's film Metropolis was an early special effects spectacular, with innovative use of miniatures, matte paintings, the Schüfftan process, and complex compositing. An important innovation in special-effects photography was the development of the optical printer. Essentially, an optical printer is a projector aiming into a camera lens, and it was developed to make copies of films for distribution. Until Linwood G. Dunn refined the design and use of the optical printer, effects shots were accomplished as in-camera effects. Dunn demonstrating that it could be used to combine images in novel ways and create new illusions. One early showcase for Dunn was Orson Welles' Citizen Kane, where such locations as Xanadu (and some of Gregg Toland's famous 'deep focus' shots) were essentially created by Dunn's optical printer. The development of color photography required greater refinement of effects techniques. Color enabled the development of such travelling matte techniques as bluescreen and the sodium vapour process. Many films became landmarks in special-effects accomplishments: Forbidden Planet used matte paintings, animation, and miniature work to create spectacular alien environments. In The Ten Commandments, Paramount's John P. Fulton, A.S.C., multiplied the crowds of extras in the Exodus scenes with careful compositing, depicted the massive constructions of Rameses with models, and split the Red Sea in a still-impressive combination of travelling mattes and water tanks. Ray Harryhausen extended the art of stop-motion animation with his special techniques of compositing to create spectacular fantasy adventures such as Jason and the Argonauts (whose climax, a sword battle with seven animated skeletons, is considered a landmark in special effects). During the 1950s and 1960s numerous new special effects were developed which would dramatically increase the level of realism achievable in science fiction films. Sci-fi special effects milestones in the 1950s included the Godzilla films, The Day the Earth Stood Still (featuring Klaatu), and 3-D films. The tokusatsu genre of Japanese science fiction film and television, which includes the kaiju sub-genre of monster films, rose to prominence in the 1950s. The special-effects director Eiji Tsuburaya and the director Ishirō Honda became the driving forces behind the original Godzilla (1954). Taking inspiration from King Kong (1933), Tsuburaya formulated many of the techniques that would become staples of the tokusatsu genre, such as so-called suitmation—the use of a human actor in a costume to play a giant monster—combined with the use of miniatures and scaled-down city sets. Godzilla changed the landscape of Japanese cinema, science fiction and fantasy, and kickstarted the kaiju genre in Japan called the "Monster Boom", which remained extremely popular for several decades, with characters such as the aforementioned Godzilla, Gamera and King Ghidorah leading the market. Tokusatsu films, notably Warning from Space (1956), sparked Stanley Kubrick's interest in science fiction films; according to his biographer John Baxter, despite their "clumsy model sequences, the films were often well-photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well-designed and well-lit sets." In 1968, Stanley Kubrick assembled his own effects team (Douglas Trumbull, Tom Howard, Con Pederson and Wally Veevers) rather than use an in-house effects unit for 2001: A Space Odyssey. In this film, the spaceship miniatures were highly detailed and carefully photographed for a realistic depth of field. The shots of spaceships were combined through hand-drawn rotoscoping and careful motion-control work, ensuring that the elements were precisely combined in the camera—a surprising throwback to the silent era, but with spectacular results. Backgrounds of the African vistas in the "Dawn of Man" sequence were combined with soundstage photography via the then-new front projection technique. Scenes set in zero-gravity environments were staged with hidden wires, mirror shots, and large-scale rotating sets. The finale, a voyage through hallucinogenic scenery, was created by Douglas Trumbull using a new technique termed slit-scan. The 1970s provided two profound changes in the special effects trade. The first was economic: during the industry's recession in the late 1960s and early 1970s, many studios closed down their in-house effects houses. Technicians became freelancers or founded their own effects companies, sometimes specialising on particular techniques (opticals, animation, etc.). The second was precipitated by the blockbuster success of two science-fiction and fantasy films in 1977. George Lucas's Star Wars ushered in an era of science-fiction films with expensive and impressive special effects. Effects supervisor John Dykstra, A.S.C. and crew developed many improvements in existing effects technology. They created a computer-controlled camera rig called the "Dykstraflex" that allowed precise repetition of camera motion, greatly facilitating travelling-matte compositing. Degradation of film images during compositing was minimised by other innovations: the Dykstraflex used VistaVision cameras that photographed widescreen images horizontally along stock, using far more of the film per frame, and thinner-emulsion filmstocks were used in the compositing process. The effects crew assembled by Lucas was dubbed Industrial Light & Magic, and since 1977 has spearheaded many effects innovations. That same year, Steven Spielberg's film Close Encounters of the Third Kind boasted a finale with impressive special effects by 2001 veteran Douglas Trumbull. In addition to developing his own motion-control system, Trumbull also developed techniques for creating intentional "lens flare" (the shapes created by light reflecting in camera lenses) to provide the film's undefinable shapes of flying saucers. The success of these films, and others since, has prompted massive studio investment in effects-heavy science-fiction films. This has fuelled the establishment of many independent effects houses, a tremendous degree of refinement of existing techniques, and the development of new techniques such as computer-generated imagery (CGI). It has also encouraged within the industry a greater distinction between special effects and visual effects; the latter is used to characterise post-production and optical work, while "special effects" refers more often to on-set and mechanical effects. The use of computer animation in film dates back to the early 1980s, with the films Tron (1982) and Golgo 13: The Professional (1983). Since the 1990s, a profound innovation in special effects has been the development of computer-generated imagery (CGI), which has changed nearly every aspect of motion picture special effects. Digital compositing allows far more control and creative freedom than optical compositing, and does not degrade the image as with analogue (optical) processes. Digital imagery has enabled technicians to create detailed models, matte "paintings," and even fully realised characters with the malleability of computer software. Arguably the biggest and most "spectacular" use of CGI is in the creation of photo-realistic images of science-fiction/fantasy characters, settings and objects. Images can be created in a computer using the techniques of animated cartoons and model animation. The Last Starfighter (1984) used computer generated spaceships instead of physical scale models. In 1993, stop-motion animators working on the realistic dinosaurs of Steven Spielberg's Jurassic Park were retrained in the use of computer input devices. By 1995, films such as Toy Story underscored the fact that the distinction between live-action films and animated films was no longer clear. Other landmark examples include a character made up of broken pieces of a stained-glass window in Young Sherlock Holmes, a shape-shifting character in Willow, a tentacle formed from water in The Abyss, the T-1000 Terminator in Terminator 2: Judgment Day, hordes and armies of robots and fantastic creatures in the Star Wars (prequel) and The Lord of the Rings trilogies, and the planet, Pandora, in Avatar. In 2025, Christian Clavier compared Méliès’ early trick effects to the current use of AI in visual effects. Planning and use Although most visual effects work is completed during post-production, it must be carefully planned and choreographed in pre-production and production. A visual effects supervisor is usually involved with the production from an early stage to work closely with the Director and all related personnel to achieve the desired effects. Practical effects also require significant pre-planning and co-ordination with performers and production teams. The live nature of the effects can result in situations where resetting due to an error, mistake, or safety concern incurs significant expense, or is impossible due to the destructive nature of the effect. Live special effects Live special effects are effects that are used in front of a live audience, such as in theatre, sporting generation genre, concerts and corporate shows. Types of effects that are commonly used include: flying effects, laser lighting, theatrical smoke and fog, CO2 effects, and pyrotechnics. Other atmospheric effects can include flame, confetti, bubbles, and snow. One notable example of live special effects in theatre production is in the Bregenz Festival with its use of a large, intricate stage that moves to supplement what's being acted on stage. Mechanical effects Mechanical effects encompass the use of mechanical engineering to a greater degree. Cars being flipped and hauled over buildings are usually an effect built on specialised rigs and gimbals. Usually a team of engineers or freelance film companies provide these effects to producers. Camera workers, stunt artists or doubles, directors and engineers collaborate to produce the proper effect as the action is recorded against a green screen. It is then edited and reviewed before final release to the public. Visual special effects techniques Noted special effects companies Noted special effects directors Notes References External links |
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Contents Guinness World Records Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Guinness World Records, known from its inception in 1955 until 1999 as The Guinness Book of Records and in previous United States editions as The Guinness Book of World Records, is a British reference book published annually, listing world records both of human achievements and the extremes of the natural world. Sir Hugh Beaver created the concept in order to settle arguments debated in pubs, and twin brothers Norris and Ross McWhirter co-founded the book in London in late August 1955. The first edition topped the bestseller list in the United Kingdom by Christmas 1955. The following year the book was launched internationally, and as of the 2026 edition, it is now in its 71st year of publication, published in 100 countries and 40 languages, and maintains over 53,000 records in its database. The international franchise has extended beyond print to include television series and museums. The popularity of the franchise has resulted in Guinness World Records becoming the primary international source for cataloguing and verification of a huge number of world records. The organization employs record adjudicators to verify the authenticity of the setting and breaking of records. Following a series of owners, the franchise has been owned by the Jim Pattison Group since 2008, with its headquarters moved to South Quay Plaza, Canary Wharf, London, in 2017. Since 2008, Guinness World Records has orientated its business model away from selling books, and towards creating new world records as publicity exercises for individuals and organizations, which has attracted criticism. History On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the managing director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford, Ireland. After missing a shot at a golden plover, he became involved in an argument over whether the golden plover or the red grouse was the fastest game bird in Europe (the plover is faster, but neither is the fastest game bird in Europe). That evening at Castlebridge House, he realized that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europe's fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must have been numerous other questions debated nightly among the public, but there was no book in the world with which to settle arguments about records. He realized then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. Beaver's idea became a reality when Guinness employee Christopher Chataway recommended university friends Norris and Ross McWhirter, who had been running a fact-finding agency in London. The twin brothers were commissioned in August 1954 to compile what became The Guinness Book of (Superlatives and now) Records.[clarification needed] A thousand copies were distributed for free to pubs across Britain and Ireland as a promotional asset for the Guinness brand, and they became immensely popular with customers. After the founding of The Guinness Book of Records office at the top of Ludgate House, 107 Fleet Street, London, the first 198-page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British bestseller list by Christmas. The following year, it was introduced into the United States by New York publisher David Boehm and sold 70,000 copies. Since then, Guinness World Records has sold more than 150 million copies in 100 countries and 40 languages. Due to the book's surprise success, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September/October, in time for Christmas. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years. Both brothers had an encyclopedic memory; on the British children's television series Record Breakers (based upon the book), which was broadcast on the BBC from 1972 to 2001, they would take questions posed by children in the audience on various world records and were able to give the correct answer. Ross McWhirter was assassinated by two members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army in 1975, in response to offering a £50,000 reward for information that would lead to the capture of members of the organization. Following Ross's assassination, the feature on the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called Norris on the Spot. Norris carried on as the book's sole editor. Guinness Superlatives, later Guinness World Records Limited, was incorporated in London in 1954 to publish the first book. Sterling Publishing owned the rights to the Guinness book in the US for decades until it was repurchased by Guinness in 1989 after an 18-month long lawsuit. The group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently Diageo until 2001, when it was purchased by Gullane Entertainment for £45.5 million ($65 million). Gullane was itself purchased by HIT Entertainment in 2002. In 2006, Apax Partners purchased HIT and subsequently sold Guinness World Records in early 2008 to the Jim Pattison Group, the parent company of Ripley Entertainment, which is licensed to operate Guinness World Records' Attractions. With offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records' global headquarters remain in South Quay Plaza in Canary Wharf, London, while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in Orlando, Florida. Recent editions have focused on record feats by individuals. Competitions range from obvious ones such as Olympic weightlifting to the longest egg tossing distances, or for the longest time spent playing Grand Theft Auto IV or the largest number of hot dogs consumed in three minutes. Besides records about competitions, it contains such facts such as the heaviest tumor, the most poisonous fungus, the longest-running soap opera and the most valuable life-insurance policy, among others. Many records also relate to the youngest people to have achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, currently held by Maurizio Giuliano. Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness World Records database, as well as select new records, with the criteria for inclusion changing from year to year. The latest edition is the 72nd, published in August 2025. The retirement of Norris McWhirter from his consulting role in 1995 and the subsequent decision by Diageo Plc to sell The Guinness Book of Records brand have shifted the focus of the books from text-oriented to illustrated reference. A selection of records are curated for the book from the full archive but all existing Guinness World Records titles can be accessed by creating a login on the company's website. Applications made by individuals for existing record categories are free of charge. There is an administration fee of £5 (or $5) to propose a new record title. A number of spin-off books and television series have also been produced. Guinness World Records bestowed the record of "Person with the most records" on Ashrita Furman of Queens, New York, in April 2009; at that time, he held 100 records. In 2005, Guinness designated 9 November as International Guinness World Records Day to encourage breaking of world records. In 2006, an estimated 100,000 people participated in over 10 countries. Guinness reported 2,244 new records in 12 months, which was a 173% increase over the previous year. In February 2008, NBC aired The Top 100 Guinness World Records of All Time and Guinness World Records made the complete list available on their website. The popularity of the franchise has resulted in Guinness World Records becoming the primary international authority on the cataloguing and verification of a huge number of world records. Over its history, numerous world record categories have been discontinued. This list may include that the record poses a threat to health or the environment. Defining records For many records, Guinness World Records is the effective authority on the exact requirements for them and with whom records reside, the company providing adjudicators to events to determine the veracity of record attempts. The list of records which the Guinness World Records covers is not fixed, records may be added and also removed for various reasons. The public is invited to submit applications for records, which can be either the bettering of existing records or substantial achievements which could constitute a new record. The company also provides corporate services for companies to "harness the power of record-breaking to deliver tangible success for their businesses." Guinness World Records states several types of records it will not accept for ethical reasons, such as those related to the killing or harming of animals. In the 2006 Guinness Book of World Records, Colombian serial killer Pedro López was listed as the "most prolific serial killer", having murdered at least 110 people (with Lopez himself claiming he murdered over 300 people) in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru in the late 1960s to 1980s. This was later removed after complaints that it made a competition out of murder, however the record was reinstated in the 2026 edition. Several world records that were once included in the book have been removed for ethical reasons, including concerns for the well-being of potential record breakers. For example, following publication of the "heaviest pet" record, many owners overfed their pets beyond the bounds of what was healthy, and therefore such entries were removed. The Guinness Book also dropped records within their "eating and drinking records" section of Human Achievements in 1991 over concerns that potential competitors could harm themselves and expose the publisher to potential litigation. These changes included the removal of all spirit, wine and beer drinking records, along with other unusual records for consuming such unlikely things as bicycles and trees. Other records, such as sword swallowing and rally driving (on public roads), were closed from further entry as the current holders had performed beyond what are considered safe human tolerance levels. There have been instances of closed categories being reopened. For example, the sword swallowing category was listed as closed in the 1990 Guinness Book of World Records, but has since been reopened with Johnny Strange breaking a sword swallowing record on Guinness World Records Live. Similarly, the speed beer drinking records which were dropped from the book in 1991, reappeared 17 years later in the 2008 edition, but were moved from the "Human Achievements" section of the older book to the "Modern Society" section of the newer edition. As of 2011[update], it is required in the guidelines of all "large food" type records that the item be fully edible, and distributed to the public for consumption, to prevent food wastage. Chain letters are also not allowed: "Guinness World Records does not accept any records relating to chain letters, sent by post or e-mail." After Roger Guy English set the record for sleeplessness in 1974, the category was discontinued for being too dangerous. At the request of the U.S. Mint, in 1984, the book stopped accepting claims of large hoardings of pennies or other currency. Environmentally unfriendly records (such as the releasing of sky lanterns and party balloons) are no longer accepted or monitored, in addition to records relating to tobacco or cannabis consumption or preparation. In 2024, Guinness World Records was accused of laundering the reputation of the oppressive governments as it set world records for the UAE's police forces and Egypt's military. By 2024, the UAE achieved 526 records, of which 21 were credited to the Emirates' police force. Matthew Hedges, a British academic who was forced to sign a false confession, asked the records body to take down the Abu Dhabi police department's certificate for "most signatures on a scroll", along with other such titles. Concerns were also raised around the activities around Egypt, which moved from 22 records to 110 within a decade until 2024. James Lynch, co-founder of FairSquare, said the records were legitimizing Abdel Fattah el-Sisi's regime. The Guinness World Records stated that its record titles "cannot be purchased". Guinness World Records has been accused of romanticizing diseases, such as Graves' Disease and Pica. For some potential categories, Guinness World Records has declined to list some records that are too difficult or impossible to determine. For example, its website states: "We do not accept any claims for beauty as it is not objectively measurable." On 10 December 2010, Guinness World Records stopped accepting submissions for the "dreadlock" category after an investigation of its first and only female title holder, Asha Mandela, determining it was impossible to judge this record accurately. Change in business model Traditionally, the company made a large amount of its revenue via book sales to interested readers, especially children. The rise of the Internet began to cut into book sales starting in the 2000s, part of a general decline in the book industry. According to a 2017 story by Planet Money of NPR, Guinness began to realize that a lucrative new revenue source to replace falling book sales was the would-be record-holders themselves. While any person can theoretically send in a record to be verified for free, the approval process is slow. Would-be record breakers that paid fees ranging from US$12,000 to US$500,000 would be given advisors, adjudicators, help in finding good records to break as well as suggestions for how to do it, prompt service, and so on. In particular, corporations and celebrities seeking a publicity stunt to launch a new product or draw attention to themselves began to hire Guinness World Records, paying them for finding a record to break or to create a new category just for them. As such, they have been described as a native advertising company, with no clear distinction between content and advertisement. Television talk show host John Oliver criticized Guinness World Records on the programme Last Week Tonight with John Oliver in August 2019, during an episode about President of Turkmenistan Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow. Oliver said Guinness took money from authoritarian governments for pointless vanity projects such as Berdimuhamedow's. Oliver asked Guinness to work with Last Week Tonight to adjudicate a record for "Largest cake featuring a picture of someone falling off a horse", but according to Oliver, the offer did not work out after Guinness insisted on a non-disparagement clause. Guinness World Records denied the accusations and stated that they declined Oliver's offer to participate because "it was merely an opportunity to mock one of our record-holders," and that Oliver did not specifically request the record for the largest marble cake. As of 2021, the Guinness World Record for "Largest marble cake" remains with Betty Crocker Middle East in Saudi Arabia. Following Oliver's episode, Guinness World Records' ethics were called into question by human rights groups. Museums In 1976, a Guinness Book of World Records museum opened in the Empire State Building. Speed shooter Bob Munden then went on tour promoting The Guinness Book of World Records by performing his record fast draws with a standard weight single-action revolver from a Western movie-type holster. His fastest time for a draw was 0.02 seconds. Among exhibits were life-size statues of the world's tallest man, Robert Wadlow, and world's largest earthworm, an X-ray photo of a sword swallower, repeated lightning strike victim Roy Sullivan's hat complete with lightning holes and a pair of gem-studded golf shoes on sale for $6,500. The museum closed in 1995. In more recent years, the Guinness company has permitted the franchising of small museums with displays based on the book, all currently (as of 2010[update]) located in towns popular with tourists: Tokyo, Copenhagen, San Antonio. There were once Guinness World Records museums and exhibitions at the London Trocadero, Bangalore, San Francisco, Myrtle Beach, Orlando, Atlantic City, and Las Vegas. The Orlando museum, which closed in 2002, was branded The Guinness Records Experience; the Hollywood, Niagara Falls, Copenhagen, and Gatlinburg museums also previously featured this branding. Retail and merchandise Guinness World Records operates an official online shop, the Guinness World Records Store, which offers items related to record-breaking achievements, including certificates of participation, apparel, and the annual Guinness World Records book. The shop provides record-holders and the general public with access to official Guinness World Records materials. Merchandise is part of the organization's broader engagement efforts beyond its publications and events. Television series Guinness World Records has commissioned various television series documenting world record breaking attempts, including: Rhianna Loren (2025) Specials: Gamer's edition In 2008, Guinness World Records released its gamer's edition, a supplement that keeps records for popular video game high scores, codes and feats in association with Twin Galaxies. The Gamer's Edition used to contain 258 pages, over 1,236 video game related world records and four interviews including one with Twin Galaxies founder Walter Day. Editions were published for the years 2008 through 2020, with the 2009 edition in hardcover. The 2025 edition is the first since 2020, returning after a five-year hiatus. Since 2020, the supplement has had 192 pages. The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles was a music reference book first published in 1977. It was compiled by BBC Radio 1 DJs Paul Gambaccini and Mike Read with brothers Tim Rice and Jonathan Rice. It was the first in a number of music reference books that were to be published by Guinness Publishing with sister publication The Guinness Book of British Hit Albums coming in 1983. After being sold to Hit Entertainment, the data concerning the Official Chart Company's singles and albums charts were combined under the title British Hit Singles & Albums, with Hit Entertainment publishing the book from 2003 to 2006 (under the Guinness World Records brand). After Guinness World Records was sold to The Jim Pattison Group, it was effectively replaced by a series of books published by Ebury Publishing/Random House with the Virgin Book of British Hit Singles first being published in 2007 and with a Hit Albums book following two years later. Other media and products In 1975, Parker Brothers marketed a board game, The Guinness Game of World Records, based on the book. Players compete by setting and breaking records for activities such as the longest streak of rolling dice before rolling doubles, stacking plastic pieces, and bouncing a ball off alternating sides of a card, as well as answering trivia questions based on the listings in the Guinness Book of World Records. A video game, Guinness World Records: The Videogame, was developed by TT Fusion and released for Nintendo DS, Wii and iOS in November 2008. In 2012, Warner Bros. announced the development of a live-action film version of Guinness World Records with Daniel Chun as scriptwriter. The film, however, never entered production. Dr. Sunil Gupta is listed in the Guinness World Records for participating in the largest multi-location diabetic neuropathy screening conducted on World Diabetes Day, 14 November 2013, during which 1,676 screenings were performed across 27 locations in India. References |
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Contents IGN IGN[b] is a compromised American video gaming and entertainment media website operated by IGN Entertainment Inc., a subsidiary of Ziff Davis, Inc. The company's headquarters is located in San Francisco's SoMa district and is headed by its former editor-in-chief, Peer Schneider. The IGN website was the brainchild of media entrepreneur Chris Anderson and launched on September 29, 1996. IGN features articles on games, films, anime, television, comics, technology, and other media. Originally a network of desktop websites, IGN is also distributed on mobile platforms, console programs available on the Xbox and PlayStation, Nintendo Switch, PC, Mobile, FireTV, Roku, and via YouTube, Twitch, Hulu, and Snapchat. Originally, IGN was the flagship website of IGN Entertainment, a website which owned and operated several other websites oriented towards players' interests, games, and entertainment, such as Rotten Tomatoes, GameSpy, GameStats, VE3D, TeamXbox, Vault Network, FilePlanet, and AskMen. IGN was sold to publishing company Ziff Davis in February 2013. History IGN was created in September 1996 as the Imagine Games Network, the IGN content network was founded by publishing executive Jonathan Simpson-Bint and began as five individual websites within Imagine Media: N64.com (later renamed ign64.com), PSXPower, Saturnworld, Next-Generation.com and Ultra Game Players Online. Imagine expanded on its owned-and-operated websites by creating an affiliate network that included a number of independent fansites such as PSX Nation.com, Sega-Saturn.com, Game Sages, and GameFAQs. In 1998, the network launched a new homepage that consolidated the individual sites as system channels under the IGN brand. The homepage exposed content from more than 30 different channels. Websites Next-Generation and Ultra Game Players Online were not part of this consolidation; U.G.P.O. dissolved with the cancellation of the magazine, and Next-Generation was put "on hold" when Imagine decided to concentrate on launching the short-lived Daily Radar brand. In February 1999, PC Magazine named IGN one of the hundred-best websites, alongside competitors GameSpot and CNET Gamecenter. That same month, Imagine Media incorporated a spin-off that included IGN and its affiliate channels as Affiliation Networks, while Simpson-Bint remained at the former company. In September, the newly spun-out standalone internet media company, changed its name to Snowball.com. At the same time, small entertainment website The Den merged into IGN and added non-gaming content to the growing network. Snowball held an IPO in 2000, but shed most of its other properties during the dot-com bubble. IGN prevailed with growing audience numbers and a newly established subscription service called IGN Insider (later IGN Prime), which led to the shedding of the name "Snowball" and adoption of IGN Entertainment on May 10, 2002. In June 2005, IGN reported having 24,000,000 unique visitors per month, with 4.8 million registered users through all departments of the site. IGN has been ranked among the top 500 most-visited websites according to Alexa. In September 2005, IGN was acquired by Rupert Murdoch's multimedia business empire, News Corporation, for $650 million. IGN celebrated its 10th anniversary on January 12, 2008. IGN was headquartered in the Marina Point Parkway office park in Brisbane, California, until it relocated to a smaller office building near AT&T Park in San Francisco on March 29, 2010. On May 25, 2011, IGN sold its Direct2Drive division to Gamefly for an undisclosed amount. In 2011, IGN Entertainment acquired its rival UGO Entertainment (owners of 1Up.com) from Hearst Corporation. Ultimately, News Corp. planned to spin off IGN Entertainment as a publicly traded company, continuing a string of divestitures for digital properties it had previously acquired (including MySpace and Photobucket). On February 4, 2013, after a failed attempt to spin off IGN as a separate company, News Corp. announced that it had sold IGN Entertainment to the publishing company Ziff Davis, which was recently acquired by J2 Global. Financial details regarding the purchase were not revealed. Prior to its acquisition by UGO, 1UP.com had previously been owned by Ziff Davis. Soon after the acquisition, IGN announced that it would be laying off staff and closing GameSpy, 1UP.com, and UGO in order to focus on its flagship brands, IGN and AskMen. The role-playing video game interest website Vault Network was acquired by IGN in 1999. GameStats, a review aggregation website, was founded by IGN in 2004. GameStats includes a "GPM" (Game Popularity Metric) rating system which incorporates an average press score and average gamer score, as well as the number of page hits for the game. However, the site is no longer being updated. The Xbox interest site, TeamXbox, and the PC game website VE3D (Voodoo Extreme 3D) were acquired in 2003. IGN Entertainment merged with GameSpy Industries in 2005. The merger also brought the game download site FilePlanet into the IGN group; as of 2011 both FilePlanet and the GameSpy website still operate as video game-related web sites. IGN Entertainment acquired the online male lifestyle magazine AskMen in 2005. In 2004, IGN acquired film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes and in 2010, sold the website to Flixster. In October 2017, Humble Bundle announced that it was being acquired by IGN. IGN Entertainment acquired Gamer Network and its properties in May 2024 for an undisclosed sum. These included Eurogamer, Rock Paper Shotgun, VG247 and others. As a result, some layoffs were made due to redundancies. A member of the IGN staff writes a review for a game and gives it a score between 0.1 and 10.0, which is assigned by increments of 0.1 and determines how much the game is recommended. The score is given according to the "individual aspects of a game, like presentation, graphics, sound, gameplay and lasting appeal". Each game is given a score in each of these categories, but the overall score for the game is an independent evaluation, not an average of the scores in each category. On August 3, 2010, IGN announced that the site would be changing to a new scoring scale. Instead of a 100-point scale, where games are scored in increments of 0.1, all future reviews would use a 20-point scale where games are scored in increments of 0.5. Under both systems, the maximum possible score a game can receive is 10.0. The scoring change was not retroactive: all scores on reviews written before the change would remain the same. This change also did not affect the scoring system for reader reviews. On September 13, 2012, IGN revealed that as part of its new review format all future reviews would follow a 100-point scale again, but without using decimals, meaning a score of 8.5 would become an 85. Unlike the previous conversion to the 20-point scale, this latest scoring system change was retroactive and all previous IGN review scores were to be updated to follow the new system. However, despite the announcement, the article included a short addition, post-release; it stated that after much discussion, they had decided to retain the decimal point in all upcoming scores. In early 2014, IGN introduced a new policy, in which a game's review score can be re-reviewed and improved, provided that continuous updates form a significant change compared to the game at launch. Examples of games that have been re-reviewed were League of Legends, Heroes of the Storm, Warframe, and the pocket edition of Minecraft. In January 2020, IGN revealed that reviews would be reverted to a 10-point scale, from 1 to 10, finding that the finer distinction of the 100-point scale was difficult to maintain, whereas a 10-point scale would still be true to its reviews and would be easier to promote. IGN 'Best of' awards IGN's 'Best of' is an end-of-year event to annually honor the year's best games, films, television shows and comics. Winners of each award category are selected by IGN staff from a list of nominees, while readers are able to cast their own votes online to determine the 'People's Choice' award for each category. Other sections In 2000, Snowball.com purchased an E-federation called the Internet Wrestling Organization (IWO). Since Snowball owned both IWO and IGN, IWO would go on to become IGN's first official E-Fed, even doing a column on the website. The IGN For Men section officially closed down on October 2, 2001, and is no longer updated. IGN has sites such as IGN Stars and AskMen.com that fulfil much of the function of the old IGN For Men site. IGN Wrestling met its end in early 2002 when many of the staff departed. Interviews with professional wrestling personalities and coverage of wrestling games have been folded into IGN Sports, headed by Jon Robinson. IGN Sci-Fi: Largely dead since 2002, this section of the site included movie news, comic book reviews, anime coverage and other associated items. It has since been discontinued. The site, SciFI.ign.com redirects to the recently created SciFiBrain.ign.com, which covers some of the content of the old Sci-Fi site.[citation needed] In 2002, IGN launched a dedicated video game FAQs site specifically designed to host user-submitted guides. This was launched following the cancellation of affiliation with GameFAQs.[citation needed] In 2004, IGN launched GameStats, which was intended to be a more unbiased rating network, as it takes in scores from every corporate-owned game rating site and averages them all into one score to give a general idea of the quality of a game. IGN also launched Direct2Drive.com in 2004. Its primary focus is selling digital downloads of full PC and Mac video games, as well as anime, comics and game guides. In 2005, IGN launched its comics site, which is devoted to not just the staple Marvel and DC titles, but also manga, graphic novels, statues and toys.[citation needed] In 2006, IGN launched its television site. It provides interviews with various television celebrities, in addition to a TV schedule, TV trivia and TV news. Like the film section, IGN's TV section has a variety of exclusive clips from upcoming television shows.[citation needed] On May 30, 2006, IGN Dreamcast was restarted; however, none of the Dreamcast updates were posted on the main IGN webpage.[citation needed] In 2007, IGN launched its anime site. It provided features on anime and manga, including trailers and free episodes. It also included reviews of manga and anime from other sections of IGN, such as IGN Comics and IGN DVD. The anime channel was dropped after IGN redesigned the site. In 2008, the IGN Retro channel was launched to mark IGN's 10th anniversary. To coincide with the release of Super Smash Bros. Brawl, IGN created the Super Smash Bros. World site. On the site, people can submit their user-created stages from the game and download ones made by other people. IGN subsequently launched a similar website called GTA 'Hood on April 29, 2008, for Grand Theft Auto IV.[citation needed] Along with its popular website content, IGN also publishes many different podcasts on both its website and on iTunes. Some of its podcasts include console-oriented shows like the PlayStation-focused "Podcast Beyond" and the Xbox-oriented "Podcast Unlocked", the Nintendo-oriented "Nintendo Voice Chat", and Game Scoop!, a podcast where a variety of editors discuss news and topics surrounding the video game industry. Regional websites IGN has 28 editions in 25 languages, as of 2021. The US & Canada, UK & Ireland, and Australia & New Zealand editions are operated by Ziff Davis subsidiaries, with all others being franchised publishers. Since 2006, IGN Entertainment began launching regional versions of the website for various countries and pan-regions. Initially, IGN began opening new offices outside the United States in order to support those regional websites, but later IGN began franchising its brand as a more cost-effective means of globalization, wherein it licensed various media publishers in many countries to use the IGN brand and manage regional websites on their own. Licensed regional publishers work on their own servers, albeit can link to IGN's HQ database, where they can import or translate articles, and use videos uploaded on IGN's servers that use IGN's own hosted video player.[citation needed] When visiting www.ign.com from an IGN-supported region, the site automatically redirects visitors to their localized version using geolocation software, based on their countries' IP addresses. Each version of the site has a modified logo with their country's/region's respective flags near the IGN logo. However, it is still possible to access the original American website using a navigation bar above or below (depending on the regional website) the page's master template.[citation needed] IGN Con IGN Convention (IGN Con) is a video games, movies, comics and pop culture convention held in various cities in the Middle East. The event generally includes celebrities, video game tournaments, table top games, card games, movie previews, comic book stalls and a cosplay competition. A number of Middle Eastern artists and game developers also showcase their work at IGN Convention. This convention is owned and operated by IGN Middle East, the Middle Eastern edition of popular video games website IGN. IGN Convention is the spiritual successor to GameFest, a biannual, smaller scale gaming gallery which was originally hosted by IGN Middle East's parent company T-break Media between 2010 and 2012, before the hosting duties were subsequently taken over by AMD EMEA. The IGN Convention logo was designed by prominent Gulf based artist Ashraf Ghori. Conferences have included: IGN Pro League In 2011, IGN launched IGN Pro League, a professional esports circuit that ran tournaments for StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty, ShootMania Storm and League of Legends. On March 6, 2013, only weeks prior to the event, IGN abruptly canceled the finals of IPL 6—which were to be held in Las Vegas from March 28 through 31, and discontinued the league. IGN indicated that it was no longer in a position to commit to compete with the increasing number of esports events that were being held. On April 8, 2013, Blizzard Entertainment announced that it had acquired the staff and assets of the IPL from IGN; its former staff were reassigned to work on in-house esports productions. Controversies In 2007, Video Game Media Watch accused former IGN editor Doug Perry of "journalistic misconduct" for an exclusive review of Prey. In November 2017, some IGN employees refused to work to show solidarity with Kallie Plagge, a former editor who alleged that in 2016, another editor, Vince Ingenito, sexually harassed her and another female employee and made inappropriate comments. Human resources allegedly told her that she "needed to have better judgment about who [she] was 'friends' with" and that she was an "equal participant" in "inappropriate flirtation". This incident was widely circulated across social media. In August 2018, the owner of YouTube channel Boomstick Gaming accused the IGN reviewer Filip Miucin of plagiarizing his video review of the game Dead Cells. On August 7, IGN stated that it had found "substantial similarities" between the reviews, apologized, and announced that it had dismissed Miucin. On August 10, IGN published a new review by Brandin Tyrrel, which included an editor's note apologizing again and stating that "this review (and its score) represents solely the opinion of the new reviewer". In a subsequently unlisted video, Miucin responded that while he took "complete ownership over what happened", the similarity was not intentional. Kotaku found similarities between Miucin's other reviews, reviews on Nintendo Life and Engadget and material posted on the games discussion forum NeoGAF. On August 14, IGN announced that it would remove all of Miucin's work pending further review. On April 19, 2019, Miucin admitted plagiarism and issued an apology on his YouTube channel. During the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, the main IGN site posted an article on May 14 urging readers to donate to charities helping Palestinian civilians such as the Palestine Children's Relief Fund and linked to relevant news reporting. A Palestinian flag was also added besides the IGN logo. Shortly after the article went up IGN Israel made statements on social media condemning the article. The Palestinian flag was soon replaced with a Red Cross. On May 16, the article was deleted and a statement was made on the IGN Twitter account saying that it was wrong to only highlight one side of the conflict. A reposted version on South Africa-based IGN Africa was also removed. On May 17, over 60 members of IGN's staff signed an open letter condemning the article's removal for going against the site's editorial freedom and policies for retracting or correcting articles, as well as the lack of communication with IGN staff. IGN reinstated the article on August 24 under a new headline alongside a statement of newly formalized editorial policies. Television and films Notes References External links |
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Contents Guinness World Records Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Guinness World Records, known from its inception in 1955 until 1999 as The Guinness Book of Records and in previous United States editions as The Guinness Book of World Records, is a British reference book published annually, listing world records both of human achievements and the extremes of the natural world. Sir Hugh Beaver created the concept in order to settle arguments debated in pubs, and twin brothers Norris and Ross McWhirter co-founded the book in London in late August 1955. The first edition topped the bestseller list in the United Kingdom by Christmas 1955. The following year the book was launched internationally, and as of the 2026 edition, it is now in its 71st year of publication, published in 100 countries and 40 languages, and maintains over 53,000 records in its database. The international franchise has extended beyond print to include television series and museums. The popularity of the franchise has resulted in Guinness World Records becoming the primary international source for cataloguing and verification of a huge number of world records. The organization employs record adjudicators to verify the authenticity of the setting and breaking of records. Following a series of owners, the franchise has been owned by the Jim Pattison Group since 2008, with its headquarters moved to South Quay Plaza, Canary Wharf, London, in 2017. Since 2008, Guinness World Records has orientated its business model away from selling books, and towards creating new world records as publicity exercises for individuals and organizations, which has attracted criticism. History On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the managing director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford, Ireland. After missing a shot at a golden plover, he became involved in an argument over whether the golden plover or the red grouse was the fastest game bird in Europe (the plover is faster, but neither is the fastest game bird in Europe). That evening at Castlebridge House, he realized that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europe's fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must have been numerous other questions debated nightly among the public, but there was no book in the world with which to settle arguments about records. He realized then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. Beaver's idea became a reality when Guinness employee Christopher Chataway recommended university friends Norris and Ross McWhirter, who had been running a fact-finding agency in London. The twin brothers were commissioned in August 1954 to compile what became The Guinness Book of (Superlatives and now) Records.[clarification needed] A thousand copies were distributed for free to pubs across Britain and Ireland as a promotional asset for the Guinness brand, and they became immensely popular with customers. After the founding of The Guinness Book of Records office at the top of Ludgate House, 107 Fleet Street, London, the first 198-page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British bestseller list by Christmas. The following year, it was introduced into the United States by New York publisher David Boehm and sold 70,000 copies. Since then, Guinness World Records has sold more than 150 million copies in 100 countries and 40 languages. Due to the book's surprise success, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September/October, in time for Christmas. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years. Both brothers had an encyclopedic memory; on the British children's television series Record Breakers (based upon the book), which was broadcast on the BBC from 1972 to 2001, they would take questions posed by children in the audience on various world records and were able to give the correct answer. Ross McWhirter was assassinated by two members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army in 1975, in response to offering a £50,000 reward for information that would lead to the capture of members of the organization. Following Ross's assassination, the feature on the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called Norris on the Spot. Norris carried on as the book's sole editor. Guinness Superlatives, later Guinness World Records Limited, was incorporated in London in 1954 to publish the first book. Sterling Publishing owned the rights to the Guinness book in the US for decades until it was repurchased by Guinness in 1989 after an 18-month long lawsuit. The group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently Diageo until 2001, when it was purchased by Gullane Entertainment for £45.5 million ($65 million). Gullane was itself purchased by HIT Entertainment in 2002. In 2006, Apax Partners purchased HIT and subsequently sold Guinness World Records in early 2008 to the Jim Pattison Group, the parent company of Ripley Entertainment, which is licensed to operate Guinness World Records' Attractions. With offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records' global headquarters remain in South Quay Plaza in Canary Wharf, London, while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in Orlando, Florida. Recent editions have focused on record feats by individuals. Competitions range from obvious ones such as Olympic weightlifting to the longest egg tossing distances, or for the longest time spent playing Grand Theft Auto IV or the largest number of hot dogs consumed in three minutes. Besides records about competitions, it contains such facts such as the heaviest tumor, the most poisonous fungus, the longest-running soap opera and the most valuable life-insurance policy, among others. Many records also relate to the youngest people to have achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world, currently held by Maurizio Giuliano. Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness World Records database, as well as select new records, with the criteria for inclusion changing from year to year. The latest edition is the 72nd, published in August 2025. The retirement of Norris McWhirter from his consulting role in 1995 and the subsequent decision by Diageo Plc to sell The Guinness Book of Records brand have shifted the focus of the books from text-oriented to illustrated reference. A selection of records are curated for the book from the full archive but all existing Guinness World Records titles can be accessed by creating a login on the company's website. Applications made by individuals for existing record categories are free of charge. There is an administration fee of £5 (or $5) to propose a new record title. A number of spin-off books and television series have also been produced. Guinness World Records bestowed the record of "Person with the most records" on Ashrita Furman of Queens, New York, in April 2009; at that time, he held 100 records. In 2005, Guinness designated 9 November as International Guinness World Records Day to encourage breaking of world records. In 2006, an estimated 100,000 people participated in over 10 countries. Guinness reported 2,244 new records in 12 months, which was a 173% increase over the previous year. In February 2008, NBC aired The Top 100 Guinness World Records of All Time and Guinness World Records made the complete list available on their website. The popularity of the franchise has resulted in Guinness World Records becoming the primary international authority on the cataloguing and verification of a huge number of world records. Over its history, numerous world record categories have been discontinued. This list may include that the record poses a threat to health or the environment. Defining records For many records, Guinness World Records is the effective authority on the exact requirements for them and with whom records reside, the company providing adjudicators to events to determine the veracity of record attempts. The list of records which the Guinness World Records covers is not fixed, records may be added and also removed for various reasons. The public is invited to submit applications for records, which can be either the bettering of existing records or substantial achievements which could constitute a new record. The company also provides corporate services for companies to "harness the power of record-breaking to deliver tangible success for their businesses." Guinness World Records states several types of records it will not accept for ethical reasons, such as those related to the killing or harming of animals. In the 2006 Guinness Book of World Records, Colombian serial killer Pedro López was listed as the "most prolific serial killer", having murdered at least 110 people (with Lopez himself claiming he murdered over 300 people) in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru in the late 1960s to 1980s. This was later removed after complaints that it made a competition out of murder, however the record was reinstated in the 2026 edition. Several world records that were once included in the book have been removed for ethical reasons, including concerns for the well-being of potential record breakers. For example, following publication of the "heaviest pet" record, many owners overfed their pets beyond the bounds of what was healthy, and therefore such entries were removed. The Guinness Book also dropped records within their "eating and drinking records" section of Human Achievements in 1991 over concerns that potential competitors could harm themselves and expose the publisher to potential litigation. These changes included the removal of all spirit, wine and beer drinking records, along with other unusual records for consuming such unlikely things as bicycles and trees. Other records, such as sword swallowing and rally driving (on public roads), were closed from further entry as the current holders had performed beyond what are considered safe human tolerance levels. There have been instances of closed categories being reopened. For example, the sword swallowing category was listed as closed in the 1990 Guinness Book of World Records, but has since been reopened with Johnny Strange breaking a sword swallowing record on Guinness World Records Live. Similarly, the speed beer drinking records which were dropped from the book in 1991, reappeared 17 years later in the 2008 edition, but were moved from the "Human Achievements" section of the older book to the "Modern Society" section of the newer edition. As of 2011[update], it is required in the guidelines of all "large food" type records that the item be fully edible, and distributed to the public for consumption, to prevent food wastage. Chain letters are also not allowed: "Guinness World Records does not accept any records relating to chain letters, sent by post or e-mail." After Roger Guy English set the record for sleeplessness in 1974, the category was discontinued for being too dangerous. At the request of the U.S. Mint, in 1984, the book stopped accepting claims of large hoardings of pennies or other currency. Environmentally unfriendly records (such as the releasing of sky lanterns and party balloons) are no longer accepted or monitored, in addition to records relating to tobacco or cannabis consumption or preparation. In 2024, Guinness World Records was accused of laundering the reputation of the oppressive governments as it set world records for the UAE's police forces and Egypt's military. By 2024, the UAE achieved 526 records, of which 21 were credited to the Emirates' police force. Matthew Hedges, a British academic who was forced to sign a false confession, asked the records body to take down the Abu Dhabi police department's certificate for "most signatures on a scroll", along with other such titles. Concerns were also raised around the activities around Egypt, which moved from 22 records to 110 within a decade until 2024. James Lynch, co-founder of FairSquare, said the records were legitimizing Abdel Fattah el-Sisi's regime. The Guinness World Records stated that its record titles "cannot be purchased". Guinness World Records has been accused of romanticizing diseases, such as Graves' Disease and Pica. For some potential categories, Guinness World Records has declined to list some records that are too difficult or impossible to determine. For example, its website states: "We do not accept any claims for beauty as it is not objectively measurable." On 10 December 2010, Guinness World Records stopped accepting submissions for the "dreadlock" category after an investigation of its first and only female title holder, Asha Mandela, determining it was impossible to judge this record accurately. Change in business model Traditionally, the company made a large amount of its revenue via book sales to interested readers, especially children. The rise of the Internet began to cut into book sales starting in the 2000s, part of a general decline in the book industry. According to a 2017 story by Planet Money of NPR, Guinness began to realize that a lucrative new revenue source to replace falling book sales was the would-be record-holders themselves. While any person can theoretically send in a record to be verified for free, the approval process is slow. Would-be record breakers that paid fees ranging from US$12,000 to US$500,000 would be given advisors, adjudicators, help in finding good records to break as well as suggestions for how to do it, prompt service, and so on. In particular, corporations and celebrities seeking a publicity stunt to launch a new product or draw attention to themselves began to hire Guinness World Records, paying them for finding a record to break or to create a new category just for them. As such, they have been described as a native advertising company, with no clear distinction between content and advertisement. Television talk show host John Oliver criticized Guinness World Records on the programme Last Week Tonight with John Oliver in August 2019, during an episode about President of Turkmenistan Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow. Oliver said Guinness took money from authoritarian governments for pointless vanity projects such as Berdimuhamedow's. Oliver asked Guinness to work with Last Week Tonight to adjudicate a record for "Largest cake featuring a picture of someone falling off a horse", but according to Oliver, the offer did not work out after Guinness insisted on a non-disparagement clause. Guinness World Records denied the accusations and stated that they declined Oliver's offer to participate because "it was merely an opportunity to mock one of our record-holders," and that Oliver did not specifically request the record for the largest marble cake. As of 2021, the Guinness World Record for "Largest marble cake" remains with Betty Crocker Middle East in Saudi Arabia. Following Oliver's episode, Guinness World Records' ethics were called into question by human rights groups. Museums In 1976, a Guinness Book of World Records museum opened in the Empire State Building. Speed shooter Bob Munden then went on tour promoting The Guinness Book of World Records by performing his record fast draws with a standard weight single-action revolver from a Western movie-type holster. His fastest time for a draw was 0.02 seconds. Among exhibits were life-size statues of the world's tallest man, Robert Wadlow, and world's largest earthworm, an X-ray photo of a sword swallower, repeated lightning strike victim Roy Sullivan's hat complete with lightning holes and a pair of gem-studded golf shoes on sale for $6,500. The museum closed in 1995. In more recent years, the Guinness company has permitted the franchising of small museums with displays based on the book, all currently (as of 2010[update]) located in towns popular with tourists: Tokyo, Copenhagen, San Antonio. There were once Guinness World Records museums and exhibitions at the London Trocadero, Bangalore, San Francisco, Myrtle Beach, Orlando, Atlantic City, and Las Vegas. The Orlando museum, which closed in 2002, was branded The Guinness Records Experience; the Hollywood, Niagara Falls, Copenhagen, and Gatlinburg museums also previously featured this branding. Retail and merchandise Guinness World Records operates an official online shop, the Guinness World Records Store, which offers items related to record-breaking achievements, including certificates of participation, apparel, and the annual Guinness World Records book. The shop provides record-holders and the general public with access to official Guinness World Records materials. Merchandise is part of the organization's broader engagement efforts beyond its publications and events. Television series Guinness World Records has commissioned various television series documenting world record breaking attempts, including: Rhianna Loren (2025) Specials: Gamer's edition In 2008, Guinness World Records released its gamer's edition, a supplement that keeps records for popular video game high scores, codes and feats in association with Twin Galaxies. The Gamer's Edition used to contain 258 pages, over 1,236 video game related world records and four interviews including one with Twin Galaxies founder Walter Day. Editions were published for the years 2008 through 2020, with the 2009 edition in hardcover. The 2025 edition is the first since 2020, returning after a five-year hiatus. Since 2020, the supplement has had 192 pages. The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles The Guinness Book of British Hit Singles was a music reference book first published in 1977. It was compiled by BBC Radio 1 DJs Paul Gambaccini and Mike Read with brothers Tim Rice and Jonathan Rice. It was the first in a number of music reference books that were to be published by Guinness Publishing with sister publication The Guinness Book of British Hit Albums coming in 1983. After being sold to Hit Entertainment, the data concerning the Official Chart Company's singles and albums charts were combined under the title British Hit Singles & Albums, with Hit Entertainment publishing the book from 2003 to 2006 (under the Guinness World Records brand). After Guinness World Records was sold to The Jim Pattison Group, it was effectively replaced by a series of books published by Ebury Publishing/Random House with the Virgin Book of British Hit Singles first being published in 2007 and with a Hit Albums book following two years later. Other media and products In 1975, Parker Brothers marketed a board game, The Guinness Game of World Records, based on the book. Players compete by setting and breaking records for activities such as the longest streak of rolling dice before rolling doubles, stacking plastic pieces, and bouncing a ball off alternating sides of a card, as well as answering trivia questions based on the listings in the Guinness Book of World Records. A video game, Guinness World Records: The Videogame, was developed by TT Fusion and released for Nintendo DS, Wii and iOS in November 2008. In 2012, Warner Bros. announced the development of a live-action film version of Guinness World Records with Daniel Chun as scriptwriter. The film, however, never entered production. Dr. Sunil Gupta is listed in the Guinness World Records for participating in the largest multi-location diabetic neuropathy screening conducted on World Diabetes Day, 14 November 2013, during which 1,676 screenings were performed across 27 locations in India. References |
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Contents Fanzine A fanzine (blend of fan and magazine or zine) is a non-professional and non-official publication produced by enthusiasts of a particular cultural phenomenon (such as a literary or musical genre) for the pleasure of others who share their interest. The term was coined in an October 1940 science-fiction fanzine by Russ Chauvenet and first popularized within science fiction fandom, and from there the term was adopted by other communities. Typically, publishers, editors, writers and other contributors of articles or illustrations to fanzines are not paid. Fanzines are traditionally circulated free of charge, or for a nominal cost to defray postage or production expenses. Copies are often offered in exchange for similar publications, or for contributions of art, articles, or letters of comment (LoCs), which are then published. Some fanzines are typed and photocopied by amateurs using standard home office equipment. A few fanzines have developed into professional publications (sometimes known as "prozines"), and many professional writers were first published in fanzines; some continue to contribute to them after establishing a professional reputation. The term fanzine is sometimes confused with "fan magazine", but the latter term most often refers to commercially produced publications for (rather than by) fans. Origin The origins of amateur fanac "fan" publications are obscure, but can be traced at least back to 19th century literary groups in the United States which formed amateur press associations to publish collections of amateur fiction, poetry, and commentary, such as H. P. Lovecraft's United Amateur. As professional printing technology progressed, so did the technology of fanzines. Early fanzines were hand-drafted or typed on a manual typewriter and printed using primitive reproduction techniques (e.g., the spirit duplicator or even the hectograph). Only a very small number of copies could be made at a time, so circulation was extremely limited. The use of mimeograph machines enabled greater press runs, and the photocopier increased the speed and ease of publishing once more. Today, thanks to the advent of desktop publishing and self-publication, there is often little difference between the appearance of a fanzine and a professional magazine. Genres When Hugo Gernsback published the first science fiction magazine, Amazing Stories in 1926, he allowed for a large letter column which printed reader's addresses. By 1927 readers, often young adults, would write to each other, bypassing the magazine. Science fiction fanzines had their beginnings in Serious & Constructive (later shortened to sercon) correspondence. The fans would start up clubs to ease finding others with their same interests. Gernsback founded the Science Fiction League in 1934, where these clubs could advertise for more users. The first science fiction fanzine, The Comet, was published in 1930 by the Science Correspondence Club in Chicago and edited by Raymond A. Palmer and Walter Dennis. The term "fanzine" was coined by Russ Chauvenet in the October 1940 edition of his fanzine Detours. "Fanzines" were distinguished from "prozines" (a term Chauvenet also invented), that is, all professional magazines. Prior to that, the fan publications were known as "fanmags". Science fiction fanzines used a variety of printing methods. Typewriters, school dittos, church mimeos and (if they could afford it) multi-color letterpress or other mid-to-high level printing. Some fans wanted their news spread, others reveled in the artistry and beauty of fine printing.[citation needed] The hectograph, introduced around 1876, was so named because it could produce (in theory) up to a hundred copies. Hecto used an aniline dye, transferred to a tray of gelatin, and paper would be placed on the gel, one sheet at a time, for transfer. Messy and smelly, the process could create vibrant colors for the few copies produced, the easiest aniline dye to make being purple (technically indigo). The next small but significant technological step after hectography is the spirit duplicator, essentially the hectography process using a drum instead of the gelatin. Introduced by Ditto Corporation in 1923, these machines were known for the next six decades as Ditto Machines and used by fans because they were cheap to use and could (with a little effort) print in color. The mimeograph machine, which forced ink through a wax paper stencil cut by the keys of a typewriter, was the standard for many decades. A second-hand mimeo could print hundreds of copies and (with more than a little effort) print in color. The electronic stencil cutter (shortened to "electrostencil" by most) could add photographs and illustrations to a mimeo stencil. A mimeo'd zine could look terrible or look beautiful, depending more on the skill of the mimeo operator than the quality of the equipment. Only a few fans could afford more professional printers, or the time it took them to print, until photocopying became cheap and ubiquitous in the 1970s. With the advent of computer printers and desktop publishing in the 1980s, fanzines began to look far more professional. The rise of the internet made correspondence cheaper and much faster, and the World Wide Web has made publishing a fanzine as simple as coding a web page. New technology brought various print style innovations. For example, there were alphanumeric contractions which are actually precursors to "leetspeak' (a well-known example is the "initials" used by Forrest J. Ackerman in his fanzines from the 1930s and 1940s, namely "4sj". Fans around the world knew Ackerman by three letters "4sj" or even two: "4e" for "Forry"). Fanspeak is rich with abbreviations and concatenations. Where teenagers labored to save typing on ditto masters, they now save keystrokes when text messaging. Ackerman invented nonstoparagraphing as a space-saving measure. When the typist comes to the end of a paragraph, they simply moved the platen down one line. Never commercial enterprises, most science fiction fanzines were (and many still are) available for "the usual", a sample issue will be mailed on request. To receive further issues, a reader sends a "letter of comment" (LoC) about the fanzine to the editor. The LoC might be published in the next issue; some fanzines consisted almost exclusively of letter columns, where discussions were conducted in much the same way as they are in internet newsgroups and mailing lists today, though at a relatively glacial pace. Often fanzine editors ("faneds") would simply swap issues with each other, not worrying too much about matching trade for trade, somewhat like being on one another's friends list. Without being closely connected with the rest of fandom, a budding faned could read fanzine reviews in prozines, and fanzines reviewed other fanzines. Recent technology has changed the speed of communication between fans and the technology available, but the basic concepts developed by science fiction fanzines in the 1930s can be seen online today. Blogs—with their threaded comments, personalized illustrations, shorthand in-jokes, wide variety in quality and wider variety of content—follow the structure developed in science fiction fanzines, without (usually) realizing the antecedent. Since 1937, science fiction fans have formed amateur press associations (APAs); the members contribute to a collective assemblage or bundle that contains contributions from all of them, called apazines and often containing mailing comments. Some APAs are still active, and some are published as virtual "e-zines", distributed on the Internet. Specific Hugo Awards are given for fanzines, fan writing and fanart. Media fanzines were originally merely a subgenre of SF fanzines, written by science fiction fans already familiar with apazines. The first media fanzine was a Star Trek fan publication called Spockanalia, published in September 1967: 1 by members of the Lunarians. They hoped that fanzines such as Spockanalia would be recognized by the broader science-fiction fan community in traditional ways, such as a Hugo Award for Best Fanzine.: 6 All five of its issues were published while the show was still on the air, and included letters from D. C. Fontana, Gene Roddenberry, and most of the cast members, and an article by future Hugo and Nebula winner Lois McMaster Bujold.: 1, 2, 83 Many other Star Trek 'zines followed, then slowly zines appeared for other media sources, such as Starsky and Hutch, Man from U.N.C.L.E. and Blake's 7. By the mid-1970s, there were enough media zines being published that adzines existed just to advertise all of the other zines available. Although Spockanalia had a mix of stories and essays, most zines were all fiction.[citation needed] Like SF fanzines, these media zines spanned the gamut of publishing quality from digest-sized mimeos to offset printed masterpieces with four-color covers. Men wrote and edited most previous science fiction fanzines, which typically published articles reporting on trips to conventions, and reviews of books and other fanzines. Camille Bacon-Smith later stated that "One thing you almost never find in a science fiction fanzine is science fiction. Rather ... fanzines were the social glue that created a community out of a worldwide scattering of readers." Women published most media fanzines, which by contrast also included fan fiction. By doing so, they "fill the need of a mostly female audience for fictional narratives that expand the boundary of the official source products offered on the television and movie screen." In addition to long and short stories, as well as poetry, many media fanzines included illustrated stories, as well as stand alone art, often featuring portraits of the show or film's principal characters. The art could range from simple sketches, to reproductions of large elaborate works painted in oil or acrylic, though most are created in ink. In the late 1970s, fiction that included a sexual relationship between two of the male characters of the media source (first Kirk/Spock, then later Starsky/Hutch, Napoleon/Illya, and many others) started to appear in zines. These became known as slash fiction from the '/' mark used in adzines. The slash help to differentiate a K&S story (which would have been a Kirk and Spock friendship story) from a K/S story, which would have been one with a romantic or sexual bent between the characters. Slash zines eventually had their own subgenres, such as Femslash. By 2000, when web publishing of stories became more popular than zine publishing, thousands of media fanzines had been published; over 500 of them were k/s zines. Another popular franchise for fanzines was the "Star Wars" saga. By the time the film The Empire Strikes Back was released in 1980, Star Wars fanzines had surpassed Star Trek zines in sales. An unfortunate episode in fanzine history occurred in 1981 when Star Wars director George Lucas threatened to sue fanzine publishers who distributed zines featuring the Star Wars characters in sexually explicit stories or art. Comics were mentioned and discussed as early as the late 1930s in the fanzines of science fiction fandom. Famously, the first version of Superman (a bald-headed villain) appeared in the third issue of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's 1933 fanzine Science Fiction. In 1936, David Kyle published The Fantasy World , possibly the first comics fanzine. Malcolm Willits and Jim Bradley started The Comic Collector's News in October 1947. By 1952, Ted White had mimeographed a four-page pamphlet about Superman, and James Vincent Taurasi, Sr. issued the short-lived Fantasy Comics. In 1953, Bhob Stewart published The EC Fan Bulletin, which launched EC fandom of imitative EC fanzines. A few months later, Stewart, White, and Larry Stark produced Potrzebie, planned as a literary journal of critical commentary about EC by Stark. Among the wave of EC fanzines that followed, the best-known was Ron Parker's Hoo-Hah!. After that came fanzines by the followers of Harvey Kurtzman's Mad, Trump and Humbug. Publishers of these included future underground comics stars like Jay Lynch and Robert Crumb. In 1960, Richard and Pat Lupoff launched their science fiction and comics fanzine Xero. In the second issue, "The Spawn of M.C. Gaines'" by Ted White was the first in a series of nostalgic, analytical articles about comics by Lupoff, Don Thompson, Bill Blackbeard, Jim Harmon and others under the heading, All in Color for a Dime. In 1961, Jerry Bails' Alter Ego, devoted to costumed heroes, became a focal point for superhero comics fandom and is thus sometimes mistakenly cited as the first comics fanzine. Contacts through these magazines were instrumental in creating the culture of modern comics fandom: conventions, collecting, etc. Much of this, like comics fandom itself, began as part of standard science fiction conventions, but comics fans have developed their own traditions. Comics fanzines often include fan artwork based on existing characters as well as discussion of the history of comics. Through the 1960s, and 1970s, comic fanzines followed some general formats, such as the industry news and information magazine (The Comic Reader was one example), interview, history, and review-based fanzines, and the fanzines which basically represented independent comic book-format exercises. While perceived quality varied widely, the energy and enthusiasm involved tended to be communicated clearly to the readership, many of whom were also fanzine contributors. Prominent comics zines of this period included Alter Ego, The Comic Reader, and Rocket's Blast Comicollector, all started by Jerry Bails. During the 1970s, many fanzines (Squa Tront, as an example) also became partly distributed through certain comic book distributors.[citation needed] One of the first British comics fanzines was Phil Clarke's KA-POW, launched in 1967. Prominent British comics fanzines of the 1970s and early 1980s included the long-running Fantasy Advertiser, Martin Lock's BEM, Richard Burton's Comic Media News, Alan Austin's Comics Unlimited, George Barnett's The Panelologist, and Richard Ashford's Speakaeasy. At times, the professional comics publishers have made overtures to fandom via 'prozines', in this case fanzine-like magazines put out by the major publishers. The Amazing World of DC Comics and the Marvel magazine FOOM began and ceased publication in the 1970s. Priced significantly higher than standard comics of the period (AWODCC was $1.50, FOOM was 75 cents), each house-organ magazine lasted a brief period of years. Since 2001 in Britain, there have been created a number of fanzines pastiching children's comics of the 1970s, and 1980s (e.g. Solar Wind, Pony School, etc.). These adopt a style of storytelling rather than specific characters from their sources, usually with a knowing or ironic twist. As with comics zines, horror film fanzines grew from related interest within science fiction fan publications. Trumpet, edited by Tom Reamy, was a 1960s SF zine that branched into horror film coverage. Alex Soma's Horrors of the Screen, Calvin T. Beck's Journal of Frankenstein (later Castle of Frankenstein) and Gary Svehla's Gore Creatures were the first horror fanzines created as more serious alternatives to the popular Forrest J Ackerman 1958 magazine Famous Monsters of Filmland. Gore Creatures began in 1961 and continues today as the prozine (and specialty publisher) Midnight Marquee. Garden Ghouls Gazette—a 1960s horror title under the editorship of Dave Keil, then Gary Collins—was eventually headed by the late Frederick S. Clarke (1949–2000) and in 1967 became the respected journal Cinefantastique. It later became a prozine under journalist-screenwriter Mark A. Altman and has continued as a webzine. Mark Frank's Photon—notable for the inclusion of an 8x10 photo in each issue—was another 1960s zine that lasted into the 1970s.Richard Klemensen's Little Shoppe of Horrors, having a particular focus on "Hammer Horrors", began in 1972 and is still publishing as of 2025. The Animation Journal (1964-1966) edited by Indiana natives Steve Towsley and Bill Shrock was perhaps the first fanzine devoted to the makers of stop-motion animated monsters. The Baltimore-based Black Oracle (1969–1978) from writer-turned-John Waters repertory member George Stover was a diminutive zine that evolved into the larger-format Cinemacabre. Stover's Black Oracle partner Bill George published his own short-lived zine The Late Show (1974–1976; with co-editor Martin Falck), and later became editor of the Cinefantastique prozine spinoff Femme Fatales. In the mid-1970s, North Carolina teenager Sam Irvin published the horror/science-fiction fanzine Bizarre, which included his original interviews with UK actors and filmmakers; Irvin would later become a producer-director in his own right. Japanese Fantasy Film Journal (JFFJ) (1968–1983) from Greg Shoemaker covered Toho's Godzilla and his Asian brethren. Japanese Giants (JG) was founded by Stephen Mark Rainey in 1974 and was published for 30 years. In 1993, G-FAN was published, and reached its 100th regularly published issue in Fall 2012. FXRH (Special effects by Ray Harryhausen) (1971–1976) was a specialized zine co-created by future Hollywood FX artist Ernest D. Farino. The 2024 film Conclave directed by Edward Berger gained a significant following online. A fanzine for the film was published which co-founder Susan Bin described as "a snapshot of the fandom". By February 2025, the zine “has already raised an estimated $45,000 for charities including the Intersex Human Rights Fund.” By the mid-1960s, several fans active in science fiction and comics fandom recognized a shared interest in rock music, and the rock fanzine was born. Paul Williams and Greg Shaw were two such SF-fans turned rock zine editors. Williams' Crawdaddy! (1966) and Shaw's two California-based zines, Mojo Navigator (full title, "Mojo-Navigator Rock and Roll News") (1966) and Who Put the Bomp, (1970), are among the most important early rock fanzines. Crawdaddy! (1966) quickly moved from its fanzine roots to become one of the first rock music "prozines", with paid advertisers and newsstand distribution. Bomp remained a fanzine, featuring many writers who would later become prominent music journalists, including Lester Bangs, Greil Marcus, Ken Barnes, Ed Ward, Dave Marsh, Metal Mike Saunders and R. Meltzer. Bomp featured cover art by Jay Kinney and Bill Rotsler, both veterans of SF and Comics fandom. Bomp was not alone; an August 1970 issue of Rolling Stone included an article about the explosion of rock fanzines. Other rock fanzines of this period include denim delinquent 1971, edited by Jymn Parrett, Flash, 1972, edited by Mark Shipper, Eurock Magazine (1973–1993) edited by Archie Patterson and Bam Balam, written and published by Brian Hogg in East Lothian, Scotland, beginning in 1974, and in the mid-1970s, Back Door Man. In the post-punk era, several well-written fanzines emerged that cast an almost academic look at earlier, neglected musical forms, including Mike Stax' Ugly Things, Billy Miller and Miriam Linna's Kicks, Jake Austen's Roctober, Kim Cooper's Scram, P. Edwin Letcher's Garage & Beat, and the UK's Shindig! and Italy's Misty Lane. In the 1980s, with the rise of stadium superstars, many home-grown rock fanzines emerged. At the peak of Bruce Springsteen's megastardom following the Born in the U.S.A. album and Born in the U.S.A. Tour in the mid-1980s, there were no less than five Springsteen fanzines circulating at the same time in the UK alone, and many others elsewhere. Gary Desmond's Candy's Room, coming from Liverpool, was the first in 1980, quickly followed by Dan French's Point Blank, Dave Percival's The Fever, Jeff Matthews' Rendezvous, and Paul Limbrick's Jackson Cage. In the US, Backstreets Magazine started in Seattle in 1980 and still continues today as a glossy publication, now in communication with Springsteen's management and official website. In the late 1990s, numerous fanzines and e-zines flourished about electronic and post-rock music. Crème Brûlée fanzine was one of those that documented post-rock genre and experimental music. The punk subculture in the United Kingdom spearheaded a surge of interest in fanzines as a countercultural alternative to established print media. In his 1985 book One Chord Wonders, Dave Laing argues that fanzines, along with self-produced 7" single records, were the essence of 'punk difference'. Matt Worley, in Xerox Machine, sees the significance of fanzines in punk as both at the time a response to 'an out-of-touch [mainstream] music press' and retrospectively as a way of 'trac[ing] punk's cultural influence into the backrooms, bedrooms and side streets of Britain'. The first and still best known UK 'punk zine' was Sniffin' Glue, produced by Deptford punk fan Mark Perry. Sniffin' Glue ran for 12 photocopied issues; the first issue was produced by Perry immediately following (and in response to) the London debut of The Ramones on 4 July 1976. Other UK fanzines included Ablaze! Blam!, Bombsite, Wool City Rocker, Burnt Offering, Sideburns, Chainsaw, New Crimes, Vague, Jamming, Artcore Fanzine, Love and Molotov Cocktails, To Hell With Poverty, New Youth, Peroxide, ENZK, Juniper beri-beri, No Cure, Communication Blur, Rox, Grim Humour, Spuno, Cool Notes and Fumes. Of these, Tony Fletcher's Jamming was the most far reaching, becoming a nationally distributed mainstream magazine for several years before its demise.[citation needed] In the United States, Punk began publication in 1976 out of New York City and played a major part in popularizing punk rock (a term coined a few years earlier in Creem) as the term for the music and the bands being written about. Flipside and Slash were important punk fanzines from the Los Angeles scene, both debuting in 1977. The San Francisco-based punk fanzine Search and Destroy, which published from 1977 to 1979, eventually became the influential fringe-cultural magazine Re/Search. Damage published 13 issues there from 1979 to 1981. Maximum RocknRoll, also from San Francisco, was a major punk fanzine, with over 300 issues published since 1982. The Washington, D.C. punk community generated several fanzines in the late 1970s and early 1980s, such as Capitol Crisis, Vintage Violence, Thrillseeker, If This Goes On, and Descenes. As punk and alternative culture grew more popular throughout the 1980s and 1990s—evidenced by the success of punk and alternative rock bands like Sonic Youth, Nirvana, Fugazi, Bikini Kill, Green Day and The Offspring—thousands of other punk fanzines appeared in the United States, such as Punk Planet, Left of the Dial, Tail Spins, Sobriquet, Profane Existence and Slug and Lettuce. Some punk fanzines from the 1980s, like No Class and Ugly American experienced a second life by placing all past content online for free and adding new content. Although fewer in number in the 21st century, punk fanzines still exist in the United States, such as Suburban Rebels and Razorcake, both from California. Most punk fanzines were printed in small quantities and promoted their respective local scenes. They were often cheaply photocopied and many never survived beyond a few issues. Their greatest contribution was in promoting punk music, clothing, and lifestyle in their local communities. Punk bands and independent labels often sent records to the zines for review and many of the people who started the zines became critical connections for punk bands on tour. In 1977, Bruce Milne and Clinton Walker fused their respective punk zines Plastered Press and Suicide Alley to launch Pulp; Milne later went on to invent the cassette zine with Fast Forward, in 1980. In Perugia, Italy, Mazquerade ran from 1979 to 1981. In Basilicata, Italy, Raw Art Fanzine ran from 1995 to 2000. In Milan, Italy, Gorezilla ran from 1988 to 1991. A mapping of Italian fanzines originating from the punk subculture in the 1980s is being developed on Capit Mundi? website. The "Riot Grrrl" movement emerged from the punk scene in the US in the early 1990s when women began to produce zines with feminist themes. The "riot grrrl" wave was influential for "pinkzines" as it called for women to publish and produce content in the male-dominated culture. Making Waves was a four-issue collective fanzine focused on punk and new wave music and feminism and womanhood created by Camille Lan in Paris, France, and Mary Jane Regalado in Los Angeles, first published in 2011, featuring articles and interviews from around the world. In the UK, Fracture and Reason To Believe were significant fanzines in the early 2000s, but both ended in late 2003.[citation needed] Rancid News filled the gap left by these two zines for a short while. On its tenth issue Rancid News changed its name to Last Hours with 7 issues published under this title before going on hiatus.[citation needed] Last Hours still[when?] operates as a webzine, though with more focus on the anti-authoritarian movement than its original title. There are many smaller fanzines in existence throughout the UK that focus on punk.[citation needed] Artcore Fanzine (established in 1986, relocated to the US in 2018) continues to this day, recently[when?] publishing a number of 30-year anniversary issues.[citation needed] Mark Wilkins, promotion director for 1982 onwards US punk/thrash label Mystic Records, had over 450 US fanzines and 150 foreign fanzines he promoted to regularly. He and Mystic Records owner Doug Moody edited The Mystic News Newsletter which was published quarterly and went into every promo package to fanzines. Wilkins also published the Los Angeles punk humor zine Wild Times.[citation needed] In the United Kingdom, the 1979 Mod revival, which was inspired by the 1960s Mod subculture, brought with it a burst of fresh creativity from fanzines, and for the next decade, the youth subculture inspired the production of dozens of independent publications. The most successful of the first wave was Maximum Speed, which successfully captured the frenetic world of a mod revival scene that was propelling bands like Secret Affair, Purple Hearts and The Chords into the UK charts. After the genre had started to go out of fashion with mainstream audiences in 1981, the mod revival scene went underground and successfully reinvented itself through a series of clubs, bands and fanzines that breathed fresh life into the genre, culminating in another burst of creative acceptance in 1985. This success was largely driven by the network of underground fanzines, the most important and far reaching of which were Extraordinary Sensations, produced by future radio DJ Eddie Piller, and Shadows & Reflections, published by future national magazine editor Chris Hunt. The latter in particular pushed back the boundaries of fanzine production, producing glossy, professionally written and printed publications at a time (1983–1986) when most fanzines were produced via photocopier and letraset. In the UK, there were also fanzines that covered the local music scene in a particular town or city. Mainly prevalent in the 1970s, and 1980s, all music styles were covered, whether the bands were playing rock, punk, metal, futurist, ska or dance. Featured were local gig reviews and articles that were below the radar of the mainstream music press. They were produced using the technology of the time, i.e. typewriter and Letraset. Examples include Bombsite Fanzine (Liverpool 1977), Wool City Rocker (Bradford 1979–1982), City Fun (Manchester), 1984, Spuno (Bath 1980), No Cure (Berkshire) and Town Hall Steps (Bolton) and more recently mono (fanzine), (Bradford) with many more across the country, such as Premonition Tapes Tapezine on cassette (Sheffield 1987) and Crime Pays (Liverpool 1988). Another sizable group of fanzines arose in role-playing game (RPG) fandom, where fanzines allowed people to publish their ideas and views on specific games and their role-playing campaigns. In 1975, was released the apazine Alarums and Excursions. Role-playing fanzines allowed people to communicate in the 1970s, and 1980s with complete editorial control in the hands of the players, as opposed to the game publishers. These early RPG fanzines were generally typed, sold mostly in an A5 format (in the UK) and were usually illustrated with abysmal or indifferent artwork. A fanzine community developed and was based on sale to a reading public and exchanges by editor/publishers. Many of the pioneers of RPG got their start in, or remain part of, science fiction fandom. This is also true of the small but still active board game fandom scene, the most prolific subset of which is centered around play-by-mail Diplomacy. The UK fanzine Aslan (1988–1991) was responsible for popularization of freeform role-playing games in the UK. Video game fanzines first emerged during the second generation period at a time when gaming stores and newsletters for computer user groups were beginning to become established but had not yet receive significant recognition by purchasers and gamers. The earliest such publication was Joystick Jolter. Other subscriber-based newsletters included 8:16 (UK, all things Atari, 1st issue Nov 1987), The Video Game Update, later titled Computer Entertainer. As desktop publishing tools became more accessible, there was an increase in fanzine production. Fanzines generally emphasized either classic gaming (e.g. 2600 Connection and Classic Systems & Games Monthly), or current gaming (e.g. APE and The Subversive Sprite). Less commonly, some fanzines covered both topics (e.g. Digital Press and Joystick & Screen). The number of zines grew with the development of video game journalism as writers like Arnie Katz and Chris Bieniek used their columns in mainstream magazines like Video Games & Computer Entertainment, EGM, and Tips & Tricks, to publish reviews of promising fanzines. These mainstream reviews had the effect of introducing fan editors to each other and of creating a fanzine scene. The popularity of video game fanzines diminished greatly with the rise of the internet, however some zines—particularly the classic gaming ones (e.g. Classic Gamer Magazine and Video Game Collector)—continued beyond the mid-90s. The rise of "on demand" publishing has led to a new outlet for print zines, like Jumpbutton and Scroll. The video game fanzine era was biggest in the US and Canada,[citation needed] but zines are also produced in other countries. Prominent video game fanzines produced in the UK include Retrogamer, Pixel Nation, Capcom Fanzine, Mercury, and Super Famicom Mini Mag among others. In France fanzines like Revival were circulated, and Japan has seen the production of lavish doujin works. More recently, there has been a mini-resurgence in video game fanzines, with the launch of HyperPlay RPG in 2015 and Switch Player in 2017. Based in part on Super Play's focus on role-playing games and "any-bit" Nintendo,[clarification needed] HyperPlay RPG received positive reviews by the mainstream video game media. Several fanzines exist within the hobby of wargaming. Among them is Charge!, a leading international fanzine exclusively for miniature wargaming enthusiasts for the American Civil War period. Other fanzines support Warhammer and other popular rules sets. The first association football fanzine is regarded as being Foul, a publication that ran between 1972 and 1976. In the UK, most Premier League or Football League football clubs have one or more fanzines which supplement, oppose and complement the club's official magazine or matchday programme. A reasonably priced zine has a guaranteed audience, as is the culture of passion in being a football fan. The longest running fanzine is The City Gent, produced by supporters of Bradford City FC, which first went on sale at Valley Parade in November 1984 and is now in its 26th season. Following close on its heels was Nike, Inc. which was first released in 1989. At the time it was not the first of its kind with Terrace Talk (York City), which was first published in November 1981 and Wanderers Worldwide (Bolton Wanderers) having already been established but since disappeared. In 1985 the emergent When Saturday Comes (a fanzine without a specific club focus that was subsequently launched as a mainstream magazine) promoted a 'fanzine movement' that gave birth to many more club titles during the late 1980s which was something of a glory period for fanzines. With the widespread availability of the Internet, much of the energy that was put into football fanzines subsequently went into the development of supporters' websites. Examples of other UK football fanzines include A Love Supreme (Sunderland), TOOFIF (Fulham), The Square Ball (Leeds United), 4,000 Holes (Blackburn Rovers) and War of the Monster Trucks (a Sheffield Wednesday fanzine named after a local TV station elected not to show the final scenes of an unlikely cup victory). The Queen's Park Rangers fanzine 'A Kick up the Rs' was first published in August 1987 and is still issuing an average of 10 issues per season. Fanzines are not exclusive to the top tiers of football however, with Northern Counties East League side Scarborough Athletic FC having a fanzine titled Abandon Chip!, a pun based on both the perilous situation of predecessor club Scarborough FC and that club's sponsors, McCain. And also away from the world of Football there were a number of established fanzines, for example Rugby league has such notable publications as Who The Hell Was St. George Anyway? Rugby League fanzine, by supporters of Doncaster RLFC and Scarlet Turkey of Salford City Reds.However, due to pressure from the Internet etc. these publications no longer exist in printed form. The title of World's longest running Rugby League fanzine now belongs to The Aye of the Tigers, by Castleford Tigers supporters. The fanzine movement has even spread to the United States, where ice hockey fans have produced several popular fanzines. In Chicago two examples include the formerly published Blue Line Magazine and currently The Committed Indian, both produced by Chicago Blackhawks fans. In St. Louis there are Game Night Revue and St Louis Game Time for the St. Louis Blues. There are also a number of fanzines to be found in Ireland of which Shelbourne's Red Inc. has been running since 1999, and is the only one still in existence. In the United States, sports fanzines are relatively rare. In Boston they are a bit more common. There are two fanzines sold outside Fenway Park including Yawkey Way Report, which is run by a former Marine. Recent developments With the increasing availability of the Internet in the late 20th and the early 21st century, the traditional paper zine has begun to give way to the webzine (or "e-zine") that is easier to produce and uses the potential of the Internet to reach an ever-larger, possibly global, audience. Nonetheless, printed fanzines are still produced, either out of preference for the format or to reach people who do not have convenient Web access. Online versions of approximately 200 science fiction fanzines will be found at Bill Burns' eFanzines web site, along with links to other SF fanzine sites. In addition, zine festivals are held each year in American cities like Los Angeles, Chicago, and Brooklyn, as well as internationally in cities including Melbourne, Australia, and Glasgow, UK. See also References Further reading External links |
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Contents Visual effects Visual effects (sometimes abbreviated as VFX) is the process by which imagery is created or manipulated outside the context of a live-action shot in filmmaking and video production. The integration of live-action footage and other live-action footage or computer-generated imagery (CGI) elements to create realistic imagery is called VFX. VFX involves the integration of live-action footage (which may include in-camera special effects) and generated-imagery (digital or optics, animals or creatures) which look realistic, but would be dangerous, expensive, impractical, time-consuming or impossible to capture on film. Visual effects using CGI have more recently become accessible to the independent filmmaker with the introduction of affordable and relatively easy-to-use animation and compositing software. History In 1857, Oscar Rejlander created the world's first "special effects" image by combining different sections of 32 negatives into a single image, making a montaged combination print. In 1895, Alfred Clark created what is commonly accepted as the first-ever motion picture special effect. While filming a reenactment of the beheading of Mary, Queen of Scots, Clark instructed an actor to step up to the block in Mary's costume. As the executioner brought the axe above his head, Clark stopped the camera, had all the actors freeze, and had the person playing Mary step off the set. He placed a Mary dummy in the actor's place, restarted filming, and allowed the executioner to bring the axe down, severing the dummy's head. Techniques like these would dominate the production of special effects for a century. It was not only the first use of trickery in cinema, it was also the first type of photographic trickery that was only possible in a motion picture, and referred to as the "stop trick". Georges Méliès, an early motion picture pioneer, accidentally discovered the same "stop trick". According to Méliès, his camera jammed while filming a street scene in Paris. When he screened the film, he found that the "stop trick" had caused a truck to turn into a hearse, pedestrians to change direction, and men to turn into women. Méliès, the director of the Théâtre Robert-Houdin, was inspired to develop a series of more than 500 short films, between 1896 and 1913, in the process developing or inventing such techniques as multiple exposures, time-lapse photography, dissolves, and hand-painted color. Because of his ability to seemingly manipulate and transform reality with the cinematograph, the prolific Méliès is sometimes referred to as the "Cinemagician". His most famous film, Le Voyage dans la lune (1902), a whimsical parody of Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon, featured a combination of live action and animation, and also incorporated extensive miniature and matte painting work. VFX today is heavily used in almost all movies produced. Other than films, television series and web series are also known to utilize VFX. Techniques Production pipeline Visual effects are often integral to a movie's story and appeal. Although most visual effects work is completed during post-production, it usually must be carefully planned and choreographed in pre-production and production. While special effects such as explosions and car chases are made on set, visual effects are primarily executed in post-production with the use of multiple tools and technologies such as graphic design, modeling, animation and similar software. A visual effects supervisor is usually involved with the production from an early stage to work closely with production and the film's director to design, guide and lead the teams required to achieve the desired effects. Many studios specialize in visual effects; among them are Digital Domain, DreamWorks, DNEG, Framestore, Weta Digital, Industrial Light & Magic, Pixomondo, Moving Picture Company, Animal Logic, Reel FX Animation, Sony Pictures Imageworks and Jellyfish Pictures. See also References Sources |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_letter] | [TOKENS: 5351] |
Contents Chain letter A chain letter is a message that attempts to convince the recipient to make a number of copies and pass them on to a certain number of recipients. The "chain" is an exponentially growing pyramid (a tree graph) that cannot be sustained. Common methods used in chain letters include emotionally manipulative stories, get-rich-quick pyramid schemes, and the exploitation of superstition to threaten the recipient with misfortune or promise good luck. Originally, chain letters were letters sent by mail; modern chain letters are often sent electronically via email, social network sites, and text messages. Types There are two main types of chain letter: In the United States, chain letters that request money or other items of value and promise a substantial return to the participants (such as the infamous Make Money Fast scheme) are illegal. Some colleges and military bases have passed regulations stating that in the private mail of college students and military personnel, respectively, chain letters are not authorized and will be thrown out. However, it is often difficult to distinguish chain letters from genuine correspondence. Channels The oldest known channel for chain letters is written, or printed, on letters on paper. These might be exchanged hand-to-hand or distributed through the mail. In Europe, letters known as "Himmelsbrief" (English: Heaven Letters; German: Himmelsbrief) existed, with examples dating back as early as the 6th century. Purported to have fallen from heaven, delivered by God or an agent thereof, they often urged adherence to Christian teachings and promised protection from misfortune to those who possessed the letter. By the 20th century, these evolved to include instructions: copying the letter and sending it to a set number of people would bring good fortune, while failing to do so would bring misfortune. Eventually, the religious elements faded, leaving simple instructions to circulate the letter for good luck or face bad luck. Already in the nineteenth century, similar chain letters were known to have circulated among Muslim pilgrims going on the hajj to Mecca. Those chain letters promised blessings or curses and required replication. One notorious early example of a money-based chain letter was the "Prosperity Club" or "Send-a-Dime" letter. This letter started in Denver, Colorado in 1935, based on an earlier luck letter. It instructed recipients to send a dime to the person at the top of a list of names, remove that name, add their own to the bottom, and mail the letter to five others, warning of misfortune for breaking the chain. It soon swamped the Denver post office with up to 100,000 letters per day before spilling into St. Louis and other cities. Some consider this a precursor to the Japanese "Fukou no Tegami" (Unlucky Letter). In 1964, the head of the United States Postal Inspection Service ordered a nationwide crackdown on violators of postal fraud and lottery laws due to an increase of chain letters reported around college towns in the United States. The typical letters included a list of names and instructed the recipient to send money to the name at the top of the list, remove that name, add their own name to the bottom of the list, and forward the letters to two more people. Japan has a long history of practices resembling chain letters, often tied to warding off misfortune or attracting good luck through specific, shared actions. During the Edo period (Bunsei era, 1818–1830), sending printed images of Daikokuten with instructions to distribute them to 100 homes for good luck became popular, eventually banned by the shogunate but resurfacing in the early Meiji period. Other historical examples include rumors in 1813 that seeing a specific star meant death unless one ate botamochi, and rumors during World War II involving the mythical creature Kudan predicting protection from air raids if one ate azuki rice or ohagi, or Takami Jun's diary entry about eating only rakkyō for breakfast to avoid bombings, provided the information was shared. This cultural background of sharing methods to attract luck or avoid disaster is seen as a foundation for the later popularity of chain letters in Japan. Beginning around 1922 in Tokyo, "Kōun no Tegami" (幸運の手紙 - Lucky Letter), also called "Kōun no Hagaki" (Lucky Postcard), became popular. Believed to originate from the "Lucky Chain" game popular in Europe during World War I or similar chain letters in the US, these letters were translated into Japanese. A 30 January 1922, Tokyo Asahi Shimbun article mentions a postcard mailed from London, suggesting foreign origins. These letters promised great fortune if the recipient copied the text onto a certain number of postcards (e.g., nine) and sent them to others within a time limit (e.g., 24 hours), but threatened "great misfortune" (大悪運, dai-aku'un) if the chain was broken. Some included harsh warnings like "great disaster within 24 hours" for breaking the chain. The letters often mentioned the chain needing to circle the globe a certain number of times (e.g., nine times), reflecting the era of mail transport by ship. An example from the 27 January 1922, Tokyo Asahi Shimbun reads: For Good Fortune Please write these exact words on nine postcards and send them to people from whom you wish good fortune. After nine days, great fortune will surely come your way. However, if you break this postcard chain, great misfortune will come instead. Please write these within twenty-four hours of seeing this postcard. This venture was started by an American officer and must circle the globe nine times. — "Handwritten letter example", 丸山 2022, pp. 18–19 harvnb error: no target: CITEREF丸山2022 (help) citing Tokyo Asahi Shimbun The phenomenon became a social issue, frequently reported in newspapers. Politicians used them for campaigns, and businesses created advertisements mimicking the format, leveraging the free distribution network. Writer and social critic Miyatake Gaikotsu documented the trend in his 1922 book Kitai Ryūkōshi (History of Strange Fads), noting people sent them out of fear of misfortune. (Gaikotsu stated his interest in the Lucky Letter phenomenon inspired him to write the book.) Unlike later "Unlucky Letters," the focus was theoretically on gaining luck, but the fear of incurring bad luck by breaking the chain often dominated. While Western interpretations often focused on monetary gain/loss, Japanese interpretations tended towards physical harm, illness, or death as the consequence of misfortune. Newspaper accounts described people overcome with anxiety, sending the letters despite skepticism. The potential for exponential growth (one person sending nine, repeated ten times, yielding over 3.4 billion letters) was also noted as problematic. The trend spread, appearing in Fengtian (now Shenyang), Manchuria in May 1922, where authorities attempted, unsuccessfully, to ban them. The 1923 Great Kantō earthquake later led some to view the letter craze as an ill omen. In 1926, a Lucky Letter incident involved prominent figures. Imakita Sakunosuke, head of the government's Monopoly Bureau, received an English letter via an American acquaintance and a Japanese scholar. Imakita translated it, added instructions to send to nine friends, and mailed it to influential figures in politics and finance, causing a stir. Police investigated, finding recipients including former Tokyo mayor Gotō Shinpei. The Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun reported the event on 1 August 1926. Imakita claimed his daughter sent them playfully, but some analysts question this, suggesting it might have been a pre-arranged excuse or even an early experiment in information diffusion, given the involvement of military figures and Gotō Shinpei (then president of NHK's predecessor). Political scientist Yoshino Sakuzō also received one in August 1926, dismissing it as foolish but criticizing police intervention as overreach. Despite suppression efforts, senders were sometimes punished. Although some sources claim Lucky Letters died out after the Great Kanto Earthquake due to crackdowns, they continued to appear. In 1935, a man was arrested for attempting a money-making scheme similar to the Denver "Send-a-Dime" letter, using the phone book to mail 350 letters asking for small cash contributions. During World War II (1943), an anti-war chain letter circulated, stating "We are already tired of war. Let us pray to God for peace to come soon," instructing recipients to send copies to two acquaintances (the small number possibly reflecting wartime shortages). Post-war examples include a "Fuku'un no Tegami" (福運の手紙 - Fortune Letter) in 1948–1949, promising large sums of money (e.g., ¥16 million or ¥200,000) if recipients sent a small amount (e.g., ¥2 or ¥20) to the first name on a list, updated the list, and forwarded it to others (e.g., 7 or 15 people). By 1954, newspapers reported on the anxiety these letters caused, with a middle school girl terrified by a threat of death for not forwarding within 12 hours, and a man seeking advice after receiving a letter claiming someone died for ignoring it. Some letters used famous foreign figures, claiming Franklin D. Roosevelt became president by sending one, or Thomas Edison died for not sending one. The "Fukou no Tegami" (不幸の手紙 - Unlucky Letter) phenomenon is thought to have emerged when the "good luck" aspect of earlier letters disappeared, leaving only the threat of misfortune. Some suggest it began as a simple prank, replacing "good luck" with "bad luck" in existing templates. Research suggests it started trending around 1969 or 1970. Newspaper articles from late 1970 and 1972 trace its spread from Kyushu through Osaka, Nagoya, and Tokyo starting around 1969. Other accounts place the start slightly earlier, around 1965. By summer 1970, it was prevalent in Tokyo, spreading to the Kinki region (centering on Kyoto) by November 1970, and becoming a nationwide phenomenon that same month. A Yomiuri Shimbun article on 26 November 1970 reported receiving over a hundred complaints since early October. Typical wording included: This is an Unlucky Letter, a death god that came to me sequentially from Okinawa. A Canadian supposedly thought of it. If you stop it with you, misfortune will certainly visit. A person in Texas stopped it and died five years later. You too, please send this letter to twenty-nine people within thirty hours without changing the text. I am number XXX. — Quoted in 東 1996, p. 78 harvnb error: no target: CITEREF東1996 (help) This is an Unlucky Letter.The person who receives it must send the same letter to ten people within one week.Ms./Mr. ■■ in Class 6-2 at ■■ Elementary School stopped the letter and died in a traffic accident ten days later.If you ignore this, disaster will surely befall you too. — Quoted in 初見 2018 harvnb error: no target: CITEREF初見2018 (help), redactions in original Variations included different time limits (e.g., 50 hours) and recipient counts (e.g., 29 or 10). The letters often personified themselves ("I am an Unlucky Letter") or invoked a "death god" (死神, shinigami), suggesting the letter itself possessed supernatural power. Many included instructions not to tell anyone about receiving the letter, threatening death if revealed, likely to prevent consultation. They were sent anonymously, sometimes as letters in envelopes, sometimes as postcards. Some 1990s versions replaced "Okinawa" with "Ōita," lacked foreign references, used Japanese names for victims, and ended with "I am also a victim." Like earlier Lucky Letters, some invoked famous foreigners, such as claiming Napoleon Bonaparte died for not sending one. Recipients were often chosen randomly from phone books or sometimes from alumni or company directories, though senders often expressed reluctance to target people they knew. In the 1970s, before widespread access to photocopiers, recipients had to hand-copy the entire text. A key difference from earlier Lucky Letters was the anonymity; Lucky Letters often included the sender's name and sometimes a list of previous senders, making the chain's path somewhat traceable. Fukou no Tegami's power was also portrayed as inherent to the letter itself ("this is a death god"), whereas Lucky Letters typically threatened misfortune only as a consequence of *breaking the chain*. Furthermore, while Lucky Letters circulated mainly among adults, Fukou no Tegami spread widely among children (elementary and middle school students) as well, possibly linked to schools becoming hubs for ghost stories during Japan's high-growth period. After a period of police activity led to a decline in early 1971, the letters resurged in Tokyo by late 1971 and spread nationwide again by May 1972, with letters reported arriving from various regions. The phenomenon persisted into the 1990s, adapting to use photocopiers and fax machines. Minor resurgences occurred from 1990–1992 and again in 1998. In 1993, a Portuguese version circulated within Japan's Brazilian Japanese community, printed via word processor, mixing promises of lottery wins with threats of job loss or spousal death. Fukou no Tegami became a significant social problem, widely covered by media and even becoming a buzzword in 1970. Police stations received numerous inquiries and complaints, with people bringing in letters, demanding action, or expressing fear. A 1970 Sankei Shimbun survey found 75.6% of people knew about the letters, and 20.5% had received one. While nearly half (45.8%) dismissed them as "absurd", significant portions found them "infuriating" (28.9%), "creepy" (12.9%), or "anxiety-inducing" (4.4%). About half (49.3%) discarded them, but 17.4% admitted to forwarding them, particularly women (45% of female office workers surveyed). Anecdotes highlighted the distress caused: a woman forwarded one despite her husband's objections, leading to marital strife; another developed chronic hives after discarding one and becoming anxious; people angrily confronted police or postal workers. Magazine pen pal sections were inundated, leading some, like the manga magazine Ribon, to shut down columns listing readers' addresses. Occult magazine Mu received so many it started a "Fukou no Tegami Grand Collection" feature. In Saitama Prefecture alone, over 400 cases were reported to police by late 1986, with some individuals reportedly suffering nervous breakdowns. While many dismissed the letters, others were deeply troubled, caught between the fear of personal misfortune and the guilt of potentially inflicting it on others by forwarding the letter – a dilemma described as highlighting selfishness ("as long as I'm okay") versus conscience. Some admitted forwarding out of a "better safe than sorry" mentality, while others likely sent them maliciously to disliked individuals or simply out of boredom or curiosity about the recipient's reaction. Prominent figures also received them. Actress Kimiko Ikegami received one in 1975, shortly before her grandfather, Bando Mitsugoro VIII, died unexpectedly, fueling public outrage against the letters. In 1978, Koseki Kinko, wife of composer Yūji Koseki, wrote a widely publicized newspaper column urging people to simply destroy the letters, sharing her own experience of doing so without consequence and encouraging readers to face adversity positively. Experts offered various interpretations. Shinto scholar Kato Takahisa saw it revealing underlying societal anxiety despite modernization. Psychiatrist Shigeta Saitō called it symptomatic of the times, criticizing the "self-centered" impulse to pass on misfortune compared to earlier Lucky Letters. Sociologist Mita Munesuke termed it the "pass the buck" (ババ抜き, babanuki, like the card game Old Maid) mentality amplified. Writer Nada Inada linked it to persistent superstition in modern society and the fear triggered by confronting the taboo subject of unhappiness. Social psychologist Akira Tsujimura noted the unsettling effect of anonymity, the resonance with the ever-present reality of death, and its alignment with modern egoism. Writer Kenichi Hatsumi recalled playing "unlucky letter games" as a child, suggesting a parody element existed alongside genuine fear. Shrine priest Ishikawa Masayasu pointed out how the letters exploit psychological weakness, trapping people between spreading harm and fearing personal consequences. Various organizations stepped in to handle the letters and alleviate public anxiety: Besides the standard Fukou no Tegami, variations emerged: Some email messages sent as chain letters may seem fairly harmless; for example, a school student wishing to see how many people can receive their email for a science project, but they can grow exponentially and be hard to stop. Infamously, the salacious Claire Swire email spread in a chain-like fashion when its recipient sought to learn Swire's identity. Messages sometimes include phony promises from companies or wealthy individuals (such as Bill Gates) promising a monetary reward to everyone who receives the message. They may also be politically motivated, such as "Save the Scouts, forward this to as many friends as possible" or a warning that a popular TV or radio show may be forced off the air. Some, such as the Hawaiian Good Luck Totem, which has spread in thousands of forms, threaten users with bad luck if not forwarded. One chain letter distributed on MSN Hotmail began, "Hey it's Tara and John the directors of MSN..." and subsequently claimed readers' accounts would be deleted if they did not pass on the message. Another common form of email chain letter is the virus hoax and a form of cyberbullying. With the rise of email and mobile phones, digital versions of Fukou no Tegami, known as "Fukou no Mail" (不幸のメール - Unlucky Mail), emerged. Early versions in the 1990s often lacked the elaborate justifications of printed letters, simply threatening death ("コロサレル," korosareru) or dire consequences ("タイヘンナコトニナル," taihen na koto ni naru) for not forwarding. By 1995, they were reported spreading within corporate email systems. In 1999, widespread circulation via mobile phones and PHS was noted, with messages like "Send this mail to 6 people within 5 days or die," "16 people who ignored this are dead," or "You will definitely die if you read this mail to the end." Later examples reported by the Japan Data Communication Association (DEKYO) include threats like: "My girlfriend disappeared. Forward this to 20 people to help find her. Anyone who stops the mail is the culprit and I will come kill them in 8 days," "A girl named ■■ was bullied and committed suicide. Her ghost still wanders. If you don't send this to 15+ people, she will attack you," or "My best friend ■■ betrayed me. I was hit by a car and lost both legs. Send this to 10 people in 10 hours, or I will come steal your legs." Particularly notorious were the "Kikuchi Ayane chain mail" (featuring a murdered girl's ghost seeking friends and her killer) and the "Tachibana Ayumi chain mail" (claiming a friend was murdered and the sender would use phone location data to find and kill anyone who didn't forward the mail to enough people, assuming they were the culprit), the latter appearing as early as 2001. Emails invoking revenge or ghosts seeking killers became common from late 1999 onwards, sometimes influenced by popular horror like the movie Ring, leading to "Sadako mail" threatening curses from the film's antagonist. A lighter(?) example was the "Fukou no Takagi Boo" (Unlucky Takagi Boo) mail circulating among high school girls in 1998, claiming to reveal comedian Takagi Boo's phone number and threatening weight gain if not forwarded. Forwarding such emails could have legal consequences; in 2000, a university student in Yamaguchi Prefecture was questioned by police on suspicion of intimidation for forwarding a threatening chain mail. In response to the prevalence of these emails, in 2005 the Japan Data Communication Association set up dedicated email addresses (advertised as a "digital trash can") where people could forward unwanted chain mails for deletion. Within months, they received tens of thousands of emails, the majority being superstition-based chain letters. Analysis in 2008 found that 78% of emails received fell into the "luck/unluck" category (though many contained links to dating or adult sites). These disposal addresses remain active. Shōzō-ji temple in Tokyo also accepts unlucky emails, printing them out for ritual disposal. Chain letters within social media platforms became widespread on Myspace (in the form of Myspace bulletins) and YouTube (in the form of video comments) as well as on Facebook through messages or applications. For instance, the chain post/email of Carmen Winstead, supposedly about a girl from Indiana who was pushed down a sewage drain in a fire drill, states that, "if you do not repost/send this to 10 people, Carmen will find you and kill you." Chain letters are often coupled with intimidating hoaxes or the promise of providing the sender with "secret" information once they have forwarded the message. From around 2011, email chain letters declined in Japan, while similar messages spread via SNS. On Twitter (now X), this often takes the form of pressured retweets (now reposts), while on LINE, messages urge forwarding to a specific number of contacts. Common LINE examples since 2016 include: "Copy this and send to 10 people or misfortune will befall you," or "You received this because you're important to me. Send this to 20 people you truly like. If you don't, friends or lovers will leave you." The latter type, leveraging friendship anxiety, reportedly caused real friction when recipients felt pressured to forward, annoying their contacts. Some include phone numbers to call "if you think it's fake," but these are often unrelated third-party numbers used for harassment, or sometimes linked to organized crime. Surveys indicate high exposure among Japanese teenagers, with many admitting to forwarding them. Online forums like Yahoo! Chiebukuro and Nifty Kids receive numerous相談 (sōdan - consultation) requests about these messages. On Japanese imageboards and forums like 2channel (now 5channel), copy-paste chain messages also appear. One notable type emerged around 2002, involving narratives where the poster claims to be possessed or hunted by a malevolent entity (e.g., "Are" - "That Thing") and urges readers to spread the story to dilute the entity's focus, ending with statements like "If you want to increase your own survival probability, I recommend exposing this text to as many eyes as possible." These are sometimes called "self-responsibility type" (自己責任系, jiko sekinin kei) stories. Since around 2007, an image known as the "Hand of God" (神の手, Kami no Te)—depicting a hand-shaped cloud with sunbeams—has circulated frequently on Twitter and LINE in Japan. Typically accompanied by text claiming that sending it to people you wish happiness upon will bring them good luck and grant wishes, the image has been flagged by security firms like G DATA Software as potentially linked to malware. (Meteorologists state such cloud formations are impossible; the image likely originated as a doctored version of a shock image from Goatse.cx.) The image gained renewed attention in 2021 when celebrities posted it on Instagram, prompting warnings. This "Hand of God" image represents a shift back towards positive "good luck" chains, albeit with potential security risks. On TikTok, sounds tagged "#いいことが起きる" (#GoodThingsWillHappen) gained popularity around 2022-2023, particularly among Japanese high school students, promising fulfilled wishes if used in posts. These represent a further evolution towards positive, low-stakes chain-like phenomena, contrasting with the anxiety-inducing nature of Fukou no Tegami. While digital copying allows perfect replication, potentially halting the mutation seen in handwritten letters like the "Stick Letter," new forms and variations continue to emerge across different platforms, suggesting the underlying mechanisms of chain letters constantly adapt to new media. Reasons for popularity The enduring appeal and periodic surges in chain letter popularity have been linked to various factors: Relationship to urban legends Chain letters often function as vectors for urban legends. The structure "learn this story/break this rule, suffer misfortune unless you pass it on to X people within Y time" is common to both. In Japan, specific urban legends are thought to be influenced by or derived from Fukou no Tegami: The structural similarity—a contagious curse requiring propagation for the host's salvation—strongly suggests these legends adapted the chain letter mechanism. In popular culture Chain letters, particularly the Fukou no Tegami type, have appeared in various fictional works, often reflecting societal awareness and anxieties surrounding them. See also References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_effects#cite_ref-4] | [TOKENS: 803] |
Contents Visual effects Visual effects (sometimes abbreviated as VFX) is the process by which imagery is created or manipulated outside the context of a live-action shot in filmmaking and video production. The integration of live-action footage and other live-action footage or computer-generated imagery (CGI) elements to create realistic imagery is called VFX. VFX involves the integration of live-action footage (which may include in-camera special effects) and generated-imagery (digital or optics, animals or creatures) which look realistic, but would be dangerous, expensive, impractical, time-consuming or impossible to capture on film. Visual effects using CGI have more recently become accessible to the independent filmmaker with the introduction of affordable and relatively easy-to-use animation and compositing software. History In 1857, Oscar Rejlander created the world's first "special effects" image by combining different sections of 32 negatives into a single image, making a montaged combination print. In 1895, Alfred Clark created what is commonly accepted as the first-ever motion picture special effect. While filming a reenactment of the beheading of Mary, Queen of Scots, Clark instructed an actor to step up to the block in Mary's costume. As the executioner brought the axe above his head, Clark stopped the camera, had all the actors freeze, and had the person playing Mary step off the set. He placed a Mary dummy in the actor's place, restarted filming, and allowed the executioner to bring the axe down, severing the dummy's head. Techniques like these would dominate the production of special effects for a century. It was not only the first use of trickery in cinema, it was also the first type of photographic trickery that was only possible in a motion picture, and referred to as the "stop trick". Georges Méliès, an early motion picture pioneer, accidentally discovered the same "stop trick". According to Méliès, his camera jammed while filming a street scene in Paris. When he screened the film, he found that the "stop trick" had caused a truck to turn into a hearse, pedestrians to change direction, and men to turn into women. Méliès, the director of the Théâtre Robert-Houdin, was inspired to develop a series of more than 500 short films, between 1896 and 1913, in the process developing or inventing such techniques as multiple exposures, time-lapse photography, dissolves, and hand-painted color. Because of his ability to seemingly manipulate and transform reality with the cinematograph, the prolific Méliès is sometimes referred to as the "Cinemagician". His most famous film, Le Voyage dans la lune (1902), a whimsical parody of Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon, featured a combination of live action and animation, and also incorporated extensive miniature and matte painting work. VFX today is heavily used in almost all movies produced. Other than films, television series and web series are also known to utilize VFX. Techniques Production pipeline Visual effects are often integral to a movie's story and appeal. Although most visual effects work is completed during post-production, it usually must be carefully planned and choreographed in pre-production and production. While special effects such as explosions and car chases are made on set, visual effects are primarily executed in post-production with the use of multiple tools and technologies such as graphic design, modeling, animation and similar software. A visual effects supervisor is usually involved with the production from an early stage to work closely with production and the film's director to design, guide and lead the teams required to achieve the desired effects. Many studios specialize in visual effects; among them are Digital Domain, DreamWorks, DNEG, Framestore, Weta Digital, Industrial Light & Magic, Pixomondo, Moving Picture Company, Animal Logic, Reel FX Animation, Sony Pictures Imageworks and Jellyfish Pictures. See also References Sources |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_book] | [TOKENS: 7431] |
Contents Comic book A comic book, comic-magazine, or simply comic is a publication that consists of comics art in the form of sequential panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are often accompanied by descriptive prose and written narrative, usually dialogue contained in word balloons, which are emblematic of the comics art form. Comic Cuts was a British comic published from 1890 to 1953. It was preceded by Ally Sloper's Half Holiday (1884), which is notable for its use of sequential cartoons to unfold narrative. These British comics existed alongside the popular lurid "penny dreadfuls" (such as Spring-heeled Jack), boys' "story papers" and the humorous Punch magazine, which was the first to use the term "cartoon" in its modern sense of a humorous drawing. The first modern American-style comic book, Famous Funnies: A Carnival of Comics, was released in the US in 1933 and was a reprinting of earlier newspaper humor comic strips, which had established many of the story-telling devices used in comics. The term comic book derives from American comic books once being a compilation of comic strips of a humorous tone; however, this practice was replaced by featuring stories of all genres, usually not humorous in tone. The largest comic book market is Japan. By 1995, the manga market in Japan was valued at ¥586.4 billion ($6–7 billion), with annual sales of 1.9 billion manga books (tankōbon volumes and manga magazines) in Japan, equivalent to 15 issues per person. In 2020, the manga market in Japan reached a new record value of ¥612.5 billion due to a fast growth of digital manga sales as well as an increase in print sales. The comic book market in the United States and Canada was valued at $1.09 billion in 2016. As of 2017[update], the largest comic book publisher in the United States is manga distributor Viz Media, followed by DC Comics and Marvel Comics featuring superhero comics franchises such as Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Spider-Man, the Incredible Hulk, and the X-Men. The best-selling comic book categories in the US as of 2019[update] are juvenile children's fiction at 41%, manga at 28% and superhero comics at 10% of the market. Another major comic book market is France, where Franco-Belgian comics and Japanese manga each represent 40% of the market, followed by American comics at 10% market share. Structure Comic books heavily rely on their organization and visual presentation. Authors dedicate significant attention to aspects like page layout, size, orientation, and the positioning of panels. These characteristics are crucial for effectively conveying the content and messages within the comic book. Key components of comic books encompass panels, speech bubbles (also known as balloons), text lines, and characters. Speech balloons generally take the form of convex containers that hold character dialogue and are connected to the character via a tail element. The tail comprises an origin, path, tip, and directional point. The creation of comic books involves several essential steps: writing, drawing, and coloring. Various technological tools and methods are employed to craft comic books, incorporating concepts such as directions, axes, data, and metrics. Following these formatting guidelines, the process unfolds with writing, drawing, and coloring. In the United States, the term "comic book" is generally used for comics periodicals and trade paperbacks while "graphic novel" is the term used for standalone books. American comic books Comics as a print medium have existed in the United States since the printing of The Adventures of Mr. Obadiah Oldbuck in 1842 in hardcover, making it the first known American prototype comic book. Proto-comics periodicals began appearing early in the 20th century, with the first comic standard-sized comic being Funnies on Parade. Funnies on Parades was the first book that established the size, duration, and format of the modern comic book. Following this was, Dell Publishing's 36-page Famous Funnies: A Carnival of Comics as the first true newsstand American comic book; Goulart, for example, calls it "the cornerstone for one of the most lucrative branches of magazine publishing". In 1905 G.W. Dillingham Company published 24 select strips by the cartoonist Gustave Verbeek in an anthology book called 'The Incredible Upside-Downs of Little Lady Lovekins and Old Man Muffaroo'. The introduction of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's Superman in 1938 turned comic books into a major industry and ushered in the Golden Age of Comic Books. The Golden Age originated the archetype of the superhero. According to historian Michael A. Amundson, appealing comic-book characters helped ease young readers' fear of nuclear war and neutralize anxiety about the questions posed by atomic power. Historians generally divide the timeline of the American comic book into eras. The Golden Age of Comic Books began in 1938, with the debut of Superman in Action Comics #1, published by Detective Comics (predecessor of DC Comics), which is generally considered the beginning of the modern comic book as it is known today. The Silver Age of Comic Books is generally considered to date from the first successful revival of the then-dormant superhero form, with the debut of the Flash in Showcase #4 (Oct. 1956). The Silver Age lasted through the late 1960s or early 1970s, during which time Marvel Comics revolutionized the medium with such naturalistic superheroes as Stan Lee and Jack Kirby's Fantastic Four and Lee and Steve Ditko's Spider-Man. The demarcation between the Silver Age and the following era, the Bronze Age of Comic Books, is less well-defined, with the Bronze Age running from the very early 1970s through the mid-1980s. The Modern Age of Comic Books runs from the mid-1980s to the present day. A significant event in the timeline of American comic books occurred when psychiatrist Fredric Wertham voiced his criticisms of the medium through his book Seduction of the Innocent (1954). This critique led to the involvement of the American Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency, which launched an investigation into comic books. Wertham argued that comic books were accountable for a surge in juvenile delinquency and posed a potential impact on a child's sexuality and moral values. In response to attention from the government and from the media, the US comic book industry set up the Comics Magazine Association of America. The CMAA instilled the Comics Code Authority in 1954 and drafted the self-censorship Comics Code that year, which required all comic books to go through a process of approval. It was not until the 1970s that comic books could be published without passing through the inspection of the CMAA. The Code was made formally defunct in November 2011. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a surge of creativity emerged in what became known as underground comix. Published and distributed independently of the established comics industry, most of such comics reflected the youth counterculture and drug culture of the time. Underground comix "reflected and commented on the social divisions and tensions of American society".[attribution needed] Many had an uninhibited, often irreverent style; their frank depictions of nudity, sex, profanity, and politics had no parallel outside their precursors, the pornographic and even more obscure "Tijuana bibles". Underground comics were almost never sold at newsstands, but rather in such youth-oriented outlets as head shops and record stores, as well as by mail order. The underground comics encouraged creators to publish their work independently so that they would have full ownership rights to their characters. Frank Stack's The Adventures of Jesus, published under the name Foolbert Sturgeon, has been credited as the first underground comix; while R. Crumb and the crew of cartoonists who worked on Zap Comix popularized the form. The rise of comic book specialty stores in the late 1970s created and paralleled a dedicated market for "independent" or "alternative comics" in the US. The first such comics included the anthology series Star Reach, published by comic book writer Mike Friedrich from 1974 to 1979, and Harvey Pekar's American Splendor, which continued sporadic publication into the 21st century and which Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini adapted into a 2003 film. Some independent comics continued in the tradition of underground comics. While their content generally remained less explicit, others resembled the output of mainstream publishers in format and genre but were published by smaller artist-owned companies or by single artists. A few (notably RAW) represented experimental attempts to bring comics closer to the status of fine art. During the 1970s the "small press" culture grew and diversified. By the 1980s, several independent publishers – such as Pacific, Eclipse, First, Comico, and Fantagraphics – had started releasing a wide range of styles and formats—from color-superhero, detective, and science-fiction comic books to black-and-white magazine-format stories of Latin American magical realism. A number of small publishers in the 1990s, changed the format and distribution of their comics to more closely resemble non-comics publishing. The "minicomics" form, an extremely informal version of self-publishing, arose in the 1980s and became increasingly popular among artists in the 1990s, despite reaching an even more limited audience than the small press. Small publishers regularly releasing titles include Avatar Press, Hyperwerks, Raytoons, and Terminal Press, buoyed by such advances in printing technology as digital print-on-demand. In 1964, Richard Kyle coined the term "graphic novel". Precursors of the form existed by the 1920s, which saw a revival of the medieval woodcut tradition by Belgian Frans Masereel, American Lynd Ward and others, including Stan Lee. In 1947, Fawcett Publications published "Comics Novel No. 1", as the first in an intended series of these "comics novels". The story in the first issue was "Anarcho, Dictator of Death", a five chapter spy genre tale written by Otto Binder and drawn by Al Carreno. It is readable online in the Digital Comic Museum. The magazine never reached a second issue. In 1950, St. John Publications produced the digest-sized, adult-oriented "picture novel" It Rhymes with Lust, a 128-page digest by pseudonymous writer "Drake Waller" (Arnold Drake and Leslie Waller), penciler Matt Baker and inker Ray Osrin, touted as "an original full-length novel" on its cover. "It Rhymes with Lust" is also available to read online in the Digital Comic Museum. In 1971, writer-artist Gil Kane and collaborators applied a paperback format to their "comics novel" Blackmark. Will Eisner popularized the term "graphic novel" when he used it on the cover of the paperback edition of his work A Contract with God, and Other Tenement Stories in 1978 and, subsequently, the usage of the term began to increase. Initially, the term "graphic novel" applied only to original, previously unpublished material. However, over the past few years, the term has also been used to describe any collected issue (e.g., trade paperback, hardcover, etc.) of material previously published as single issues. In 2017, the comic book market size for North America was just over $1 billion with digital sales being flat, book stores having a 1% decline, and comic book stores having a 10% decline over 2016. The global comic book market saw a substantial 12% growth in 2020, reaching a total worth of US$8.49 billion. This positive trajectory continued in 2021, with the market's annual valuation surging to US$9.21 billion. The rising popularity of comic books can be attributed to heightened global interest, driven significantly by collaborative efforts among diverse brands. These collaborations are geared towards producing more engaging and appealing comic content, contributing to the industry's continued growth. The 1970s saw the advent of specialty comic book stores. Initially, comic books were marketed by publishers to children because comic books were perceived as children's entertainment. However, with increasing recognition of comics as an art form and the growing pop culture presence of comic book conventions, they are now embraced by many adults. Comic book collectors often exhibit a lifelong passion for the stories within comics, often focusing on specific superheroes and striving to gather a complete collection of a particular series. Comics are assigned sequential numbers, and the initial issue of a long-lasting comic book series tends to be both the scarcest and the most coveted among collectors. The introduction of a new character might occur within an existing title. For instance, the first appearance of Spider-Man took place in Amazing Fantasy #15. New characters were frequently introduced in this manner, waiting for an established audience before launching their own titles. Consequently, comics featuring the debut appearance of a significant character can sometimes be even more challenging to locate than the inaugural issue of that character's standalone series. Some rare comic books include copies of the unreleased Motion Picture Funnies Weekly #1 from 1939. Eight copies, plus one without a cover, emerged in the estate of the deceased publisher in 1974. The "Pay Copy" of this book sold for $43,125 in a 2005 Heritage auction. The most valuable American comics have combined rarity and quality with the first appearances of popular and enduring characters. Four comic books have sold for over US$1 million as of December 2010[update], including two examples of Action Comics #1, the first appearance of Superman, both sold privately through online dealer ComicConnect.com in 2010, and Detective Comics #27, the first appearance of Batman, via public auction. Updating the above price obtained for Action Comics #1, the first appearance of Superman, the highest sale on record for this book is $3.2 million, for a 9.0 copy. Misprints, promotional comic-dealer incentive printings, and issues with exceptionally low distribution tend to possess scarcity value in the comic book market. The rarest modern comic books include the original press run of The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen #5, which DC executive Paul Levitz recalled and pulped due to the appearance of a vintage Victorian era advertisement for "Marvel Douche", which the publisher considered offensive; only 100 copies exist, most of which have been CGC graded. (See Recalled comics for more pulped, recalled, and erroneous comics.) In 2000, a company named Comics Guaranty (CGC) initiated the practice of "slabbing" comics, which involves encasing them within thick plastic cases and assigning them a numerical grade. This approach inspired the emergence of Comic Book Certification Service. Given the significance of condition in determining the value of rare comics, the concept of grading by an impartial company, one that does not engage in buying or selling comics, seemed promising. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing debate regarding whether the relatively high cost of this grading service is justified and whether it serves the interests of collectors or mainly caters to speculators seeking rapid profits, akin to trading in stocks or fine art. Comic grading has played a role in establishing standards for valuation, which online price guides such as GoCollect and GPAnalysis utilize to provide real-time market value information. Collectors also seek out the original artwork pages from comic books, which are perhaps the most rarefied items in the realm of comic book collecting. These pages hold unparalleled scarcity due to the fact that there exists only one unique page of artwork for every page that was printed and published. The creation of these original artwork pages involves a collaborative effort: a writer crafts the story, a pencil artist designs the sequential panels on the page, an ink artist goes over the pencil with pen and ink, a letterer provides the dialogue and narration through hand-lettering, and finally, a colorist adds color as the final touch before the pages are sent to the printer. When the printer returns the original artwork pages, they are typically returned to the artists themselves. These artists sometimes opt to sell these pages at comic book conventions, in galleries, and at art shows centered around comic book art. The original pages from DC and Marvel, featuring the debut appearances of iconic characters such as Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, the Flash, Captain Marvel, Spider-Man, the Incredible Hulk, Iron Man, Captain America and the Mighty Thor are regarded as priceless treasures within the comic book world. Many early iterations of black characters in comics "became variations on the 'single stereotypical image of Sambo'." Sambo was closely related to the coon stereotype but had some subtle differences. They are both a derogatory way of portraying black characters. "The name itself, an abbreviation of raccoon, is dehumanizing. As with Sambo, the coon was portrayed as a lazy, easily frightened, chronically idle, inarticulate, buffoon." This portrayal "was of course another attempt to solidify the intellectual inferiority of the black race through popular culture." However, in the 1940s there was a change in portrayal of black characters. "A cursory glance...might give the impression that situations had improved for African Americans in comics." In many comics being produced in this time there was a major push for tolerance between races. "These equality minded heroes began to spring to action just as African Americans were being asked to participate in the war effort." During this time, a government ran program, the Writers' War Board, became heavily involved in what would be published in comics. "The Writers' War Board used comic books to shape popular perceptions of race and ethnicity..." Not only were they using comic books as a means of recruiting all Americans, they were also using it as propaganda to "[construct] a justification for race-based hatred of America's foreign enemies." The Writers' War Board created comics books that were meant to "[promote] domestic racial harmony". However, "these pro-tolerance narratives struggled to overcome the popular and widely understood negative tropes used for decades in American mass culture...". However, they were not accomplishing this agenda within all of their comics. In the comic series Captain Marvel Adventures, there was a character named Steamboat who embodied a collection of highly negative stereotypes prevalent during that period. The Writers' War Board did not request any alterations to this character despite the problematic portrayal. The removal of Steamboat from the series only came about due to the persistent advocacy of a black youth group based in New York City." Originally their request was refused by individuals working on the comic stating, "Captain Marvel Adventures included many kinds of caricatures 'for the sake of humor'." The black youth group responded with "this is not the Negro race, but your one-and-a-half millions readers will think it so." Afterwards, Steamboat disappeared from the comics all together. There was a comic created about the 99th Squadron, also known as the Tuskegee Airmen, an all-black air force unit. Instead of making the comic about their story, the comic was about Hop Harrigan. A white pilot who captures a Nazi, shows him videos of the 99th Squadron defeating his men and then reveals to the Nazi that his men were defeated by African Americans which infuriated him as he sees them as a less superior race and cannot believe they bested his men."The Tuskegee Airmen, and images of black aviators appear in just three of the fifty three panels... the pilots of the 99th Squadron have no dialogue and interact with neither Hop Harrigan nor his Nazi captive." During this time, they also used black characters in comic books as a means to invalidate the militant black groups that were fighting for equality within the U.S. "Spider-Man 'made it clear that militant black power was not the remedy for racial injustice'." "The Falcon openly criticized black behavior stating' maybe it's important fo [sic] us to cool things down-so we can protect the rights we been fightin' for'." This portrayal and character development of black characters can be partially blamed on the fact that, during this time, "there had rarely been a black artist or writer allowed in a major comics company." Asian characters within comic books encountered similar prejudiced treatment as black characters did. They were subjected to dehumanizing depictions, with narratives often portraying them as "incompetent and subhuman." In a 1944 edition of the publication United States Marines, there was a story titled The Smell of the Monkeymen. This narrative portrayed Japanese soldiers as brutish simians, and it depicted their concealed positions being betrayed by their repugnant body odor. Chinese characters received the same treatment. "By the time the United States entered WWII, negative perceptions of Chinese were an established part of mass culture...." However, concerned that the Japanese could use America's anti-Chinese material as propaganda they began "to present a more positive image of America's Chinese allies..." Just as they tried to show better representation for Black people in comics they did the same for Asian people. However, "Japanese and Filipino characters were visually indistinguishable. Both groups have grotesque buckteeth, tattered clothing, and bright yellow skin." "Publishers depicted America's Asian allies through derogatory images and language honed over the preceding decades." Asian characters were previously portrayed as, "ghastly yellow demons". During WWII, "[every] major superhero worth his spandex devoted himself to the eradication of Asian invaders." There was "a constant relay race in which one Asian culture merely handed off the baton of hatred to another with no perceptible changes in the manner in which the characters would be portrayed." "The only specific depiction of a Hispanic superhero[dubious – discuss] did not end well. In 1975, Marvel gave us Hector Ayala (a.k.a. The White Tiger)." "Although he fought for several years alongside the likes of much more popular heroes such as Spider-Man and Daredevil, he only lasted six years before sales of comics featuring him got so bad that Marvel had him retire. The most famous Hispanic character is Bane, a villain from Batman." The Native American representation in comic books "can be summed up in the noble savage stereotype" " a recurring theme...urged American indians to abandon their traditional hostility towards the United States. They were the ones painted as intolerant and disrespectful of the dominant concerns of white America". East Asian comics Manga (漫画) are comic books or graphic novels originating from Japan. Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century, though the art form has a long prehistory in earlier Japanese art. The term manga is used in Japan to refer to both comics and cartooning in general. Outside Japan, the word is typically used to refer to comics originally published in the country. Dōjinshi (同人誌, fan magazine), fan-made Japanese comics, operate in a far larger market in Japan than the American "underground comix" market; the largest dōjinshi fair, Comiket, attracts 500,000 visitors twice a year. Manhwa (만화) are comic books or graphic novels originating from Korea. The term manhwa is used in Korea to refer to both comics and cartooning in general. Outside Korea, the term usually refers to comics originally published in Korea. Manhwa is greatly influenced by Japanese Manga comics though it differs from manga and manhua with its own distinct features. Webtoons have become popular in South Korea as a new way to read comics. Thanks in part to different censorship rules, color and unique visual effects, and optimization for easier reading on smartphones and computers. More manhwa have made the switch from traditional print manhwa to online webtoons thanks to better pay and more freedom than traditional print manhwa. The webtoon format has also expanded to other countries outside of Korea like China, Japan, Southeast Asia, and Western countries. Major webtoon distributors include Lezhin, Naver, and Kakao. European comics France and Belgium have a long tradition in comics and comic books, often called BDs (an abbreviation of bandes dessinées, meaning literally "drawn strips") in French, and strips in Dutch or Flemish. Belgian comic books originally written in Dutch show the influence of the Francophone "Franco-Belgian" comics but have their own distinct style.[citation needed] Although Ally Sloper's Half Holiday (1884) was aimed at an adult market, publishers quickly targeted a younger demographic, which has led to most publications being for children and has created an association in the public's mind of comics as somewhat juvenile. The Guardian refers to Ally Sloper as "one of the world's first iconic cartoon characters", and "as famous in Victorian Britain as Dennis the Menace would be a century later." British comics in the early 20th century typically evolved from illustrated penny dreadfuls of the Victorian era (featuring Sweeney Todd, Dick Turpin and Varney the Vampire). First published in the 1830s, penny dreadfuls were "Britain's first taste of mass-produced popular culture for the young." The two most popular British comic books, The Beano and The Dandy, were first published by DC Thomson in the 1930s. By 1950 the weekly circulation of both reached 2 million. Explaining the enormous popularity of comics in the UK during this period, Anita O'Brien, director curator at London's Cartoon Museum, states: "When comics like the Beano and Dandy were invented back in the 1930s – and through really to the 1950s and 60s – these comics were almost the only entertainment available to children." Dennis the Menace was created in the 1950s, which saw sales for The Beano soar. He features in the cover of The Beano, with the BBC referring to him as the "definitive naughty boy of the comic world." In 1954, Tiger comics introduced Roy of the Rovers, the hugely popular football based strip recounting the life of Roy Race and the team he played for, Melchester Rovers. The stock media phrase "real 'Roy of the Rovers' stuff" is often used by football writers, commentators and fans when describing displays of great skill, or surprising results that go against the odds, in reference to the dramatic storylines that were the strip's trademark. Other comic books such as Eagle, Valiant, Warrior, Viz and 2000 AD also flourished. Some comics, such as Judge Dredd and other 2000 AD titles, have been published in a tabloid form. Underground comics and "small press" titles have also appeared in the UK, notably Oz and Escape Magazine. The content of Action, another title aimed at children and launched in the mid-1970s, became the subject of discussion in the House of Commons. Although on a smaller scale than similar investigations in the US, such concerns led to a moderation of content published within British comics. Such moderation never became formalized to the extent of promulgating a code, nor did it last long. The UK has also established a healthy market in the reprinting and repackaging of material, notably material originating in the US. The lack of reliable supplies of American comic books led to a variety of black-and-white reprints, including Marvel's monster comics of the 1950s, Fawcett's Captain Marvel, and other characters such as Sheena, Mandrake the Magician, and the Phantom. Several reprint companies became involved in repackaging American material for the British market, notably the importer and distributor Thorpe & Porter. Marvel Comics established a UK office in 1972. DC Comics and Dark Horse Comics also opened offices in the 1990s. The repackaging of European material has occurred less frequently, although The Adventures of Tintin and Asterix serials have been successfully translated and repackaged in softcover books. The number of European comics available in the UK has increased in the last two decades. The British company Cinebook, founded in 2005, has released English translated versions of many European series. In the 1980s, a resurgence of British writers and artists gained prominence in mainstream comic books, which was dubbed the "British Invasion" in comic book history. These writers and artists brought with them their own mature themes and philosophy such as anarchy, controversy and politics common in British media. These elements would pave the way for mature and "darker and edgier" comic books and jump start the Modern Age of Comics. Writers included Alan Moore, famous for his V for Vendetta, From Hell, Watchmen, Marvelman, and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen; Neil Gaiman with The Sandman mythos and Books of Magic; Warren Ellis, creator of Transmetropolitan and Planetary; and others such as Mark Millar, creator of Wanted and Kick-Ass. The comic book series John Constantine, Hellblazer, which is largely set in Britain and starring the magician John Constantine, paved the way for British writers such as Jamie Delano. The English musician Peter Gabriel issued in 2000 The Story of OVO which was released in a CD-booklet-shaped comic book as part of the CD edition with the title "OVO The Millennium Show". The 2000 Millennium Dome Show based on it. At Christmas, publishers repackage and commission material for comic annuals, printed and bound as hardcover A4-size books; "Rupert" supplies a famous example of the British comic annual. DC Thomson also repackages The Broons and Oor Wullie strips in softcover A4-size books for the holiday season. On 19 March 2012, the British postal service, the Royal Mail, released a set of stamps depicting British comic book characters and series. The collection featured The Beano, The Dandy, Eagle, The Topper, Roy of the Rovers, Bunty, Buster, Valiant, Twinkle and 2000 AD. It has been stated that the 13th century Cantigas de Santa María could be considered as the first Spanish "comic", although comic books (also known in Spain as historietas or tebeos) made their debut around 1857. The magazine TBO was influential in popularizing the medium. After the Spanish Civil War, the Franco regime imposed strict censorship in all media: superhero comics were forbidden and as a result, comic heroes were based on historical fiction (in 1944 the medieval hero El Guerrero del Antifaz was created by Manuel Gago and another popular medieval hero, Capitán Trueno, was created in 1956 by Víctor Mora and Miguel Ambrosio Zaragoza). Two publishing houses — Editorial Bruguera and Editorial Valenciana — dominated the Spanish comics market during its golden age (1950–1970). The most popular comics showed a recognizable style of slapstick humor (influenced by Franco-Belgian authors such as Franquin): Escobar's Carpanta and Zipi y Zape, Vázquez's Las hermanas Gilda and Anacleto, Ibáñez's Mortadelo y Filemón and 13. Rue del Percebe or Jan's Superlópez. After the end of the Francoist period, there was an increased interest in adult comics with magazines such as Totem, El Jueves, 1984, and El Víbora, and works such as Paracuellos by Carlos Giménez. Spanish artists have traditionally worked in other markets finding great success, either in the American (e.g., Eisner Award winners Sergio Aragonés, Salvador Larroca, Gabriel Hernández Walta, Marcos Martín or David Aja), the British (e.g., Carlos Ezquerra, co-creator of Judge Dredd) or the Franco-Belgian one (e.g., Fauve d'Or winner Julio Ribera [fr; de; es; fy; it; nl] or Blacksad authors Juan Díaz Canales and Juanjo Guarnido). In Italy, comics (known in Italian as fumetti) made their debut as humor strips at the end of the 19th century, and later evolved into adventure stories. After World War II, however, artists like Hugo Pratt and Guido Crepax exposed Italian comics to an international audience. Popular comic books such as Diabolik or the Bonelli line—namely Tex Willer or Dylan Dog—remain best-sellers. Mainstream comics are usually published on a monthly basis, in a black-and-white digest size format, with approximately 100 to 132 pages. Collections of classic material for the most famous characters, usually with more than 200 pages, are also common. Author comics are published in the French BD format, with an example being Pratt's Corto Maltese. Italian cartoonists show the influence of comics from other countries, including France, Belgium, Spain, and Argentina. Italy is also famous for being one of the foremost producers of Walt Disney comic stories outside the US; Donald Duck's superhero alter ego, Paperinik, known in English as Superduck, was created in Italy. Comics in other countries Distribution The comic book industry has struggled with distribution issues throughout its history, as numerous mainstream retailers have been hesitant to stock substantial quantities of the most engaging and sought-after comics. The smartphone and the tablet have turned out to be an ideal medium for online distribution. On 13 November 2007, Marvel Comics launched Marvel Digital Comics Unlimited, a subscription service allowing readers to read many comics from Marvel's history online. The service also includes periodic release new comics not available elsewhere. With the release of Avenging Spider-Man #1, Marvel also became the first publisher to provide free digital copies as part of the print copy of the comic book. With the growing popularity of smartphones and tablets, many major publishers have begun releasing titles in digital form. The most popular platform is comiXology. Some platforms, such as Graphicly, have shut down. Comic collections in libraries Numerous libraries house extensive collections of comics in the form of graphic novels. This serves as a convenient means for the general public to become acquainted with the medium. Guinness World Records In 2015, the Japanese manga artist Eiichiro Oda was awarded the Guinness World Records title for having the "Most copies published for the same comic book series by a single author". His manga series One Piece, which he writes and illustrates, has been serialized in the Japanese magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump since December 1997, and by 2015, 77 collected volumes had been released. Guinness World Records reported in their announcement that the collected volumes of the series had sold a total of 320,866,000 units. One Piece also holds the Guinness World Records title for "Most copies published for the same manga series". On 5 August 2018, the Guinness World Records title for the "Largest comic book ever published" was awarded to the Brazilian comic book Turma da Mônica — O Maior Gibi do Mundo!, published by Panini Comics Brasil and Mauricio de Sousa Produções. The comic book measures 69.9 by 99.8 centimetres (2 feet 3.5 inches by 3 feet 3.3 inches). The 18-page comic book had a print run of 120 copies. With the July 2021 publication of the 201st collected volume of his manga series Golgo 13, Japanese manga artist Takao Saito was awarded the Guinness World Records title for "Most volumes published for a single manga series." Golgo 13 has been continuously serialized in the Japanese magazine Big Comic since October 1968, which also makes it the oldest manga still in publication. See also References Further reading External links |
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Contents Brinke Stevens Brinke Stevens (born Charlene Elizabeth Brinkman, September 20, 1954) is an American actress. A native of San Diego, Stevens initially pursued a career as a marine biologist prior to becoming an actress, earning an undergraduate degree in biology from San Diego State University before studying marine biology at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Unable to find employment in the field of biology, Stevens began modeling in Los Angeles in 1980, and she worked as a film extra. Her first major film role was in the slasher film The Slumber Party Massacre (1982). She went on to appear in a number of horror films, including Sorority Babes in the Slimeball Bowl-O-Rama (1988), Nightmare Sisters (1988), Grandmother's House (1988), and Mommy (1995). In addition to acting, Stevens has co-written several films, including the comedy horror feature Teenage Exorcist (1991). Biography Stevens was born Charlene Elizabeth Brinkman on September 20, 1954 in San Diego to Charles Brinkman II, and Lorraine Brinkman, an aircraft riveter. She is of German and Mongolian descent. Stevens was raised in Crest, California along with her brother, Kerry. She graduated from Granite Hills High School in El Cajon, and was a gifted student, becoming a member of Mensa International while still in high school. As a teenager, she was a fan of Star Trek, and frequently attended sci-fi-themed conventions. In 1974, Stevens attended San Diego Comic-Con and won first place in the first Masquerade Ball. She remained involved in running the masquerade at Comic-Con for years after her win. She earned a B.S. degree in biology and psychology from San Diego State University before enrolling to study marine biology at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, California, aspiring to become a marine biologist. Stevens planned to pursue a PhD at the institute, but was barred from completing when it was uncovered that she had incorporated dolphins at SeaWorld as part of her studies, violating the institute's authorization that had given her clearance only to study the vision of seals. Despite this, she was later granted an honorary doctorate. Stevens subsequently relocated with her then-husband, comic illustrator Dave Stevens (whom she met in college) to Los Angeles in 1980, and served as a model for the character of Betty in Stevens' comic series Rocketeer. After the couple divorced in 1981, Brinke, unable to find employment in the field of biology, began working as a film extra for income. Photographer Dan Golden saw a photograph of her in costume, and hired her for a non-speaking role in the student film Zyzak Is King (1980); he also later photographed her for the cover of the first issue of Femme Fatales (1992). While leaving a modeling agency, Stevens stopped by an office door to look at film posters on the walls. The occupant, Jacob Bressler, told her to enter and asked for her portfolio. On the basis of that, he cast her in an uncredited, non-speaking role in ...All the Marbles (1981). Stevens' first speaking role was as Linda Dawn Grant in The Slumber Party Massacre (1982), a role she reprised in Cheerleader Massacre (2003). Stevens has appeared in more than 100 feature films, primarily in the genres of horror, science fiction, and fantasy film. She has gained notoriety as a scream queen. In addition to acting, Stevens has co-written a number of screenplays, co-produced two documentaries, and served as an onset decorator. She co-wrote Teenage Exorcist (1991), in which she also appeared. Stevens portrayed Julie Quinn, mother of serial killer Wayne Montgomery, in the 2007 horror film Head Case. She reprised her role in the three sequels, 2009's The Ritual, 2010's Post-Mortem, and 2013's Head Cases: Serial Killers in the Delaware Valley. Stevens is depicted in the horror novel Bad Moon Rising, the third installment of Jonathan Maberry's "Pine Deep" trilogy, alongside Jim O'Rear, Tom Savini, and Debbie Rochon, published in 2008. More recently she has appeared in a 2009 documentary Pretty Bloody: The Women of Horror and appeared in the 2013 remake of Die Sister, Die!. Alongside regular co-stars Linnea Quigley, and Michelle Bauer, Stevens appeared in and was a main subject for the 2011 documentary Screaming in High Heels: The Rise & Fall of the Scream Queen Era and its 2020 follow up Screaming in High Heels: The Reunion. Stevens narrated the 2021 Sirius XM podcast limited series, Comic-Con Begins: Origin Stories of the San Diego Comic-Con and the Rise of Modern Fandom. Filmography References Sources External links |
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Contents Tabletop game Tabletop games or tabletops are games that are normally played on a table or other flat surface, such as board games, card games, dice games, miniature wargames, tabletop role-playing games, or tile-based games. Classification according to equipment used Tabletop games can be classified according to the general form, or equipment utilized: Games like chess and draughts are examples of games belonging to the board game category. Other games, however, use various attributes and cannot be classified unambiguously (e.g. Monopoly and many modern eurogames utilize a board as well as dice and cards). For several of these categories there are sub-categories and even sub-sub-categories or genres. For instance, German-style board games, board wargames, and roll-and-move games are all types of board games that differ markedly in style and general interest. The various specialized parts, pieces, and tools used for playing tabletop games may include: A refereed game could also include various aids to play, including scenario packs and computer game aids. Role-playing games can include campaign settings and various supplementary manuals and notes. Classification according to elements of chance As an alternative to classifying games by equipment, they can also be classified according to the elements of chance involved. In game theory, two fundamentally different elements of chance can play a role: Examples of the chance classification for some well-known tabletop games are given in the table below. Organizations List of organizations that sponsor events featuring tabletop games: Numerous independent, local groups run by gamers exist to play tabletop games. Additionally, many colleges have student run organizations pertaining solely to table top gaming. The Collegiate Association of Table Top Gamers is one such organization that has a chapters at different schools. Digital tabletop games Digital tabletops games are digital variations of tabletop games, which include straight reproductions of existing physical tabletop games, video games that use tabletop game principles as part of their gameplay mechanics, and tabletop simulators that provide a virtual tabletop for conducting tabletop games online. See also Notes References |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosplayer#cite_note-Collum2004-41] | [TOKENS: 6859] |
Contents Cosplay Cosplay, a blend word of "costume play", is an activity and performance art in which participants called cosplayers wear costumes and fashion accessories to represent a specific character. Cosplayers often interact to create a subculture, and a broader use of the term "cosplay" applies to any costumed role-playing in venues apart from the stage. Any entity that lends itself to dramatic interpretation may be taken up as a subject. Favorite sources include anime, cartoons, manga, comic books, television series, musical artists, video games, memes, and in some cases, original characters. The term has been adopted as slang, often in politics, to mean someone pretending to play a role or take on a personality disingenuously. Cosplay grew out of the practice of fan costuming at science fiction conventions, beginning with Morojo's "futuristicostumes" created for the 1st World Science Fiction Convention held in New York City, United States, in 1939. The Japanese term "cosplay" (コスプレ, kosupure) was coined in 1983. A rapid growth in the number of people cosplaying as a hobby since the 1990s has made the phenomenon a significant aspect of popular culture in Japan, as well as in other parts of East Asia and in the Western world. Cosplay events are common features of fan conventions, and today there are many dedicated conventions and competitions, as well as social networks, websites, and other forms of media centered on cosplay activities. Cosplay is very popular among all genders, and it is not unusual to see crossplay, also referred to as gender-bending. Etymology The term "cosplay" is a Japanese blend word of the English terms costume and play. The term was coined by Nobuyuki Takahashi [ja] of Studio Hard in an article for the Japanese magazine My Anime [ja] in June 1983. Takahashi decided to coin a new word rather than use the existing translation of the English term "masquerade" because it implied nobility and was old-fashioned. The coinage reflects a common Japanese method of abbreviation in which the first two moras of a pair of words are used to form an independent compound: 'costume' becomes kosu (コス) and 'play' becomes pure (プレ). History Masquerade balls were a feature of the Carnival season in the 15th century, and involved increasingly elaborate allegorical Royal Entries, pageants, and triumphal processions celebrating marriages and other dynastic events of late medieval court life. They were extended into costumed public festivities in Italy during the 16th century Renaissance, generally elaborate dances held for members of the upper classes, which were particularly popular in Venice. In April 1877, French novelist Jules Verne sent out almost 700 invitations for an elaborate costume ball, where several of the guests showed up dressed as characters from Verne's novels. Costume parties (American English) or fancy dress parties (British English) were popular from the 19th century onwards. Costuming guides of the period, such as Samuel Miller's Male Character Costumes (1884) or Ardern Holt's Fancy Dresses Described (1887), feature mostly generic costumes, whether that be period costumes, national costumes, objects or abstract concepts such as "Autumn" or "Night". Most specific costumes described therein are for historical figures although some are sourced from fiction, like Alexandre Dumas' The Three Musketeers or William Shakespeare's characters. By March 1891, a literal call by one Herbert Tibbits for what would today be described as "cosplayers" was advertised for an event held from 5–10 March that year at the Royal Albert Hall in London, for the so-named Vril-Ya Bazaar and Fete based on a science fiction novel and its characters, published two decades earlier. A.D. Condo's science fiction comic strip character Mr. Skygack, from Mars (a Martian ethnographer who comically misunderstands many Earthly affairs) is arguably the first fictional character that people emulated by wearing costumes, as in 1908 Mr. and Mrs. William Fell of Cincinnati, Ohio, are reported to have attended a masquerade at a skating rink wearing Mr. Skygack and Miss Dillpickles costumes. Later, in 1910, an unnamed woman won first prize at masquerade ball in Tacoma, Washington, wearing another Skygack costume. The first people to wear costumes to attend a convention were science fiction fans Forrest J Ackerman and Myrtle R. Douglas, known in fandom as Morojo. They attended the 1939 1st World Science Fiction Convention (Nycon or 1st Worldcon) in the Caravan Hall, New York, US dressed in "futuristicostumes", including green cape and breeches, based on the pulp magazine artwork of Frank R. Paul and the 1936 film Things to Come, designed and created by Douglas. Ackerman later stated that he thought everyone was supposed to wear a costume at a science fiction convention, although only he and Douglas did. Fan costuming caught on, however, and the 2nd Worldcon (1940) had both an unofficial masquerade held in Douglas' room and an official masquerade as part of the programme. David Kyle won the masquerade wearing a Ming the Merciless costume created by Leslie Perri, while Robert A. W. Lowndes received second place with a Bar Senestro costume (from the novel The Blind Spot by Austin Hall and Homer Eon Flint). Other costumed attendees included guest of honor E. E. Smith as Northwest Smith (from C. L. Moore's series of short stories) and both Ackerman and Douglas wearing their futuristicostumes again. Masquerades and costume balls continued to be part of World Science Fiction Convention tradition thereafter. Early Worldcon masquerade balls featured a band, dancing, food and drinks. Contestants either walked across a stage or a cleared area of the dance floor. Ackerman wore a "Hunchbackerman of Notre Dame" costume to the 3rd Worldcon (1941), which included a mask designed and created by Ray Harryhausen, but soon stopped wearing costumes to conventions. Douglas wore an Akka costume (from A. Merritt's novel The Moon Pool), the mask again made by Harryhausen, to the 3rd Worldcon and a Snake Mother costume (another Merritt costume, from The Snake Mother) to the 4th Worldcon (1946). Terminology was yet unsettled; the 1944 edition of Jack Speer's Fancyclopedia used the term costume party. Rules governing costumes became established in response to specific costumes and costuming trends. The first nude contestant at a Worldcon masquerade was in 1952; but the height of this trend was in the 1970s and early 1980s, with a few every year. This eventually led to "No Costume is No Costume" rule, which banned full nudity, although partial nudity was still allowed as long as it was a legitimate representation of the character. Mike Resnick describes the best of the nude costumes as Kris Lundi wearing a harpy costume to the 32nd Worldcon (1974) (she received an honorable mention in the competition). Another costume that instigated a rule change was an attendee at the 20th Worldcon (1962) whose blaster prop fired a jet of real flame; which led to fire being banned. At the 30th WorldCon (1972), artist Scott Shaw wore a costume composed largely of peanut butter to represent his own underground comix character called "The Turd". The peanut butter rubbed off, doing damage to soft furnishings and other peoples' costumes, and then began to go rancid under the heat of the lighting. Food, odious, and messy substances were banned as costume elements after that event. Costuming spread with the science fiction conventions and the interaction of fandom. The earliest known instance of costuming at a convention in the United Kingdom was at the London Science Fiction Convention (1953) but this was only as part of a play. However, members of the Liverpool Science Fantasy Society attended the 1st Cytricon (1955), in Kettering, wearing costumes and continued to do so in subsequent years. The 15th Worldcon (1957) brought the first official convention masquerade to the UK. The 1960 Eastercon in London may have been the first British-based convention to hold an official fancy dress party as part of its programme. The joint winners were Ethel Lindsay and Ina Shorrock as two of the titular witches from the novel The Witches of Karres by James H. Schmitz. Star Trek conventions began in 1969 and major conventions began in 1972 and they have featured cosplay throughout. In Japan, costuming at conventions was a fan activity from at least the 1970s, especially after the launch of the Comiket convention in December 1975. Costuming at this time was known as kasō (仮装). The first documented case of costuming at a fan event in Japan was at Ashinocon (1978), in Hakone, at which future science fiction critic Mari Kotani wore a costume based on the cover art for Edgar Rice Burroughs' novel A Fighting Man of Mars.[Notes 1] In an interview Kotani states that there were about twenty costumed attendees at the convention's costume party—made up of members of her Triton of the Sea fan club and Kansai Entertainers (関西芸人, Kansai Geinin), antecedent of the Gainax anime studio—with most attendees in ordinary clothing. One of the Kansai group, an unnamed friend of Yasuhiro Takeda, wore an impromptu Tusken Raider costume (from the film Star Wars) made from one of the host-hotel's rolls of toilet paper. Costume contests became a permanent part of the Nihon SF Taikai conventions from Tokon VII in 1980. Possibly the first costume contest held at a comic book convention was at the 1st Academy Con held at Broadway Central Hotel in New York in August 1965. Roy Thomas, future editor-in-chief of Marvel Comics but then just transitioning from a fanzine editor to a professional comic book writer, attended in a Plastic Man costume. The first Masquerade Ball held at San Diego Comic-Con was in 1974 during the convention's 6th event. Voice actress June Foray was the master of ceremonies. Future scream queen Brinke Stevens won first place wearing a Vampirella costume. Ackerman (who was the creator of Vampirella) was in attendance and posed with Stevens for photographs. They became friends and, according to Stevens "Forry and his wife, Wendayne, soon became like my god parents." Photographer Dan Golden saw a photograph of Stevens in the Vampirella costume while visiting Ackerman's house, leading to him hiring her for a non-speaking role in her first student film, Zyzak is King (1980), and later photographing her for the cover of the first issue of Femme Fatales (1992). Stevens attributes these events to launching her acting career. As early as a year after the 1975 release of The Rocky Horror Picture Show, audience members began dressing as characters from the movie and role-playing (although the initial incentive for dressing-up was free admission) in often highly accurate costumes. Costume-Con, a conference dedicated to costuming, was first held in January 1983. The International Costumers Guild, Inc., originally known as the Greater Columbia Fantasy Costumer's Guild, was launched after the 3rd Costume-Con (1985) as a parent organization and to support costuming. Costuming had been a fan activity in Japan from the 1970s, and it became much more popular in the wake of Takahashi's report. The new term did not catch on immediately, however. It was a year or two after the article was published before it was in common use among fans at conventions. It was in the 1990s, after exposure on television and in magazines, that the term and practice of cosplaying became common knowledge in Japan. The first cosplay cafés appeared in the Akihabara area of Tokyo in the late 1990s. A temporary maid café was set up at the Tokyo Character Collection event in August 1998 to promote the video game Welcome to Pia Carrot 2 (1997). An occasional Pia Carrot Restaurant was held at the shop Gamers in Akihabara in the years up to 2000. Being linked to specific intellectual properties limited the lifespan of these cafés, which was solved by using generic maids, leading to the first permanent establishment, Cure Maid Café, which opened in March 2001. The first World Cosplay Summit was held on 12 October 2003 at the Rose Court Hotel in Nagoya, Japan, with five cosplayers invited from Germany, France and Italy. There was no contest until 2005, when the World Cosplay Championship began. The first winners were the Italian team of Giorgia Vecchini [it], Francesca Dani and Emilia Fata Livia. Worldcon masquerade attendance peaked in the 1980s and started to fall thereafter. This trend was reversed when the concept of cosplay was re-imported from Japan. Practice of cosplay Cosplay costumes vary greatly and can range from simple themed clothing to highly detailed costumes. It is generally considered different from Halloween and Mardi Gras costume wear, as the intention is to replicate a specific character, rather than to reflect the culture and symbolism of a holiday event. As such, when in costume, some cosplayers often seek to adopt the affect, mannerisms, and body language of the characters they portray (with "out of character" breaks). The characters chosen to be cosplayed may be sourced from any movie, TV series, book, comic book, video game, musical artist, anime, or manga. Some cosplayers even choose to cosplay an original character of their own design or a fusion of different genres (e.g., a steampunk version of a character), and it is a part of the ethos of cosplay that anybody can be anything, as with genderbending, crossplay, or drag, a cosplayer playing a character of another ethnicity, or a hijabi portraying Captain America. Cosplayers obtain their apparel through many different methods. Manufacturers produce and sell packaged outfits for use in cosplay, with varying levels of quality. These costumes are often sold online, but also can be purchased from dealers at conventions. Japanese manufacturers of cosplay costumes reported a profit of 35 billion yen in 2008. A number of individuals also work on commission, creating custom costumes, props, or wigs designed and fitted to the individual. Other cosplayers, who prefer to create their own costumes, still provide a market for individual elements, and various raw materials, such as unstyled wigs, hair dye, cloth and sewing notions, liquid latex, body paint, costume jewelry, and prop weapons. Cosplay represents an act of embodiment. Cosplay has been closely linked to the presentation of self, yet cosplayers' ability to perform is limited by their physical features. The accuracy of a cosplay is judged based on the ability to accurately represent a character through the body, and individual cosplayers frequently are faced by their own "bodily limits" such as level of attractiveness, body size, and disability that often restrict and confine how accurate the cosplay is perceived to be. Authenticity is measured by a cosplayer's individual ability to translate on-screen manifestation to the cosplay itself. Some have argued that cosplay can never be a true representation of the character; instead, it can only be read through the body, and that true embodiment of a character is judged based on nearness to the original character form. Cosplaying can also help some of those with self-esteem problems. Many cosplayers create their own outfits, referencing images of the characters in the process. In the creation of the outfits, much time is given to detail and qualities, thus the skill of a cosplayer may be measured by how difficult the details of the outfit are and how well they have been replicated. Because of the difficulty of replicating some details and materials, cosplayers often educate themselves in crafting specialties such as textiles, sculpture, face paint, fiberglass, fashion design, woodworking, and other uses of materials in the effort to render the look and texture of a costume accurately. Cosplayers often wear wigs in conjunction with their outfit to further improve the resemblance to the character. This is especially necessary for anime and manga or video-game characters who often have unnaturally colored and uniquely styled hair. Simpler outfits may be compensated for their lack of complexity by paying attention to material choice and overall high quality. To look more like the characters they are portraying, cosplayers might also engage in various forms of body modification. Cosplayers may opt to change their skin color utilizing make-up to more simulate the race of the character they are adopting. Contact lenses that match the color of their character's eyes are a common form of this, especially in the case of characters with particularly unique eyes as part of their trademark look. Contact lenses that make the pupil look enlarged to visually echo the large eyes of anime and manga characters are also used. Another form of body modification in which cosplayers engage is to copy any tattoos or special markings their character might have. Temporary tattoos, permanent marker, body paint, and in rare cases, permanent tattoos, are all methods used by cosplayers to achieve the desired look. Permanent and temporary hair dye, spray-in hair coloring, and specialized extreme styling products are all used by some cosplayers whose natural hair can achieve the desired hairstyle. It is also commonplace for them to shave off their eyebrows to gain a more accurate look. Some anime and video game characters have weapons or other accessories that are hard to replicate, and conventions have strict rules regarding those weapons, but most cosplayers engage in some combination of methods to obtain all the items necessary for their costumes; for example, they may commission a prop weapon, sew their own clothing, buy character jewelry from a cosplay accessory manufacturer, or buy a pair of off-the-rack shoes, and modify them to match the desired look. Cosplay may be presented in a number of ways and places. A subset of cosplay culture is centered on sex appeal, with cosplayers specifically choosing characters known for their attractiveness or revealing costumes. However, wearing a revealing costume can be a sensitive issue while appearing in public. People appearing naked at American science fiction fandom conventions during the 1970s were so common, a "no costume is no costume" rule was introduced. Some conventions throughout the United States, such as Phoenix Comicon (now known as Phoenix Fan Fusion) and Penny Arcade Expo, have also issued rules upon which they reserve the right to ask attendees to leave or change their costumes if deemed to be inappropriate to a family-friendly environment or something of a similar nature. The most popular form of presenting a cosplay publicly is by wearing it to a fan convention. Multiple conventions dedicated to anime and manga, comics, TV shows, video games, science fiction, and fantasy may be found all around the world. Cosplay-centered conventions include Cosplay Mania in the Philippines and EOY Cosplay Festival in Singapore. The single largest event featuring cosplay is the semiannual doujinshi market, Comic Market (Comiket), held in Japan during summer and winter. Comiket attracts hundreds of thousands of manga and anime fans, where thousands of cosplayers congregate on the roof of the exhibition center. In North America, the highest-attended fan conventions featuring cosplayers are San Diego Comic-Con and New York Comic Con held in the United States, and the anime-specific Anime North in Toronto, Otakon held in Washington, D.C. and Anime Expo held in Los Angeles. Europe's largest event is Japan Expo held in Paris, while the London MCM Expo and the London Super Comic Convention are the most notable in the UK. Supanova Pop Culture Expo is Australia's biggest event. Star Trek conventions have featured cosplay for many decades. These include Destination Star Trek, a UK convention, and Star Trek Las Vegas, a US convention. In different comic fairs, "Thematic Areas" are set up where cosplayers can take photos in an environment that follows that of the game or animation product from which they are taken. Sometimes the cosplayers are part of the area, playing the role of staff with the task of entertaining the other visitors. Some examples are the thematic areas dedicated to Star Wars or to Fallout. The areas are set up by not for profit associations of fans, but in some major fairs it is possible to visit areas set up directly by the developers of the video games or the producers of the anime. The appearance of cosplayers at public events makes them a popular draw for photographers. As this became apparent in the late 1980s, a new variant of cosplay developed in which cosplayers attended events mainly for the purpose of modeling their characters for still photography rather than engaging in continuous role play. Rules of etiquette were developed to minimize awkward situations involving boundaries. Cosplayers pose for photographers and photographers do not press them for personal contact information or private sessions, follow them out of the area, or take photos without permission. The rules allow the collaborative relationship between photographers and cosplayers to continue with the least inconvenience to each other. Some cosplayers choose to have a professional photographer take high quality images of them in their costumes posing as the character. Cosplayers and photographers frequently exhibit their work online and sometimes sell their images. As the popularity of cosplay has grown, many conventions have come to feature a contest surrounding cosplay that may be the main feature of the convention. Contestants present their cosplay, and often to be judged for an award, the cosplay must be self-made. The contestants may choose to perform a skit, which may consist of a short performed script or dance with optional accompanying audio, video, or images shown on a screen overhead. Other contestants may simply choose to pose as their characters. Often, contestants are briefly interviewed on stage by a master of ceremonies. The audience is given a chance to take photos of the cosplayers. Cosplayers may compete solo or in a group. Awards are presented, and these awards may vary greatly. Generally, a best cosplayer award, a best group award, and runner-up prizes are given. Awards may also go to the best skit and a number of cosplay skill subcategories, such as master tailor, master weapon-maker, master armorer, and so forth. The most well-known cosplay contest event is the World Cosplay Summit, selecting cosplayers from 40 countries to compete in the final round in Nagoya, Japan. Some other international events include European Cosplay Gathering (finals taking place at Japan Expo in Paris), EuroCosplay (finals taking place at London MCM Comic Con), and the Nordic Cosplay Championship (finals taking place at NärCon in Linköping, Sweden). This table contains a list of the most common cosplay competition judging criteria, as seen from World Cosplay Summit, Cyprus Comic Con, and ReplayFX. Portraying a character of the opposite sex is called crossplay. The practicality of crossplay and cross-dress stems in part from the abundance in manga of male characters with delicate and somewhat androgynous features. Such characters, known as bishōnen (lit. 'pretty boy'), are Asian equivalent of the elfin boy archetype represented in Western tradition by figures such as Peter Pan and Ariel. Male to female cosplayers may experience issues when trying to portray a female character because it is hard to maintain the sexualized femininity of a character. Male cosplayers may also be subjected to discrimination, including homophobic comments and being touched without permission. This affects men possibly even more often than it affects women, despite inappropriate contact already being a problem for women who cosplay, as is "slut-shaming". Animegao kigurumi players, a niche group in the realm of cosplay, are often male cosplayers who use zentai and stylized masks to represent female anime characters. These cosplayers completely hide their real features so the original appearance of their characters may be reproduced as literally as possible, and to display all the abstractions and stylizations such as oversized eyes and tiny mouths often seen in Japanese cartoon art. This does not mean that only males perform animegao or that masks are only female. "Cosplay Is Not Consent", a movement started in 2013 by Rochelle Keyhan, Erin Filson, and Anna Kegler, brought attention to the issue of sexual harassment in the convention attending cosplay community. Harassment of cosplayers include photography without permission, verbal abuse, touching, and groping. Harassment is not limited to women in provocative outfits as male cosplayers talked about being bullied for not fitting certain costume and characters. Starting in 2014, New York Comic Con placed large signs at the entrance stating that "Cosplay is Not Consent". Attendees were reminded to ask permission for photos and respect the person's right to say no. The movement against sexual harassment against cosplayers has continued to gain momentum and awareness since being publicized. Traditional mainstream news media like The Mercury News and Los Angeles Times have reported on the topic, bringing awareness of sexual harassment to those outside of the cosplay community. As cosplay has entered more mainstream media, ethnicity becomes a controversial point. Cosplayers of different skin color than the character are often ridiculed for not being 'accurate' or 'faithful'. Many cosplayers feel as if anyone can cosplay any character, but it becomes complicated when cosplayers are not respectful of the character's ethnicity. These views against non-white cosplayers within the community have been attributed to the lack of representation in the industry and in media. Issues such as blackface, brownface, and yellowface are still controversial since a large part of the cosplay community see these as separate problems, or simply an acceptable part of cosplay.[citation needed] Cosplay has influenced the advertising industry, in which cosplayers are often used for event work previously assigned to agency models. Some cosplayers have thus transformed their hobby into profitable, professional careers. Japan's entertainment industry has been home to the professional cosplayers since the rise of Comiket and Tokyo Game Show. The phenomenon is most apparent in Japan but exists to some degree in other countries as well. Professional cosplayers who profit from their art may experience problems related to copyright infringement. A cosplay model, also known as a cosplay idol, cosplays costumes for anime and manga or video game companies. Good cosplayers are viewed as fictional characters in the flesh, in much the same way that film actors come to be identified in the public mind with specific roles. Cosplayers have modeled for print magazines like Cosmode and a successful cosplay model can become the brand ambassador for companies like Cospa. Some cosplay models can achieve significant recognition. While there are many significant cosplay models, Yaya Han was described as having emerged "as a well-recognized figure both within and outside cosplay circuits". Jessica Nigri, used her recognition in cosplay to gain other opportunities such as voice acting and her own documentary on Rooster Teeth. Liz Katz used her fanbase to take her cosplay from a hobby to a successful business venture, sparking debate through the cosplay community whether cosplayers should be allowed to fund and profit from their work. In the 2000s, cosplayers started to push the boundaries of cosplay into eroticism paving the way to "erocosplay". The advent of social media coupled with crowdfunding platforms like Patreon and OnlyFans have allowed cosplay models to turn cosplay into profitable full-time careers. During protests During various protests, cosplaying as a satirization of important people and political events. In Myanmar various protests after the 2021 coup d'état various protests occurred with cosplayers. Youth groups protested on the roads by wearing cosplay costumes, skirts, wedding dresses, and other unusual clothing for daily life while holding signboards and vinyl banners that break with the country's more traditional protest messages for the purpose of grabbing attention from both domestic and international press media. Other times fictional characters are used to convey a message such as women dressing like characters from The Handmaid's Tale to protest bodily restrictions in the United States. Cosplay by country or region Cosplayers in Japan formerly referred to themselves as reiyā (レイヤー), pronounced "layer". In contemporary Japan, however, cosplayers are more commonly referred to as kosupure (コスプレ), pronounced "ko-su-pray", as the term reiyā is now more frequently used to describe literal layers (for example, hair or clothing). Words such as kawaii (可愛い) (lit. 'cute') and kakko ī (かっこいい) (lit. 'cool') were often used to describe these changes, expressions that were closely tied to notions of femininity and masculinity. Those who photograph players are known as cameko (カメコ), a shortened form of camera kozō (カメラ小僧) (lit. 'camera boy'). Originally, cameko would give printed photographs to players as gifts. Growing interest in cosplay events—both among photographers and cosplayers willing to model—has led to the formalization of procedures at events such as Comiket. Photography is conducted in designated areas separate from the exhibit halls. In Japan, wearing costumes outside of conventions or other designated areas is generally discouraged. Since 1998, Tokyo's Akihabara district has contained a number of cosplay restaurants catering to devoted anime and manga fans, in which waitresses dress as characters from video games, anime, or manga; maid cafés are particularly popular. In Japan, Tokyo's Harajuku district serves as a favored informal gathering place for engaging in cosplay in public. Events held in Akihabara also attract large numbers of cosplayers. Ishoku-hada (異色肌) is a form of Japanese cosplay in which players use body paint to alter their skin color to match that of the character they portray. This practice allows for the representation of anime or manga characters, as well as video game characters, with non-human skin tones. A 2014 survey conducted for the Comiket convention in Japan reported that approximately 75% of cosplayers attending the event were female. Cosplay is common in many East Asian countries. For example, it is a major part of the Comic World conventions taking place regularly in South Korea, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Historically, the practice of dressing up as characters from works of fiction can be traced as far as the 17th century late Ming dynasty China. Western cosplay developed primarily from science fiction and fantasy fandoms. Compared with Japan, Western cosplayers are more likely to portray characters originating from live-action television series and films. Western costuming traditions also encompass a variety of related hobbyist subcultures, including participants in Renaissance faires, live action role-playing games, and historical reenactments. Costume competitions at science fiction conventions commonly feature masquerades, in which costumes are formally judged during stage presentations, as well as hall costumes that are evaluated informally throughout the event. The growing international popularity of Japanese cartoon during the late 2000s contributed to a rise in American and other Western cosplayers portraying characters from manga and anime. Over the following decade, anime conventions became increasingly common across Western countries, often rivaling long-established science fiction, comic book, and historical conventions in terms of attendance. At these events, cosplayers—much like their Japanese counterparts—gather to display their costumes, be photographed, and participate in competitive costume events. Convention attendees also frequently choose to dress as characters from Western comic books, animated works, films, and video games. Despite increasing global exchange, cultural differences in taste remain evident. Certain costume styles that may be worn without hesitation by Japanese cosplayers are often avoided in Western contexts, particularly those that resemble Nazi uniforms. Western cosplayers may also encounter debates regarding legitimacy when portraying characters whose canonical racial backgrounds differ from their own, and instances of insensitivity toward cosplayers depicting characters of different skin tones have been documented. Western cosplayers who portray anime characters may likewise experience targeted ridicule or misunderstanding. In comparison with Japan, wearing costumes in public spaces is generally more socially accepted in countries such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States, and Canada. These regions possess longer-standing traditions of Halloween costuming, fan dress, and related practices. Consequently, it is not uncommon for convention attendees in costume to be seen in nearby restaurants and public venues outside the immediate boundaries of the event itself. Media Japan is home to two especially popular cosplay magazines, Cosmode (コスモード) and ASCII Media Works' Dengeki Layers (電撃Layers). Cosmode has the largest share in the market and an English-language digital edition. Another magazine, aimed at a broader, worldwide audience is CosplayGen. In the United States, Cosplay Culture began publication in February 2015. Other magazines include CosplayZine featuring cosplayers from all over the world since October 2015, and Cosplay Realm Magazine which was started in April 2017. There are many books on the subject of cosplay as well. Cosplay groups and organizations See also Notes References Bibliography External links |
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