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Systemic autoimmune diseases includemultiple sclerosis,myasthenia gravis,psoriasis,rheumatoid arthritis, andsystemic lupus erythematosus. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Treatments for autoimmune diseases generally involve anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Grafts and transplants can be classified asautografts,isografts, allografts, orxenograftsbased on the genetic differences between the donorâs and recipientâs tissues. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Genetic differences, especially among the MHC (HLA) genes, will dictate the likelihood thatrejectionof the transplanted tissue will occur. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Transplant recipients usually require immunosuppressive therapy to avoid rejection, even with good genetic matching. This can create additional problems when immune responses are needed to fight off infectious agents and prevent cancer. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Graft-versus-host diseasecan occur in bone marrow transplants, as the mature T cells in the transplant itself recognize the recipientâs tissues as foreign. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Transplantation methods and technology have improved greatly in recent decades and may move into new areas with the use of stem cell technology to avoid the need for genetic matching of MHC molecules. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Primary immunodeficienciesare caused by genetic abnormalities;secondary immunodeficienciesare acquired through disease, diet, or environmental exposures | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Primary immunodeficiencies may result from flaws in phagocyte killing of innate immunity, or impairment of T cells and B cells. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Primary immunodeficiencies include chronic granulomatous disease, X-linked agammaglobulinemia, selective IgA deficiency, and severe combined immunodeficiency disease. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Secondary immunodeficiencies result from environmentally induced defects in B cells and/or T cells. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Causes for secondary immunodeficiencies include malnutrition, viral infection, diabetes, prolonged infections, and chemical or radiation exposure. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Cancer results from a loss of control of the cell cycle, resulting in uncontrolled cell proliferation and a loss of the ability to differentiate. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Adaptive and innate immune responses are engaged bytumorantigens, self-molecules only found on abnormal cells. These adaptive responses stimulate helper T cells to activate cytotoxic T cells and NK cells of innate immunity that will seek and destroy cancer cells. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
New anticancer therapies are in development that will exploit natural adaptive immunity anticancer responses. These include external stimulation of cytotoxic T cells and therapeutic vaccines that assist or enhance the immune response. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/19-summary |
Antibodies bind with highspecificityto antigens used to challenge the immune system, but they may also showcross-reactivityby binding to other antigens that share chemical properties with the original antigen. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Injection of an antigen into an animal will result in apolyclonal antibodyresponse in which different antibodies are produced that react with the various epitopes on the antigen. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Polyclonal antiseraare useful for some types of laboratory assays, but other assays require more specificity. Diagnostic tests that use polyclonal antisera are typically only used for screening because of the possibility offalse-positiveandfalse-negativeresults. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Monoclonal antibodiesprovide higher specificity than polyclonal antisera because they bind to a single epitope and usually have highaffinity. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Monoclonal antibodies are typically produced by culturing antibody-secretinghybridomasderived from mice. mAbs are currently used to treat cancer, but their exorbitant cost has prevented them from being used more widely to treat infectious diseases. Still, their potential for laboratory and clinical use is driving the d... | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
When present in the correct ratio, antibody and antigen will form aprecipitin, or lattice that precipitates out of solution. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Aprecipitin ring testcan be used to visualize lattice formation in solution. TheOuchterlony assaydemonstrates lattice formation in a gel. Theradial immunodiffusionassay is used to quantify antigen by measuring the size of a precipitation zone in a gel infused with antibodies. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Insoluble antigens in suspension will formflocculantswhen bound by antibodies. This is the basis of the VDRL test for syphilis in which anti-treponemal antibodies bind to cardiolipin in suspension. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Viral infections can be detected by quantifying virus-neutralizing antibodies in a patientâs serum. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Different antibody classes in plasma or serum are identified by usingimmunoelectrophoresis. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
The presence of specific antigens (e.g., bacterial or viral proteins) in serum can be demonstrated bywestern blotassays, in which the proteins are transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane and identified using labeled antibodies. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
In the complement fixation test, complement is used to detect antibodies against various pathogens. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Antibodies can agglutinate cells or large particles into a visible matrix.Agglutinationtests are often done on cards or inmicrotiter platesthat allow multiple reactions to take place side by side using small volumes of reagents. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Using antisera against certain proteins allows identification ofserovarswithin species of bacteria. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Detecting antibodies against a pathogen can be a powerful tool for diagnosing disease, but there is a period of time before patients go throughseroconversionand the level of antibodies becomes detectable. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Agglutination of latex beads inindirect agglutination assayscan be used to detect the presence of specific antigens or specific antibodies in patient serum. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
The presence of some antibacterial and antiviral antibodies can be confirmed by the use of the directCoombsâ test, which uses Coombsâ reagent to cross-link antibodies bound to red blood cells and facilitatehemagglutination. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Some viruses and bacteria will bind and agglutinate red blood cells; this interaction is the basis of thedirect hemagglutination assay, most often used to determine the titer of virus in solution. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Neutralization assaysquantify the level of virus-specific antibody by measuring the decrease in hemagglutination observed after mixing patient serum with a standardized amount of virus. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Hemagglutination assays are also used to screen andcross-matchdonor and recipient blood to ensure that the transfusion recipient does not have antibodies to antigens in the donated blood. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Enzyme immunoassays (EIA)are used to visualize and quantify antigens. They use an antibody conjugated to an enzyme to bind the antigen, and the enzyme converts a substrate into an observable end product. The substrate may be either a chromogen or a fluorogen. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Immunostainingis an EIA technique for visualizing cells in a tissue (immunohistochemistry) or examining intracellular structures (immunocytochemistry). | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Direct ELISAis used to quantify an antigen in solution. The primary antibody captures the antigen, and the secondary antibody delivers an enzyme. Production of end product from the chromogenic substrate is directly proportional to the amount of captured antigen. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Indirect ELISAis used to detect antibodies in patient serum by attaching antigen to the well of a microtiter plate, allowing the patient (primary) antibody to bind the antigen and an enzyme-conjugated secondary antibody to detect the primary antibody. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Immunofiltration and immunochromatographic assaysare used inlateral flow tests, which can be used to diagnose pregnancy and various diseases by detecting color-labeled antigen-antibody complexes in urine or other fluid samples | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Immunofluorescenceassays use antibody-fluorogen conjugates to illuminate antigens for easy, rapid detection. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Direct immunofluorescencecan be used to detect the presence of bacteria in clinical samples such as sputum. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Indirect immunofluorescencedetects the presence of antigen-specific antibodies in patient sera. The fluorescent antibody binds to the antigen-specific antibody rather than the antigen. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
The use of indirect immunofluorescence assays to detectantinuclear antibodiesis an important tool in the diagnosis of several autoimmune diseases. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Flow cytometryuses fluorescent mAbs against cell-membrane proteins to quantify specific subsets of cells in complex mixtures. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Fluorescence-activated cell sortersare an extension of flow cytometry in which fluorescence intensity is used to physically separate cells into high and low fluorescence populations. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/20-summary |
Human skin consists of two main layers, theepidermisanddermis, which are situated on top of thehypodermis, a layer of connective tissue. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
The skin is an effective physical barrier against microbial invasion. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
The skinâs relatively dry environment and normal microbiota discourage colonization by transient microbes. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
The skinâs normal microbiota varies from one region of the body to another. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Theconjunctivaof the eye is a frequent site for microbial infection, but deeper eye infections are less common; multiple types of conjunctivitis exist. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
StaphylococcusandStreptococcuscause many different types of skin infections, many of which occur when bacteria breach the skin barrier through a cut or wound. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
S. aureusare frequently associated with purulent skin infections that manifest asfolliculitis,furuncles, orcarbuncles.S. aureusis also a leading cause of staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS). | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
S. aureusis generally drug resistant and current MRSA strains are resistant to a wide range of antibiotics. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Community-acquired and hospital-acquired staphyloccocal infections are an ongoing problem because many people are asymptomatic carriers. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Group A streptococci (GAS),S. pyogenes, is often responsible for cases ofcellulitis,erysipelas, anderythema nosodum. GAS are also one of many possible causes ofnecrotizing fasciitis. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
P. aeruginosais often responsible for infections of the skin and eyes, including wound and burn infections,hot tub rash,otitis externa, and bacterialkeratitis. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Acneis a common skin condition that can become more inflammatory whenCutibacterium acnesinfects hair follicles and pores clogged with dead skin cells and sebum. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Cutaneousanthraxoccurs whenBacillusanthracisbreaches the skin barrier. The infection results in a localized blackescharon skin. Anthrax can be fatal ifB.anthracisspreads to the bloodstream. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Common bacterialconjunctivitisis often caused byHaemophilusinfluenzaeand usually resolves on its own in a few days. More serious forms of conjunctivitis include gonococcalophthalmia neonatorum,inclusion conjunctivitis(chlamydial), andtrachoma, all of which can lead to blindness if untreated. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Keratitisis frequently caused byStaphylococcus epidermidisand/orPseudomonas aeruginosa, especially among contact lens users, and can lead to blindness. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Biofilms complicate the treatment of wound and eye infections because pathogens living in biofilms can be difficult to treat and eliminate. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Papillomas(warts) are caused by human papillomaviruses. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Herpes simplex virus(especially HSV-1) mainly causesoral herpes, but lesions can appear on other areas of the skin and mucous membranes. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Roseolaandfifth diseaseare common viral illnesses that cause skin rashes; roseola is caused by HHV-6 and HHV-7 while fifth disease is caused by parvovirus 19. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Viral conjunctivitisis often caused by adenoviruses and may be associated with the common cold.Herpes keratitisis caused by herpesviruses that spread to the eye. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Mycosescan becutaneous,subcutaneous, orsystemic. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Common cutaneous mycoses includetineascaused bydermatophytesof the generaTrichophyton,Epidermophyton, andMicrosporum.Tinea corporisis calledringworm. Tineas on other parts of the body have names associated with the affected body part. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Aspergillosisis a fungal disease caused by molds of the genusAspergillus. Primary cutaneous aspergillosis enters through a break in the skin, such as the site of an injury or a surgical wound; it is a common hospital-acquired infection. In secondary cutaneous aspergillosis, the fungus enters via the respiratory system ... | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
The most common subcutaneous mycosis issporotrichosis(rose gardenerâs disease), caused bySporothrix schenkii. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Yeasts of the genusCandidacan cause opportunistic infections of the skin calledcandidiasis, producingintertrigo, localized rashes, or yellowing of the nails. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
The protozoanAcanthamoebaand the helminthLoa loaare two parasites that can breach the skin barrier, causing infections of the skin and eyes. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Acanthamoebakeratitisis a parasitic infection of the eye that often results from improper disinfection of contact lenses or swimming while wearing contact lenses. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
Loiasis, or eye worm, is a disease endemic to Africa that is caused by parasitic worms that infect the subcutaneous tissue of the skin and eyes. It is transmitted by deerfly vectors. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/21-summary |
The respiratory tract is divided into upper and lower regions at theepiglottis. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Air enters the upper respiratory tract through thenasal cavityand mouth, which both lead to thepharynx. The lower respiratory tract extends from thelarynxinto thetracheabefore branching into thebronchi, which divide further to form thebronchioles, which terminate inalveoli, where gas exchange occurs. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
The upper respiratory tract is colonized by an extensive and diverse normal microbiota, many of which are potential pathogens. Few microbial inhabitants have been found in the lower respiratory tract, and these may be transients. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Members of the normal microbiota may cause opportunistic infections, using a variety of strategies to overcome the innate nonspecific defenses (including the mucociliary escalator) and adaptive specific defenses of the respiratory system. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Effective vaccines are available for many common respiratory pathogens, both bacterial and viral. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Most respiratory infections result in inflammation of the infected tissues; these conditions are given names ending in-itis, such asrhinitis,sinusitis,otitis,pharyngitis, andbronchitis. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
A wide variety of bacteria can cause respiratory diseases; most are treatable with antibiotics or preventable with vaccines. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Streptococcus pyogenescausesstrep throat, an infection of the pharynx that also causes high fever and can lead toscarlet fever,acute rheumatic fever, andacute glomerulonephritis. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Acute otitis mediais an infection of the middle ear that may be caused by several bacteria, includingStreptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae,andMoraxella catarrhalis. The infection can block the eustachian tubes, leading tootitis media with effusion. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Diphtheria, caused byCorynebacterium diphtheriae, is now a rare disease because of widespread vaccination. The bacteria produce exotoxins that kill cells in the pharynx, leading to the formation of apseudomembrane; and damage other parts of the body. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Bacterialpneumoniaresults from infections that cause inflammation and fluid accumulation in the alveoli. It is most commonly caused byS. pneumoniaeorH. influenzae. The former is commonly multidrug resistant. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Mycoplasmapneumoniaresults from infection byMycoplasma pneumoniae; it can spread quickly, but the disease is mild and self-limiting. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Chlamydial pneumoniacan be caused by three pathogens that are obligate intracellular parasites.Chlamydia pneumoniaeis typically transmitted from an infected person, whereasC. psittaciis typically transmitted from an infected bird.Chlamydia trachomatis, may cause pneumonia in infants. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Several other bacteria can cause pneumonia in immunocompromised individuals and those with cystic fibrosis. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Tuberculosisis caused byMycobacterium tuberculosis. Infection leads to the production of protectivetuberclesin the alveoli and calcifiedGhon complexesthat can harbor the bacteria for a long time. Antibiotic-resistant forms are common and treatment is typically long term. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Pertussisis caused byBordetella pertussis. Mucus accumulation in the lungs leads to prolonged severe coughing episodes (whooping cough) that facilitate transmission. Despite an available vaccine, outbreaks are still common. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Legionnaires diseaseis caused by infection from environmental reservoirs of theLegionella pneumophilabacterium. The bacterium is endocytic within macrophages and infection can lead to pneumonia, particularly among immunocompromised individuals. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Q feveris caused byCoxiella burnetii, whose primary hosts are domesticated mammals (zoonotic disease). It causes pneumonia primarily in farm workers and can lead to serious complications, such as endocarditis. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Viruses cause respiratory tract infections more frequently than bacteria, and most viral infections lead to mild symptoms. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Thecommon coldcan be caused by more than 200 viruses, typically rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, and adenoviruses, transmitted by direct contact, aerosols, or environmental surfaces. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Due to its ability to rapidly mutate throughantigenic driftandantigenic shift,influenzaremains an important threat to human health. Two new influenza vaccines are developed annually. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Several viral infections, includingrespiratorysyncytialvirusinfections, which frequently occur in the very young, can begin with mild symptoms before progressing to viral pneumonia. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
SARSandMERSare acute respiratory infections caused by coronaviruses, and both appear to originate in animals. SARS has not been seen in the human population since 2004 but had a high mortality rate during its outbreak. MERS also has a high mortality rate and continues to appear in human populations. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Measles,rubella, andchickenpoxare highly contagious, systemic infections that gain entry through the respiratory system and cause rashes and fevers. Vaccines are available for all three. Measles is the most severe of the three and is responsible for significant mortality around the world. Chickenpox typically causes mi... | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Fungal pathogens rarely cause respiratory disease in healthy individuals, but inhalation of fungal spores can cause severe pneumonia and systemic infections in immunocompromised patients. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
Antifungal drugs like amphotericin B can control most fungal respiratory infections. | https://openstax.org/books/microbiology/pages/22-summary |
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