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passivation : metals with a protective nonreactive film of oxide or other compound that creates a barrier for chemical reactions; physical or chemical removal of the passivating film allows the metals to demonstrate their expected chemical reactivity | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
peroxide : molecule containing two oxygen atoms bonded together or as the anion,O22âO22â | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
photosynthesis : process whereby light energy promotes the reaction of water and carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates and oxygen; this allows photosynthetic organisms to store energy | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
Pidgeon process : chemical reduction process used to produce magnesium through the thermal reaction of magnesium oxide with silicon | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
polymorph : variation in crystalline structure that results in different physical properties for the resulting compound | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
representative element : element where thesandporbitals are filling | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
representative metal : metal among the representative elements | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
silicate : compound containing silicon-oxygen bonds, with silicate tetrahedra connected in rings, sheets, or three-dimensional networks, depending on the other elements involved in the formation of the compounds | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
sulfate : SO42âSO42âion | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
sulfite : SO32âSO32âion | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
superoxide : oxide containing the anionO2âO2â | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-key-terms |
This section focuses on the periodicity of the representative elements. These are the elements where the electrons are entering thesandporbitals. The representative elements occur in groups 1, 2, and 12â18. These elements are representative metals, metalloids, and nonmetals. The alkali metals (group 1) are very react... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
Because of their chemical reactivity, it is necessary to produce the representative metals in their pure forms by reduction from naturally occurring compounds. Electrolysis is important in the production of sodium, potassium, and aluminum. Chemical reduction is the primary method for the isolation of magnesium, zinc, a... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
The elements boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium separate the metals from the nonmetals in the periodic table. These elements, called metalloids or sometimes semimetals, exhibit properties characteristic of both metals and nonmetals. The structures of these elements are similar in many ways to t... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
Nonmetals have structures that are very different from those of the metals, primarily because they have greater electronegativity and electrons that are more tightly bound to individual atoms. Most nonmetal oxides are acid anhydrides, meaning that they react with water to form acidic solutions. Molecular structures are... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe and its chemistry is truly unique. Although it has some chemical reactivity that is similar to that of the alkali metals, hydrogen has many of the same chemical properties of a nonmetal with a relatively low electronegativity. It forms ionic hydrides with active met... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
The usual method for the preparation of the carbonates of the alkali and alkaline earth metals is by reaction of an oxide or hydroxide with carbon dioxide. Other carbonates form by precipitation. Metal carbonates or hydrogen carbonates such as limestone (CaCO3), the antacid Tums (CaCO3), and baking soda (NaHCO3) are co... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
Nitrogen exhibits oxidation states ranging from 3â to 5+. Because of the stability of the Nâ¡N triple bond, it requires a great deal of energy to make compounds from molecular nitrogen. Active metals such as the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals can reduce nitrogen to form metal nitrides. Nitrogen oxides and n... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
Phosphorus (group 15) commonly exhibits oxidation states of 3â with active metals and of 3+ and 5+ with more electronegative nonmetals. The halogens and oxygen will oxidize phosphorus. The oxides are phosphorus(V) oxide, P4O10, and phosphorus(III) oxide, P4O6. The two common methods for preparing orthophosphoric acid... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
Oxygen is one of the most reactive elements. This reactivity, coupled with its abundance, makes the chemistry of oxygen very rich and well understood. | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
Compounds of the representative metals with oxygen exist in three categories (1) oxides, (2) peroxides and superoxides, and (3) hydroxides. Heating the corresponding hydroxides, nitrates, or carbonates is the most common method for producing oxides. Heating the metal or metal oxide in oxygen may lead to the formation o... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
All nonmetals except fluorine form multiple oxides. Nearly all of the nonmetal oxides are acid anhydrides. The acidity of oxyacids requires that the hydrogen atoms bond to the oxygen atoms in the molecule rather than to the other nonmetal atom. Generally, the strength of the oxyacid increases with the number of oxygen ... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
Sulfur (group 16) reacts with almost all metals and readily forms the sulfide ion, S2â, in which it has as oxidation state of 2â. Sulfur reacts with most nonmetals. | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
The halogens form halides with less electronegative elements. Halides of the metals vary from ionic to covalent; halides of nonmetals are covalent. Interhalogens form by the combination of two or more different halogens. | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
All of the representative metals react directly with elemental halogens or with solutions of the hydrohalic acids (HF, HCl, HBr, and HI) to produce representative metal halides. Other laboratory preparations involve the addition of aqueous hydrohalic acids to compounds that contain such basic anions, such as hydroxides... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
The most significant property of the noble gases (group 18) is their inactivity. They occur in low concentrations in the atmosphere. They find uses as inert atmospheres, neon signs, and as coolants. The three heaviest noble gases react with fluorine to form fluorides. The xenon fluorides are the best characterized as t... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/18-summary |
actinide series : (also, actinoid series) actinium and the elements in the second row or thef-block, atomic numbers 89â103 | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
bidentate ligand : ligand that coordinates to one central metal through coordinate bonds from two different atoms | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
central metal : ion or atom to which one or more ligands is attached through coordinate covalent bonds | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
chelate : complex formed from a polydentate ligand attached to a central metal | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
chelating ligand : ligand that attaches to a central metal ion by bonds from two or more donor atoms | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
cisconfiguration : configuration of a geometrical isomer in which two similar groups are on the same side of an imaginary reference line on the molecule | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
coordination compound : stable compound in which the central metal atom or ion acts as a Lewis acid and accepts one or more pairs of electrons | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
coordination compound : substance consisting of atoms, molecules, or ions attached to a central atom through Lewis acid-base interactions | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
coordination number : number of coordinate covalent bonds to the central metal atom in a complex or the number of closest contacts to an atom in a crystalline form | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
coordination sphere : central metal atom or ion plus the attached ligands of a complex | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
crystal field splitting (Îoct) : difference in energy between thet2gandegsets ortandesets of orbitals | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
crystal field theory : model that explains the energies of the orbitals in transition metals in terms of electrostatic interactions with the ligands but does not include metal ligand bonding | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
d-block element : one of the elements in groups 3â11 with valence electrons indorbitals | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
donor atom : atom in a ligand with a lone pair of electrons that forms a coordinate covalent bond to a central metal | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
egorbitals : set of twodorbitals that are oriented on the Cartesian axes for coordination complexes; in octahedral complexes, they are higher in energy than thet2gorbitals | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
f-block element : (also, inner transition element) one of the elements with atomic numbers 58â71 or 90â103 that have valence electrons inforbitals; they are frequently shown offset below the periodic table | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
first transition series : transition elements in the fourth period of the periodic table (first row of thed-block), atomic numbers 21â29 | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
fourth transition series : transition elements in the seventh period of the periodic table (fourth row of thed-block), atomic numbers 89 and 104â111 | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
geometric isomers : isomers that differ in the way in which atoms are oriented in space relative to each other, leading to different physical and chemical properties | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
high-spin complex : complex in which the electrons maximize the total electron spin by singly populating all of the orbitals before pairing two electrons into the lower-energy orbitals | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
hydrometallurgy : process in which a metal is separated from a mixture by first converting it into soluble ions, extracting the ions, and then reducing the ions to precipitate the pure metal | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
ionization isomer : (or coordination isomer) isomer in which an anionic ligand is replaced by the counter ion in the inner coordination sphere | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
lanthanide series : (also, lanthanoid series) lanthanum and the elements in the first row or thef-block, atomic numbers 57â71 | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
ligand : ion or neutral molecule attached to the central metal ion in a coordination compound | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
linkage isomer : coordination compound that possesses a ligand that can bind to the transition metal in two different ways (CNâvs. NCâ) | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
low-spin complex : complex in which the electrons minimize the total electron spin by pairing in the lower-energy orbitals before populating the higher-energy orbitals | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
monodentate : ligand that attaches to a central metal through just one coordinate covalent bond | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
optical isomer : (also, enantiomer) molecule that is a nonsuperimposable mirror image with identical chemical and physical properties, except when it reacts with other optical isomers | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
pairing energy (P) : energy required to place two electrons with opposite spins into a single orbital | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
platinum metals : group of six transition metals consisting of ruthenium, osmium, rhodium, iridium, palladium, and platinum that tend to occur in the same minerals and demonstrate similar chemical properties | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
polydentate ligand : ligand that is attached to a central metal ion by bonds from two or more donor atoms, named with prefixes specifying how many donors are present (e.g., hexadentate = six coordinate bonds formed) | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
rare earth element : collection of 17 elements including the lanthanides, scandium, and yttrium that often occur together and have similar chemical properties, making separation difficult | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
second transition series : transition elements in the fifth period of the periodic table (second row of thed-block), atomic numbers 39â47 | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
smelting : process of extracting a pure metal from a molten ore | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
spectrochemical series : ranking of ligands according to the magnitude of the crystal field splitting they induce | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
steel : material made from iron by removing impurities in the iron and adding substances that produce alloys with properties suitable for specific uses | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
strong-field ligand : ligand that causes larger crystal field splittings | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
superconductor : material that conducts electricity with no resistance | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
t2gorbitals : set of threedorbitals aligned between the Cartesian axes for coordination complexes; in octahedral complexes, they are lowered in energy compared to theegorbitals according to CFT | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
third transition series : transition elements in the sixth period of the periodic table (third row of thed-block), atomic numbers 57 and 72â79 | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
transconfiguration : configuration of a geometrical isomer in which two similar groups are on opposite sides of an imaginary reference line on the molecule | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
weak-field ligand : ligand that causes small crystal field splittings | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-key-terms |
The transition metals are elements with partially filleddorbitals, located in thed-block of the periodic table. The reactivity of the transition elements varies widely from very active metals such as scandium and iron to almost inert elements, such as the platinum metals. The type of chemistry used in the isolation of ... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-summary |
Transition metals exhibit chemical behavior typical of metals. For example, they oxidize in air upon heating and react with elemental halogens to form halides. Those elements that lie above hydrogen in the activity series react with acids, producing salts and hydrogen gas. Oxides, hydroxides, and carbonates of transiti... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-summary |
The transition elements and main group elements can form coordination compounds, or complexes, in which a central metal atom or ion is bonded to one or more ligands by coordinate covalent bonds. Ligands with more than one donor atom are called polydentate ligands and form chelates. The common geometries found in comple... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-summary |
Crystal field theory treats interactions between the electrons on the metal and the ligands as a simple electrostatic effect. The presence of the ligands near the metal ion changes the energies of the metaldorbitals relative to their energies in the free ion. Both the color and the magnetic properties of a complex can ... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/19-summary |
E = mc 2 | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-equations |
decay rate = λN | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-equations |
t 1 / 2 = ln 2 λ = 0.693 λ t 1 / 2 = ln 2 λ = 0.693 λ | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-equations |
rem = RBE Ã Ã rad | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-equations |
Sv = RBE Ã Ã Gy | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-equations |
alpha (α) decay : loss of an alpha particle during radioactive decay | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
alpha particle : (αor24He24Heor24α)24α)high-energy helium nucleus; a helium atom that has lost two electrons and contains two protons and two neutrons | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
antimatter : particles with the same mass but opposite properties (such as charge) of ordinary particles | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
band of stability : (also, belt of stability, zone of stability, or valley of stability) region of graph of number of protons versus number of neutrons containing stable (nonradioactive) nuclides | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
becquerel (Bq) : SI unit for rate of radioactive decay; 1 Bq = 1 disintegration/s | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
beta (β) decay : breakdown of a neutron into a proton, which remains in the nucleus, and an electron, which is emitted as a beta particle | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
beta particle : (β(βorâ10eâ10eorâ10β)â10β)high-energy electron | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
binding energy per nucleon : total binding energy for the nucleus divided by the number of nucleons in the nucleus | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
chain reaction : repeated fission caused when the neutrons released in fission bombard other atoms | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
chemotherapy : similar to internal radiation therapy, but chemical rather than radioactive substances are introduced into the body to kill cancer cells | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
containment system : (also, shield) a three-part structure of materials that protects the exterior of a nuclear fission reactor and operating personnel from the high temperatures, pressures, and radiation levels inside the reactor | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
control rod : material inserted into the fuel assembly that absorbs neutrons and can be raised or lowered to adjust the rate of a fission reaction | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
critical mass : amount of fissionable material that will support a self-sustaining (nuclear fission) chain reaction | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
curie (Ci) : larger unit for rate of radioactive decay frequently used in medicine; 1 Ci = 3.7ÃÃ1010disintegrations/s | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
daughter nuclide : nuclide produced by the radioactive decay of another nuclide; may be stable or may decay further | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
electron capture : combination of a core electron with a proton to yield a neutron within the nucleus | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
electron volt (eV) : measurement unit of nuclear binding energies, with 1 eV equaling the amount energy due to the moving an electron across an electric potential difference of 1 volt | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
external beam radiation therapy : radiation delivered by a machine outside the body | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
fissile (or fissionable) : when a material is capable of sustaining a nuclear fission reaction | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
fission : splitting of a heavier nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei, usually accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
fusion : combination of very light nuclei into heavier nuclei, accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
fusion reactor : nuclear reactor in which fusion reactions of light nuclei are controlled | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
gamma (γ) emission : decay of an excited-state nuclide accompanied by emission of a gamma ray | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
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