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gamma ray : (γor00γ)00γ)short wavelength, high-energy electromagnetic radiation that exhibits wave-particle duality | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
Geiger counter : instrument that detects and measures radiation via the ionization produced in a Geiger-Müller tube | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
gray (Gy) : SI unit for measuring radiation dose; 1 Gy = 1 J absorbed/kg tissue | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
half-life (t1/2) : time required for half of the atoms in a radioactive sample to decay | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
internal radiation therapy : (also, brachytherapy) radiation from a radioactive substance introduced into the body to kill cancer cells | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
ionizing radiation : radiation that can cause a molecule to lose an electron and form an ion | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
magic number : nuclei with specific numbers of nucleons that are within the band of stability | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
mass defect : difference between the mass of an atom and the summed mass of its constituent subatomic particles (or the mass âlostâ when nucleons are brought together to form a nucleus) | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
mass-energy equivalence equation : Albert Einsteinâs relationship showing that mass and energy are equivalent | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
millicurie (mCi) : larger unit for rate of radioactive decay frequently used in medicine; 1 Ci = 3.7ÃÃ1010disintegrations/s | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
nonionizing radiation : radiation that speeds up the movement of atoms and molecules; it is equivalent to heating a sample, but is not energetic enough to cause the ionization of molecules | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
nuclear binding energy : energy lost when an atomâs nucleons are bound together (or the energy needed to break a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons) | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
nuclear chemistry : study of the structure of atomic nuclei and processes that change nuclear structure | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
nuclear fuel : fissionable isotope present in sufficient quantities to provide a self-sustaining chain reaction in a nuclear reactor | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
nuclear moderator : substance that slows neutrons to a speed low enough to cause fission | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
nuclear reaction : change to a nucleus resulting in changes in the atomic number, mass number, or energy state | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
nuclear reactor : environment that produces energy via nuclear fission in which the chain reaction is controlled and sustained without explosion | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
nuclear transmutation : conversion of one nuclide into another nuclide | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
nucleon : collective term for protons and neutrons in a nucleus | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
nuclide : nucleus of a particular isotope | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
parent nuclide : unstable nuclide that changes spontaneously into another (daughter) nuclide | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
particle accelerator : device that uses electric and magnetic fields to increase the kinetic energy of nuclei used in transmutation reactions | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
positron(+10β(+10βor+10e)+10e) : antiparticle to the electron; it has identical properties to an electron, except for having the opposite (positive) charge | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
positron emission : (also, β+decay) conversion of a proton into a neutron, which remains in the nucleus, and a positron, which is emitted | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
radiation absorbed dose (rad) : SI unit for measuring radiation dose, frequently used in medical applications; 1 rad = 0.01 Gy | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
radiation dosimeter : device that measures ionizing radiation and is used to determine personal radiation exposure | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
radiation therapy : use of high-energy radiation to damage the DNA of cancer cells, which kills them or keeps them from dividing | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
radioactive decay : spontaneous decay of an unstable nuclide into another nuclide | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
radioactive decay series : chains of successive disintegrations (radioactive decays) that ultimately lead to a stable end-product | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
radioactive tracer : (also, radioactive label) radioisotope used to track or follow a substance by monitoring its radioactive emissions | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
radioactivity : phenomenon exhibited by an unstable nucleon that spontaneously undergoes change into a nucleon that is more stable; an unstable nucleon is said to be radioactive | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
radiocarbon dating : highly accurate means of dating objects 30,000â50,000 years old that were derived from once-living matter; achieved by calculating the ratio of614C:612C614C:612Cin the object vs. the ratio of614C:612C614C:612Cin the present-day atmosphere | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
radioisotope : isotope that is unstable and undergoes conversion into a different, more stable isotope | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
radiometric dating : use of radioisotopes and their properties to date the formation of objects such as archeological artifacts, formerly living organisms, or geological formations | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
reactor coolant : assembly used to carry the heat produced by fission in a reactor to an external boiler and turbine where it is transformed into electricity | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
relative biological effectiveness (RBE) : measure of the relative damage done by radiation | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
roentgen equivalent man (rem) : unit for radiation damage, frequently used in medicine; 100 rem = 1 Sv | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
scintillation counter : instrument that uses a scintillatorâa material that emits light when excited by ionizing radiationâto detect and measure radiation | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
sievert (Sv) : SI unit measuring tissue damage caused by radiation; takes into account energy and biological effects of radiation | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
strong nuclear force : force of attraction between nucleons that holds a nucleus together | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
subcritical mass : amount of fissionable material that cannot sustain a chain reaction; less than a critical mass | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
supercritical mass : amount of material in which there is an increasing rate of fission | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
transmutation reaction : bombardment of one type of nuclei with other nuclei or neutrons | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
transuranium element : element with an atomic number greater than 92; these elements do not occur in nature | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-key-terms |
An atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons. Although protons repel each other, the nucleus is held tightly together by a short-range, but very strong, force called the strong nuclear force. A nucleus has less mass than the total mass of its constituent nucleons. This âmissingâ ... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-summary |
Nuclei can undergo reactions that change their number of protons, number of neutrons, or energy state. Many different particles can be involved in nuclear reactions. The most common are protons, neutrons, positrons (which are positively charged electrons), alpha (α) particles (which are high-energy helium nuclei), bet... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-summary |
Nuclei that have unstable n:p ratios undergo spontaneous radioactive decay. The most common types of radioactivity are α decay, β decay, γ emission, positron emission, and electron capture. Nuclear reactions also often involve γ rays, and some nuclei decay by electron capture. Each of these modes of decay leads to ... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-summary |
It is possible to produce new atoms by bombarding other atoms with nuclei or high-speed particles. The products of these transmutation reactions can be stable or radioactive. A number of artificial elements, including technetium, astatine, and the transuranium elements, have been produced in this way. | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-summary |
Nuclear power as well as nuclear weapon detonations can be generated through fission (reactions in which a heavy nucleus is split into two or more lighter nuclei and several neutrons). Because the neutrons may induce additional fission reactions when they combine with other heavy nuclei, a chain reaction can result. Us... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-summary |
Compounds known as radioactive tracers can be used to follow reactions, track the distribution of a substance, diagnose and treat medical conditions, and much more. Other radioactive substances are helpful for controlling pests, visualizing structures, providing fire warnings, and for many other applications. Hundreds ... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-summary |
We are constantly exposed to radiation from a variety of naturally occurring and human-produced sources. This radiation can affect living organisms. Ionizing radiation is the most harmful because it can ionize molecules or break chemical bonds, which damages the molecule and causes malfunctions in cell processes. It ca... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-summary |
Various devices, including Geiger counters, scintillators, and dosimeters, are used to detect and measure radiation, and monitor radiation exposure. We use several units to measure radiation: becquerels or curies for rates of radioactive decay; gray or rads for energy absorbed; and rems or sieverts for biological effec... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/20-summary |
addition reaction : reaction in which a double carbon-carbon bond forms a single carbon-carbon bond by the addition of a reactant. Typical reaction for an alkene. | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
alcohol : organic compound with a hydroxyl group (âOH) bonded to a carbon atom | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
aldehyde : organic compound containing a carbonyl group bonded to two hydrogen atoms or a hydrogen atom and a carbon substituent | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
alkane : molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen atoms connected by single (Ï) bonds | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
alkene : molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
alkyl group : substituent, consisting of an alkane missing one hydrogen atom, attached to a larger structure | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
alkyne : molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bond | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
amide : organic molecule that features a nitrogen atom connected to the carbon atom in a carbonyl group | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
amine : organic molecule in which a nitrogen atom is bonded to one or more alkyl group | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
aromatic hydrocarbon : cyclic molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen with delocalized alternating carbon-carbon single and double bonds, resulting in enhanced stability | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
carbonyl group : carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
carboxylic acid : organic compound containing a carbonyl group with an attached hydroxyl group | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
ester : organic compound containing a carbonyl group with an attached oxygen atom that is bonded to a carbon substituent | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
ether : organic compound with an oxygen atom that is bonded to two carbon atoms | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
functional group : part of an organic molecule that imparts a specific chemical reactivity to the molecule | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
ketone : organic compound containing a carbonyl group with two carbon substituents attached to it | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
organic compound : natural or synthetic compound that contains carbon | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
saturated hydrocarbon : molecule containing carbon and hydrogen that has only single bonds between carbon atoms | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
skeletal structure : shorthand method of drawing organic molecules in which carbon atoms are represented by the ends of lines and bends in between lines, and hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms are not shown (but are understood to be present by the context of the structure) | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
substituent : branch or functional group that replaces hydrogen atoms in a larger hydrocarbon chain | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
substitution reaction : reaction in which one atom replaces another in a molecule | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-key-terms |
Strong, stable bonds between carbon atoms produce complex molecules containing chains, branches, and rings. The chemistry of these compounds is called organic chemistry. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen. The alkanes are saturated hydrocarbonsâthat is, hydrocarbons that contain o... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-summary |
Many organic compounds that are not hydrocarbons can be thought of as derivatives of hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon derivative can be formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon by a functional group, which contains at least one atom of an element other than carbon or hydrogen. The properties of hydroc... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-summary |
Functional groups related to the carbonyl group include the âCHO group of an aldehyde, the âCOâ group of a ketone, the âCO2H group of a carboxylic acid, and the âCO2R group of an ester. The carbonyl group, a carbon-oxygen double bond, is the key structure in these classes of organic molecules: Aldehydes conta... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-summary |
The addition of nitrogen into an organic framework leads to two families of molecules. Compounds containing a nitrogen atom bonded in a hydrocarbon framework are classified as amines. Compounds that have a nitrogen atom bonded to one side of a carbonyl group are classified as amides. Amines are a basic functional group... | https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e/pages/21-summary |
accuracy : the degree to which a measured value agrees with correct value for that measurement | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
approximation : an estimated value based on prior experience and reasoning | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
classical physics : physics that was developed from the Renaissance to the end of the 19th century | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
conversion factor : a ratio expressing how many of one unit are equal to another unit | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
derived units : units that can be calculated using algebraic combinations of the fundamental units | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
English units : system of measurement used in the United States; includes units of measurement such as feet, gallons, and pounds | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
fundamental units : units that can only be expressed relative to the procedure used to measure them | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
kilogram : the SI unit for mass, abbreviated (kg) | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
law : a description, using concise language or a mathematical formula, a generalized pattern in nature that is supported by scientific evidence and repeated experiments | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
meter : the SI unit for length, abbreviated (m) | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
method of adding percents : the percent uncertainty in a quantity calculated by multiplication or division is the sum of the percent uncertainties in the items used to make the calculation | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
metric system : a system in which values can be calculated in factors of 10 | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
model : representation of something that is often too difficult (or impossible) to display directly | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
modern physics : the study of relativity, quantum mechanics, or both | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
order of magnitude : refers to the size of a quantity as it relates to a power of 10 | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
percent uncertainty : the ratio of the uncertainty of a measurement to the measured value, expressed as a percentage | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
physical quantity : a characteristic or property of an object that can be measured or calculated from other measurements | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
physics : the science concerned with describing the interactions of energy, matter, space, and time; it is especially interested in what fundamental mechanisms underlie every phenomenon | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
precision : the degree to which repeated measurements agree with each other | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
quantum mechanics : the study of objects smaller than can be seen with a microscope | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
relativity : the study of objects moving at speeds greater than about 1% of the speed of light, or of objects being affected by a strong gravitational field | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
scientific method : a method that typically begins with an observation and question that the scientist will research; next, the scientist typically performs some research about the topic and then devises a hypothesis; then, the scientist will test the hypothesis by performing an experiment; finally, the scientist analy... | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
second : the SI unit for time, abbreviated (s) | https://openstax.org/books/college-physics-2e/pages/1-glossary |
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