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proteasome : organelle that degrades proteins | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
repressor : protein that binds to the operator of prokaryotic genes to prevent transcription | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
RISC : protein complex that binds along with the miRNA to the RNA to degrade it | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
RNA stability : how long an RNA molecule will remain intact in the cytoplasm | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
RNA-binding protein (RBP) : protein that binds to the 3' or 5' UTR to increase or decrease the RNA stability | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
small 40S ribosomal subunit : ribosomal subunit that binds to the RNA to translate it into protein | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
trans-acting element : transcription factor binding site found outside the promoter or on another chromosome that influences the transcription of a particular gene | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
transcription factor : protein that binds to the DNA at the promoter or enhancer region and that influences transcription of a gene | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
transcription factor binding site : sequence of DNA to which a transcription factor binds | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
transcriptional start site : site at which transcription begins | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
trp operon : series of genes necessary to synthesize tryptophan in prokaryotic cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
tryptophan : amino acid that can be synthesized by prokaryotic cells when necessary | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
untranslated region : segment of the RNA molecule that are not translated into protein. These regions lie before (upstream or 5') and after (downstream or 3') the protein-coding region | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/16-key-terms |
Nucleic acids can be isolated from cells for the purposes of further analysis by breaking open the cells and enzymatically destroying all other major macromolecules. Fragmented or whole chromosomes can be separated on the basis of size by gel electrophoresis. Short stretches of DNA or RNA can be amplified by PCR. Southern and northern blotting can be used to detect the presence of specific short sequences in a DNA or RNA sample. The term âcloningâ may refer to cloning small DNA fragments (molecular cloning), cloning cell populations (cellular cloning), or cloning entire organisms (reproductive cloning). Genetic testing is performed to identify disease-causing genes, and gene therapy is used to cure an inheritable disease. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-chapter-summary |
Transgenic organisms possess DNA from a different species, usually generated by molecular cloning techniques. Vaccines, antibiotics, and hormones are examples of products obtained by recombinant DNA technology. Transgenic plants are usually created to improve characteristics of crop plants. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-chapter-summary |
Genome mapping is similar to solving a big, complicated puzzle with pieces of information coming from laboratories all over the world. Genetic maps provide an outline for the location of genes within a genome, and they estimate the distance between genes and genetic markers on the basis of recombination frequencies during meiosis. Physical maps provide detailed information about the physical distance between the genes. The most detailed information is available through sequence mapping. Information from all mapping and sequencing sources is combined to study an entire genome. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-chapter-summary |
Whole-genome sequencing is the latest available resource to treat genetic diseases. Some doctors are using whole-genome sequencing to save lives. Genomics has many industrial applications including biofuel development, agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and pollution control. The basic principle of all modern-day sequencing strategies involves the chain termination method of sequencing. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-chapter-summary |
Although the human genome sequences provide key insights to medical professionals, researchers use whole-genome sequences of model organisms to better understand the genome of the species. Automation and the decreased cost of whole-genome sequencing may lead to personalized medicine in the future. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-chapter-summary |
Imagination is the only barrier to the applicability of genomics. Genomics is being applied to most fields of biology; it is being used for personalized medicine, prediction of disease risks at an individual level, the study of drug interactions before the conduct of clinical trials, and the study of microorganisms in the environment as opposed to the laboratory. It is also being applied to developments such as the generation of new biofuels, genealogical assessment using mitochondria, advances in forensic science, and improvements in agriculture. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-chapter-summary |
Proteomics is the study of the entire set of proteins expressed by a given type of cell under certain environmental conditions. In a multicellular organism, different cell types will have different proteomes, and these will vary with changes in the environment. Unlike a genome, a proteome is dynamic and in constant flux, which makes it both more complicated and more useful than the knowledge of genomes alone. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-chapter-summary |
Proteomics approaches rely on protein analysis; these techniques are constantly being upgraded. Proteomics has been used to study different types of cancer. Different biomarkers and protein signatures are being used to analyze each type of cancer. The future goal is to have a personalized treatment plan for each individual. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-chapter-summary |
antibiotic resistance : ability of an organism to be unaffected by the actions of an antibiotic | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
biomarker : individual protein that is uniquely produced in a diseased state | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
biotechnology : use of biological agents for technological advancement | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
cDNA library : collection of cloned cDNA sequences | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
cellular cloning : production of identical cell populations by binary fission | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
chain termination method : method of DNA sequencing using labeled dideoxynucleotides to terminate DNA replication; it is also called the dideoxy method or the Sanger method | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
clone : exact replica | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
contig : larger sequence of DNA assembled from overlapping shorter sequences | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
cytogenetic mapping : technique that uses a microscope to create a map from stained chromosomes | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
deoxynucleotide : individual monomer (single unit) of DNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
dideoxynucleotide : individual monomer of DNA that is missing a hydroxyl group (âOH) | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
DNA microarray : method used to detect gene expression by analyzing an array of DNA fragments that are fixed to a glass slide or a silicon chip to identify active genes and identify sequences | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
expressed sequence tag (EST) : short STS that is identified with cDNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
false negative : incorrect test result that should have been positive | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
foreign DNA : DNA that belongs to a different species or DNA that is artificially synthesized | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
gel electrophoresis : technique used to separate molecules on the basis of size using electric charge | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
gene targeting : method for altering the sequence of a specific gene by introducing the modified version on a vector | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
gene therapy : technique used to cure inheritable diseases by replacing mutant genes with good genes | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genetic diagnosis : diagnosis of the potential for disease development by analyzing disease-causing genes | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genetic engineering : alteration of the genetic makeup of an organism | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genetic map : outline of genes and their location on a chromosome | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genetic marker : gene or sequence on a chromosome with a known location that is associated with a specific trait | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genetic recombination : exchange of DNA between homologous pairs of chromosomes | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genetic testing : process of testing for the presence of disease-causing genes | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genetically modified organism (GMO) : organism whose genome has been artificially changed | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genome annotation : process of attaching biological information to gene sequences | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genome mapping : process of finding the location of genes on each chromosome | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genomic library : collection of cloned DNA which represents all of the sequences and fragments from a genome | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
genomics : study of entire genomes including the complete set of genes, their nucleotide sequence and organization, and their interactions within a species and with other species | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
host DNA : DNA that is present in the genome of the organism of interest | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
linkage analysis : procedure that analyzes the recombination of genes to determine if they are linked | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
lysis buffer : solution used to break the cell membrane and release cell contents | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
metabolome : complete set of metabolites which are related to the genetic makeup of an organism | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
metabolomics : study of small molecule metabolites found in an organism | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
metagenomics : study of the collective genomes of multiple species that grow and interact in an environmental niche | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
microsatellite polymorphism : variation between individuals in the sequence and number of repeats of microsatellite DNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
model organism : species that is studied and used as a model to understand the biological processes in other species represented by the model organism | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
molecular cloning : cloning of DNA fragments | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
multiple cloning site (MCS) : site that can be recognized by multiple restriction endonucleases | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
next-generation sequencing : group of automated techniques used for rapid DNA sequencing | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
northern blotting : transfer of RNA from a gel to a nylon membrane | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
pharmacogenomics : study of drug interactions with the genome or proteome; also called toxicogenomics | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
physical map : representation of the physical distance between genes or genetic markers | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
polygenic : phenotypic characteristic caused by two or more genes | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) : technique used to amplify DNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
probe : small DNA fragment used to determine if the complementary sequence is present in a DNA sample | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
protease : enzyme that breaks down proteins | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
protein signature : set of uniquely expressed proteins in the diseased state | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
proteome : entire set of proteins produced by a cell type | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
proteomics : study of the function of proteomes | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
pure culture : growth of a single type of cell in the laboratory | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
radiation hybrid mapping : information obtained by fragmenting the chromosome with x-rays | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
recombinant DNA : combination of DNA fragments generated by molecular cloning that does not exist in nature; also known as a chimeric molecule | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
recombinant protein : protein product of a gene derived by molecular cloning | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
reproductive cloning : cloning of entire organisms | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
restriction endonuclease : enzyme that can recognize and cleave specific DNA sequences | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) : variation between individuals in the length of DNA fragments generated by restriction endonucleases | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
reverse genetics : method of determining the function of a gene by starting with the gene itself instead of starting with the gene product | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) : PCR technique that involves converting RNA to DNA by reverse transcriptase | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
ribonuclease : enzyme that breaks down RNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
sequence mapping : mapping information obtained after DNA sequencing | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
shotgun sequencing : method used to sequence multiple DNA fragments to generate the sequence of a large piece of DNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) : variation between individuals in a single nucleotide | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
Southern blotting : transfer of DNA from a gel to a nylon membrane | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
systems biology : study of whole biological systems (genomes and proteomes) based on interactions within the system | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
Ti plasmid : plasmid system derived fromAgrobacterium tumifaciensthat has been used by scientists to introduce foreign DNA into plant cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
transgenic : organism that receives DNA from a different species | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs) : variation in the number of tandem repeats between individuals in the population | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
whole-genome sequencing : process that determines the DNA sequence of an entire genome | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/17-key-terms |
Evolution is the process of adaptation through mutation which allows more desirable characteristics to be passed to the next generation. Over time, organisms evolve more characteristics that are beneficial to their survival. For living organisms to adapt and change to environmental pressures, genetic variation must be present. With genetic variation, individuals have differences in form and function that allow some to survive certain conditions better than others. These organisms pass their favorable traits to their offspring. Eventually, environments change, and what was once a desirable, advantageous trait may become an undesirable trait and organisms may further evolve. Evolution may be convergent with similar traits evolving in multiple species or divergent with diverse traits evolving in multiple species that came from a common ancestor. Evidence of evolution can be observed by means of DNA code and the fossil record, and also by the existence of homologous and vestigial structures. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-chapter-summary |
Speciation occurs along two main pathways: geographic separation (allopatric speciation) and through mechanisms that occur within a shared habitat (sympatric speciation). Both pathways isolate a population reproductively in some form. Mechanisms of reproductive isolation act as barriers between closely related species, enabling them to diverge and exist as genetically independent species. Prezygotic barriers block reproduction prior to formation of a zygote, whereas postzygotic barriers block reproduction after fertilization occurs. For a new species to develop, something must cause a breach in the reproductive barriers. Sympatric speciation can occur through errors in meiosis that form gametes with extra chromosomes (polyploidy). Autopolyploidy occurs within a single species, whereas allopolyploidy occurs between closely related species. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-chapter-summary |
Speciation is not a precise division: overlap between closely related species can occur in areas called hybrid zones. Organisms reproduce with other similar organisms. The fitness of these hybrid offspring can affect the evolutionary path of the two species. Scientists propose two models for the rate of speciation: one model illustrates how a species can change slowly over time; the other model demonstrates how change can occur quickly from a parent generation to a new species. Both models continue to follow the patterns of natural selection. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-chapter-summary |
adaptation : heritable trait or behavior in an organism that aids in its survival and reproduction in its present environment | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-key-terms |
adaptive radiation : speciation when one species radiates out to form several other species | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-key-terms |
allopatric speciation : speciation that occurs via geographic separation | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-key-terms |
allopolyploid : polyploidy formed between two related, but separate species | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-key-terms |
aneuploidy : condition of a cell having an extra chromosome or missing a chromosome for its species | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-key-terms |
autopolyploid : polyploidy formed within a single species | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-key-terms |
behavioral isolation : type of reproductive isolation that occurs when a specific behavior or lack of one prevents reproduction from taking place | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/18-key-terms |
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