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attenuation : weakening of a virus during vaccine development | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
AZT : anti-HIV drug that inhibits the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
back mutation : when a live virus vaccine reverts back to it disease-causing phenotype | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
bacteriophage : virus that infects bacteria | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
budding : method of exit from the cell used in certain animal viruses, where virions leave the cell individually by capturing a piece of the host plasma membrane | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
capsid : protein coating of the viral core | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
capsomere : protein subunit that makes up the capsid | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
cell necrosis : cell death | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
chronic infection : describes when the virus persists in the body for a long period of time | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
cytopathic : causing cell damage | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
envelope : lipid bilayer that envelopes some viruses | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
fusion : method of entry by some enveloped viruses, where the viral envelope fuses with the plasma membrane of the host cell | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
gall : appearance of a plant tumor | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
gene therapy : treatment of genetic disease by adding genes, using viruses to carry the new genes inside the cell | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
group I virus : virus with a dsDNA genome | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
group II virus : virus with a ssDNA genome | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
group III virus : virus with a dsRNA genome | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
group IV virus : virus with a ssRNA genome with positive polarity | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
group V virus : virus with a ssRNA genome with negative polarity | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
group VI virus : virus with a ssRNA genomes converted into dsDNA by reverse transcriptase | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
group VII virus : virus with a single-stranded mRNA converted into dsDNA for genome replication | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
horizontal transmission : transmission of a disease between unrelated individuals | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
hyperplasia : abnormally high cell growth and division | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
hypoplasia : abnormally low cell growth and division | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
intermittent symptom : symptom that occurs periodically | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
latency : virus that remains in the body for a long period of time but only causes intermittent symptoms | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
lysis : bursting of a cell | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
lysogenic cycle : type of virus replication in which the viral genome is incorporated into the genome of the host cell | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
lytic cycle : type of virus replication in which virions are released through lysis, or bursting, of the cell | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
matrix protein : envelope protein that stabilizes the envelope and often plays a role in the assembly of progeny virions | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
negative polarity : ssRNA viruses with genomes complimentary to their mRNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
oncogenic virus : virus that has the ability to cause cancer | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
oncolytic virus : virus engineered to specifically infect and kill cancer cells | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
pathogen : agent with the ability to cause disease | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
permissive : cell type that is able to support productive replication of a virus | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
phage therapy : treatment of bacterial diseases using bacteriophages specific to a particular bacterium | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
positive polarity : ssRNA virus with a genome that contains the same base sequences and codons found in their mRNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
prion : infectious particle that consists of proteins that replicate without DNA or RNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
productive : viral infection that leads to the production of new virions | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
prophage : phage DNA that is incorporated into the host cell genome | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
PrPc : normal prion protein | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
PrPsc : infectious form of a prion protein | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
replicative intermediate : dsRNA intermediate made in the process of copying genomic RNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
reverse transcriptase : enzyme found in Baltimore groups VI and VII that converts single-stranded RNA into double-stranded DNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
vaccine : weakened solution of virus components, viruses, or other agents that produce an immune response | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
vertical transmission : transmission of disease from parent to offspring | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
viral receptor : glycoprotein used to attach a virus to host cells via molecules on the cell | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
virion : individual virus particle outside a host cell | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
viroid : plant pathogen that produces only a single, specific RNA | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
virus core : contains the virus genome | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/21-key-terms |
Prokaryotes existed for billions of years before plants and animals appeared. Hot springs and hydrothermal vents may have been the environments in which life began. Microbial mats are thought to represent the earliest forms of life on Earth, and there is fossil evidence of their presence about 3.5 billion years ago. A microbial mat is a multi-layered sheet of prokaryotes that grows at interfaces between different types of material, mostly on moist surfaces. During the first 2 billion years, the atmosphere was anoxic and only anaerobic organisms were able to live. Cyanobacteria evolved from early phototrophs and began the oxygenation of the atmosphere. The increase in oxygen concentration allowed the evolution of other life forms. Fossilized microbial mats are called stromatolites and consist of laminated organo-sedimentary structures formed by precipitation of minerals by prokaryotes. They represent the earliest fossil record of life on Earth. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
Bacteria and archaea grow in virtually every environment. Those that survive under extreme conditions are called extremophiles (extreme lovers). Some prokaryotes cannot grow in a laboratory setting, but they are not dead. They are in the viable-but-non-culturable (VBNC) state. The VBNC state occurs when prokaryotes enter a dormant state in response to environmental stressors. Most prokaryotes are social and prefer to live in communities where interactions take place. A biofilm is a microbial community held together in a gummy-textured matrix. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
Prokaryotes (domains Archaea and Bacteria) are single-celled organisms lacking a nucleus. They have a single piece of circular DNA in the nucleoid area of the cell. Most prokaryotes have a cell wall that lies outside the boundary of the plasma membrane. Some prokaryotes may have additional structures such as a capsule, flagella, and pili. Bacteria and Archaea differ in the lipid composition of their cell membranes and the characteristics of the cell wall. In archaeal membranes, phytanyl units, rather than fatty acids, are linked to glycerol. Some archaeal membranes are lipid monolayers instead of bilayers. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
The cell wall is located outside the cell membrane and prevents osmotic lysis. The chemical composition of cell walls varies between species. Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan. Archaean cell walls do not have peptidoglycan, but they may have pseudopeptidoglycan, polysaccharides, glycoproteins, or protein-based cell walls. Bacteria can be divided into two major groups: Gram positive and Gram negative, based on the Gram stain reaction. Gram-positive organisms have a thick cell wall, together with teichoic acids. Gram-negative organisms have a thin cell wall and an outer envelope containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
Prokaryotes are the most metabolically diverse organisms; they flourish in many different environments with various carbon energy and carbon sources, variable temperature, pH, pressure, and water availability. Nutrients required in large amounts are called macronutrients, whereas those required in trace amounts are called micronutrients or trace elements. Macronutrients include C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Mg, Ca, and Na. In addition to these macronutrients, prokaryotes require various metallic elements for growth and enzyme function. Prokaryotes use different sources of energy to assemble macromolecules from smaller molecules. Phototrophs obtain their energy from sunlight, whereas chemotrophs obtain energy from chemical compounds. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
Prokaryotes play roles in the carbon and nitrogen cycles. Carbon is returned to the atmosphere by the respiration of animals and other chemoorganotrophic organisms. Consumers use organic compounds generated by producers and release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The most important contributor of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere is microbial decomposition of dead material. Nitrogen is recycled in nature from organic compounds to ammonia, ammonium ions, nitrite, nitrate, and nitrogen gas. Gaseous nitrogen is transformed into ammonia through nitrogen fixation. Ammonia is anaerobically catabolized by some prokaryotes, yielding N2as the final product. Nitrification is the conversion of ammonium into nitrite. Nitrification in soils is carried out by bacteria. Denitrification is also performed by bacteria and transforms nitrate from soils into gaseous nitrogen compounds, such as N2O, NO, and N2. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
Devastating diseases and plagues have been among us since early times. There are records about microbial diseases as far back as 3000 B.C. Infectious diseases remain among the leading causes of death worldwide. Emerging diseases are those rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range. They can be new or re-emerging diseases (previously under control). Many emerging diseases affecting humans, such as brucellosis, are zoonoses. The WHO has identified a group of diseases whose re-emergence should be monitored: Those caused by bacteria include bubonic plague, diphtheria, and cholera. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
Biofilms are considered responsible for diseases such as bacterial infections in patients with cystic fibrosis, Legionnairesâ disease, and otitis media. They produce dental plaque; colonize catheters, prostheses, transcutaneous, and orthopedic devices; and infect contact lenses, open wounds, and burned tissue. Biofilms also produce foodborne diseases because they colonize the surfaces of food and food-processing equipment. Biofilms are resistant to most of the methods used to control microbial growth. The excessive use of antibiotics has resulted in a major global problem, since resistant forms of bacteria have been selected over time. A very dangerous strain, methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA), has wreaked havoc recently. Foodborne diseases result from the consumption of contaminated food, pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
Pathogens are only a small percentage of all prokaryotes. In fact, our life would not be possible without prokaryotes. Nitrogen is usually the most limiting element in terrestrial ecosystems; atmospheric nitrogen, the largest pool of available nitrogen, is unavailable to eukaryotes. Nitrogen can be âfixed,â or converted into ammonia (NH3) either biologically or abiotically. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is exclusively carried out by prokaryotes. After photosynthesis, BNF is the second most important biological process on Earth. The most important source of BNF is the symbiotic interaction between soil bacteria and legume plants. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
Microbial bioremediation is the use of microbial metabolism to remove pollutants. Bioremediation has been used to remove agricultural chemicals that leach from soil into groundwater and the subsurface. Toxic metals and oxides, such as selenium and arsenic compounds, can also be removed by bioremediation. Probably one of the most useful and interesting examples of the use of prokaryotes for bioremediation purposes is the cleanup of oil spills. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
Human life is only possible due to the action of microbes, both those in the environment and those species that call us home. Internally, they help us digest our food, produce crucial nutrients for us, protect us from pathogenic microbes, and help train our immune systems to function correctly. | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-chapter-summary |
acidophile : organism with optimal growth pH of three or below | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
alkaliphile : organism with optimal growth pH of nine or above | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
ammonification : process by which ammonia is released during the decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
anaerobic : refers to organisms that grow without oxygen | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
anoxic : without oxygen | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
antibiotic : biological substance that, in low concentration, is antagonistic to the growth of prokaryotes | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
biofilm : a microbial community growing together on a surface, often held together with a gummy matrix | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
biological nitrogen fixation : conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia exclusively carried out by prokaryotes | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
bioremediation : use of microbial metabolism to remove pollutants | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
biotechnology : any technological application that uses living organisms, biological systems, or their derivatives to produce or modify other products | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
Black Death : devastating pandemic that is believed to have been an outbreak of bubonic plague caused by the bacteriumYersinia pestis | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
botulism : disease produced by the toxin of the anaerobic bacteriumClostridium botulinum | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
CA-MRSA : MRSA acquired in the community rather than in a hospital setting | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
capsule : external structure that enables a prokaryote to attach to surfaces and protects it from dehydration | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
chemotroph : organism that obtains energy from chemical compounds | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
conjugation : process by which prokaryotes move DNA from one individual to another using a pilus | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
cyanobacteria : bacteria that evolved from early phototrophs and oxygenated the atmosphere; also known as blue-green algae | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
decomposer : organism that carries out the decomposition of dead organisms | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
denitrification : transformation of nitrate from soil to gaseous nitrogen compounds such as N2O, NO and N2 | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
emerging disease : disease making an initial appearance in a population or that is increasing in incidence or geographic range | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
endemic disease : disease that is constantly present, usually at low incidence, in a population | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
epidemic : disease that occurs in an unusually high number of individuals in a population at the same time | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
extremophile : organism that grows under extreme or harsh conditions | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
foodborne disease : any illness resulting from the consumption of contaminated food, or of the pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or other parasites that contaminate food | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
Gram negative : bacterium whose cell wall contains little peptidoglycan but has an outer membrane | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
Gram positive : bacterium that contains mainly peptidoglycan in its cell walls | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
halophile : organism that require a salt concentration of at least 0.2 M | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
hydrothermal vent : fissure in Earthâs surface that releases geothermally heated water | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
hyperthermophile : organism that grows at temperatures between 80â122 °C | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
microbial mat : multi-layered sheet of prokaryotes that may include bacteria and archaea | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
MRSA : (methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus) very dangerousStaphylococcusaureusstrain resistant to multiple antibiotics | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
nitrification : conversion of ammonium into nitrite and nitrate in soils | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
nitrogen fixation : process by which gaseous nitrogen is transformed, or âfixedâ into more readily available forms such as ammonia | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
nodule : novel structure on the roots of certain plants (legumes) that results from the symbiotic interaction between the plant and soil bacteria, is the site of nitrogen fixation | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
nutrient : essential substances for growth, such as carbon and nitrogen | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
osmophile : organism that grows in a high sugar concentration | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
pandemic : widespread, usually worldwide, epidemic disease | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
peptidoglycan : material composed of polysaccharide chains cross-linked to unusual peptides | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
phototroph : organism that is able to make its own food by converting solar energy to chemical energy | https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/22-key-terms |
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