id stringlengths 2 7 | title stringlengths 1 182 | text stringlengths 200 369k | url stringlengths 31 212 | timestamp stringdate 2025-04-05 18:25:13 2025-04-05 23:52:07 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
5447 | Cameroon | | image_flag = Flag of Cameroon.svg
| alt_flag = Vertical tricolor (green, red, yellow) with a five-pointed gold star in the center of the red
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Cameroon.svg
| symbol_type = Coat of arms
| national_motto <br /><br />"Peace – Work – Fatherland"
| national_anthem <br /><br />" The Rallying Song"<br />
| image_map
| alt_map = Location of Cameroon on the globe.
| image_map2 | capital Yaoundé
| coordinates =
| largest_city = Douala
| official_languages = EnglishFrench
| regional_languages | ethnic_groups_ref
| ethnic_groups =
| 16.4% Biu-Mandara
| 13.5% Shuwa Arab, Hausa, & Kanuri
| 13.1% Beti / Bassa-Mbam
| 12.0% Fulani
| 9.9% Grassfields (Tikar)
| 9.8% Adamawa-Ubangi (Mbum-Gbaya)
| 4.6%
| 4.3% Southwest Bantu
| 2.3% Pygmy peoples
| 3.8% others/foreigners
}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2022
| religion
| religion_year = 2022
| religion_ref under a dictatorship
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 = Paul Biya
| leader_title2 = Prime Minister
| leader_name2 = Joseph Ngute
| leader_title3 = President of Senate
| leader_name3 = Marcel Niat Njifenji
| leader_title4 = President of National Assembly
| leader_name4 = Cavayé Yéguié Djibril
| legislature = Parliament
| upper_house = Senate
| lower_house = National Assembly
| sovereignty_type = Formation
| sovereignty_note = <!--from France and the United Kingdom-->
| established_event1 = German Kamerun
| established_date1 = 17 August 1884
| established_event2 = Partition
| established_date2 = 20 July 1916
| established_event3 = Independence of French Cameroon from France
| established_date3 = 1 January 1960
| established_event4 = Independence of Southern Cameroons from the United Kingdom, establishment of federal republic
| established_date4 = 1 October 1961
| established_event5 = Unitary state
| established_date5 = May 1972
| area_km2 = 475,442
| area_rank = 53rd <!-- Area rank should match List of countries and dependencies by area sourced from the UN-->
| area_sq_mi = 183,569 <!--Do not remove per Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers-->
| percent_water 0.57
| population_estimate_year = 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 52nd
| population_density_km2 = 39.7
| population_density_sq_mi = 102,8 <!--Do not remove per WP:MOSNUM-->
| GDP_PPP $141.930 billion
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024
| GDP_PPP_rank = 94th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita $4,840
| HDI = 0.587 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref
| HDI_rank = 151st
| currency = Central African CFA franc
| currency_code = XAF
| time_zone = WAT
| utc_offset = +1
| utc_offset_DST | time_zone_DST
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy <br /> yyyy/mm/dd
| drives_on = Right
| calling_code = +237
| cctld = .cm
| footnote_a These are the titles as given in the Constitution of the Republic of Cameroon, Article X ( and versions). 18 January 1996. The French version of the song is sometimes called , as in Swarovski Orchestra (2004). National Anthems of the World. Koch International Classics; and the English version "O Cameroon, Cradle of Our Forefathers", as in DeLancey and DeLancey 61.
}}
Cameroon, ; }} officially the Republic of Cameroon,}} is a country in Central Africa. It shares boundaries with Nigeria to the west and north, Chad to the northeast, the Central African Republic to the east, and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Its coastline lies on the Bight of Biafra, part of the Gulf of Guinea, and the Atlantic Ocean. Due to its strategic position at the crossroads between West Africa and Central Africa, it has been categorized as being in both camps. Cameroon's population of nearly 31 million people speak 250 native languages, in addition to the national tongues of English and French, or both. Early inhabitants of the territory included the Sao civilisation around Lake Chad and the Baka hunter-gatherers in the southeastern rainforest. Portuguese explorers reached the coast in the 15th century and named the area Rio dos Camarões (Shrimp River), which became Cameroon in English. Fulani soldiers founded the Adamawa Emirate in the north in the 19th century, and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms and fondoms.
Cameroon became a German colony in 1884 known as Kamerun. After World War I, it was divided between France and the United Kingdom as League of Nations mandates. France took 4/5 and the United Kingdom 1/5 of the territory and both ruled it under mandate until independence in 1960 and 1961 respectively. The Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC) political party advocated independence but was outlawed by France in the 1950s, leading to the national liberation insurgency fought between French and UPC militant forces until early 1971. In 1960, the French-administered part of Cameroon became independent, as the Republic of Cameroun, under President Ahmadou Ahidjo. The southern part of British Cameroons federated with it in 1961 to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The federation was abandoned in 1972. The country was renamed the United Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and back to the Republic of Cameroon in 1984 by a presidential decree by President Paul Biya. Biya, the incumbent president, has led the country since 1982 following Ahidjo's resignation; he previously held office as prime minister from 1975 onward. Cameroon is governed as a unitary presidential republic.
The official languages of Cameroon are French and English, the official languages of former French Cameroons and British Cameroons. Christianity is the majority religion in Cameroon, with significant minorities practising Islam and traditional faiths. It has experienced tensions from the English-speaking territories, where politicians have advocated for greater decentralisation and even complete separation or independence (as in the Southern Cameroons National Council). In 2017, tensions over the creation of an Ambazonian state in the English-speaking territories escalated into open warfare. Large numbers of Cameroonians live as subsistence farmers. The country is often referred to as "Africa in miniature" for its geological, linguistic, and cultural diversity. Its natural features include beaches, deserts, mountains, rainforests, and savannas. Cameroon's highest point, at almost , is Mount Cameroon in the Southwest Region.
Cameroon's most populous cities are Douala on the Wouri River, its economic capital and main seaport; Yaoundé, its political capital; and Garoua. Limbé in the southwest has a natural seaport. Cameroon is well known for its native music styles, particularly Makossa, Njang, and Bikutsi, and its successful national football team. It is a member state of the African Union, the United Nations, the (OIF), the Commonwealth of Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
Etymology
Originally, Cameroon was the exonym given by the Portuguese to the Wouri River, which they called meaning 'river of shrimps' or 'shrimp river', referring to the then abundant Cameroon ghost shrimp. Today the country's name in Portuguese remains .
History
Early history
is a writing system developed by King Njoya in the late 19th century.]]
Evidence from digs at Shum Laka in the Northwest Region shows human occupation in Cameroon dating back 30,000 years. The longest continuous inhabitants are groups such as the Baka (Pygmies). From there, Bantu migrations into eastern, southern and central Africa are believed to have occurred about 2,000 years ago. Over the following few centuries, European interests regularised trade with the coastal peoples, and Christian missionaries pushed inland. It is taught in Cameroon today by the Bamum Scripts and Archives Project. The German Empire claimed the territory as the colony of Kamerun in 1884 and began a steady push inland; the natives resisted. Under the aegis of Germany, commercial companies were local administrations. These concessions used forced labour to run profitable banana, rubber, palm oil, and cocoa plantations.
French and British rule
]]
With the defeat of Germany in World War I, Kamerun became a League of Nations mandate territory and was split into French Cameroon () and British Cameroon in 1919. France integrated the economy of Cameroon with that of France and improved the infrastructure with capital investments and skilled workers, modifying the colonial system of forced labour. The League of Nations mandates were converted into United Nations Trusteeships in 1946, and the question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroon. This prompted a long guerrilla war waged by the UPC and the assassination of several of the party's leaders, including Ruben Um Nyobè, Félix-Roland Moumié and Ernest Ouandie. In the British Cameroons, the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroon or join Nigeria; the British ruled out the option of independence.
Independence
On 1 January 1960, French Cameroun gained independence from France under President Ahmadou Ahidjo as the Republic of Cameroon.
Federal Republic of Cameroon
On 1 October 1961, the formerly British Southern Cameroons gained independence from the United Kingdom by vote of the UN General Assembly and merged into the Republic of Cameroon to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The federal republic was composed of two federated states, East Cameroon and West Cameroon, each with its own legislature, government, and prime minister. 1 October is now observed as Unification Day, a public holiday. Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC to concentrate power in the presidency, continuing with this even after the suppression of the UPC in 1971.
United Republic of Cameroon and Republic of Cameroon
ruled from 1960 until 1982]]
Ahidjo's political party, the Cameroon National Union (CNU), became the sole legal political party on 1 September 1966, and on 20 May 1972, a referendum was passed to abolish the federal system of government in favour of a United Republic of Cameroon, headed from Yaoundé. This day is now the country's National Day, a public holiday. Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of planned liberalism, prioritising cash crops and petroleum development. The government used oil money to create a national cash reserve, pay farmers, and finance major development projects; however, many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them. The national flag was changed on 20 May 1975 with the two stars removed and replaced with a large central star as a symbol of national unity.
Ahidjo stepped down on 4 November 1982 and left power to his constitutional successor, Paul Biya. However, Ahidjo remained in control of the CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning. Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government, but a failed coup d'état nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor.
In 1987, Dja Faunal Reserve, Cameroon's first World Heritage Site, was inscribed on the list by UNESCO. An economic crisis took effect in the mid-1980s to late 1990s as a result of international economic conditions, drought, falling petroleum prices, and years of corruption, mismanagement, and cronyism. Cameroon turned to foreign aid, cut government spending, and privatised industries. With the reintroduction of multi-party politics in December 1990, the former British Southern Cameroons pressure groups called for greater autonomy, and the Southern Cameroons National Council advocated complete secession as the Republic of Ambazonia. The 1992 Labour Code of Cameroon gives workers the freedom to belong to a trade union or not to belong to any trade union at all. It is the choice of a worker to join any trade union in their occupation since there is more than one trade union in each occupation.
has ruled the country since 1982]]
In June 2006, talks concerning a territorial dispute over the Bakassi peninsula were resolved. The talks involved President Paul Biya of Cameroon, then President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, and then UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, and resulted in Cameroonian control of the oil-rich peninsula. The northern portion of the territory was formally handed over to the Cameroonian government in August 2006, and the remainder of the peninsula was left to Cameroon two years later, in 2008. The boundary change triggered a local separatist insurgency, as many Bakassians refused to accept Cameroonian rule. While most militants laid down their arms in November 2009, some carried on fighting for years.
In February 2008, Cameroon experienced its worst violence in 15 years when a transport union strike in Douala escalated into violent protests in 31 municipal areas. Boko Haram launched several attacks into Cameroon, killing 84 civilians in a December 2014 raid, but suffering a heavy defeat in a raid in January 2015. Cameroon declared victory over Boko Haram on Cameroonian territory in September 2018.
Since November 2016, protesters from the predominantly English-speaking Northwest and Southwest regions of the country have been campaigning for continued use of the English language in schools and courts. People were killed and hundreds were jailed as a result of these protests. In 2017, Biya's government blocked the regions' access to the Internet for three months. In September, separatists started a guerilla war for the independence of the Anglophone region as the Federal Republic of Ambazonia. The government responded with a military offensive, and the insurgency spread across the Northwest and Southwest regions. , fighting between separatist guerillas and government forces continues. During 2020, numerous terrorist attacks—many of them carried out without claims of credit—and government reprisals have led to bloodshed throughout the country. Since 2016, more than 450,000 people have fled their homes. The conflict indirectly led to an upsurge in Boko Haram attacks, as the Cameroonian military largely withdrew from the north to focus on fighting the Ambazonian separatists.
More than 30,000 people in northern Cameroon fled to Chad after ethnic clashes over access to water between Musgum fishermen and ethnic Arab Choa herders in December 2021.
Politics and government
The President of Cameroon is elected and creates policy, administers government agencies, commands the armed forces, negotiates and ratifies treaties, and declares a state of emergency. The president appoints government officials at all levels, from the prime minister (considered the official head of government), to the provincial governors and divisional officers. The president is selected by popular vote every seven years.
Cameroon's legal system is a mixture of civil law, common law, and customary law.Political culture
, West Region]]
Cameroon is viewed as rife with corruption at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only 25% became operational, However, the corruption has gotten worse, regardless of the existing anti-corruption bureaus, as Transparency International ranked Cameroon 152 on a list of 180 countries in 2018.
President Biya's Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM) was the only legal political party until December 1990. Numerous regional political groups have since formed. The primary opposition is the Social Democratic Front (SDF), based largely in the Anglophone region of the country and headed by John Fru Ndi.
Biya and his party have maintained control of the presidency and the National Assembly in national elections, which rivals contend were unfair. In 2017, President Biya shut down the Internet in the English-speaking region for 94 days, at the cost of hampering five million people, including Silicon Mountain startups.
Freedom House ranks Cameroon as "not free" in terms of political rights and civil liberties. The last parliamentary elections were held on 9 February 2020. Cameroon relies heavily on France for its defence,
President Biya has engaged in a decades-long clash with the government of Nigeria over possession of the oil-rich Bakassi peninsula. By 2004, Nigeria had failed to meet the deadline to hand over the peninsula. A UN-mediated summit in June 2006 facilitated an agreement for Nigeria to withdraw from the region and both leaders signed the Greentree Agreement. The withdrawal and handover of control was completed by August 2006.
In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Cameroon, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.
Military
The Cameroon Armed Forces (French: Forces armées camerounaises, FAC) consists of the country's army (Armée de Terre), the country's navy (Marine Nationale de la République (MNR), including naval infantry), the Cameroonian Air Force (''Armée de l'Air du Cameroun'', AAC), and the Gendarmerie.
Human rights
Human rights organisations accuse police and military forces of mistreating and even torturing criminal suspects, ethnic minorities, homosexuals, and political activists. Prisons are overcrowded with little access to adequate food and medical facilities,
Since December 2020, Human Rights Watch claimed that Islamist armed group Boko Haram has stepped up attacks and killed at least 80 civilians in towns and villages in the Far North region of Cameroon.
Administrative divisions
The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions, each under the administration of an elected Regional Council. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor.
The regions are subdivided into 58 divisions (French ). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers (). The divisions are further split into sub-divisions (), headed by assistant divisional officers (). The districts, administered by district heads (), are the smallest administrative units.
The three northernmost regions are the Far North (), North (), and Adamawa (). Directly south of them are the Centre () and East (). The South Province () lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four smaller regions: the Littoral () and South-West () regions are on the coast, and the North-West () and West () regions are in the western grassfields. Cameroon lies between latitudes 1° and 13°N, and longitudes 8° and 17°E. Cameroon controls 12 nautical miles of the Atlantic Ocean.
Tourist literature describes Cameroon as "Africa in miniature" because it exhibits all major climates and vegetation of the continent: coast, desert, mountains, rainforest, and savanna. The country's neighbours are Nigeria and the Atlantic Ocean to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Exceedingly hot and humid with a short dry season, this belt is densely forested and includes some of the wettest places on earth, part of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests. Equatorial rainforest dominates this region, although its alternation between wet and dry seasons makes it less humid than the coast. This area is part of the Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion.
]]
An irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus known as the Cameroon range extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast—Cameroon's highest point at Volcanism here has created crater lakes. On 21 August 1986, one of these, Lake Nyos, belched carbon dioxide and killed between 1,700 and 2,000 people. This area has been delineated by the World Wildlife Fund as the Cameroonian Highlands forests ecoregion.
The southern plateau rises northward to the grassy, rugged Adamawa Plateau. This feature stretches from the western mountain area and forms a barrier between the country's north and south. Its average elevation is , The northern lowland region extends from the edge of the Adamawa to Lake Chad with an average elevation of .
Wildlife
Cameroon's wildlife is composed of its flora and fauna. It is one of the wettest parts of Africa and records Africa's second-highest concentration of biodiversity. In Cameroon forest cover is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to 20,340,480 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 22,500,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forests covered 20,279,380 hectares (ha), and planted forests covered 61,100 hectares (ha). Around 15% of the forest area was found within protected areas, for the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.
To preserve its wildlife, Cameroon has more than 20 protected reserves comprising national parks, zoos, forest reserves, and sanctuaries. The protected areas were first created in the northern region under the colonial administration in 1932; the first two reserves established were Mozogo Gokoro Reserve and the Bénoué Reserve, which was followed by the Waza Reserve on 24 March 1934. The coverage of reserves was initially about 4 percent of the country's area, rising to 12 percent; the administration proposes to cover 30 percent of the land area.
Its rich wildlife consists of 8,260 recorded plant species including 156 endemic species, 409 species of mammals of which 14 are endemic, 690 species of birds which includes 8 endemic species, 250 species of reptiles, and 200 species of amphibians. Cameroon is part of the Bank of Central African States (of which it is the dominant economy), Its currency is the CFA franc. and 23.8% of the population was living below the international poverty threshold of US$1.90 a day in 2014. Since the late 1980s, Cameroon has been following programmes advocated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) to reduce poverty, privatise industries, and increase economic growth.
An estimated 70% of the population farms, and agriculture comprised an estimated 16.7% of GDP in 2017.
Livestock are raised throughout the country. Fishing employs 5,000 people and provides over 100,000 tons of seafood each year. Bushmeat, long a staple food for rural Cameroonians, is today a delicacy in the country's urban centres. The commercial bushmeat trade has now surpassed deforestation as the main threat to wildlife in Cameroon.
The southern rainforest has vast timber reserves, estimated to cover 37% of Cameroon's total land area.
Factory-based industry accounted for an estimated 26.5% of GDP in 2017. Rapids and waterfalls obstruct the southern rivers, but these sites offer opportunities for hydroelectric development and supply most of Cameroon's energy. The Sanaga River powers the largest hydroelectric station, located at Edéa. The rest of Cameroon's energy comes from oil-powered thermal engines. Much of the country remains without reliable power supplies.
Three trans-African automobile routes pass through Cameroon:
* the Lagos-Mombasa Highway
* the Tripoli-Cape Town Highway
* the Dakar-N'Djamena Highway
Transport in Cameroon is often difficult. Only 6.6% of the roadways are tarred. Road banditry has long hampered transport along the eastern and western borders, and since 2005, the problem has intensified in the east as the Central African Republic has further destabilised. International airports are located in Douala and Yaoundé, with a third under construction in Maroua. Douala is the country's principal seaport and Kribi Deepwater Port started operations in 2014. In the north, the Bénoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua across into Nigeria.
Although press freedoms have improved since the first decade of the 21st century, the press is corrupt and beholden to special interests and political groups. Newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals. However, cell phone networks and Internet providers have increased dramatically since the first decade of the 21st century and are largely unregulated.
Demographics
The population of Cameroon was in . The life expectancy was 62.3 years (60.6 years for males and 64 years for females). Population density is highest in the large urban centres, the western highlands, and the northeastern plain. Douala, Yaoundé, and Garoua are the largest cities. In contrast, the Adamawa Plateau, southeastern Bénoué depression, and most of the South Cameroon Plateau are sparsely populated.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the fertility rate was 4.8 in 2013 with a population growth rate of 2.56%. Smaller movements are occurring as workers seek employment in lumber mills and plantations in the south and east. Although the national sex ratio is relatively even, these out-migrants are primarily males, which leads to unbalanced ratios in some regions.
, in the Far North Region, made of earth and grass]]
Both monogamous and polygamous marriage are practised, and the average Cameroonian family is large and extended. In the north, women tend to the home, and men herd cattle or work as farmers. In the south, women grow the family's food, and men provide meat and grow cash crops. Cameroonian society is male-dominated, and violence and discrimination against women are common.
The number of distinct ethnic and linguistic groups in Cameroon is estimated to be between 230 and 282. The Adamawa Plateau broadly bisects these into northern and southern divisions. The northern peoples are Sudanic groups, who live in the central highlands and the northern lowlands, and the Fulani, who are spread throughout northern Cameroon. A small number of Shuwa Arabs live near Lake Chad. Southern Cameroon is inhabited by speakers of Bantu and Semi-Bantu languages. Bantu-speaking groups inhabit the coastal and equatorial zones, while speakers of Semi-Bantu languages live in the Western grassfields. Some 5,000 Gyele and Baka Pygmy peoples roam the southeastern and coastal rainforests or live in small, roadside settlements. Nigerians make up the largest group of foreign nationals.
Refugees
In 2007, Cameroon hosted approximately 97,400 refugees and asylum seekers. Of these, 49,300 were from the Central African Republic (many driven west by war), Kidnappings of Cameroonian citizens by Central African bandits have increased since 2005.
On 4 June 2014, AlertNet reported:
Languages
The official percentage of French and English speakers by the Presidency of Cameroon is estimated to be 70% and 30% respectively. German, the language of the original colonisers, has long since been displaced by French and English. Cameroonian Pidgin English is the lingua franca in the formerly British-administered territories. A mixture of English, French, and Pidgin called Camfranglais has been gaining popularity in urban centres since the mid-1970s. making Cameroon one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world.
In 2017, there were language protests by the Anglophone population against perceived oppression by francophone speakers. The military was deployed against the protesters and people were killed, hundreds imprisoned and thousands fled the country. This culminated in the declaration of an independent Republic of Ambazonia, which has since evolved into the Anglophone Crisis.Religion
}}
Cameroon has a high level of religious freedom and diversity. Large cities have significant populations of both groups. Shias, and non-denominational Muslims.
, a Catholic Church in Yaoundé]]
People from the North-West and South-West provinces, which used to be a part of British Cameroons, have the highest proportion of Protestants. The French-speaking regions of the southern and western regions are largely Catholic.
In the northern regions, the locally dominant Fulani ethnic group is almost completely Muslim, but the overall population is fairly evenly divided among Muslims, Christians, and followers of indigenous religious beliefs (called Kirdi ("pagan") by the Fulani). Most children have access to state-run schools that are cheaper than private and religious facilities. The educational system is a mixture of British and French precedents, with most instruction in English or French.
Cameroon has one of the highest school attendance rates in Africa. In December 2014, a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor issued by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs mentioned Cameroon among the countries that resorted to child labor in the production of cocoa.
The quality of health care is generally low. Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 56 years in 2012, with 48 healthy life years expected. Fertility rate remains high in Cameroon with an average of 4.8 births per woman and an average mother's age of 19.7 years old at first birth. In 2014, just 4.1% of total GDP expenditure was allocated to healthcare. Due to financial cuts in the health care system, there are few professionals. Doctors and nurses who were trained in Cameroon emigrate because in Cameroon the payment is poor while the workload is high. Nurses are unemployed even though their help is needed. Some of them help out voluntarily so they will not lose their skills. Outside the major cities, facilities are often dirty and poorly equipped.
In 2012, the top three deadly diseases were HIV/AIDS, lower respiratory tract infection, and diarrheal diseases. The HIV/AIDS prevalence rate in 2016 was estimated at 3.8% for those aged 15–49, although a strong stigma against the illness keeps the number of reported cases artificially low. Female genital mutilation (FGM), while not widespread, is practised among some populations; according to a 2013 UNICEF report, 1% of women in Cameroon have undergone FGM. Also impacting women's and girls' health, the contraceptive prevalence rate is estimated to be just 34.4% in 2014. Traditional healers remain a popular alternative to evidence-based medicine.
Culture
Music and dance
Music and dance are integral parts of Cameroonian ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling. The dances' purposes range from pure entertainment to religious devotion. Traditionally, music is transmitted orally. In a typical performance, a chorus of singers echoes a soloist.
Musical accompaniment may be as simple as clapping hands and stamping feet, but traditional instruments include bells worn by dancers, clappers, drums, and talking drums, flutes, horns, rattles, scrapers, stringed instruments, whistles, and xylophones; combinations of these vary by ethnic group and region. Some performers sing complete songs alone, accompanied by a harplike instrument.
Popular music styles include ambasse bey of the coast, assiko of the Bassa, mangambeu of the Bangangte, and tsamassi of the Bamileke. Nigerian music has influenced Anglophone Cameroonian performers, and Prince Nico Mbarga's highlife hit "Sweet Mother" is the top-selling African record in history.
The two most popular music styles are makossa and bikutsi. Makossa developed in Douala and mixes folk music, highlife, soul, and Congo music. Performers such as Manu Dibango, Francis Bebey, Moni Bilé, and Petit-Pays popularised the style worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s. Bikutsi originated as war music among the Ewondo. Artists such as Anne-Marie Nzié developed it into popular dance music beginning in the 1940s, and performers such as Mama Ohandja and Les Têtes Brulées popularised it internationally during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.
Cuisine
Cuisine varies by region, but a large, one-course, evening meal is common throughout the country. A typical dish is based on cocoyams, maize, cassava (manioc), millet, plantains, potatoes, rice, or yams, often pounded into dough-like fufu. This is served with a sauce, soup, or stew made from greens, groundnuts, palm oil, or other ingredients. Meat and fish are popular but expensive additions, with chicken often reserved for special occasions. Dishes are often quite spicy; seasonings include salt, red pepper sauce, and maggi.
Cutlery is common, but food is traditionally manipulated with the right hand. Breakfast consists of leftovers of bread and fruit with coffee or tea. Generally, breakfast is made from wheat flour in different foods such as puff-puff (doughnuts), accra banana made from bananas and flour, bean cakes, and many more. Snacks are popular, especially in larger towns where they may be bought from street vendors.
Fashion
, monk shoes, sandals, and a Smartwatch]]
Cameroon's relatively large and diverse population is likewise diverse in its fashions. Climate, religious, ethnic, and cultural beliefs, and the influences of colonialism, imperialism, and globalisation are all factors in contemporary Cameroonian dresses. Noteworthy Cameroonian dresses include Pagnes, sarongs worn by Cameroon women; Chechia, a traditional hat; kwa, a male handbag; and Gandura, male custom attire.
Wrappers and loincloths are used extensively by both women and men but their use varies by region, with influences from Fulani styles more present in the north and Igbo and Yoruba styles more often in the south and west. Imane Ayissi is one of Cameroon's most prominent fashion designers and has received international recognition.Local arts and crafts
, Littoral Region. Cameroonians practise such handicrafts throughout the country]]
Traditional arts and crafts are practised throughout the country for commercial, decorative, and religious purposes. Woodcarvings and sculptures are especially common. The high-quality clay of the western highlands is used for pottery and ceramics. Contemporary art is mainly promoted by independent cultural organisations (Doual'art, Africréa) and artist-run initiatives (Art Wash, Atelier Viking, ArtBakery).
Literature
Cameroonian literature has concentrated on both European and African themes. Colonial-era writers such as Louis-Marie Pouka and Sankie Maimo were educated by European missionary societies and advocated assimilation into European culture to bring Cameroon into the modern world. After World War II, writers such as Mongo Beti and Ferdinand Oyono analysed and criticised colonialism and rejected assimilation. In the 1960s, Mongo Beti, Ferdinand Léopold Oyono and other writers explored postcolonialism, problems of African development, and the recovery of African identity. In the mid-1970s, filmmakers such as Jean-Pierre Dikongué Pipa and Daniel Kamwa dealt with the conflicts between traditional and postcolonial society. Literature and films during the next two decades focused more on wholly Cameroonian themes.
Sports
facing Germany at Zentralstadion in Leipzig, 17 November 2004]]
National policy strongly advocates sport in all forms. Traditional sports include canoe racing and wrestling, and several hundred runners participate in the Mount Cameroon Race of Hope each year. Cameroon is one of the few tropical countries to have competed in the Winter Olympics.
Sport in Cameroon is dominated by football. Amateur football clubs abound, organised along ethnic lines or under corporate sponsors. The national team has been one of the most successful in Africa since its strong showing in the 1982 and 1990 FIFA World Cups. Cameroon has won five African Cup of Nations titles and the gold medal at the 2000 Olympics.
Cameroon was the host country of the Women Africa Cup of Nations in November–December 2016, the 2020 African Nations Championship and the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations. The women's football team is known as the "Indomitable Lionesses", and like their men's counterparts, are also successful on the international stage, although it has not won any major trophy.
Cricket has also entered into Cameroon as an emerging sport with the Cameroon Cricket Federation participating in international matches. Cameroon has produced multiple National Basketball Association players including Pascal Siakam, Joel Embiid, D. J. Strawberry, Ruben Boumtje-Boumtje, Christian Koloko, and Luc Mbah a Moute. The former UFC Heavyweight Champion, Francis Ngannou, hails from Cameroon.See also
* Index of Cameroon-related articles
* Outline of Cameroon
* Telephone numbers in Cameroon
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* . Reporters without Borders. Retrieved 6 April 2007.
* . Human Development Report 2006. United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 6 April 2007.
*
* Fonge, Fuabeh P. (1997). Modernization without Development in Africa: Patterns of Change and Continuity in Post-Independence Cameroonian Public Service. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc.
* MacDonald, Brian S. (1997). "Case Study 4: Cameroon", Military Spending in Developing Countries: How Much Is Too Much? McGill-Queen's University Press.
* Njeuma, Dorothy L. (no date). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609152111/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/inhea/profiles/Cameroon.htm Country Profiles: Cameroon]". The Boston College Center for International Higher Education. Retrieved 11 April 2008.
* Rechniewski, Elizabeth. "1947: Decolonisation in the Shadow of the Cold War: the Case of French Cameroon." Australian & New Zealand Journal of European Studies 9.3 (2017). [https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/ANZJES/article/download/15186/13370 online]
* Sa'ah, Randy Joe (23 June 2006). "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm Cameroon girls battle 'breast ironing'] ". BBC News. Retrieved 6 April 2007.
* Wright, Susannah, ed. (2006). Cameroon. Madrid: MTH Multimedia S.L.
* "[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/02/data/index.aspx World Economic and Financial Surveys] ". World Economic Outlook Database, International Monetary Fund. September 2006. Retrieved 6 April 2007.
External links
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/ Cameroon]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
* [http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx Cameroon Corruption Profile] from Business Anti-Corruption Portal
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704153516/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/cameroon.htm Cameroon] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13146029 Cameroon profile] from the BBC News
*
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CM Key Development Forecasts for Cameroon] from International Futures
Government
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170529010519/http://www.presidenceducameroun.com/ Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110715013604/http://www.spm.gov.cm/index.php?L=1 Prime Minister's Office]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805071905/http://www.assemblenationale.cm/ National Assembly of Cameroon]
* [http://www.globalintegrity.org/report/Cameroon/2010/ Global Integrity Report: Cameroon] has reporting on anti-corruption in Cameroon
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081210080443/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-c/cameroon.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]
Trade
* [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/CMR/Year/2012/Summary Summary Trade Statistics] from World Bank
}}
Category:1960 establishments in Cameroon
Category:Central African countries
Category:Countries in Africa
Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language
Category:French-speaking countries and territories
Category:Member states of the African Union
Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Category:Member states of the United Nations
Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations
Category:States and territories established in 1960
Category:1960 establishments in Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.342717 |
5448 | History of Cameroon | At the crossroads of West Africa and Central Africa, the territory of what is now Cameroon has seen human habitation since some time in the Middle Paleolithic, likely no later than 130,000 years ago. The earliest discovered archaeological evidence of humans dates from around 30,000 years ago at Shum Laka. The Bamenda highlands in western Cameroon near the border with Nigeria are one of the most likely origin for the Bantu peoples, whose language and culture came to dominate most of central and southern Africa between 1000 BCE and 1000 CE.
European traders arrived in the fifteenth century and Cameroon was the exonym given by the Portuguese to the Wouri river, which they called Rio dos Camarões—"river of shrimps" or "shrimp river", referring to the then-abundant Cameroon ghost shrimp. Cameroon was a source of slaves for the slave trade. While the northern part of Cameroon was subject to influence from the Islamic kingdoms in the Chad basin and the Sahel, the south was largely ruled by small kings, chieftains, and fons.
Cameroon as a political entity emerged from the colonization of Africa by Europeans. From 1884, Cameroon was a German colony, German Kamerun, with its borders drawn through negotiations between the Germans, British, and French. After the First World War, the League of Nations mandated France to administer most of the territory, with the United Kingdom administering a small portion in the west. Following World War II, the League of Nations' successor, the United Nations, instituted a Trusteeship system, leaving France and Britain in control of their respective regions, French Cameroon and British Cameroon. In 1960, Cameroon became independent with part of British Cameroons voting to join former French Cameroon. Cameroon has had only two presidents since independence and while opposition parties were legalized in 1990 only one party has ever governed. Cameroon has maintained close relations with France and allied itself largely with Western political and economic interests throughout the Cold War and into the twenty-first century. This consistency gave Cameroon a reputation as one of the most stable countries in the region. In 2017, tensions between Anglophone Cameroonians in former British territory and the Francophone-dominated government led to an ongoing civil war known as the Anglophone Crisis in the west of the country, while Islamist insurgents Boko Haram continue to carry out military and terror attacks in the north of the country.
In January 2024, Cameroon launched the world's first routine malaria vaccine program, using the World Health Organization (WHO)-approved RTS,S vaccine developed by British drugmaker GSK. The initiative aims to save thousands of African children's lives annually. Despite some skepticism, health experts emphasize careful community outreach to combat vaccine hesitancy and stress the importance of using existing preventive measures alongside vaccines.
Pre-colonial history
Prehistory
Archaeological research has been relatively scarce in Cameroon due to a lack of resources and transportation infrastructure. Historically the warm, wet climate in many parts of the country was thought of as inhospitable to the preservation of remains, but recent finds and the introduction of new techniques have challenged that assumption. Evidence from digs at Shum Laka in the Northwest Region shows human occupation dating back 30,000 years while in the dense forests of the south, the oldest evidence of occupation is around 7000 years old. Recent research in southern Cameroon indicates that the Iron Age may have started there as early as 1000 BCE and was certainly well established by 100 BCE at the latest. The early European presence in Cameroon was primarily devoted to coastal trade and the acquisition of slaves. In fact, Jesko von Puttkamer was relieved of duty as governor of the colony due to his untoward actions toward the native Cameroonians. In 1911 at the Treaty of Fez after the Agadir Crisis, France ceded a nearly 300,000 km<sup>2</sup> portion of the territory of French Equatorial Africa to Kamerun which became Neukamerun (New Cameroon), while Germany ceded a smaller area in the north in present-day Chad to France.
Shortly after the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the British invaded Cameroon from Nigeria and the French from French Equatorial Africa in the Kamerun campaign. The last German fort in the country surrendered in February 1916. After the Allied victory, the territory was partitioned between the United Kingdom and France, which was formalized on June 28, 1919, with League of Nations mandates (Class B). France gained the larger geographical share, transferred Neukamerun back to neighboring French colonies, and ruled the rest from Yaoundé as Cameroun (French Cameroons).
An insurrection broke out among the Bassa people on 18 to 19 December 1956. Several dozen anti-UPC figures were murdered or kidnapped, bridges, telephone lines, and other infrastructure were sabotaged. The French military and native security forces violently repressed these uprisings, which led to many native Cameroonians joining the cause of independence and long-running guerilla war. Several UPC militias were formed though their access to weapons was very limited. Though the UPC was a multi-ethnic movement, the pro-independence movement was seen as particularly strong among the Bamileke and Bassa peoples, and both were targeted by the French for severe repression, including razing of villages, forced relocations, and indiscriminate killings in what was sometimes called the Bamileke War or the Cameroon Independence War. Though the uprising was suppressed, guerilla violence and reprisals continued even after independence.
Legislative elections were held on 23 December 1956 and the resulting Assembly passed a decree on 16 April 1957 which made French Cameroon a state. It took back its former status of associated territory as a member of the French Union. Its inhabitants became Cameroonian citizens, and Cameroonian institutions were created under a parliamentary democracy. On 12 June 1958, the Legislative Assembly of French Cameroon asked the French government to: "Accord independence to the State of Cameroon at the ends of their trusteeship. Transfer every competence related to the running of internal affairs of Cameroon to Cameroonians". On 19 October 1958, France recognized the right of its United Nations trust territory to choose independence. On 24 October 1958, the Legislative Assembly of French Cameroon solemnly proclaimed the desire of Cameroonians to see their country accede full independence on 1 January 1960. It enjoined the government of French Cameroon to ask France to inform the General Assembly of the United Nations, to abrogate the trusteeship accord concomitant with the independence of French Cameroon.
On 12 November 1958, France asked the United Nations to grant French Cameroon independence and end the Trusteeship. On 5 December 1958, the United Nations’ General Assembly took note of the French government's declaration according to which French Cameroon would gain independence on 1 January 1960. On 13 March 1959, the United Nations’ General Assembly resolved that the UN Trusteeship Agreement with France for French Cameroon would end when French Cameroon became independent on 1 January 1960.
British Cameroons (1918–1961)
Nigerian administration
(first row, third from right) in Bamenda]]
The British territory was administered as two areas, Northern Cameroons and Southern Cameroons. Northern Cameroons consisted of two non-contiguous sections, divided by a point where the Nigerian and Cameroon borders met and were governed as part of the Northern Region of Nigeria. Southern Cameroons was administered as a province of Eastern Nigeria. In British Cameroons, many German administrators were allowed to run the plantations of the southern coastal area after World War I. A British parliamentary publication, Report on the British Sphere of the Cameroons (May 1922, p. 62-8), reported that the German plantations there were "as a whole . . . wonderful examples of industry, based on solid scientific knowledge. The natives have been taught discipline and have come to realize what can be achieved by industry. Large numbers who return to their villages take up cocoa or other cultivation on their own account, thus increasing the general prosperity of the country." In the 1930s, most of the white population still consisted of Germans, most of whom were interned in British camps starting in June 1940. The native population showed little interest in volunteering for the British forces during World War II; only 3,500 men did so.
When the League of Nations ceased to exist in 1946, British Cameroons was reclassified as a UN trust territory, administered through the UN Trusteeship Council, but remained under British control. The United Nations approved the Trusteeship Agreements for British Cameroons to be governed by Britain on June 12, 1946.
Plebiscite and independence
French Cameroun became independent, as Cameroun or Cameroon, in January 1960, and Nigeria was scheduled for independence later that same year, which raised the question of what to do with the British territory. After some discussion (which had been going on since 1959), a plebiscite was agreed to and held on 11 February 1961. The Muslim-majority Northern area opted for union with Nigeria, and the Southern area voted to join Cameroon.
Independence and the Ahidjo era (1960–1982)
in Yaoundé]]
French Cameroon achieved independence on January 1, 1960. After Guinea, it was the second of France's colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa to become independent. On 21 February 1960, the new nation held a constitutional referendum, approving a new constitution. On 5 May 1960, Ahmadou Ahidjo became president. Ahidjo aligned himself closely with France and allowed many French advisers and administrators to stay on as well as leaving most of the country's assets in the hands of French companies.
Union with Southern Cameroon
On 12 February 1961, the results of the Southern Cameroon plebiscite were announced and it was learned that Southern Cameroons had voted for unification with the Republic Of Cameroon, sometimes called "reunification" since both regions had been part of German Kamerun. To negotiate the terms of this union, the Foumban Conference was held on 16–21 July 1961. John Ngu Foncha, the leader of the Kamerun National Democratic Party and the Southern Cameroons elected government represented Southern Cameroons while Ahidjo represented Cameroon. The agreement reached was a new constitution, based heavily on the version adopted in Cameroon earlier that year, but with a federal structure granting former British Cameroons - now West Cameroon - jurisdiction over certain issues and procedural rights. Buea became the capital of West Cameroon while Yaounde doubled as the federal capital and East Cameroonian capital. Neither side was particularly satisfied as Ahidjo had wanted a unitary or more centralized state while the West Cameroonians had wanted more explicit protections. On 14 August 1961, the federal constitution was adopted, with Ahidjo as president. Foncha became the prime minister of West Cameroon and vice president of the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The unification of British and French Cameroon has caused linguistic and cultural tensions within Cameroon, which has led to violence.
Civil War and repression
The UPC, which had demanded a full break with France and many of whom espoused Marxist or other leftist ideologies, were not satisfied with Ahidjo's rule and close cooperation with the French and did not lay down their arms at independence and sought to overthrow Ahidjo's regime which they viewed as too subservient to France and some, but not all, espoused overtly Marxist views. Ahidjo requested continued French assistance in suppressing the UPC rebels in what became known as the Bamileke War after the region where much of the fighting took place. The UPC was ultimately defeated with government forces capturing the last important rebel leader in 1970. During the intervening years, Ahidjo used emergency powers granted due to the war and the fear of further ethnic conflict to centralize power in himself. He implemented a highly centralized and authoritarian government that used arbitrary police custody, prohibition of meetings and rallies, submission of publications to prior censorship, restriction of freedom of movement through the establishment of passes or curfews, and a prohibition on trade unions to prevent opposition. Anyone accusation of "compromising public safety" was handled outside traditional criminal process - without the right to a lawyer or any appeal. Sentences of life imprisonment at hard labor or death were numerous and executions were often public.
In 1966, opposition parties were banned and Cameroon became a one-party state. Solomon Tandeng Muna became vice president. In 1972, a referendum was held on a new constitution, which replaced the federation between East and West with a unitary state called the United Republic of Cameroon and further expanded the power of the president. Official results claimed 98.2% turnout and 99.99% of votes in favor of the new constitution. Although Ahidjo's rule was authoritarian, he was seen as noticeably lacking in charisma in comparison to many post-colonial African leaders. He didn't follow the anti-western policies pursued by many of these leaders, which helped Cameroon achieve a degree of comparative political stability, retain Western investment, and see fairly steady economic growth.Discovery of oilCameroon became an oil-producing country in 1977. The accounting of oil revenues was totally opaque and many Cameroonians felt the money was mismanaged or embezzled since. Oil remains a primary driver of the economy, though the country is not as oil-dependent as many other producers in the region.
Biya Era (1982–present)
On 30 June 1975, Paul Biya, a long-serving bureaucrat and administrator in the Ahidjo government, was appointed Prime Minister. On November 4, 1982, Ahidjo resigned as president and Biya was his legal successor. Many observers were surprised, as Biya is a Christian from the south while Ahidjo was a Muslim from the North and Ahidjo was only 59 years old. However, Ahidjo did not resign his role as leader of the governing party, and many speculated that he hoped Biya would be a figurehead, or perhaps even a temporary caretaker, as Ahidjo was rumored to be ill and receiving medical care in France.
Rift and coup attempt
Despite previous good relations, in 1983 a rift was apparent between Biya and Ahidjo. Ahidjo left for France and publicly accused Biya of abuse of power. Ahidjo sought to use his continuing control over the party apparatus to sideline Biya, by causing the party, not the President to set the government's agenda. However, at the party conference in September, Biya was elected to lead the party and Ahidjo resigned. However, by 1990, pressure from Western governments was mounting as the end of the Cold War made them less tolerant of authoritarian allies. In December 1990, opposition parties were legalized for the first time since 1966. The first multiparty elections were held in 1992 and were hotly contested. Biya won with 40% of the vote against 36 for his closest competitor and 19 for another opposition party. In Parliament, Biya's ruling party on a plurality with 45% of the votes but failed to obtain a majority. The competitiveness of the election was not to Biya's liking and subsequent elections have been widely criticized by opposition parties and international observers as rigged and suffering from numerous and widespread irregularities. The ruling party has had no trouble gaining large majorities.
Pressure from Anglophone groups in former British Cameroons resulted in changes to the constitution in 1996, which purported to decentralize power but fell short of Anglophone demands to reestablish the federal structure. As a result of continued opposition, many of the changes adopted in 1996 have never been fully implemented and power remains highly centralized in the President.
Contemporary issues
Boko Haram
thumb|right|Map of Boko Haram impacted areas including northern Cameroon
In 2014, the Boko Haram insurgency spread into Cameroon from Nigeria. In May 2014, in the wake of the Chibok schoolgirl kidnapping, Presidents Paul Biya of Cameroon and Idriss Déby of Chad announced they were waging war on Boko Haram, and deployed troops to the Northern Nigerian border. Cameroon announced in September 2018 that Boko Haram had been repelled, but the conflict persists in the northern border areas nonetheless.
Anglophone Crisis
]]
In November 2016, major protests broke out in the Anglophone regions of Cameroon. In September 2017, the protests and the government's response to them escalated into an armed conflict, with separatists declaring the independence of Ambazonia and starting a guerilla war against the Cameroonian Army.
Football
Cameroon has received some international attention following the relative success of its football team. The team has qualified for the FIFA World Cup eight times, more than any other African team. However, the team has only made it out of the group stage once, in 1990, when they became the first African team to reach the quarter-final of the World Cup. They have also won five Africa Cup of Nations.
See also
*Ambazonia
*History of Africa
*Politics of Cameroon
*List of heads of government of Cameroon
*List of heads of state of Cameroon
* Douala history and timeline
* Yaoundé history and timeline
References
* [https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm Background Note: Cameroon] from the U.S. Department of State.
* Bullock, A. L. C. (1939). ''Germany's Colonial Demands, Oxford University Press.
* DeLancey, Mark W., and DeLancey, Mark Dike (2000): Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press.
* Schnee, Heinrich (1926). German Colonization, Past and Future: The Truth about the German Colonies. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Notes
Works cited
*
*
*
Further reading
* Ardener, Edwin. Kingdom on Mount Cameroon: Studies in the history of the Cameroon Coast, 1500–1970 (Berghahn Books, 1996) [https://books.google.com/books?idaDwXkO9tg9MC&dqHistory+of+Cameroon&pg=PR7 online].
* Arnold, Stephen. "Preface to a history of Cameroon literature in English." Research in African Literatures 14.4 (1983): 498-515 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3819693 online]
* Awasom, Nicodemus Fru. "The reunification question in Cameroon history: was the bride an enthusiastic or a reluctant one?" Africa Today (2000): 91–119. [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/africa_today/v047/47.2awasom.pdf exccerpt]
* DeLancey, Mark Dike, Mark W. DeLancey, and Rebecca Neh Mbuh. Historical dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon (Rowman & Littlefield, 2019). [https://books.google.com/books?idPfCYDwAAQBAJ&dqhistory+cameroon+British&pg=PR7 online]
* Diduk, Susan. "European alcohol, history, and the state in Cameroon." African Studies Review 36.1 (1993): 1-42. doi.org/10.2307/525506
* Dupraz, Yannick. "French and British colonial legacies in education: Evidence from the partition of Cameroon." Journal of Economic History 79.3 (2019): 628–668. [https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/119359/1/WRAP-French-British-colonial-Cameroon-Dupraz-2019.pdf online]
* Dze-Ngwa, Willibroad. "The First World War and its aftermath in Cameroon: A historical evaluation of a centenary, 1914-2014." International Journal of Liberal Arts and Social Science 3.2 (2015): 78–90.
* Fowler, Ian. "Kingdoms of the Cameroon Grassfields." Reviews in Anthropology 40.4 (2011): 292–311.
* Fowler, Ian. "Tribal and palatine arts of the Cameroon grassfields: elements for a ‘traditional’ regional identity." in Contesting Art (Routledge, 2020) pp. 63-84.
* Fowler, Ian, and Verkijika G. Fanso, eds. Encounter, transformation and identity: peoples of the western Cameroon borderlands, 1891-2000 (Berghahn Books, 2009) [https://books.google.com/books?idT4S9jhptvoAC&dqhistory+cameroon+fowler&pg=PR9 online].
* Fowler, Ian, and David Zeitlyn, eds. African Crossroads: intersections between history and anthropology in Cameroon Berghahn Books, 1996) [https://books.google.com/books?idP5nn6_FIL6sC&dq+Cameroon+History:&pg=PR7 online]
* Geschiere, Peter. "Chiefs and colonial rule in Cameroon: Inventing chieftaincy, French and British style." Africa 63.2 (1993): 151–175.
* Mengang, Joseph Mewondo. "Evolution of natural resource policy in Cameroon." Yale F&ES Bulletin 102 (1998): 239–248. [https://www.academia.edu/download/31442507/102mengang.pdf online]
* Njung, George N. "The British Cameroons mandate regime: The roots of the twenty-first-century political crisis in Cameroon." American Historical Review'' 124.5 (2019): 1715–1722.
External links
*
*
Cameroon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Cameroon | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.359816 |
5449 | Geography of Cameroon | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
At , Cameroon is the world's 53rd largest country. It is slightly larger than the nation of Sweden and the US state of California. It is comparable in size to Papua New Guinea. Cameroon's landmass is , with of water.
The country is located in Central and West Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria.
Cameroon is sometimes described as "Africa in miniature" because it exhibits all the major climates and vegetation of the continent: mountains, desert, rain forest, savanna grassland, and ocean coastland. Cameroon can be divided into five geographic zones. These are distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features.
Natural regions
Cameroon is one of the wettest parts of Africa and records Africa's second highest concentration of biodiversity. In Cameroon forest cover is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to 20,340,480 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 22,500,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 20,279,380 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 61,100 hectares (ha). Around 15% of the forest area was found within protected areas, for the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.
Cameroon's coastal plain extends inland from the Gulf of Guinea (part of the Atlantic Ocean) to the edge of a plateau. In the former western state, however, the mass of Mount Cameroon reaches almost to the sea. The plain is densely forested including areas of Central African mangroves especially around Douala and in the estuary of the Cross River on the border with Nigeria.
A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 643 km<sup>2</sup> of tidal flats in Cameroon, making it the 39th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.
The low South Cameroon Plateau, rising from the coastal plain and dominated by tropical rain forest, has an average elevation of . It is less humid than the coast.
In western Cameroon is an irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus that extends from Mount Cameroon almost to Lake Chad at the northern tip of the country. This region includes the Bamenda, Bamiléké, and Mambilla highlands. It also contains some of the country's most fertile soils, notably around volcanic Mt. Cameroon. This area of tropical forest has been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as the Cameroonian Highlands forests ecoregion with Mount Cameroon considered separately because as an active volcano it has a distinct environment from the other mountains.
From the forested southern plateau the land rises northward to the grassy, rugged Adamaoua (Adamawa) highlands. Stretching across Cameroon from the western mountain area, the Adamaoua forms a barrier between the north and south. Its average elevation is .
The southern savanna plain extends from the edge of the Adamaoua to Lake Chad. Its characteristic vegetation is scrub and grass. This is region of sparse rainfall and high median temperatures has been included as part of the East Sudanian savanna ecoregion.
Climate
The climate varies with terrain, from tropical along the coast to semiarid and hot in the north.
Exceedingly hot and humid, the coastal belt includes some of the wettest places on earth. For example, Debundscha, at the base of Mt. Cameroon, has an average annual rainfall of .
Biodiversity
The wide diversity of climates and natural regions of Cameroon, as coastline, mountains, savanna, deserts, and tropical forests, allows that the country counts with rich biodiversity. Twenty-two million hectares from the Congo Basin forest ecosystem are located in Cameroon, where 9,000 plant species, 900 bird species, and 320 mammals species live, included 156 endemic plants, eight endemic birds, and 14 endemic mammals. The border with Nigeria has one of the highest concentration of biodiversity in Africa.
As part of the conservation efforts to protect threatened natural resources, Cameroon has established protected areas since 1932, included national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, faunal reserves, and one flora sanctuary.
Cameroon had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.00/10, ranking it 29th globally out of 172 countries.
Rivers
The country has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers flow southwestward or westward directly to the Gulf of Guinea – the Wouri, and lesser Dibamba, Bimbia and Mungo to the Cameroon estuary near Douala; Sanaga, Nyong, and Ntem further south along the coast; Akwayafe and Manyu (which joins Nigerian Cross), and the lesser Ndian and Meme north of the coast. The Dja and Kadeï, however, drain southeastward into the Congo River. In northern Cameroon, the Benoué River (Benue) runs north and west, eventually into the Niger, while the Logone River flows northward into Lake Chad.
Some of the borders of Cameron follow rivers, including the Aïna, Akwayafe, and Ntem or Campo.
Data
Location:
Central Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria
Geographic coordinates:
Continent:
Africa
Area:
<br>total:
<br>land:
<br>water:
<br>
country rank in the world: 53rd
Area – comparative:
:* Australia comparative: slightly more than twice the size of Victoria
:* Canada comparative: slightly smaller than the Yukon
:* United Kingdom comparative: slightly less than twice the size of the United Kingdom
:* United States comparative: slightly more than larger than California
:* EU comparative: slightly smaller than Spain; slightly larger than Sweden
Land boundaries:
<br>total:
5,018 km
<br>border countries:
Central African Republic 901 km, Chad 1,116 km, Republic of the Congo 494 km, Equatorial Guinea 183 km, Gabon 349 km, Nigeria 1,975 km
Coastline:
402 km
Maritime claims:
<br>territorial sea:
Terrain:
diverse, with coastal plain in southwest, dissected plateau in center, mountains in west, plains in north
Elevation extremes:
<br>lowest point:
Atlantic Ocean 0 m
<br>highest point:
Fako (on. Mt. Cameroon) 4,095 m
Natural resources:
petroleum, bauxite, iron ore, timber, hydropower
Land use:
<br>arable land:
13.12%
<br>permanent crops:
3.28%
<br>other:
83.61% (2012)
Irrigated land:
256.5 km<sup>2</sup> (2003)
Peak in Cameroon's Far North Province.]]
Total renewable water resources:
285.5 km<sup>3</sup> (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
<br>total:
0.97 km<sup>3</sup>/yr (23%/10%/68%)
<br>per capita:
58.9 m<sup>3</sup>/yr (2005)
Natural hazards:
Recent limnic eruptions with release of carbon dioxide:
*from Lake Monoun, 15 August 1984, killing 37
*from Lake Nyos, 21 August 1986, killing as many as 1,800
Environment – current issues:
water-borne diseases are prevalent; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; poaching; overfishing
Environment – international agreements:
<br>party to:
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
<br>signed, but not ratified:
Nuclear Test Ban
Geography – note:
sometimes referred to as 'the hinge of Africa;' throughout the country there are areas of thermal springs and indications of current or prior volcanic activity; Mount Cameroon, the highest mountain in Sub-Saharan west Africa, is an active volcano
Extreme points
This is a list of the extreme points of Cameroon, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
* Northernmost point – unnamed peninsula jutting into Lake Chad, Far North Region
* Easternmost point – unnamed location on the border with the Republic of Congo in the Sangha River opposite the Congolese town of Bomassa, East Region
* Southernmost point – unnamed headland at the confluence on the Sangha River and the Ngoko River immediately north of the Congolese town of Ouesso, East Region
* Westernmost point – unnamed point on Akwabana Island, Southwest Region
Gallery
<gallery>
File:Koppen-Geiger Map CMR present.svg|Cameroon map of Köppen climate classification.
File:Hills near Ngaoundal.jpg|Countryside near Ngaoundal in Cameroon's Adamawa Region.
File:Berges du Wouri 05.jpg|A view of Wouri River with a transport vessel in the Littoral Region of Cameroon
</gallery>
See also
*Cameroon
*Geology of Cameroon
*List of volcanoes in Cameroon
Notes
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Cameroon | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.379013 |
5450 | Demographics of Cameroon | The demographic profile of Cameroon is complex for a country of its population. Cameroon comprises an estimated 250 distinct ethnic groups, which may be formed into five large regional-cultural divisions:
western highlanders (Semi-Bantu or grassfielders), including the Bamileke, Bamum (or Bamoun), and many smaller Tikar groups in the Northwest (est. 38% of total population);
coastal tropical forest peoples, including the Bassa, Duala (or Douala), and many smaller groups in the Southwest (12%);
southern tropical forest peoples, including the Beti-Pahuin, Bulu (a subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Fang (subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Maka, Njem, and Baka pygmies (18%);
predominantly Islamic peoples of the northern semi-arid regions (the Sahel) and central highlands, including the Fulani ( or Peuhl; ) (14%); and
the "Kirdi", non-Islamic or recently Islamic peoples of the northern desert and central highlands (18%).
The Cameroon government held two national censuses during the country's first 44 years as an independent country, in 1976 and again in 1987. Results from the second head count were never published. A third census, expected to take years to produce results, began on November 11, 2005, with a three-week interviewing phase. It is one of a series of projects and reforms required by the International Monetary Fund as prerequisites for foreign debt relief. The first results were published in 2010.
thumb|260px|A Tikar family in the Northwest Province
Population
thumb|300px|Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimates
According to the total population was in , compared to only 4 466 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 40.6%, 55.9% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.5% was 65 years or older.
Total populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 19504 466 00039.656.93.5 19554 901 00040.156.43.5 19605 409 00040.655.93.6 19656 049 00041.554.93.6 19706 842 00042.454.03.6 19757 838 00043.652.73.7 19809 110 00044.651.83.6 198510 519 00045.251.23.6 199012 181 00045.251.33.6 199513 940 00044.452.13.5 200015 678 00042.853.73.5 200517 554 00041.654.93.5 201019 599 00040.655.93.5
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.I.2010) (Data refer to national projections.):
Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 9 599 224 9 806 876 19 406 100 100 0–4 1 662 298 1 624 936 3 287 234 16.94 5–9 1 412 467 1 370 992 2 783 459 14.34 10–14 1 227 470 1 167 201 2 394 671 12.34 15–19 1 068 509 1 101 526 2 170 035 11.18 20–24 855 334 981 955 1 837 289 9.47 25–29 712 550 813 266 1 525 816 7.86 30–34 588 210 621 397 1 209 607 6.23 35–39 460 394 482 319 942 713 4.86 40–44 388 539 405 307 793 846 4.09 45–49 323 507 316 740 640 247 3.30 50–54 261 626 260 284 521 910 2.69 55–59 178 876 159 112 337 988 1.74 60–64 155 208 160 671 315 879 1.63 65–69 110 645 116 645 227 290 1.17 70–74 88 969 100 602 189 571 0.98 75–79 47 173 50 905 98 078 0.51 80–84 31 609 39 976 71 585 0.37 85–89 12 109 14 455 26 564 0.14 90–94 6 942 8 773 15 715 0.08 95+ 6 789 9 814 16 603 0.09Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 4 302 235 4 163 129 8 465 364 43.62 15–64 4 992 753 5 302 577 10 295 330 53.05 65+ 304 236 341 170 645 406 3.33
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2019) (Source: Population projections and estimates of priority targets for the various health programs and interventions, National Institute of Statistics (2016).):
Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 12 609 256 12 883 098 25 492 354 100 0–4 1 904 057 1 975 656 3 879 713 15.22 5–9 1 720 605 1 757 707 3 478 312 13.64 10–14 1 574 388 1 524 415 3 098 803 12.16 15–19 1 386 436 1 346 672 2 733 108 10.72 20–24 1 213 959 1 171 500 2 385 459 9.36 25–29 1 035 624 985 314 2 020 938 7.93 30–34 888 422 967 529 1 855 951 7.28 35–39 684 460 786 728 1 471 188 5.77 40–44 584 695 650 891 1 235 586 4.85 45–49 438 096 447 171 885 267 3.47 50–54 352 927 392 864 745 791 2.93 55–59 275 690 281 896 557 586 2.19 60–64 220 891 242 450 463 341 1.82 65–69 143 542 141 522 285 064 1.12 70–74 101 474 110 948 212 422 0.83 75–79 49 486 55 219 104 705 0.41 80+ 34 504 44 616 79 120 0.31Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 5 199 050 5 257 778 10 456 828 41.02 15–64 7 130 686 7 273 015 14 403 701 56.50 65+ 279 520 352 305 631 825 2.48
Demographic and Health Surveys
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 1991 39 5.82 (5.17) 5.17 (4.52) 6.29 (5.66) 1998 37.4 5.2 (4.6) 31.5 3.9 (3.4) 40.1 5.8 (5.3) 2004 37.8 5.0 (4.5) 34.9 4.0 (3.7) 40.5 6.1 (5.6) 2011 38.1 5.1 (4.5) 34.6 4.0 41.3 6.4 2018 36.8 4.8 (4.3) 32.9 3.8 (3.4) 40.7 6.0 (5.5)
Fertility data as of 2011 (DHS Program):
Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15–49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49Adamaoua 5.2 8.6 6.5Centre (except Yaoundé) 5.6 8.8 5.5Douala 3.2 8.1 4.5Est 5.4 12.0 5.6Extrême-Nord 6.8 14.8 7.3Littoral (except Douala) 4.6 8.4 5.1Nord 6.5 12.4 7.1Nord-Ouest 4.4 6.9 5.4Ouest 6.0 10.1 5.8Sud 4.6 9.6 5.2Sud-Ouest 4.0 7.6 5.5Yaoundé 3.5 6.5 4.4
Vital statistics
Registration of vital events is in Cameroon not complete. The Population Departement of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
YearMid-year populationLive birthsDeaths perNatural change CBR*CDR*NC*IMR*TFR*Life expectancy (years)19504 316 000 187 000 121 000 66 00043.228.115.2194.25.5434.461951 4 382 000 189 000 122 000 67 00043.227.915.2193.15.5234.641952 4 450 000 192 000 123 000 68 00043.027.715.4190.95.4935.011953 4 519 000 194 000 123 000 71 00043.027.315.6188.55.4735.431954 4 592 000 197 000 122 000 76 00042.926.516.5182.75.4736.421955 4 671 000 201 000 120 000 81 00043.025.717.3177.35.4737.361956 4 754 000 205 000 119 000 86 00043.125.018.1172.05.4938.351957 4 841 000 209 000 122 000 88 00043.325.118.2167.05.5138.261958 4 932 000 214 000 121 000 94 00043.524.519.0162.45.5539.101959 5 028 000 220 000 121 000 99 00043.724.019.8158.35.5939.841960 5 118 000 226 000 147 000 80 00044.228.615.5154.85.6534.821961 5 200 000 232 000 146 000 86 00044.728.216.5151.95.7135.411962 5 304 000 239 000 118 000 121 00045.122.322.8149.65.7742.521963 5 428 000 246 000 120 000 126 00045.322.023.3147.55.8342.921964 5 556 000 252 000 121 000 131 00045.421.823.6145.35.8943.311965 5 690 000 258 000 122 000 137 00045.421.424.0142.75.9543.891966 5 830 000 265 000 122 000 142 00045.421.024.4139.66.0044.441967 5 975 000 271 000 122 000 149 00045.320.424.9135.86.0645.181968 6 127 000 277 000 121 000 156 00045.219.825.4131.76.1145.981969 6 286 000 283 000 121 000 163 00045.119.225.9127.56.1446.821970 6 453 000 291 000 120 000 171 00045.118.626.5123.46.2047.581971 6 627 000 299 000 120 000 179 00045.118.127.0119.96.2648.251972 6 809 000 306 000 120 000 186 00045.017.627.3117.06.2848.901973 6 999 000 315 000 121 000 193 00044.917.327.6115.06.3149.321974 7 195 000 323 000 123 000 200 00044.917.127.7113.86.3449.571975 7 397 000 332 000 126 000 206 00044.917.027.9113.16.3949.721976 7 598 000 344 000 129 000 215 00045.216.928.3112.66.4549.881977 7 797 000 355 000 132 000 223 00045.416.928.6111.96.5250.001978 8 013 000 365 000 134 000 232 00045.616.728.9110.96.5650.281979 8 243 000 378 000 136 000 242 00045.816.529.3109.46.6150.581980 8 520 000 390 000 137 000 253 00045.916.229.8107.36.6651.041981 8 829 000 407 000 139 000 267 00046.115.830.3104.66.6451.521982 9 047 000 421 000 141 000 281 00046.215.430.8101.66.6252.091983 9 241 000 422 000 138 000 284 00045.614.930.798.36.6152.761984 9 509 000 431 000 138 000 293 00045.314.530.895.16.5953.221985 9 804 000 444 000 138 000 306 00045.214.031.292.06.5853.901986 10 113 000 459 000 140 000 318 00045.313.931.589.66.5954.041987 10 434 000 471 000 140 000 332 00045.213.431.887.26.5654.721988 10 760 000 482 000 142 000 340 00044.713.231.585.96.5054.931989 11 089 000 492 000 145 000 347 00044.413.131.385.36.4454.951990 11 431 000 505 000 150 000 355 00044.113.131.085.56.3954.871991 11 778 000 517 000 155 000 362 00043.913.230.786.36.3554.661992 12 129 000 528 000 160 000 368 00043.513.230.387.46.2954.481993 12 487 000 538 000 167 000 372 00043.113.429.788.76.1954.061994 12 849 000 549 000 174 000 374 00042.713.629.189.96.0853.531995 13 212 000 556 000 180 000 376 00042.113.628.590.75.9653.221996 13 575 000 564 000 187 000 377 00041.513.827.791.45.8352.821997 13 941 000 573 000 191 000 382 00041.113.727.491.65.7252.741998 14 315 000 588 000 197 000 391 00041.113.727.391.55.6752.581999 14 699 000 607 000 200 000 407 00041.313.627.790.65.6352.702000 15 092 000 620 000 203 000 417 00041.013.427.689.45.5352.932001 15 493 000 632 000 205 000 427 00040.813.227.587.95.4453.142002 15 914 000 652 000 208 000 445 00041.013.027.986.15.4653.422003 16 354 000 674 000 209 000 465 00041.212.828.484.35.4653.882004 16 809 000 694 000 211 000 483 00041.312.628.782.55.4554.182005 17 275 000 711 000 215 000 496 00041.112.428.780.85.4154.362006 17 751 000 728 000 215 000 513 00041.012.128.979.15.3554.862007 18 252 000 745 000 217 000 528 00040.811.928.977.45.3355.172008 18 777 000 762 000 218 000 544 00040.611.629.075.55.2855.662009 19 319 000 779 000 218 000 561 00040.311.329.073.75.2356.102010 19 878 000 795 000 219 000 576 00040.011.029.071.45.1656.582011 20 449 000 805 000 218 000 588 00039.410.628.769.15.0657.132012 21 033 000 815 000 215 000 600 00038.810.228.566.64.9957.792013 21 633 000 827 000 213 000 615 00038.29.828.464.04.9158.482014 22 300 000 842 000 212 000 629 00037.89.528.361.64.8658.942015 23 013 000 869 000 211 000 658 00037.89.228.659.14.8359.662016 23 712 000 895 000 211 000 684 00037.78.928.956.94.8260.232017 24 393 000 913 000 210 000 703 00037.48.628.854.84.7760.812018 25 077 000 921 000 210 000 711 00036.78.428.353.04.6961.182019 25 506 000 923 000 208 000 715 00036.28.228.053.34.6561.72020 26 211 000 929 000 212 000 716 00035.48.127.351.84.5661.72021 26 916 000 936 000 222 000 714 00034.88.326.559.34.4761.12022 27 633 000 947 000 212 000 735 00034.37.726.648.84.4062.42023 28 373 000 957 000 203 000 755 00033.77.226.647.44.3263.7 * CBR crude birth rate (per 1,000); CDR crude death rate (per 1,000); NC natural change (per 1,000); IMR infant mortality rate per 1,000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)
Ethnic groups
right|thumb|260px|Speakers of Makaa–Njem languages in Cameroon and neighbouring countries.
right|thumb|260px|The ethnic groups of Cameroon who speak Duala languages.
Cameroon Highlanders 31%
Equatorial Bantu 19%
Kanuri
Indigenous languages of Cameroon include:
Arab Shuwa
Bamum
Basaa
Bikya
Bung
Kanuri
Ngumba
Yeni
Lamnso
Meta'
Mafa
thumb|260px|Estimated number of inhabitants (in thousands), based on 2005 data from the Food and Agriculture Organization.
Religion
Roman Catholic 38.3%, Protestant 25.5%, other Christian 6.9%, Muslim 24.4%, animist 2.2%, other 0.5%, none 2.2% (2018 est.)
References
Attribution:
External links
Institut National de la Statistique du Cameroun
Cameroon Undertakes Nationwide Census, a November 2005 article from Voice of America
UNDP. 2006. Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis. Human Development Report 2006. New York: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
Category:Society of Cameroon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Cameroon | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.511317 |
5451 | Politics of Cameroon | The politics of Cameroon takes place in the context of an electoral autocracy where multi-party elections have been held since 1992, the ruling party wins every election, and Paul Biya has been president since 1982. Since Cameroon's independence in 1960, it has been a single-party state and ruled only by two presidents: Ahmadou Ahidjo and Paul Biya. Political opposition are repressed and elections are manipulated in favor of the ruling party.
Nominally, it is a unitary presidential republic, whereby the President of Cameroon is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. A prime ministerial position exists and is nominally head of government, implying a semi-presidential system, although de facto only serves to assist the president. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly of Cameroon.
Political background
The government adopted legislation in 1997 to authorize the formation of multiple political parties and ease restrictions on forming civil associations and private newspapers. Cameroon's first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held in 1992 followed by municipal elections in 1996 and another round of legislative and presidential elections in 1997. Because the government refused to consider opposition demands for an independent election commission, the three major opposition parties boycotted the October 1997 presidential election, which Biya easily won. The leader of one of the opposition parties, Bello Bouba Maigari of the NUDP, subsequently joined the government.
Cameroon has a number of independent newspapers. Censorship was abolished in 1996, but the government sometimes seizes or suspends newspapers and occasionally arrests journalists. Although a 1990 law authorizes private radio and television stations, the government has not granted any licenses as of March 1998.
The Cameroonian Government's human rights record has been improving over the years but remains flawed. There continue to be reported abuses, including beatings of detainees, arbitrary arrests, and illegal searches. The judiciary is frequently corrupt, inefficient, and subject to political influence.
Worthy of note is the fact that Cameroon is the only country in which two Constitutions are applicable side by side. For example, the 1972 Constitution designates the Prime Minister as constitutional successor of the Head of State in case of incapacity, death, resignation or unaccountable absence of the incumbent. Contrarily, the 1996 Constitutional Reform designates the President of the Senate as constitutional successor; but the Senate (provided for by 1996 Reform) does not exist. Apart from increasing the presidential mandate from 5 years to 7 years, very few amendments of the 1996 Constitutional Reform have been applied.
Executive branch
|President
|Paul Biya
|Cameroon People's Democratic Movement
|6 November 1982
|-
|Prime Minister
|Joseph Dion Ngute
|Cameroon People's Democratic Movement
|4 January 2019
|}
thumb|left|Cameroon President Paul Biya (right) with Colin Powell|alt=Colin Powell and Cameroon president Paul Biya, smiling and talking
The 1972 constitution of the Republic of Cameroon as modified by 1996 reforms provides for a strong central government dominated by the executive. The president is empowered to name and dismiss cabinet members (regardless of parliamentary representation), judges, generals, provincial governors, prefects, sub-prefects, and heads of Cameroon's parastatal (about 100 state-controlled) firms, obligate or disburse expenditures, approve or veto regulations, declare states of emergency, and appropriate and spend profits of parastatal firms. The president is not required to consult the National Assembly. In 2008, a constitutional amendment was passed that eliminated term limits for president.
The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's Ministry of Justice. The Supreme court may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request.
All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets.
While the president, the minister of justice, and the president's judicial advisers (the Supreme Court) top the judicial hierarchy, traditional rulers, courts, and councils also exercise functions of government. Traditional courts still play a major role in domestic, property, and probate law. Tribal laws and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. Traditional rulers receive stipends from the national government.
Legislative branch
The 180-member National Assembly meets in ordinary session three times a year (March/April, June/July, and November/December), and has seldom, until recently, made major changes in legislation proposed by the executive. Laws are adopted by majority vote of members present or, if the president demands a second reading, of a total membership.
Following government pledges to reform the strongly centralized 1972 constitution, the National Assembly adopted a number of amendments in December 1995 which were promulgated in January 1996. The amendments call for the establishment of a 100-member senate as part of a bicameral legislature, the creation of regional councils, and the fixing of the presidential term to 7 years, renewable once. One-third of senators are to be appointed by the President, and the remaining two-thirds are to be chosen by indirect elections. The government has established the Senate in 2013.
Political parties and elections
Judicial branch
The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's Ministry of Justice. The Supreme Court may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request.
The role of women
In an article on the construction of a ‘model Cameroonian woman’ in the Cameroonian parliament, Lilian Atanga, examines arguments used to perpetuate a popular ideal and discourses which "sustain and maintain the status quo (e.g. of women as domestic or women as cooks)".
International organization participation
Cameroon is member of:
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, C, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, ITUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
See also
Cameroon public administration structure
List of governments of Cameroon
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Cameroon | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.519389 |
5452 | Economy of Cameroon | |population 25,216,237 (2018)
|gdp = $38.632 billion (nominal, 2019 est.)}}
|gdp rank =
|growth =
|per capita = $1,515 (nominal, 2019 est.)}}
|inflation 2.2% (2020 est.)
*44.7% on less than $3.20/day (2014)}}
|gini 46.6 (2014, World Bank)
|hdi = 0.563 (2018) (150th)
*0.371 IHDI (2018)}}
|labor = 11,354,044 (2019)
*69.6% employment rate (2014)}}
|occupations = $4.732 billion (2017 est.)
*B (Domestic)
*B (Foreign)
*BBB- (T&C Assessment)}}
|reserves $3.235 billion (31 December 2017 est.) Agriculture
In 2018, Cameroon produced:
* 5million tons of cassava (13th largest producer in the world);
* 3.9million tonnes of plantain (3rd largest producer in the world, only behind Congo and Ghana);
* 2.6million tons of palm oil (7th largest producer in the world);
* 2.3million tons of maize;
* 1.9million tons of taro (3rd largest producer in the world, second only to Nigeria and China);
* 1.4million tons of sorghum;
* 1.2million tons of banana;
* 1.2million tons of sugarcane;
* 1million tons of tomato (19th largest producer in the world);
* 674,000 tonnes of yam (7th largest producer in the world);
* 594,000 tons of peanut;
* 410,000 tons of sweet potato;
* 402,000 tons of beans;
* 332,000 tons of rice;
* 310,000 tons of pineapple;
* 307,000 tons of cocoa (5th largest producer in the world, after Ivory Coast, Ghana, Indonesia and Nigeria);
* 302,000 tons of potato;
* 301,000 tons of onion;
* 249,000 tons of cotton.
In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, such as coffee (33,000 tons) and natural rubber (55,000 tons).
Finance and banking
Cameroon's financial system is the largest in the CEMAC region. Access to financial services is limited, particularly for SMEs. Aside from a traditional tendency for banks to prefer dealing with large, established companies, determining factors are also found in interest rates for loans to SMEs being capped at 15 percent and being heavily taxed. As of 2006, bank loans to SMEs hardly reached 15 percent of total outstanding loans (Molua, 2002).
In 2018, Cameroon's financial system is being requested by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to increase its tax base to cover the losses from the North-West and South-West Cameroon's regions instabilities, the loss of oil revenue, the failure to deliver on port facilities, and the decline in oil production from mature oil fields.
Macro-economic trend
<!---->
Cameroon became an oil-producing country in 1977. Claiming to want to make reserves for difficult times, the authorities manage "off-budget" oil revenues in total opacity (the funds are placed in Paris, Switzerland and New York accounts). Several billion dollars are thus diverted to the benefit of oil companies and regime officials. The influence of France and its 9,000 nationals in Cameroon remains considerable. African Affairs magazine noted in the early 1980s that they "continue to dominate almost all key sectors of the economy, much as they did before independence. French nationals control 55% of the modern sector of the Cameroonian economy and their control over the banking system is total.
Recent signs, however, are encouraging. As of March 1998, Cameroon's fifth IMF program – a 3-year enhanced structural adjustment program approved in August 1997 – is on track. Cameroon has rescheduled its Paris Club debt at favorable terms. GDP has grown by about 5% a year beginning in 1995. There is cautious optimism that Cameroon is emerging from its long period of economic hardship.
The Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) signed recently by the IMF and Government of Cameroon calls for greater macroeconomic planning and financial accountability; privatization of most of Cameroon's nearly 100 remaining non-financial parastatal enterprises; elimination of state marketing board monopolies on the export of cocoa, certain coffees, and cotton; privatization and price competition in the banking sector; implementation of the 1992 labor code; a vastly improved judicial system; and political liberalization to boost investment.
France is Cameroon's main trading partner and source of private investment and foreign aid. Cameroon has an investment guaranty agreement and a bilateral accord with the United States. USA investment in Cameroon is about $1 million, most of it in the oil sector. Inflation has been brought back under control. Cameroon aims at becoming emerging by 2035.
The government embarked upon a series of economic reform programs supported by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) beginning in the late 1980s. Many of these measures have been painful; the government slashed civil service salaries by 65% in 1993. The CFA franc – the common currency of Cameroon and 13 other African states – was devalued by 50% in January 1994. The government failed to meet the conditions of the first four IMF programs.
This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Cameroon at market prices [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcselm.cfm?G=2001 estimated] by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Central African CFA Francs.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year || Gross Domestic Product || US Dollar Exchange
|-
| 1980 || 1,600,186 || 209.20 Francs
|-
| 1985 || 4,355,977 || 471.12 Francs
|-
| 1990 || 3,804,428 || 300.65 Francs
|-
| 1995 || 4,686,286 || 518.62 Francs
|-
| 2000 || 6,612,385 || 658.21 Francs
|-
| 2005 || 8,959,279 || 527.29 Francs
|}
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2022. Inflation below 5% is in green.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
!Year
!GDP
<small>(in Bil. US$PPP)</small>
!GDP per capita
<small>(in US$ PPP)</small>
!GDP
<small>(in Bil. US$nominal)</small>
!GDP growth
<small>(real)</small>
!Inflation rate
<small>(in Percent)</small>
!Government debt
<small>(in % of GDP)</small>
|-
|1980
|11.1
|1,263
|8.85
|9.9%
|7.7%
|n/a
|-
|1981
|14.3
|1,572
|10.03
|17.1%
|7.5%
|n/a
|-
|1982
|16.3
|1,747
|9.62
|7.6%
|15.3%
|n/a
|-
|1983
|18.1
|1,887
|9.69
|6.8%
|20.5%
|n/a
|-
|1984
|20.1
|2,047
|10.24
|7.5%
|12.1%
|n/a
|-
|1985
|22.4
|2,223
|10.70
|8.1%
|4.2%
|n/a
|-
|1986
|24.4
|2,357
|13.95
|6.8%
|4.3%
|n/a
|-
|1987
|24.5
|2,298
|16.15
| -2.2%
|2.8%
|n/a
|-
|1988
|23.4
|2,129
|16.40
| -7.9%
|1.7%
|n/a
|-
|1989
|23.9
|2,110
|14.63
| -1.8%
|1.6%
|n/a
|-
|1990
|23.2
|1,992
|14.64
| -6.2%
|1.5%
|n/a
|-
|1991
|23.1
|1,922
|16.33
| -3.8%
| -0.6%
|n/a
|-
|1992
|22.9
|1,850
|14.96
| -3.1%
|1.9%
|n/a
|-
|1993
|22.7
|1,780
|15.61
| -3.2%
| -3.7%
|n/a
|-
|1994
|22.6
|1,722
|10.62
| -2.5%
|12.7%
|n/a
|-
|1995
|23.9
|1,766
|10.08
|3.3%
|25.8%
|n/a
|-
|1996
|25.5
|1,836
|11.23
|4.9%
|3.9%
|n/a
|-
|1997
|27.3
|1,913
|11.35
|5.3%
|4.8%
|n/a
|-
|1998
|29.0
|1,974
|11.34
|4.9%
|3.2%
|68%
|-
|1999
|30.6
|2,026
|11.55
|4.1%
|1.8%
|68%
|-
|2000
|32.3
|2,084
|10.25
|3.4%
|1.2%
|76%
|-
|2001
|34.2
|2,145
|10.95
|3.4%
|4.5%
|62%
|-
|2002
|36.4
|2,224
|12.37
|4.8%
|2.8%
|57%
|-
|2003
|38.9
|2,318
|15.94
|5.0%
|0.6%
|52%
|-
|2004
|42.6
|2,469
|18.80
|6.6%
|0.3%
|52%
|-
|2005
|44.5
|2,509
|19.53
|1.2%
|2.0%
|44%
|-
|2006
|47.5
|2,605
|20.91
|3.5%
|4.9%
|18%
|-
|2007
|50.8
|2,710
|23.93
|4.1%
|1.1%
|14%
|-
|2008
|53.2
|2,764
|27.71
|2.9%
|5.3%
|11%
|-
|2009
|55.0
|2,777
|27.90
|2.6%
|3.0%
|11%
|-
|2010
|57.2
|2,814
|27.53
|2.9%
|1.3%
|14%
|-
|2011
|60.5
|2,892
|30.63
|3.5%
|3.0%
|15%
|-
|2012
|63.6
|2,959
|30.17
|4.5%
|2.4%
|15%
|-
|2013
|69.1
|3,130
|33.73
|5.0%
|2.1%
|17%
|-
|2014
|75.1
|3,313
|36.40
|5.8%
|1.9%
|21%
|-
|2015
|79.1
|3,396
|32.21
|5.6%
|2.7%
|32%
|-
|2016
|84.4
|3,527
|33.81
|4.5%
|0.9%
|32%
|-
|2017
|90.0
|3,665
|36.09
|3.5%
|0.6%
|37%
|-
|2018
|95.9
|3,803
|39.99
|4.0%
|1.1%
|38%
|-
|2019
|101.0
|3,901
|39.67
|3.4%
|2.5%
|42%
|-
|2020
|102.7
|3,870
|40.86
|0.5%
|2.5%
|45%
|-
|2021
|110.9
|4,073
|45.39
|3.6%
|2.3%
|46%
|-
|2022
|123.3
|4,419
|44.32
|3.8%
|4.6%
|47%
|}
Mining
Gallery
<gallery>
File:Douala.JPG|Douala
File:Limbe1.png|A touristic area in Limbe
File:YaoundeSportPalace.png|Yaoundé Sport palace
File:Fulani herd in the dust.jpg|A Fulani herder drives his cattle in northern Cameroon.
File:Asky plane 7810.jpg|Douala International Airport
File:Touristic Buses.jpg|Intercity buses in transit during the night (Touristique Express)
File:WL-Cameroun-Train Yaoundé-Ngaoundéré.jpg|Interurban passenger train on the move in Cameroon (Douala-Yaounde-Ngaoundere)
File:Nouveau pont sur le Wouri 04.jpg|Douala Seaport
File:Transport de boissons 01.jpg|A truck transporting beers to various localities in Cameroon
</gallery>
See also
* Cameroon
* Transport in Cameroon
* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
References
External links
*[http://www.trademap.org/open_access/Index.aspx?proceedtrue&reporter120 Cameroon latest trade data on ITC Trade Map]
*[http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/CMR/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Cameroon]
Category:Economies of developing countries
Cameroon
Cameroon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Cameroon | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.542680 |
5453 | Telecommunications in Cameroon | Telecommunications in Cameroon include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
History
During German rule, It was set up in the protectorate of Kamerun the first telegraph line, the first telephone line, and the first wireless telegraph. However, the country remained undeveloped in telecommunications. During First World War, Germans followed a scorched-earth policy that meant the destruction of communication lines, included telephone and telegraph.
In British Cameroon, from 1916 to 1950s, communications in the country relied on flag post runners that had been described as "human telephone lines". Paths followed by the runners served as a base of the development of telegraph lines in the territory. For instance, the line from Buea-Kumba to Ossidinge used the same paths that the mail runners. In the mid-1930s, the wiring of British Cameroon received more support.
Radio and television
Radio stations:
state-owned Cameroon Radio Television (CRTV); one private radio broadcaster; about 70 privately owned, unlicensed radio stations operating, but subject to closure at any time; foreign news services are required to partner with a state-owned national station (2007);
The government maintains tight control over broadcast media. State-owned Cameroon Radio Television (CRTV), operates both a TV and a radio network. It was the only officially recognized and fully licensed broadcaster until August 2007 when the government issued licenses to two private TV and one private radio broadcasters.
International call prefix: 00
Main lines:
737,400 lines in use, 88th in the world (2012);
Satellite earth stations: 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).
985,565 users (2011);
749,600 users, 106th in the world (2009).
Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).
Internet hosts:
10,207 hosts, 134th in the world (2012);
Internet service providers (ISPs):
Creolink Communications
A number of projects are underway that will improve Internet access, telecommunications, and Information and communications technology (ICT) in general:
Implementation of the e-post project, connecting 234 post offices throughout the country;
Extension of the national optical fiber network, installation of the initial 3,200 km of fiber is complete and studies for the installation of an additional 3,400 km are underway;
Construction of multipurpose community telecentres, some 115 telecentres are operating with an additional 205 under construction;
Construction of metropolitan optical loops, the urban optical loop of Douala is complete and construction of the Yaounde loop is underway;
Construction of submarine cable landing points;
Establishment of public key infrastructure (PKI);
Construction of a regional technology park to support the development of ICTs.
Internet censorship and surveillance
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms.
Although the law provides for freedom of speech and press, it also criminalizes media offenses, and the government restricts freedoms of speech and press. Government officials threaten, harass, arrest, and deny equal treatment to individuals or organizations that criticize government policies or express views at odds with government policy. Individuals who criticize the government publicly or privately sometimes face reprisals. Press freedom is constrained by strict libel laws that suppress criticism. These laws authorize the government, at its discretion and the request of the plaintiff, to criminalize a civil libel suit or to initiate a criminal libel suit in cases of alleged libel against the president and other high government officials. Such crimes are punishable by prison terms and heavy fines.
Although the constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, these rights are subject to restriction for the "higher interests of the state", and there are credible reports that police and gendarmes harass citizens, conduct searches without warrants, and open or seize mail with impunity.
See also
Cameroon Radio Television, government-controlled national broadcaster.
Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation
List of terrestrial fibre optic cable projects in Africa
Media of Cameroon
Cameroon
References
External links
Antic.cm, top-level domain registry for Cameroon (.cm).
Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, Cameroon (MINPOSTEL) . English translation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cameroon | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.551710 |
5454 | Transport in Cameroon | This article provides a breakdown of the transportation options available in Cameroon. These options are available to citizens and tourists such as railways, roadways, waterways, pipelines, and airlines. These avenues of transport are used by citizens for personal transportation, of goods, and by tourists for both accessing the country and traveling.thumb|225px|right|Bush taxi in the East Province
Railways
thumb
Railways in Cameroon are operated by Camrail, a subsidiary of French investment group Bolloré. As of May 2014, Camrail operated regular daily services on three routes:
Douala - Kumba
Douala - Yaoundé
Yaoundé - Ngaoundéré
Kribi - Mbalam and Nabeba in Republic of the Congo - under construction in 2022.
Edéa - Kribi - proposed connection to deep water port.
There are no rail links with neighboring countries except Republic of the Congo.
Roadways
thumb|Bus Finexs Voyage
thumb|right|270px|Buses in Yaoundé
Total highways: 50,000 km
Paved: 5,000 km
Unpaved: 45,000 km (2004)
Cameroon lies at a key point in the Trans-African Highway network, with three routes crossing its territory:
Dakar-N'Djamena Highway, connecting just over the Cameroon border with the N'Djamena-Djibouti Highway
Lagos-Mombasa Highway
Tripoli-Cape Town Highway
Cameroon's central location in the network means that efforts to close the gaps in the network across Central Africa rely on Cameroon's participation in maintaining the network, and the network has the potential to profoundly influence Cameroon's regional trade. Except for the several relatively good toll roads that connect major cities (all of them one-lane) roads are poorly maintained and subject to inclement weather, since only 10% of the roadways are tarred. It is likely that within a decade, a great deal of trade between West Africa and Southern Africa will be moving on the network through Yaoundé.
National highways in Cameroon:
thumb|Rues et pistes de Douala 04
N1: Yaoundé - Bertoua - Ngaoundéré - Garoua - Maroua - Kouséri, border with Chad.
N2: Yaoundé - Mbalmayo - Ebolowa - Woleu Ntem, border with Gabon.
N3: Yaoundé - Edéa - Douala - Idenau.
N4: Yaoundé - Bafia - Bafoussam.
N5: Douala - Nkongsamba - Bafang - Bafoussam.
N6: Ejagham, border with Nigeria - Bamenda - Bafoussam - Tibati - Lokoti.
N7: Edéa - Kribi.
N8: Mutengene - Kumba - Mamfé.
N9: Mbalmayo - Nki, border with Congo.
N10: Yaoundé - Bertoua - Batouri - Kenzou, border with the Central African Republic.
N11 Bamenda Ring Road Linking, Mezam, Ngokitujia, Mbui, Boyo and Menchum
Prices of petrol rose steadily in 2007 and 2008, leading to a transport union strike in Douala on 25 February 2008. The strike quickly escalated into violent protests and spread to other major cities. The uprising finally subsided on 29 February.
Waterways
thumb|Car carrier GRANDE CAMEROON à Casablanca
2,090 km; of decreasing importance. Navigation mainly on the Benue River; limited during the rainy season.
Seaports and harbors
Douala - main port, railhead, and second-largest city
Bonaberi - railhead to northwest
Garoua
Kribi - oil pipeline from Chad
Kribi South - proposed iron ore export port, about 40 km south of Kribi.
Tiko
Pipelines
888 km of oil line (2008)
Airports
thumb|Aéroport de Douala
thumb|Aircraft at the Douala International Airport, Cameroon
thumb|Front view of Douala International Airport
The main international airport is the Douala International Airport and a secondary international airport at Yaoundé Nsimalen International Airport. As of May 2014, Cameroon had regular international air connections with nearly every major international airport in West and Southwest Africa and several connections to Europe and East Africa.
In 2008 there were 34 airports, only 10 of which had paved runways.
List of airports in Cameroon
Airports - with paved runways
total:
10
over 3,047 m:
2
2,438 to 3,047 m:
4
1,524 to 2,437 m:
3
914 to 1,523 m:
1 (2008)
Airports - with unpaved runways
total:
24
1,524 to 2,437 m:
4
914 to 1,523 m:
14
under 914 m:
6 (2008)
See also
Camrail
Cameroon
African Integrated High Speed Railway Network (AIHSRN)
Railway stations in Cameroon
References
Sundance Resources Ltd report | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Cameroon | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.558359 |
5455 | Cameroon Armed Forces | | image | alt
| caption | image2
| alt2 | caption2
| motto | founded 1960
| current_form | disbanded
| branches =
| headquarters = Yaoundé
| flying_hours | website <!---->
<!-- Leadership -->
| commander-in-chief_title = Commander-in-Chief
| commander-in-chief = Paul Biya
| chief minister_title = Deputy Commander-in-Chief
| chief minister = Joseph Ngute
| minister_title = Minister of Defense
| minister = Joseph Beti Assomo
| commander_title = Chief of the Defence Staff
| commander = René Claude Meka
<!-- Manpower -->
| age | conscription
| manpower_data | manpower_age
| available | available_f
| fit | fit_f
| reaching | reaching_f
| active 40000
<!-- Industrial -->
| domestic_suppliers | foreign_suppliers <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />
| imports | exports
<!-- Related aricles -->
| history = Bamileke War<br />Bakassi conflict<br />CAR Civil War<br />Boko Haram insurgency<br />Anglophone Crisis
| ranks = Military ranks of Cameroon
}}
The Cameroon Armed Forces () are the military of the Republic of Cameroon. The armed forces number 40,000 personnel in ground, air, and naval forces. There are approximately 40,000 troops in the army across three military regions. Approximately 1,300 troops are part of the Cameroonian Navy, which is headquartered at Douala. Under 600 troops are part of the Air Force. There is an additional 12,500 paramilitary troops that serve as a gendarmerie (policing force) or reconnaissance role.
The Cameroonian armed forces have bases spread all over Cameroon, including in Ngaoundéré. Air Force bases are located in Garoua, Yaoundé, Douala and Bamenda.
It has generally remained loyal to the government and acted to ensure the stability of the regime, and not acted as an independent political force. Traditional dependence on the French defense capability, although reduced, continues to be the case as French military advisers remain closely involved in preparing the Cameroonian forces for deployment to the contested Bakassi Peninsula.ArmyWith over 40,000 troops, the Army remains the most important component in terms of numbers. The Army is under the responsibility of the Chief of Staff, Major-General Nkoa Atenga, whose staff is in Yaoundé.
Currently, the organization dates from 2001 with a distribution in several types of units: combat units, response units (''unités d'intervention), unités de soutien et d'appui, and finally special reserve units as part of 3 joint military régions (interarmées) and the 10 military land sectors.
Army units have been trained and equipped to fight in the swampy coastal terrain facing the Bakassi peninsula. Although prepared for an armed conflict with Nigeria in recent years, the Cameroon Army does not have operational experience against other forces, therefore, it is not possible to assess its ability to respond to changing threats and opposing tactics.
Combat units of the army include:
* The Headquarters Brigade, located in Yaoundé. This brigade is responsible for protecting the capital and supporting the institutions. The President of the Republic has to allow any of its deployments. The brigade consists of acommand and support battalion; a support battalion; a bataillon honneurs et protection (BHP); and three infantry battalions.
* Three command and support battalions;
* The Rapid Intervention Battalion (''Btaillon d'Intervention Rapide, BIR)
* The (Brigade d'Intervention Rapide'', or also BIR), (which currently has no general staff) and is made up of three rapid response battalions, stationed in Douala, Tiko and Koutaba. These three battalions are respectively the Special Amphibious Battalion (Bataillon Spécial Amphibie; BSA), the Bataillon des Troupes Aéroportées (BTAP), and the Armored Reconnaissance Battalion (Bataillon Blindé de Reconnaissance; BBR) equipped with Type 07P infantry fighting vehicle and PTL-02 tank destroyer bought recently from China. The BSA is inspired by the French Special Forces. This brigade is a tactical battle unit under the authority of the Chief of Staff of the armed forces. For this to be engaged, the President's agreement is necessary.
* Five motorised infantry brigades, supposed to be stationed in one military sector but which can then be engaged without any regard to the territorial division of the country. These brigades currently do not have a general staff. In theory, they consist of 11 motorised infantry battalions; 5 support battalions and 3 backing battalions; however, the motorised battalions are in reality not operational due to a lack of staff, equipment and vehicles.
Organization
The territory is divided into 5 combined arms military regions (RMIA):
* RMIA1 (Yaoundé)
* RMIA2 (Douala)
* RMIA3 (Garoua)
* RMIA4 (Maroua)
* RMIA5 (Bamenda)
1st Military Region
* 11th Ebolowa Brigade:
** 11th BCS (command and support battalion) in Ebolowa
** 12th BIM (motorized infantry battalion) in Ebolowa
** 12th BIM at Djoum
** 13th BIM at Ambam
** 11th BA (support battalion) at Sangmélima
* 12th Bertoua brigade
** 12th BCS in Bertoua
** 14th BIM in Bertoua
**15th BIM to Yokadouma
**16th BIM at Garoua-Boulaï
**12th BA in Bertoua
2nd Military Region
* Rapid Intervention Brigade
** Headquarters at Bafoussam
**Special Amphibious Battalion (BSA) at Tiko
**Airborne Battalion (BTAP) in Koutaba
**Armored Reconnaissance Battalion (BBR) in Douala
* 21st Motorized infantry brigade of Buéa Here, he was assaulted by police in June 2001, with no particular reason stated.
* 1: Aresa 2300 landing craft
* 6: Aresa 750 Commandos RIBs
* 5: 1200 Stealth RIBs
* 1: 1200 Defcon RIB
* 2: P108 and P109 patrol boats
No officers were graduated until 1970. Every graduation of cadets takes place on 18 January.
* Non-Commissioned Officer Training School (Ecole des sous officiers du cameroun)
Both commissioned and noncommissioned officers were sent to various military schools in France, Greece, and the Soviet Union. The total number of Cameroonian military cadets with a Russian educational background were few.
References
External links
* [https://archive.today/20130802084927/http://www.crtv.cm/cont/nouvelles/nouvelles_sola_fr.php?idField9048&tablenouvelles&sub=national Military appointments] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon_Armed_Forces | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.567338 |
5456 | Foreign relations of Cameroon | Cameroon's noncontentious, low-profile approach to foreign relations puts it squarely in the middle of other African and developing country states on major issues. It supports the principles of non-interference in the affairs of third world countries and increased assistance to underdeveloped countries. Cameroon is an active participant in the United Nations, where its voting record demonstrates its commitment to causes that include international peacekeeping, the rule of law, environmental protection, and Third World economic development. In the UN and other human rights fora, Cameroon's non-confrontational approach has generally led it to avoid criticizing other countries.
Cameroon enjoys good relations with France, the United States and other developed countries. Cameroon enjoys generally good relations with its African neighbors. It supports UN peacekeeping activities in Central Africa.
International disputes
Delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula and Lake Chad is currently before the International Court of Justice (ICJ), as is a dispute with Equatorial Guinea over the exclusive maritime economic zone. As of 10 October 2012, it has been resolved that Cameroon own Bakassi.
Cameroon also faces a complaint filed with the African Commission on Human Rights by the Southern Cameroons National Council (SCNC) and the Southern Cameroons Peoples Organization (SCAPO) against the Government of the Republic of Cameroon, in which the complainants allege that the Republic of Cameroon is illegally occupying the territory of Southern Cameroons. The SCNC and SCAPO ultimately seek the independence of the territory of Southern Cameroons. As of 2008, both parties have submitted briefs and responded to the Human Rights Commissions' inquiries. A ruling by the African Commission on Human Rights is awaited. Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Cameroon maintains diplomatic relations with:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="3" |
|-
!#
!Country
!Date
|-
|1
|
|
|-
|2
|
|
|-
|3
|
|
|-
|4
|
|
|-
|5
|
|
|-
|6
|
|
|-
|7
|
|
|-
|8
|
|
|-
|9
|
|
|-
|10
|
|
|-
|11
|
|
|-
|13
|
|
|-
|15
|
|
|-
|16
|
|
|-
|17
|
|
|-
|18
|
|
|-
|19
|
|
|-
|20
|
|
|-
|21
|
|
|-
|22
|
|
|-
|23
|
|
|-
|24
|
|
|-
|25
|
|
|-
|26
|
|
|-
|27
|
|
|-
|28
|
|
|-
|29
|
|
|-
|30
|
|
|-
|31
|
|1962
|-
|32
|
|
|-
|34
|
|
|-
|35
|
|
|-
|36
|
|
|-
|37
|
|
|-
|38
|
|
|-
|39
|
|
|-
|40
|
|
|-
|41
|
|
|-
|42
|
|
|-
|43
|
|
|-
|44
|
|
|-
|45
|
|
|-
|46
|
|
|-
|47
|
|
|-
|48
|
|
|-
|49
|
|
|-
|50
|
|
|-
|51
|
|
|-
|52
|
|
|-
|53
|
|
|-
|54
|
|
|-
|55
|
|
|-
|56
|
|
|-
|57
|
|
|-
|58
|
|
|-
|59
|
|
|-
|60
|
|
|-
|61
|
|
|-
|62
|
|
|-
|64
|
|
|-
|65
|
|
|-
|66
|
|
|-
|67
|
|
|-
|68
|
|
|-
|69
|
|
|-
|70
|
|
|-
|71
|
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|-
|72
|
|
|-
|73
|
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|-
|74
|
|
|-
|75
|
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|-
|76
|
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|-
|79
|
|
|-
|80
|
|
|-
|81
|
|
|-
|82
|
|
|-
|83
|
|
|-
|84
|
|
|-
|85
|
|
|-
|86
|
|
|-
|87
|
|
|-
|88
|
|
|-
|89
|
|
|-
|90
|
|
|-
|91
|
|
|-
|92
|
|
|-
|93
|
|
|-
|94
|
|
|-
|95
|
|
|-
|96
|
|
|-
|98
|
|
|-
|99
|
|
|-
|100
|
|
|-
|101
|
|
|-
|104
|
|
|-
|106
|
|
|-
|108
|
|
|-
|109
|
|
|-
|113
|
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|-
|116
|
|
|-
|120
|
|
|-
|121
|
|
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|123
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|125
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|-
|126
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|-
|127
|
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|-
|136
|
|
* Australia is represented in Cameroon through its High Commission in Abuja, Nigeria.
|- valign="top"
|||7 December 1961||
Cameroon and Canada have established diplomatic ties on 7 December 1961 with three agreements and four protocoles signed in 1965. Both countries share the use of English and French as the two official languages as well as memberships in the Francophonie and The Commonwealth.
* Cameroon has a high commission in Ottawa.
* Canada has a high commission in Yaoundé.
|-
|
|11 August 1964
|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 August 1964
|- valign="top"
|||26 March 1971||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 March 1971
The People's Republic of China has a number of health and infrastructure projects underway in Cameroon. In January 2007, China signed a series of economic agreements with Cameroon, giving more than $54 million in loans., China constructed the multipurpose sports complex in Yaounde and renovated the famous Amadou Ahidjo stadium.
|- valign="top"
|||3 September 1962||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 September 1962
|- valign="top"
|||1 January 1960||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 January 1960
Cameroon has particularly close ties with France, with whom it has numerous military, economic, and cultural agreements, the construction of the Bonaberi bridge in Douala is pioneered by the French and they are to exploit uranium discovered in the North by 2018.
|- valign="top"
|||15 September 1960||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 September 1960, and re-established diplomatic relations on 26 August 1986
Cameroon's Rapid Reaction Force is trained and armed by Israel, and Cameroon supports Israel in the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) draft resolution votes. Many citizens of Cameroon receive training and education in agriculture in Israel. The Israeli ambassador described Cameroon as Israel's best friend in Africa. Additionally, Cameroon strongly opposes the existence of and antagonizes Palestine and is one of only two nations in Africa not to have yet recognized it
|- valign="top"
|||22 December 1975||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 December 1975
* Cameroon is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States with a consulate in Mexico City.
* Mexico is accredited to Cameroon from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria with a consulate in Yaoundé.
|- valign="top"
|||November 1960||Both countries established diplomatic relations in November 1960
Cameroon is engaged in a sporadic armed conflict with Nigeria in the oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula. The dispute was resolved through the 2006 Greentree Agreement which led to the full withdrawal of Nigerian troops from the region and its administrative transfer back to Cameroon in August 2013. The two countries agree on maritime delimitation.Economic relations between both states are however timid, the uprise of the Boko Haram terrorists group called for military co-operation between Cameroon and Nigeria.
|- valign="top"
|||20 February 1964||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 February 1964
* Cameroon has an embassy in Moscow.
* Russia has an embassy in Yaoundé.
|- valign="top"
|||10 August 1961||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 August 1961. In 2012 Bilateral Trade was US$64 million
|- valign="top"
|||10 November 1961||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 November 1961
|- valign="top"
||| 9 August 1963||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 August 1963
* Cameroon has an embassy in Ankara
*Turkey has an embassy in Yaoundé
*Trade volume between the two countries was US$205 million in 2019 (Cameroon's exports/imports: 54/151 million USD).
*There are direct flights from Istanbul to Yaoundé.
|- valign="top"
|||||See Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
Cameroon established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 1 February 1960.
The UK governed western Cameroon from 1916 to 1961, when it joined the Federal Republic of Cameroon.
Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth, and the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have an Economic Partnership Agreement.
|- valign="top"
|||1 January 1960||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 January 1960
* Cameroon has an embassy in Washington, D.C.
* United States has an embassy in Yaoundé.
|- valign="top"
|||30 August 1972||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 August 1972. Vietnam is represented in Cameroon through a non-resident embassy in Abuja, Nigeria and an honorary consulate in Douala. In 2014 Nexttel, Joint operative company of Viettel becomes the First 3G operator in Cameroon.
|}
Multilateral relations
In addition to the United Nations, Cameroon is very active in other multilateral organisations or global institutions such as the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, The Commonwealth, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Group of 77, the Non-Aligned Movement, the African Union and the Economic Community of Central African States.
See also
* List of diplomatic missions in Cameroon
* List of diplomatic missions of Cameroon
References
}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Cameroon | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.922676 |
5460 | Geography of Cape Verde | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
| area ranking = 165th
| km area = 4,033
| percent land = 100
| km coastline = 965
| exclusive economic zone
| borders = None
| geographic center | highest point Mount Fogo <br>
| lowest point = Atlantic Ocean <br>
| longest river | largest lake
}}Cape Verde (formally, the Republic of Cabo Verde) is a group of arid Atlantic islands which are home to distinct communities of plants, birds, and reptiles.
Location and description
The Cape Verde Islands are located in the mid-Atlantic Ocean some off the west coast of the continent of Africa. The landscape varies from dry plains to high active volcanoes with cliffs rising steeply from the ocean. The climate is arid. The total size is .
The archipelago consists of ten islands and five islets, divided into the windward (Barlavento) and leeward (Sotavento) groups.
In the west of the Barlavento group, Santo Antão, São Vicente, São Nicolau, Santa Luzia and islets Branco and Raso are volcanic and somewhat rocky yet quite widely capable of supporting semi-arid agriculture.
In the east of the Barlavento group, Sal and Boa Vista are lightly-hilled, desert islands whose economies were based on salt and rely on fishing and tourism, having more in common with the Sotavento island Maio.
There are four main islands of the Sotavento group. The western three islands, Brava, Fogo and Santiago, are rocky and volcanic agricultural islands, with the longest histories of human habitation. The fourth and easternmost island Maio is a flat desert island whose economy was primarily based on salt, giving it more in common with the Barlavento islands Sal and Boa Vista. The Ilhéus do Rombo are barren islets north of Brava. The total area of the Sotavento Islands is . The interior valleys support denser natural vegetation.
; Maritime claims:
:* Measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
:* Continental shelf: 5,591 km<sup>2
}}
</div>
Rainfall is irregular, historically causing periodic droughts and famines. Experiments with fog collectors have been conducted since 1962, however, such collectors had not been expanded beyond the Serra Malagueta community of Santiago Island, as of 2009. The average precipitation per year in Praia is .
| source 2 Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes, precipitation days, and sun)
}}
Forests
In Cabo Verde forest cover is around 11% of the total land area, equivalent to 45,720 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 15,380 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 13,680 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 32,040 hectares (ha). For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership. The islands constitute the unique Cape Verde Islands dry forests ecoregion, according to the World Wildlife Fund. Flora
Cape Verde is the driest archipelago of the ecoregion of Macaronesia. That with a greater influence of African species due to its geographical location near the African mainland of the Sahel.
At first, the islands of Cabo Verde housed an extensive savanna and dry forest cover, but mostly it was removed to convert to agricultural land, which, together with the arid climate and rugged terrain, has led to a soil erosion and desertification widespread. However, the archipelago can be divided into four broad ecological zones (arid, semiarid, subhumid and humid), according to altitude and average annual rainfall ranging from 200 mm in the arid areas of the coast to more than 1000 mm in the humid mountain. Mostly rainfall precipitation is due to condensation of the ocean mist. Today much of the forest cover comprises relatively immature agroforestry plantations, in which are used non-native species such as Prosopis juliflora, Leucaena leucocephala and Jatropha curcas. The native laurel forest species are in wet area only in mountainous areas.
On the lower and drier islands the vegetation, before human colonization, consisted of savanna or steppe vegetation, with the flattest inland portion supporting semi-desert plants. At higher altitudes, a form of arid shrubland was also present. These islands were covered with savanna on the plains and arid shrubland on the mountainsides, but after over 500 years of human habitation (after Portuguese colonisation) nearly all the original vegetation has been cleared in favour of widespread agriculture including the grazing of goats, sheep and cattle and the planting of imported crop species. There are some remaining patches of dry forest high on steep mountainside including a number of endemic plant species, but these are inaccessible and hard to study.
On the higher islands and somewhat wetter islands, exclusively in mountainous areas, like Santo Antao island, the climate is suitable for the development of dry monsoon forest, and laurel forest as this vegetation is believed to have been present in the past. However, most vegetation has now been converted to agriculture and forest fragments are now restricted to areas where cultivation is not possible, such as mountain peaks and steep slopes. The demand for wood has resulted in deforestation and desertification.
Of particular note is the endemic type of humid subtropical laurel forest of macaronesian laurisilva, found on several of the Macaronesian African mainland enclaves and Macaronesian islands of the North Atlantic, namely Madeira Islands, the Azores, Cape Verde Islands, and the Canary Islands; these are a relic of the Pliocene subtropical forests, supporting numerous endemic species.
This laurisilva forests are found in the islands of Macaronesia in the eastern Atlantic, in particular the Azores, Madeira Islands, and western Canary Islands, from 400 m to 1,200 m elevation. Trees of the genera Apollonias (Lauraceae), Ocotea (Lauraceae), Persea (Lauraceae), Clethra (Clethraceae), Dracaena (Ruscaceae), and Picconia (Oleaceae) are characteristic. The Madeira Islands laurel forest was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1999.
Fauna
There are four endemic bird species including the Raso lark along with more common swifts, larks, warblers, and sparrows. The islands are an important breeding site for seabirds including the Cape Verde shearwater and Fea's petrel (Pterodroma feae), which breeds only here and in Madeira. Santiago Island holds the only breeding site of the endemic and critically endangered Bourne's heron. The 11 endemic reptile species include a giant gecko (Tarentola gigas), and there are other geckos and skinks in abundance. The giant skink (Macroscincus coctei) is now thought to be extinct.
Threats and protection
Almost all of the natural environment has been destroyed by conversion to agriculture and logging for firewood, as well as natural soil erosion, all of which has threatened several species of birds and reptiles. The remaining original forest exists at high altitudes only. Newer problems include illegal beach sand extraction and overfishing while the nesting birds are vulnerable due to introduced mammals, including cats and rats.
; Environment - international agreements
:* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands<ref name":1" /> Extreme points
* Northernmost point - Ponta do Sol on Santao Antão Island
* Southernmost point - Ponta Nho Martinho on Brava
* Westernmost point - Ponta Chao de Mongrade on Santao Antão*
* Easternmost point - Ponta Meringuel on Boa Vista
* *This is also the westernmost point of Africa
Notes
References
*
* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Cape_Verde | 2025-04-05T18:27:13.949740 |
5461 | Demographics of Cape Verde | <!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see WP:SDNONE -->
Demographic features of the population of Cape Verde include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
Cape Verde has about 540,000 inhabitants. A large proportion (236,000) of Cape Verdeans live on the main island, Santiago. Many more live abroad in the Cape Verdean diaspora in mainland Africa, Europe, U.S., Brazil, et cetera.
The archipelago of Cape Verde was first discovered and claimed by Portuguese sailors working for the Portuguese Crown in 1456. Cape Verdeans are West African. Many foreigners from other parts of the world settled in Cape Verde as their permanent country.
The difficulty of survival in a country with few natural resources has historically induced Cape Verdeans to emigrate. In fact, of the more than 1 million people of Cape Verdean ancestry in the world, only a little more than one-third actually live on the islands. Some 500,000 people of Cape Verdean ancestry live in the United States, mainly in New England. Many people of Cape Verdean ancestry also live in Portugal, Netherlands, France, Italy and Senegal. Cape Verdean populations also settled Spain, Germany, Canada, and other CPLP countries (Angola, Brazil and Guinea-Bissau). Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Cape Verdean students have continued to be admitted every year to Portuguese high schools, polytechnical institutes and universities, through bilateral agreements between the Portuguese and Cape Verdean governments.
Portuguese functions as a state language. Virtually all formal documents and official declarations are in Portuguese. But it is not the first language. Cape Verdean, commonly called Kriolu, is spoken as a mother tongue by virtually all Cape Verdeans, irrespective of social status or religious affiliation. Moreover, historical linguists often attribute Cape Verdean Creole as the oldest "New World" contact language. It is a "contact" language in the sense that it was born and evolved between linguistically different groups who, by necessity, had to create a common language to communicate with each other. There is a rich repertoire of literature and songs in Cape Verdean Creole. In religion, the majority of Cape Verdeans follow Catholic Christianity. There are some Protestants, Baháʼís and Muslims.
Population
, year 2005; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
According to the total population was in , compared to only 178,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 31.8%, 62.3% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 5.9% was 65 years or older.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: right;"
|+Progression of the population
!Year
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|Ages 0–14 (%)
! width="80pt"|Ages 15–64 (%)
! width="80pt"|Ages 65+ (%)
|-
| 1950
| 178,000||32.6||59.8||7.6
|-
| 1955
| 195,000||35.8||57.9||6.2
|-
| 1960
| 211,000||42.1||53.2||4.8
|-
| 1965
| 240,000||48.5||47.3||4.2
|-
| 1970
| 274,000||48.2||47.8||4
|-
| 1975
| 311,000||45.8||49.6||4.6
|-
| 1980
| 300,000||46.0||48.7||5.3
|-
| 1985
| 328,000||44.5||50.5||5
|-
| 1990
| 348,000||45.4||49.8||4.8
|-
| 1995
| 395,000||44.5||50.5||5
|-
| 2000
| 437,000||41.7||52.9||5.3
|-
| 2005
| 473,000||37.0||57.2||5.8
|-
| 2010
| 496,000||31.8||62.3||5.9
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 243 403
| align="right" | 248 280
| align="right" | 491 683
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 25 131
| align="right" | 25 069
| align="right" | 50 200
| align="right" | 10.21
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 25 168
| align="right" | 25 040
| align="right" | 50 208
| align="right" | 10.21
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 27 864
| align="right" | 27 361
| align="right" | 55 225
| align="right" | 11.23
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 29 655
| align="right" | 29 405
| align="right" | 59 060
| align="right" | 12.01
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 27 327
| align="right" | 25 578
| align="right" | 52 905
| align="right" | 10.76
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 23 336
| align="right" | 21 005
| align="right" | 44 341
| align="right" | 9.02
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 18 165
| align="right" | 16 339
| align="right" | 34 504
| align="right" | 7.02
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 14 106
| align="right" | 13 130
| align="right" | 27 236
| align="right" | 5.54
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 12 988
| align="right" | 13 303
| align="right" | 26 291
| align="right" | 5.35
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 11 347
| align="right" | 12 165
| align="right" | 23 512
| align="right" | 4.78
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 8 162
| align="right" | 9 999
| align="right" | 18 161
| align="right" | 3.69
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 4 947
| align="right" | 7 196
| align="right" | 12 143
| align="right" | 2.47
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 2 613
| align="right" | 3 580
| align="right" | 6 193
| align="right" | 1.26
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 2 499
| align="right" | 3 716
| align="right" | 6 215
| align="right" | 1.26
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 3 437
| align="right" | 5 229
| align="right" | 8 666
| align="right" | 1.76
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 2 980
| align="right" | 4 453
| align="right" | 7 433
| align="right" | 1.51
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 2 092
| align="right" | 3 185
| align="right" | 5 277
| align="right" | 1.07
|-
| align="right" | 85–89
| align="right" | 827
| align="right" | 1 358
| align="right" | 2 185
| align="right" | 0.44
|-
| align="right" | 90–94
| align="right" | 377
| align="right" | 696
| align="right" | 1 073
| align="right" | 0.22
|-
| align="right" | 95+
| align="right" | 172
| align="right" | 325
| align="right" | 497
| align="right" | 0.10
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 78 163
| align="right" | 77 470
| align="right" | 155 633
| align="right" | 31.65
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 152 646
| align="right" | 151 700
| align="right" | 304 346
| align="right" | 61.90
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 12 384
| align="right" | 18 962
| align="right" | 31 346
| align="right" | 6.38
|-
| align="right" | Unknown
| align="right" | 210
| align="right" | 148
| align="right" | 358
| align="right" | 0.07
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 281 533
| align="right" | 275 324
| align="right" | 556 857
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 26 739
| align="right" | 25 524
| align="right" | 52 264
| align="right" | 9.39
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 26 162
| align="right" | 24 973
| align="right" | 51 135
| align="right" | 9.18
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 25 262
| align="right" | 25 389
| align="right" | 50 651
| align="right" | 9.10
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 23 734
| align="right" | 23 483
| align="right" | 47 218
| align="right" | 8.48
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 23 955
| align="right" | 22 461
| align="right" | 46 416
| align="right" | 8.34
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 28 159
| align="right" | 26 015
| align="right" | 54 173
| align="right" | 9.73
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 28 603
| align="right" | 24 995
| align="right" | 53 597
| align="right" | 9.62
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 24 111
| align="right" | 20 484
| align="right" | 44 595
| align="right" | 8.01
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 18 738
| align="right" | 15 923
| align="right" | 34 660
| align="right" | 6.22
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 14 043
| align="right" | 12 780
| align="right" | 26 822
| align="right" | 4.82
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 12 282
| align="right" | 12 693
| align="right" | 24 974
| align="right" | 4.48
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 10 437
| align="right" | 11 557
| align="right" | 21 994
| align="right" | 3.95
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 7 125
| align="right" | 9 226
| align="right" | 16 351
| align="right" | 2.94
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 4 080
| align="right" | 6 402
| align="right" | 10 482
| align="right" | 1.88
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 2 050
| align="right" | 2 955
| align="right" | 5 006
| align="right" | 0.90
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 1 722
| align="right" | 2 772
| align="right" | 4 494
| align="right" | 0.81
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 2 037
| align="right" | 3 496
| align="right" | 5 533
| align="right" | 0.99
|-
| align="right" | 85–89
| align="right" | 1 443
| align="right" | 2 389
| align="right" | 3 833
| align="right" | 0.69
|-
| align="right" | 90–94
| align="right" | 682
| align="right" | 1 249
| align="right" | 1 931
| align="right" | 0.35
|-
| align="right" | 95+
| align="right" | 170
| align="right" | 560
| align="right" | 730
| align="right" | 0.13
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 78 163
| align="right" | 75 886
| align="right" | 154 049
| align="right" | 27.66
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 191 186
| align="right" | 179 615
| align="right" | 370 801
| align="right" | 66.59
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 12 184
| align="right" | 19 823
| align="right" | 32 007
| align="right" | 5.75
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 246 363
| align="right" | 244 870
| align="right" | 491 233
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 23 111
| align="right" | 22 429
| align="right" | 45 540
| align="right" | 9.27
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 23 533
| align="right" | 23 086
| align="right" | 46 619
| align="right" | 9.49
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 23 809
| align="right" | 22 771
| align="right" | 46 580
| align="right" | 9.48
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 21 903
| align="right" | 20 401
| align="right" | 42 304
| align="right" | 8.61
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 20 391
| align="right" | 18 159
| align="right" | 38 550
| align="right" | 7.85
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 22 481
| align="right" | 21 665
| align="right" | 44 146
| align="right" | 8.99
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 22 552
| align="right" | 21 681
| align="right" | 44 233
| align="right" | 9.00
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 19 217
| align="right" | 18 105
| align="right" | 37 322
| align="right" | 7.60
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 15 820
| align="right" | 14 259
| align="right" | 30 079
| align="right" | 6.12
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 12 269
| align="right" | 11 347
| align="right" | 23 616
| align="right" | 4.81
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 11 257
| align="right" | 11 224
| align="right" | 22 481
| align="right" | 4.58
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 10 001
| align="right" | 10 682
| align="right" | 20 683
| align="right" | 4.21
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 7 536
| align="right" | 8 765
| align="right" | 16 301
| align="right" | 3.32
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 4 496
| align="right" | 6 510
| align="right" | 11 006
| align="right" | 2.24
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 2 347
| align="right" | 3 279
| align="right" | 5 626
| align="right" | 1.15
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 1 685
| align="right" | 2 842
| align="right" | 4 527
| align="right" | 0.92
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 1 839
| align="right" | 3 404
| align="right" | 5 243
| align="right" | 1.07
|-
| align="right" | 85–89
| align="right" | 1 257
| align="right" | 2 473
| align="right" | 3 730
| align="right" | 0.76
|-
| align="right" | 90–94
| align="right" | 648
| align="right" | 1 316
| align="right" | 1 964
| align="right" | 0.40
|-
| align="right" | 95+
| align="right" | 211
| align="right" | 472
| align="right" | 683
| align="right" | 1.39
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 70 453
| align="right" | 68 286
| align="right" | 138 739
| align="right" | 28.24
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 163 427
| align="right" | 156 288
| align="right" | 319 715
| align="right" | 65.08
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 12 483
| align="right" | 20 296
| align="right" | 32 779
| align="right" | 6.67
|-
|}
Vital statistics
Vital events of Cape Verde are not (yet) available for recent years. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="70"|Year
! width="70"|Population
! width="70"|Live births
! width="70"|Deaths
! width="70"|Natural increase
! width="70"|Crude birth rate
! width="70"|Crude death rate
! width="70"|Rate of natural increase
! width="70"|TFR
|-
| align="right" | 1948
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 3,756
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1949
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 3,904
| align="right" | 3,641
| align="right" | 263
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1950
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 5,322
| align="right" | 2,562
| align="right" | 2,760
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1951
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 7,367
| align="right" | 2,377
| align="right" | 4,990
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1952
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 7,647
| align="right" | 2,455
| align="right" | 5,192
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1953
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 7,597
| align="right" | 2,866
| align="right" | 4,731
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1954
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,697
| align="right" | 3,305
| align="right" | 5,392
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1955
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,547
| align="right" | 2,220
| align="right" | 6,327
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1956
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,377
| align="right" | 2,200
| align="right" | 6,177
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1957
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,237
| align="right" | 2,790
| align="right" | 5,447
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1958
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,026
| align="right" | 2,552
| align="right" | 6,474
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1959
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,609
| align="right" | 2,382
| align="right" | 7,227
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1960
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,954
| align="right" | 3,127
| align="right" | 5,827
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1961
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,319
| align="right" | 2,543
| align="right" | 5,776
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1962
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,952
| align="right" | 2,452
| align="right" | 6,500
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1963
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,671
| align="right" | 2,996
| align="right" | 6,675
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1964
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,783
| align="right" | 2,315
| align="right" | 7,468
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1965
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,638
| align="right" | 2,377
| align="right" | 7,261
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1966
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,621
| align="right" | 2,167
| align="right" | 7,454
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1967
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 10,190
| align="right" | 2,593
| align="right" | 7,597
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1968
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 10,131
| align="right" | 2,397
| align="right" | 7,734
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1969
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,671
| align="right" | 3,452
| align="right" | 6,219
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1970
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,379
| align="right" | 2,883
| align="right" | 6,496
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1971
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,493
| align="right" | 4,147
| align="right" | 5,346
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1972
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,966
| align="right" | 2,779
| align="right" | 6,187
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1973
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,418
| align="right" | 3,513
| align="right" | 4,905
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1974
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,492
| align="right" | 2,576
| align="right" | 5,916
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1975
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,210
| align="right" | 2,796
| align="right" | 5,414
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1976
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,863
| align="right" | 2,869
| align="right" | 6,994
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1977
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,965
| align="right" | 2,564
| align="right" | 7,401
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1978
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 10,060
| align="right" | 3,207
| align="right" | 6,853
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1979
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,289
| align="right" | 2,469
| align="right" | 5,820
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1980
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,650
| align="right" | 2,080
| align="right" | 7,570
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1981
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 8,580
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1982
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 11,066
| align="right" | 2,169
| align="right" | 8,897
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1983
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 11,438
| align="right" | 2,649
| align="right" | 8,789
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1984
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 11,696
| align="right" | 2,863
| align="right" | 8,833
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1985
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 11,282
| align="right" | 2,735
| align="right" | 8,547
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1986
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 12,636
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1987
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 12,771
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1988
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 12,443
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1989
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1990
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,669
| align="right" | 2,505
| align="right" | 7,164
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1991
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 12,289
| align="right" | 2,616
| align="right" | 9,673
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1992
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9,671
| align="right" | 2,843
| align="right" | 6,828
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1993
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 2,821
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1994
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1995
| align="right" | 386,813
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 3,520
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 9.1
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1996
| align="right" | 393,478
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 2,715
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 6.9
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1997
| align="right" | 406,267
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 3,047
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 7.5
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1998
| align="right" | 413,382
| align="right" | 15,460
| align="right" | 2,811
| align="right" | 12,649
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 6.8
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 1999
| align="right" | 426,061
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 2,812
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 6.6
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 2000
| align="right" | 436,821
| align="right" | 12,746
| align="right" | 2,433
| align="right" | 10,313
| align="right" | 29.2
| align="right" | 5.6
| align="right" | 23.6
| align="right" | 4.00
|-
| align="right" | 2001
| align="right" | 445,035
| align="right" | 12,550
| align="right" | 2,396
| align="right" | 10,154
| align="right" | 28.2
| align="right" | 5.4
| align="right" | 22.8
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 2002
| align="right" | 452,198
| align="right" | 12,345
| align="right" | 2,395
| align="right" | 9,950
| align="right" | 27.3
| align="right" | 5.3
| align="right" | 22.0
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 2003
| align="right" | 460,837
| align="right" | 12,120
| align="right" | 2,600
| align="right" | 9,520
| align="right" | 26.3
| align="right" | 5.6
| align="right" | 20.7
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 2004
| align="right" | 468,854
| align="right" | 11,862
| align="right" | 2,522
| align="right" | 9,340
| align="right" | 25.3
| align="right" | 5.4
| align="right" | 19.9
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 2005
| align="right" | 478,163
| align="right" | 11,554
| align="right" | 2,423
| align="right" | 9,131
| align="right" | 24.3
| align="right" | 5.1
| align="right" | 19.2
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 2006
| align="right" | 487,121
| align="right" | 9,765
| align="right" | 2,612
| align="right" | 7,153
| align="right" | 20.7
| align="right" | 5.4
| align="right" | 15.3
| align="right" | 2.443
|-
| align="right" | 2007
| align="right" | 491,419
| align="right" | 10,421
| align="right" | 2,484
| align="right" | 7,937
| align="right" | 21.8
| align="right" | 5.2
| align="right" | 16.6
| align="right" | 2.575
|-
| align="right" | 2008
| align="right" | 499,796
| align="right" | 10,165
| align="right" | 2,683
| align="right" | 7,482
| align="right" | 21.0
| align="right" | 5.5
| align="right" | 15.5
| align="right" | 2.429
|-
| align="right" | 2009
| align="right" | 485,677
| align="right" | 9,962
| align="right" | 2,583
| align="right" | 7,379
| align="right" | 20.4
| align="right" | 5.3
| align="right" | 15.1
| align="right" | 2.334
|-
| align="right" | 2010
| align="right" | 477,859
| align="right" | 10,568
| align="right" | 2,352
| align="right" | 8,216
| align="right" | 22.1
| align="right" | 4.9
| align="right" | 17.2
| align="right" | 2.535
|-
| align="right" | 2011
| align="right" | 480,577
| align="right" | 10,777
| align="right" | 2,488
| align="right" | 8,289
| align="right" | 22.4
| align="right" | 5.2
| align="right" | 17.2
| align="right" | 2.589
|-
| align="right" | 2012
| align="right" | 483,285
| align="right" | 10,050
| align="right" | 2,610
| align="right" | 7,440
| align="right" | 20.8
| align="right" | 5.4
| align="right" | 15.4
| align="right" | 2.419
|-
| align="right" | 2013
| align="right" | 485,996
| align="right" | 9,845
| align="right" | 2,518
| align="right" | 7,327
| align="right" | 20.3
| align="right" | 5.2
| align="right" | 15.1
| align="right" | 2.358
|-
| align="right" | 2014
| align="right" | 488,719
| align="right" | 9,868
| align="right" | 2,528
| align="right" | 7,340
| align="right" | 20.2
| align="right" | 5.2
| align="right" | 15.0
| align="right" | 2.356
|-
| align="right" | 2015
| align="right" | 491,436
| align="right" | 9,794
| align="right" | 2,761
| align="right" | 7,033
| align="right" | 19.9
| align="right" | 5.6
| align="right" | 14.3
| align="right" | 2.330
|-
| align="right" | 2016
| align="right" | 493,465
| align="right" | 9,980
| align="right" | 2,591
| align="right" | 7,389
| align="right" | 20.2
| align="right" | 5.3
| align="right" | 14.9
| align="right" | 2.389
|-
| align="right" | 2017
| align="right" | 495,522
| align="right" | 9,943
| align="right" | 2,497
| align="right" | 7,446
| align="right" | 20.1
| align="right" | 5.0
| align="right" | 15.1
| align="right" | 2.401
|-
| align="right" | 2018
| align="right" | 497,558
| align="right" | 9,551
| align="right" | 2,836
| align="right" | 6,715
| align="right" | 19.2
| align="right" | 5.7
| align="right" | 13.5
| align="right" | 2.327
|-
| align="right" | 2019
| align="right" | 499,609
| align="right" | 9,284
| align="right" | 2,771
| align="right" | 6,513
| align="right" | 18.6
| align="right" | 5.5
| align="right" | 13.1
| align="right" | 2.286
|-
| align="right" | 2020
| align="right" | 501,657
| align="right" | 9,211
| align="right" | 2,959
| align="right" | 6,252
| align="right" | 18.4
| align="right" | 5.9
| align="right" | 12.5
| align="right" | 2.280
|-
| align="right" | 2021
| align="right" | 504,125
| align="right" | 8,607
| align="right" | 3,178
| align="right" | 5,429
| align="right" | 17.1
| align="right" | 6.3
| align="right" | 10.8
| align="right" | 2.147
|-
| align="right" | 2022
| align="right" | 506,595
| align="right" | 7,981
| align="right" | 3,032
| align="right" | 4,949
| align="right" | 15.8
| align="right" | 6.0
| align="right" | 9.8
| align="right" | 2.008
|-
| align="right" | 2023
| align="right" | 509,078
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
| align="right" | 2024
| align="right" | 511,534
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
|}
Demographic and Health Surveys
Total fertility rate (TFR) (wanted fertility rate) and crude birth rate (CBR):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:50pt;"| Year
! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Total)
! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Total)
! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Urban)
! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Urban)
! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Rural)
! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Rural)
|-
| 2005
| style="text-align:right;"| 22
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,9 (2,8)
| style="text-align:right;"| 23
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,7 (2,7)
| style="text-align:right;"| 22
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,1 (3,0)
|-
|}
Fertility data from 2005 (DHS Program):
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:100pt;"| Region
! style="width:100pt;"| Total fertility rate
! style="width:100pt;"| Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant
! style="width:100pt;"| Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49
|-
| Santo Antão || 2.9 || 3.8 || 6.0
|-
| São Vicente || 2.0 || 3.4 || 4.0
|-
| São Nicolau || 3.3 || 4.4 || 4.2
|-
| Sal || 3.2 || 7.0 || 3.9
|-
| Boa Vista || 2.4 || 10.0 || 4.4
|-
| Maio || 2.6 || 1.7 || 4.3
|-
| Santiago || 3.1 || 5.4 || 4.5
|-
| Praia Urbano || 3.2 || 5.1 || 4.5
|-
| Santiago Norte || 2.7 || 6.2 || 4.3
|-
| Resto Santiago || 3.3 || 4.6 || 4.8
|-
| Fogo || 3.1 || 6.3 || 5.6
|-
| Brava || 2.8 || 7.0 || 5.0
|}
Life expectancy
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
!Period
!Life expectancy in <br /> Years
|-
|1950–1955
|48.08
|-
|1955–1960
| 48.77
|-
|1960–1965
| 49.45
|-
|1965–1970
| 52.43
|-
|1970–1975
| 55.25
|-
|1975–1980
| 60.52
|-
|1980–1985
| 62.37
|-
|1985–1990
| 64.10
|-
|1990–1995
| 65.73
|-
|1995–2000
| 67.94
|-
|2000–2005
| 71.27
|-
|2005–2010
| 71.77
|-
|2010–2015
| 72.14
|}
Ethnic groups
Genetics
E1b1a, R1b
:The predominance of West African mitochondrial DNA haplotypes in their maternal gene pool, the major West African Y-chromosome lineage E3a was observed only at a frequency of 15.9%. Overall, these results indicate that gene flow from multiple sources and sex-specific patterns have been important in the formation of the genomic diversity in the Cabo Verde islands.
Languages
:Portuguese (official), KrioluReligion
:Catholic 77.3%, Protestant 3.7% (includes Church of the Nazarene 1.7%, Adventist 1.5%, Universal Kingdom of God 0.4%, and God and Love 0.1%), other Christian 4.3% (includes Christian Rationalism 1.9%, Jehovah's Witness 1%, Assembly of God 0.9%, and New Apostolic 0.5%), Islam 1.8%, Other 1.3%, None 10.8%, Unspecified 0.7% (2010 estimate) <ref name"CIATONGA"/>See alsoReferences
External links
* [http://www.ine.cv/ National Institute of Statistics]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110516013042/http://www.prb.org/Datafinder/Geography/Summary.aspx?region19®ion_type2 Demographic Highlights] — Statistics from the Population Reference Bureau
Category:Society of Cape Verde | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Cape_Verde | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.039133 |
5462 | Politics of Cape Verde | Politics of Cape Verde takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Cape Verde is the head of government and the President of the Republic of Cape Verde is the head of state, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The constitution, first approved in 1980 and substantially revised in 1992, forms the basis of government organization. It declares that the government is the "organ that defines, leads, and executes the general internal and external policy of the country" and is responsible to the National Assembly.
thumb|Constitution of Cape Verde.|267x267px
Political conditions
Following independence in 1975, the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) established a one-party political system. This became the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV) in 1980, as Cape Verde sought to distance itself from Guinea-Bissau, following unrest in that country.
In 1991, following growing pressure for a more pluralistic society, multi-party elections were held for the first time. The opposition party, the Movement for Democracy (Movimento para a Democracia, MpD), won the legislative elections, and formed the government. The MpD candidate also defeated the PAICV candidate in the presidential elections. In the 1996 elections, the MpD increased their majority, but in the 2001 the PAICV returned to power, winning both the Legislative and the Presidential elections.
Generally, Cape Verde enjoys a stable democratic system. The elections have been considered free and fair, there is a free press, and the rule of law is respected by the State. In acknowledgment of this, Freedom House granted Cape Verde two first places in its annual Freedom in the World report, a perfect score. It is the only African country to receive this score.
The Prime Minister is the head of the government and as such proposes other ministers and secretaries of state. The Prime Minister is nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the President. The President is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term; the most recent elections were held in 2021.
Also in the legislative branch, the National Assembly (Assembleia Nacional) has 72 members, elected for a five-year term by proportional representation.
Movement for Democracy (MpD) ousted the ruling African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV) for the first time in 15 years in the 2016 parliamentary election. The leader of MpD, Ulisses Correia e Silva has been prime minister since 2016. Jorge Carlos Almeida Fonseca was elected president in August 2011 and re-elected in October 2016. He is also supported by MpD.
In April 2021, the ruling centre-right Movement for Democracy (MpD) of Prime Minister Ulisses Correia e Silva, won the parliamentary election. In October 2021, opposition candidate and former prime minister, José Maria Neves of PAICV, won Cape Verde's presidential election. On 9 November 2021, José Maria Neves was sworn in as the new President of Cape Verde.
Political parties and elections
Courts and criminal law
The judicial system is composed of the Supreme Court and the regional courts. Of the five Supreme Court judges, one is appointed by the President, one by the National Assembly, and three by the Superior Judiciary Council. This council consists of the President of the Supreme Court, the Attorney General, eight private citizens, two judges, two prosecutors, the senior legal inspector of the Attorney General's office, and a representative of the Ministry of Justice. Judges are independent and may not belong to a political party. In October 2000, a female judge who was known for taking strict legal measures in cases of domestic violence was transferred from the capital to the countryside. Separate courts hear civil, constitutional and criminal cases. Appeal is to the Supreme Court. Reforms to strengthen an overburdened judiciary were implemented in 1998. Free legal counsel is provided to indigents, defendants are presumed innocent until proven guilty, and trials are public. Judges must lay charges within 24 hours of arrests. The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government generally respects this provision in practice. The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial and due process, and an independent judiciary usually enforces this right. Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports of politicization and biased judgement in the judiciary. Cases involving former public office holders still are under investigation. For example, investigations continued in the case of the former prime minister accused of embezzlement in the privatization of ENACOL (a parastatal oil supply firm) in which he allegedly embezzled approximately $16,250 (2 million Cape Verdean escudos) from the buyers of the parastatal. The case of four persons accused of church desecration in 1996 also was under investigation. These individuals filed a complaint with the Attorney General against the judiciary police for alleged fabrication of evidence.
The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial. Defendants are presumed to be innocent; they have the right to a public, non-jury trial; to counsel; to present witnesses; and to appeal verdicts. Regional courts adjudicate minor disputes on the local level in rural areas. The Ministry of Justice does not have judicial powers; such powers lie with the courts.
A law nr. 36/V/97 was promulgated on August 25, 1997, regulating the "Statute of Lusophone Citizen", concerning nationals from any country member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (article 2), stating in its article 3 that "The lusophone citizen with residence in Cape Verde is recognized the active and passive electoral capacity for municipal elections, under conditions of the law. The lusophone citizen with residence in Cape Verde has the right to exercise political activity related to his electoral capacity."
International organization participation
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AU, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, ITUC, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO (applicant)
Sources
External links
Government of Cape Verde
National Assembly of Cape Verde
Official site of the President of Cape Verde
Chief of State and Cabinet Members
Supreme Court
EU Relations with Cape Verde | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Cape_Verde | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.048930 |
5465 | Transport in Cape Verde | Most transportation in Cape Verde is done by air. There are regular flights between the major islands (Santiago, Sal and São Vicente), with less frequent flights to the other islands. Boat transportation is available, though not widely used nor dependable. In the major cities, public bus transport runs periodically, and taxis are common. In smaller towns, there are mostly hiaces and/or taxis.
Types of transport
Railways:
0 km - There are no railways in Cape Verde. There was a short overhead conveyor system for salt from the open salt lake on Sal to the port at Pedra de Lume, and a short rail track to the pier at Santa Maria for similar purposes. Both are now disused.
Roadways:
total:
10,000 km including unpaved tracks accessible only to four wheel drive vehicles
asphalt:
360 km
cobbled:
5,000 km (2007 estimates)
The majority of Cape Verdean roads are paved with cobblestones cut from local basalt. Recent international aid has allowed the asphalting of many roads including all of the highway between Praia and Tarrafal, all of the highway between Praia and Cidade Velha, and all of the highway between Praia, Pedra Badejo, and Calheta de São Miguel on Santiago, and the dual carriageway between Santa Maria and Espargos on Sal. A new ring road has been built from Praia International Airport around the city of Praia. The primary method of intercity and inter-village transport for Cape Verdeans is by aluguer shared taxis, commonly called Yasi, which is a derived from the name HiAce, because the Toyota HiAce is the most common shared taxi model. Few Cape Verdeans own cars, but ownership is rising rapidly with increasing prosperity, particularly on Santiago Island.
thumb|An alternative route in Sao Domingos, Cape Verde
Ports and harbours: Mindelo on São Vicente is the main port for cruise liners and the terminus for the ferry service to Santo Antão. A marina for yachts is undergoing enlargement (2007). Praia on Santiago is a main hub for ferry service to other islands. Palmeira on Sal supplies fuel for the main airport on the island, Amílcar Cabral International Airport, and is important for hotel construction on the island. Porto Novo on Santo Antão is the only source for imports and exports of produce from the island as well as passenger traffic since the closure of the airstrip at Ponta do Sol. There are smaller harbours, essentially single jetties at Tarrafal on São Nicolau, Sal Rei on Boa Vista, Vila do Maio (Porto Inglês) on Maio, São Filipe on Fogo and Furna on Brava. These are terminals for inter island ferry service carrying freight and passengers. There are small harbours, with protective breakwaters, used by fishing boats at Tarrafal on Santiago, Pedra de Lume on Sal and Ponta do Sol on Santo Antão. Some offer suitable protection for small yachts. The pier at Santa Maria on Sal used by both fishing and dive boats has been rehabilitated.
Merchant marine:total: 10ships by type: chemical tanker 1, trawler/cargo ship 5, passenger/cargo 5foreign owned: 2 (Spain 1, UK 1) (2008)
Airports
7 operational in 2014 - 4 international and 3 domestic.
2 non-operational, one on Brava and the other on Santo Antão, closed for safety reasons.
Over 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
914 to 1,400 m: 3
International Airports:
Amílcar Cabral International Airport, Sal Island. Opened and began operating international flights from 1939. Named Sal International Airport until 1975.
Nelson Mandela International Airport, Santiago Island. Opened and began operating international flights from 2005. Named Praia International Airport from 2005 until 2013. Replaced the Francisco Mendes International Airport which served the island from 1961 to 2005, and is now closed.
Aristides Pereira International Airport, Boa Vista Island. Airport paved and began operating international traffic in 2007. Named Rabil Airport until 2011.
Cesária Évora Airport, Sao Vicente Island. Opened in 1960 and became an international airport in 2009. Named Sao Pedro Airport until 2011.
International passenger traffic is forecast to exceed 250,000 passengers for 2007. Annual growth, mostly of tourists from Europe is anticipated to continue at just under 20%. (Source ASA Cape Verde airport authority)
Main Airlines serving the country:
TACV Cabo Verde Airlines
Cabo Verde Express Cape Verde Express
Halcyonair Cabo Verde Airways - dissolved in 2013
TAP Portugal
TACV flies daily international flights from Lisbon to Sal or Praia and once a week from Amsterdam, Munich, Paris, Las Palmas, Fortaleza and Boston to one or other of the international airports. It operates on a frequency varying from daily to thrice weekly on inter-island flights to each of the seven islands with operational airports and also to Dakar. It has a fleet of two Boeing 757s and three ATR42s have been replaced by ATR72s. It is currently (2010) undergoing privatization at the insistence of the World Bank.
Road network
The road network of Cape Verde is managed by the national government (Instituto de Estradas) and by the municipalities. The total length of the road network is 1,650 km, of which 1,113 km national roads and 537 km municipal roads. Of the national roads, 36% is asphalted.
Air Services
TACV Cabo Verde Airlines, the national airline, flies weekly from Boston Logan International Airport to Praia International Airport at Praia Santiago island. Currently (2007) these flights are on Wednesdays, but schedules vary and are subject to change. It also has flights four times weekly from Lisbon to Francisco Mendes (the recently opened airport at Praia on Santiago island) and four times weekly from Lisbon to Amílcar Cabral International Airport on Sal island. There is a flight on Mondays from Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport to Sal and on Thursdays from Amsterdam Schiphol Airport via Munich-Riem Airport to Sal. Return flights are just after midnight on the same day.
From Las Palmas in the Canary Islands, Spain there are night flights on Mondays and Thursdays, with departures just after midnight. Return flights are the previous day. There is a service from Praia to Fortaleza, Brazil on Mondays and Thursdays departing early evening and returning at night. All international flights are operated by Boeing 757 aircraft. Most international flights are subject to delay and sometimes cancellation.
TAP Air Portugal the Portuguese national carrier operates a daily service from Lisbon to Sal with late evening departures returning after midnight and reaching Lisbon in the early morning. Most flights are delayed and onward connections from Lisbon can be missed as a result. TAP and other European carriers provide connections with most European capitals, enabling same day through flights.
From the UK, direct routes by Astraeus from London Gatwick and Manchester to Sal ceased in April 2008; their website has not taken reservations since May 2008. TACV Cabo Verde Airlines opened a route from London Stansted in October 2008 though it was rumoured that flights were being cancelled due to minimum take up though with effect from May 2008, TACV have ceased flights from London Gatwick. There is a Fly TACV website, and you can book from their website. Reservations should be made via the UK TACV office on 0870 774 7338.
Thomson Airways have opened additional routes from London Gatwick and Manchester on Mondays and Fridays. Various options and bookings can be made via Thomsonfly to both Sal and Boa Vista.
Hamburg International provides a charter service from Hamburg via Düsseldorf on Thursdays and Condor operates from Frankfurt Rhein Main on Tuesdays returning on Wednesday.
Neos operates charter flights from Milan Malpensa, Rome-Fiumicino and Bologna on Wednesdays.
TACV Cabo Verde Airlines, the national airline has been a monopoly carrier within the island archipelago (2007). It operates services from the main hub airports at Sal and Santiago to Boa Vista, Fogo, Maio, São Nicolau and São Vicente at frequencies ranging from thrice weekly to thrice daily. Air strips on the other islands of Brava and Santo Antão are closed (2007) and can only be reached by ferry services from other islands.
TACV does not publish timetables; flight times are listed on departure boards. Tickets can be bought at the TACV shop at each airport by queuing and paying in cash (euros or escudos). Flights are often delayed and sometimes cancelled due to weather or operational conditions. Services are operated by ATR 42 turboprop aircraft, which are being replaced (2007) by the enlarged ATR 72 aircraft. Inter island tariffs vary depending on the distance but are generally around €180 return. Air passes are obtainable for multiple flights, when buying an international ticket on TACV.
Halcyonair a private carrier with Portuguese and Cape Verdean shareholders is commenced operations on inter-island flights during 2007. It has obtained the necessary licensing from the Cape Verde Government.
Travel within the islands
thumb|400px|Minibuses (Aluguers) on a beach in Baía das Gatasthumb|400px|A minibus (aluguer) on the island of Brava
The frequency and regularity of publicly-accessible ground transportation services vary between the islands and municipalities. There are some common features that can be found throughout Cape Verde. The primary mode of transportation between municipalities is via shared minibuses commonly referred to as a "yasi", because of the Toyota HiAce which makeup the majority of the minibuses in service. While 12-14 passenger "yasi" class minibuses connect the major municipalities at their end points, modified pickup trucks with partially covered cabs and benches installed in the back transport passengers along shorter distances through minor municipalities and the rural areas in between. These modified pickup trucks are referred to as "hilux" after the Toyota Hilux, the common model adapted. Notably, both "yasi" and "hilux" transportation will stop and pickup any passenger that hails them, as well as drop off any passenger that requests to disembark at any point. intermuncipality transportation licenses are granted on an individual basis to each vehicle in the name of the owner by the Direcção Geral dos Transportes e Rodoviários (General Directorate of Transport and Roads).
With the exception of the Praia ⇄ Assomada route on Santiago, all yasi and hilux class vehicles licensed to carry passengers act as individual freelancers, not collectively. As such, they do not adhere to scheduling, and have no obligation to provide service. This includes many vehicles running the same route, owned by the same person.
Brava
Hiluxes and yasis connect Furna and Nova Sintra mostly when boats arrive. Other parts of the island are connected by these vehicles.
Fogo
Fogo has many yasis running the routes between São Filipe and Mosteiros, São Filipe and Chã das Calderas. Unlike many other islands, these buses depart at roughly the same time every day, and despite the presence of multiple vehicles running each route, passengers can find themselves stranded if they do not board a vehicle during the limited departure window. Yasis tend to depart Mosteiros headed to São Filipe around 6am, and tend to Depart São Filipe headed to Chã around noon.
São Vicente
Mindelo has a municipal bus service run by the company Transcor. Yasi and hilux transportation connects Mindelo with other parts of the island. Other transportation companies especially minibuses include Transporte Morabeza, Transporte Alegría, Amizade, Sotral y Automindelo.
Santiago
Maura Company and Sol Atlántico are the only two companies that have been granted municipal bus service licenses. Over the past decade, Maura Company, which had previously been the dominant bus company, has retired the majority of its buses, while many that continue to run are in a state of disrepair due to financial difficulties. Sol Atlántico, in contrast, has greatly increased its fleet of buses, adding several new high capacity buses in 2015. Municipal bus prices are regulated at 44 escudos per ride. Transfers are not allowed. Bus schedules do not exist, but buses start running around 6am and stop around 9pm. Bus stops exist, and are frequently infiltrated by minibus vehicles (also called "yasis") and both (taxi) licensed and unlicensed "clan" taxis illegally running municipal bus routes without a municipal license. No other city on Santiago has a municipal bus service. The government of Assomada has solicited requests for a bus service but so far none has been approved, and there are no short-term plans for any bus company to enter the municipal market.
Transportation between the municipalities and rural areas is handled predominantly by yasi and hilux transportation. Rates are not fixed and range from 20 escudos for short trips between rural areas up to 500 escudos for Praia ⇄ Tarrafal. Some commonly accepted prices charged between municipalities are 100 escudos for Praia ⇄ São Domingos, 150 escudos for Praia ⇄ Orgãos, and 250 escudos for Praia ⇄ Assomada. Some of the yasis start collecting passengers before dawn to transport between Praia and Assomada and Praia and Pedra Badejo, and the last departures usually occur between 7 and 8pm. These vehicles do not maintain a schedule (with the exception of two early morning vehicles departing Assomada at 5:40 and 6:20 headed to Praia), instead choosing to drive around in circles within the urban centers of Praia, Assomada, and Pedra Badejo to pick up passengers until they are full, or over capacity (14 passengers is the legal limit for an actual Toyota HiAce), at which point they depart. Yasi drivers employ helpers to hawk out the window the destination of the yasi, as well as the obligatory "cheio", meaning full, with little regard for the number of people aboard. Helpers and drivers sometimes use shills (fake passengers) to overcome the common chicken and egg problem wherein passengers will not board an empty (or low passenger) minibus in an urban center because they know it will not depart until it is full. They will board a nearly-full (or over capacity) bus because they know it is likely to depart soon.
In 2015 a project called EcobusCV started running a fleet of dual fuel waste vegetable oil / diesel modified Toyota HiACE minibuses using a scheduled service model between Praia and Assomada. Buses depart one per hour, on the hour, from designated bus stops in Praia, at Igreja Nova Apostólica in Fazenda, and Assomada, in front of the court house. The current departure schedule as of September 15 is one departure per hour, every hour starting at 7am, with the last departure at 6pm. EcobusCV plans to expand to departures in 30 minute intervals before the end of 2015. EcobusCV has instituted aggressive, transparent pricing undercutting the informal generally accepted prices between municipalities, which has started to cause freelance yasis to alter their pricing.
Taxis are common in Praia and Assomada. Taxis with a base in Praia are painted beige, while taxis with a base in Assomada are painted white. They can carry passengers between municipalities, but they are prohibited from circulating and picking up passengers outside of their base city, though they will usually pickup passengers if they get hailed on their way back to their home city. Taximeters are installed in most legal taxis, but many are not functional and they are almost never used because the generally accepted rates are cheaper than what the taximeter would usually count. In Praia there is a large number of "clan" or clandestine taxis that operate without paying for a license. Most people identify Toyota Corolla hatchbacks as clans and they are frequently hailed. While the minimum taximeter price is officially 80, in practice 100 is the minimum a person pays if they board a taxi. Taxi rates in Praia generally go up to 250 escudos from the furthest points of the city to Plateau, and cross town taxis cap out at 400 during the day. Rates generally go up by 50 escudos after 10pm, though for longer distances some will try to charge an extra 100. An exception to this rule is the airport. Airport rates generally range from 500 to 1000 depending on the starting place or destination, and can go up by several hundred at night.
Sal
Sal has unscheduled yasi service between Espargos and Santa Maria, with frequent departures in the morning from Espargos, where most locals live, to Santa Maria, where most locals work, and vice versa in the afternoon.
Inter-Island ferries in Cape Verde
Several ferries operate between the islands with much lower fares than the airlines. These are provided by various independent shipping companies and their conditions and seaworthiness vary. Many services depart from Praia at about midnight, arriving in outlying islands at breakfast time. Return trips often depart around mid-day. Service schedules are approximate and delays or cancellations of service are common. Conditions can be very crowded it is advisable to pre-book a cabin for all but the shortest of trips. Passages can be very rough in winter.
Departure days vary according to the season and are frequently altered. Enquire at the shipping offices in Praia and other Cape Verdean ports.
In early 2011, the Kriola, the first of a proposed fleet of ferryboats belonging to the company Cabo Verde Fast Ferry (CVFF) arrived in Praia directly from Singapore. It was custom-built there by the Dutch shipbuilding company, Damen Group. The Kriola operates regular service among the Sotavento islands of Brava, Fogo, and Santiago.
Ferry routes
Boa Vista (Sal Rei)–Maio (Cidade do Maio)
Fogo (São Filipe-Vale de Cavaleiros)–Brava (Furna)
Maio (Cidade do Maio)–Santiago (Porto Praia)
Sal (Palmeira)–Boa Vista (Sal Rei)
Santiago (Porto Praia)–Fogo (São Filipe-Vale de Cavaleiros)
Santiago (Porto Praia)–São Vicente (Mindelo-Porto Grande) - longest ferry route
Santiago (Porto Praia)–Brava (Furna)
Santo Antāo (Porto Novo)–São Vicente (Mindelo-Porto Grande)
São Nicolau (Tarrafal de São Nicolau)–Sal (Palmeira)
São Nicolau (Preguiça)–Sal (Palmeira)
São Vicente (Porto Grande)–São Nicolau (Tarrafal de São Nicolau)
São Vicente (Porto Grande)–São Nicolau (Preguiça)
Lesser ferry routes:
Within Santo Antão: Tarrafal de Monte Trigo–Monte Trigo (45 min) - shortest ferry route
Within São Nicolau: Preguiça–Carriçal
References
Cape Verde Info UK 2007
External links
Cape Verde Information Cape Verde Expatriate Residents Collaborative Pages
Cape Verde Information UK
Cape Verde Information - Cape Verde Transport Information
Cape Verde Travel Information - Cape Verde Travel | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Cape_Verde | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.058098 |
5466 | Cape Verdean Armed Forces | | image | alt
| caption | image2
| alt2 | caption2
| motto | founded
| current_form | branches <br />
| headquarters | flying_hours
| website =
<!-- Leadership -->
| commander-in-chief = José Maria Pereira Neves
| commander-in-chief_title = Commander-in-Chief
| chief minister | chief minister_title
| minister = Janine Tatiana dos Santos Lélis
| minister_title = Minister of National Defense
| commander = Major general Anildo Emanuel da Graça Morais
| commander_title = Chief of Staff
| manpower | age 18
| conscription = 14 months
| manpower_data | manpower_age
| available | available_f
| fit | fit_f
| reaching | reaching_f
| active = 1,200
| ranked | reserve
| deployed =
<!-- Financial -->
| amount $11.2 million (2018)
| percent_GDP 0.6% (2018)
The most recent engagement of the FACV was the Monte Tchota massacre that resulted in 11 deaths.Structure
The Cape Verdean Armed Forces are part of the Ministry of National Defense of Cape Verde and include:
* the military bodies of command:
** Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces
** Office of the CEMFA
** Staff of the Armed Forces (EMFA)
** Personnel Command
** Logistics Command
* the National Guard
* the Coast Guard
National Guard
]]
The National Guard (Guarda National) is the main branch of the Cape Verdean Armed Forces for the military defense of the country, being responsible for the execution of land and maritime environment operations and the support to internal security. It includes:
* Territorial commands:
** 1st Military Region Command
** 2nd Military Region Command
** 3rd Military Region Command
* Corps:
** Military Police Corps
** Marine Corps
** Artillery Corps
There is no general command of the National Guard. Each military region command is headed by a lieutenant-colonel directly subordinate to the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces, and includes units of the three corps.
Coast Guard
The Coast Guard (Guarda Costeira) is the branch of the Cape Verdean Armed Forces responsible for the defense and protection of the country's economic interests at the sea under national jurisdiction and for providing air and naval support to land and amphibious operations. It includes:
* Coast Guard Command
* Maritime Security Operations Center (COSMAR)
* Naval Squadron
* Air Squadron
The Coast Guard is headed by an officer with the rank of lieutenant colonel. The Naval and Air Squadrons incorporate, respectively, all the vessels and aircraft of the Cape Verdean Armed Forces.
Ranks
The rank insignia for commissioned officers for the national guard and coast guard.
{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;"
|}
The rank insignia of enlisted for the national guard and coast guard.
{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;"
|}
Equipment
Small Arms
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Image
!Name
!Origin
!Notes/Cites
|-
|
|Makarov pistol
| rowspan="5" |
|
|-
|
|SKS
|
|-
|
|AKM
|AKM & AKMS
|-
|
|SVD (rifle)
|
|-
|
|PK machine gun
|
|}
Armored vehicles
*10 BRDM-2
Artillery
*12 82-PM-41 However these three aircraft were supplemented in 1991 by a Dornier 228 light aircraft equipped for use by the Coast Guard, and, in the late 1990s by an EMB-110 aircraft from Brazil, similarly equipped for maritime operations. The government has been in negotiations with China to acquire multirole helicopters for both military and civilian use.Current inventory{| class"wikitable"
! style="text-align:center;"|Aircraft
! style="text-align: center;"|Origin
! style="text-align:l center;"|Type
! style="text-align:left;"|Variant
! style="text-align:center;"|In service
! style="text-align: center;"|Notes
|-
! style"align: center;" colspan"7" | Maritime patrol
|-
| CASA C-212
| Spain
| Maritime patrol / SAR
|
| 1
| Flown for the Coast Guard
|-
| Dornier 228
| Germany
| Maritime patrol / SAR
|
| 2
References
*Further reading: Defense Intelligence Agency, Military Intelligence Summary - Africa South of the Sahara, DDB 2680-104-85, ICOD 15 October 1984, declassified by letter dated April 29, 2014.
External links
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cabo-verde/ The World Factbook]
* http://www.nationmaster.com/country/cv-cape-verde/mil-military
* https://web.archive.org/web/20110721071532/http://praia.usembassy.gov/about-us/security-assistance-office.html
* http://www.snpc.cv/
* [http://www.operacional.pt/cabo-verde-a-policia-militar/ Cape Verde Military Police]
Category:Government of Cape Verde | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Verdean_Armed_Forces | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.086974 |
5467 | Foreign relations of Cape Verde | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
Cape Verde follows a policy of nonalignment and seeks cooperative relations with all friendly states. Angola, Brazil, the People's Republic of China, Cuba, France, Germany, Portugal, Senegal, Russia, South Korea and the United States maintain embassies in Praia.
Cape Verde is actively interested in foreign affairs, especially in Africa. It has bilateral relations with some Lusophone nations and holds membership in a number of international organizations. It also participates in most international conferences on economic and political issues.
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Cape Verde maintains diplomatic relations with:
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|45
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|Before March 1978
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|47
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|50
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|-style="background:#D3D3D3"
|—
| (frozen)
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|87
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|—
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|88
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|14 March 2007
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|114
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|153
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|Unknown
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Bilateral relations
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|||
* Angola has an embassy in Praia.
* Cape Verde has an embassy in Luanda and a consulate in Benguela.
|- valign="top"
||| and an honorary consulate in Praia.
|- valign="top"
|||
* Cape Verde has an embassy in Bissau.
* Guinea-Bissau has an embassy in Praia.
|- valign="top"
|||
Hungary is represented in Cape-Verde by its embassy in Lisbon, Portugal and an honorary consulate in Praia. The Embassy of India in Dakar, Senegal is concurrently accredited to Cape Verde. Cape Verde maintains an Honorary Consulate General in New Delhi.
Foreign Minister Jose Brito was the first Cape Verdean minister to visit India in November 2009. Minister of State for Rural Development Sudarshan Bhagat visited Cape Verde in September 2015 as the Prime Minister's Special Envoy. Bhagat invited Cape Verde to send a delegation to attend the third India Africa Forum Summit. Foreign Minister Tolentini Araujo Jorge led the Cape Verdean delegation to participate in the Summit in New Delhi in October 2015.
Bilateral trade between Cape Verde and India totaled US$4.20 million in 2014 to 2015, declining by 40.72% from the previous fiscal. India exported $1.43 million worth of goods to Cape Verde, and imported $2.77 million. The main commodities exported from India to Cape Verde are drugs, pharmaceuticals, plastic and linoleum products, and man-made fibers.
|- valign="top"
|||19 February 1976||Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 February 1976
* Mexico is accredited to Cape Verde from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York City.
|- valign="top"
|||15 March 1976||
* Cape Verde is accredited to Mozambique from its embassy in Luanda, Angola and maintains an honorary consulate in Maputo.
* Mozambique is accredited to Cape Verde from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Maputo.
* Both nations also conduct diplomatic relations from their respective ambassadors accredited to the CPLP in Lisbon, Portugal.
|- valign="top"
|||<!--Date started-->||
* Cape Verde is accredited to Poland from its embassy in Berlin, Germany.
* Poland is accredited to Cape Verde from its embassy in Dakar, Senegal.
|- valign="top"
|||
* Cape Verde has an embassy in Lisbon.
* Portugal has an embassy in Praia.
|- valign="top"
|||
* Cape Verde has an honorary consulate in Moscow.
* Russia has an embassy in Praia.
|- valign="top"
|||
* Cape Verde is accredited to South Africa from its embassy in Luanda, Angola.
* South Africa is accredited to Cape Verde from its embassy in Dakar, Senegal.
|- valign="top"
||| In 2011 Bilateral Trade were Exports $1,140,792 (Machineries, Automobile, Optical Instruments) Imports: $65,166.
|- valign="top"
|||
*Trade volume between the two countries was $9.5 million in 2019.
Ukraine is represented in Cape-Verde by its embassy in Dakar, Senegal.
|- valign="top"
|||
|}
Multilateral Relations
European Union
See also
* List of diplomatic missions in Cape Verde
* List of diplomatic missions of Cape Verde
* International organization membership of Cape Verde
* International recognition of Cape Verde
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Cape_Verde | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.395958 |
5468 | Cayman Islands | | song_type = National song
| song = "Beloved Isle Cayman"<br/>
| image_map = Cayman_Islands_in_United_Kingdom.svg
| map_caption
| mapsize = 290px
| image_map2 = PAT - Cayman Islands.gif
| mapsize2 = 290px
| map_caption2 | subdivision_type Sovereign state
| subdivision_name =
| established_title = British control
| established_date = 1670
| established_title2 = Self-government
| established_date2 = 4 July 1959
| established_title3 = Separation from Jamaica
| established_date3 = 6 August 1962
| established_title4 = Current constitution
| established_date4 = 6 November 2009
| official_languages = English
| languages_type =
Vernacular<br />languages
|languages Cayman Islands English
| demonym = Caymanian
| capital = George Town
| coordinates
| largest_city = capital
| ethnic_groups =
36.5% Multiracial<br />30.2% Black<br />22.4% White<br />8.1% Asian
<br />2.8% other
| ethnic_groups_year 2022
|religion =
| government_type = Parliamentary dependency under a constitutional monarchy
| leader_title1 = Monarch
| leader_name1 = Charles III
| leader_title2 = Governor
| leader_name2 = Jane Owen
| leader_title3 = Premier
| leader_name3 = Julianna O'Connor-Connolly
| legislature = Parliament
| national_representation = Government of the United Kingdom
| national_representation_type1 = Minister
| national_representation1 = Stephen Doughty
| area_km2 = 259
| area_sq_mi | area_rank <!-- Area rank should match List of countries and dependencies by area:none -->
| percent_water = 1.6
| elevation_max_m = 43
| population_estimate 87,866
| population_estimate_year = 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 206th
| population_census_year = 2022
| population_density_km2 = 275.8
| population_density_rank = 54th
| population_density_sq_mi = 631 <!-- Do not remove per WP:MOSNUM -->
| GDP_PPP = $4.78 billion
| GDP_PPP_year 2019
| GDP_PPP_rank | GDP_PPP_per_capita $73,600
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank | GDP_nominal $7.139 billion
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank = 160th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $109,684
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 7th
| Gini | Gini_year
| Gini_change = <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| Gini_ref | HDI 0.984 <!-- number only -->
| HDI_year = 2013 <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| HDI_ref | HDI_rank
| currency = Cayman Islands dollar
| currency_code = KYD
| timezone = EST
| utc_offset = -5:00
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy
| drives_on = left
| calling_code = +1-345
| postal_code_type = UK postcode
| postal_code = KYx-xxxx
| iso_code = KY
| cctld = .ky
| website =
}}
The Cayman Islands () is a self-governing British Overseas Territory, and the largest by population. The territory comprises the three islands of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman, which are located south of Cuba and north-east of Honduras, between Jamaica and Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula. The capital city is George Town on Grand Cayman, which is the most populous of the three islands.
The Cayman Islands is considered to be part of the geographic Western Caribbean zone as well as the Greater Antilles. The territory is a major offshore financial centre for international businesses and the rich mainly due to the state charging no tax on income earned or stored.
With a GDP per capita of US$109,684 the Cayman Islands has the highest standard of living in the Caribbean, and one of the highest in the world. Immigrants from over 140 countries and territories reside in the Cayman Islands.
History
Origins and colonization
, no evidence has been found that the islands had been occupied before their discovery by Europeans. The Cayman Islands got their name from the word for crocodile (caiman) in the language of the Arawak-Taíno people. It is believed that the first European to sight the islands was Christopher Columbus, on 10 May 1503, during his final voyage to the Americas. He named them "Las Tortugas", after the large number of turtles found there (which were soon hunted to near-extinction). However, in succeeding decades, the islands began to be referred to as "Caimanas" or "Caymanes". Sir Francis Drake briefly visited the islands in 1586.
The first recorded permanent inhabitant, Isaac Bodden, was born on Grand Cayman around 1661. He was the grandson of an original settler named Bodden, probably one of Oliver Cromwell's soldiers involved in the capture of Jamaica from Spain in 1655.
England took formal control of the Cayman Islands, along with Jamaica, as a result of the Treaty of Madrid of 1670. Many were purchased and brought to the islands from Africa. That has resulted in the majority of native Caymanians being of African or English descent. Legend has it that King George III rewarded the islanders for their generosity with a promise never to introduce taxes, because one of the ships carried a member of the King's family. Despite the legend, the story is not true. The islands continued to be governed as part of the Colony of Jamaica until 1962, when they became a separate Crown colony, after Jamaica became an independent Commonwealth realm. along with a bank and several hotels, as well as the introduction of a number of scheduled flights and cruise stop-overs.
In April 1986, the first marine protected areas were designated in the Cayman Islands, making them the first islands in the Caribbean to protect their fragile marine life.
21st century
The constitution was further modified in 2001 and 2009, codifying various aspects of human rights legislation. It created an storm surge which flooded many areas of Grand Cayman. Power, water, and communications were disrupted for months in some areas. Within two years, a major rebuilding program on Grand Cayman meant that its infrastructure was almost back to its pre-hurricane condition. Due to the tropical location of the islands, more hurricanes or tropical systems have affected the Cayman Islands than any other region in the Atlantic basin. On average, it has been brushed, or directly hit, every 2.23 years. Geography
The islands are in the western Caribbean Sea and are the peaks of an undersea mountain range called the Cayman Ridge (or Cayman Rise). This ridge flanks the Cayman Trough, deep which lies to the south. The islands lie in the northwest of the Caribbean Sea, east of Quintana Roo, Mexico and Yucatán State, Mexico, northeast of Costa Rica, north of Panama, south of Cuba and west of Jamaica. They are situated about south of Miami, east of Mexico, south of Cuba, and about northwest of Jamaica. Grand Cayman is by far the largest, with an area of . Grand Cayman's two "sister islands", Cayman Brac and Little Cayman, are about east north-east of Grand Cayman and have areas of respectively. The nearest land mass from Grand Cayman is the Canarreos Archipelago (about 240 km or 150 miles away), whereas the nearest from the easternmost island Cayman Brac is the Jardines de la Reina archipelago (about 160 km or 100 miles away) – both of which are part of Cuba.
All three islands were formed by large coral heads covering submerged ice-age peaks of western extensions of the Cuban Sierra Maestra range and are mostly flat. One notable exception to this is The Bluff on Cayman Brac's eastern part, which rises to above sea level, the highest point on the islands.
The terrain is mostly a low-lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs. The portions of prehistoric coral reef that line the coastline and protrude from the water are referred to as ironshore.
Flora
In Cayman Islands forest cover is around 53% of the total land area, equivalent to 12,720 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 13,130 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 12,720 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 0 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity). For the year 2015, 0% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership, 12% private ownership and 88% with ownership listed as other or unknown.Fauna
The mammalian species in the Cayman Islands include the introduced Central American agouti and eight species of bats. At least three now extinct native rodent species were present until the discovery of the islands by Europeans. Marine life around the island of the Grand Cayman includes tarpon, silversides (Atheriniformes), French angelfish (Pomacanthus paru), and giant barrel sponges. A number of cetaceans are found in offshore waters. These species include the goose-beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris), Blainville's beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris) and sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus).
Cayman avian fauna includes two endemic subspecies of Amazona parrots: Amazona leucocephala hesterna or Cuban amazon, presently restricted to the island of Cayman Brac, but formerly also on Little Cayman, and Amazona leucocephala caymanensis or Grand Cayman parrot, which is native to the Cayman Islands, forested areas of Cuba, and the Isla de la Juventud. Little Cayman and Cayman Brac are also home to red-footed and brown boobies. Although the barn owl (Tyto alba) occurs in all three of the islands they are not commonplace. The Cayman Islands also possess five endemic subspecies of butterflies. These butterfly breeds can be viewed at the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park on the Grand Cayman.
Among other notable fauna at the Queen Elizabeth II Botanic Park is the critically threatened blue iguana, which is also known as the Grand Cayman iguana (Cyclura lewisi). The blue iguana is endemic to the Grand Cayman particularly because of rocky, sunlit, open areas near the island's shores that are advantageous for the laying of eggs. Nevertheless, habitat destruction and invasive mammalian predators remain the primary reasons that blue iguana hatchlings do not survive naturally.
The Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer) once inhabited the islands. And the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) is also believed to be slowly repopulating the islands from Cuba. The name "Cayman" is derived from a Carib word for the various crocodilians that inhabited the islands.
<!-- List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin: lists the word "caimán" which is wikilinked to Caiman crocodilian -->
Climate
The Cayman Islands has a tropical wet and dry climate, with a wet season from May to October, and a dry season that runs from November to April. Seasonally, there is little temperature change.
A major natural hazard is the tropical cyclones that form during the Atlantic hurricane season from June to November.
On 11 and 12 September 2004, Hurricane Ivan struck the Cayman Islands. The storm resulted in two deaths and caused significant damage to the infrastructure on the islands. The total economic impact of the storms was estimated to be $3.4 billion.
{|style"width:100%;text-align:center;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto" class"wikitable mw-collapsible"
|-
!Colspan=14|Climate data for George Town
|-
!Month
!Jan
!Feb
!Mar
!Apr
!May
!Jun
!Jul
!Aug
!Sep
!Oct
!Nov
!Dec
!style="border-left-width:medium"|Year
|-
!Average sea temperature °C (°F)
|style="background:#ff6600;color:#000000;"|26.6<br />(79.9)
|style="background:#ff6600;color:#000000;"|26.6<br />(79.9)
|style="background:#ff6600;color:#000000;"|26.8<br />(80.2)
|style="background:#ff5f00;color:#000000;"|27.7<br />(81.9)
|style="background:#ff5a00;color:#000000;"|28.3<br />(82.9)
|style="background:#ff5800;color:#000000;"|28.7<br />(83.7)
|style="background:#ff5400;color:#000000;"|29.2<br />(84.6)
|style="background:#ff4e00;color:#000000;"|30.0<br />(86.0)
|style="background:#ff4e00;color:#000000;"|29.9<br />(85.8)
|style="background:#ff5400;color:#000000;"|29.3<br />(84.7)
|style="background:#ff5a00;color:#000000;"|28.6<br />(83.5)
|style="background:#ff5a00;color:#000000;"|28.0<br />(82.4)
|style="background:#ff5f00;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium"|27.9<br />(82.2)
|-
!Colspan14 style"background:#f8f9fa;font-weight:normal;font-size:95%;"|Source #1: seatemperature.org
|-
!Colspan14 style"background:#f8f9fa;font-weight:normal;font-size:95%;"|Source #2: Weather Atlas
|}
Demographics
Demographics and immigration
}}
While there are a large number of generational Caymanians, many Caymanians today have roots in almost every part of the world. Similarly to countries like the United States, the Cayman Islands is a melting pot with citizens of every background. 52.5% of the population is Non-Caymanian, while 47.5% is Caymanian. Jamaicans, who make up 24% of the population, form the largest immigrant community in the country, attributable to not only the close proximity of the Cayman Islands and Jamaica, but also the close cultural, economic and social ties that go back centuries between the two nations, with the Cayman Islands once being a dependency of Jamaica from 1863 until Jamaica’s independence from the United Kingdom in 1962, resulting in the Cayman Islands choosing to separate from Jamaica and remain under British rule to this day.
According to the Economics and Statistics Office of the Government of the Cayman Islands, the Cayman Islands had a population of 71,432 at the Census of 10 October 2021, but was estimated by them to have risen to 81,546 as of December 2022, making it the most populous British Overseas Territory. It was revealed in the 2021 census that 56% of the workforce is Non-Caymanian; this is the first time in the territory's history that the number of working immigrants has overtaken the number of working Caymanians. Most Caymanians are of mixed African and European ancestry. Slavery occurred but was not as common compared to other Caribbean islands, and once it was abolished, black and white communities seemed to integrate more compliantly than other Caribbean nations and territories resulting in a more mixed-race population.
The country's demographics are changing rapidly. Immigration plays a large role, and the changing demographics in age have sounded alarm bells in the most recent census. In comparison to the 2010 census, the 2021 census has shown that 36% of Cayman's population growth has been in persons over age 65, while 8% growth was recorded in groups under age 15. This is due to extremely low birth rates among Caymanians, which almost forces the government to seek workers from overseas to sustain the country's economy. This has raised concerns among many young Caymanians, who worry about the workforce becoming increasingly competitive with the influx of workers, as well as rent and property prices going up.
Because the population has skyrocketed over the last decade, former government officials have stressed that the islands need more careful and managed growth. Many have worried that the country's infrastructure and services cannot cope with the surging population. It is believed that given current trends, the population will reach 100,000 before 2030.
District populations
According to the Economics and Statistics Office, the final result of the 20 October 2021 Census was 71,432; however, according to a late 2022 population report by the same body, the estimated population at the end of 2022 was 81,546, broken down as follows:
{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! Name of<br>district || Area <br> in <br>km<sup>2</sup> || Population<br>Census<br>2010 || Population<br>Census<br>2021 || Population<br>estimate<br>late 2022
|-
| West Bay || align"right" |17.4|| align"right" |11,222|| align"right" |15,335|| align"right" |16,943
|-
| George Town || align"right" |38.5|| align"right" |28,089|| align"right" |34,921|| align"right" |40,957
|-
| Bodden Town || align"right" |50.5|| align"right" |10,543|| align"right" |14,845|| align"right" |16,957
|-
| North Side || align"right" |39.4|| align"right" |1,479|| align"right" |1,902|| align"right" |2,110
|-
| East End || align"right" |51.1|| align"right" |1,407|| align"right" |1,846|| align"right" |2,274
|-
! Total Grand Cayman!! align"right" |197.0|| align"right" |53,160|| align"right" |69,175|| align"right" |79,242
|-
| Little Cayman || align"right" |26.0|| align"right" |197|| align"right" |182|| align"right" |
|-
| Cayman Brac || align"right" |36.0|| align"right" |2,099|| align"right" |2,075|| align"right" |2,304
|-
! Total Cayman Islands!! align"right" |259.0!! align"right" |55,456!! align"right" |71,432!! align"right" |81,546
|}
Religion
The predominant religion on the Cayman Islands is Christianity (67% in 2021, down from over 80% in 2010). Popular denominations include the United Church of Christ, the Church of God, the Anglican Church, the Baptist Church, the Catholic Church, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and the Pentecostal Church. The Roman Catholic churches in the islands are St. Ignatius Church in George Town, and Christ the Redeemer Church, West Bay and Stella Maris Churches in Cayman Brac. The majority of citizens are religious, however, atheism has been on the rise throughout the islands since 2000, with 16.7% now identifying as non-believers, according to the 2021 census. on the island as well as places of worship in George Town for Jehovah's Witnesses and followers of the Baháʼí_faith.
In 2020, there were an estimated 121 Muslims in the Cayman Islands.LanguagesThe official language of the Cayman Islands is English (90%).
The economy of the Cayman Islands is dominated by financial services and tourism, together accounting for 50–60% of Gross Domestic Product. The nation's zero tax rate on income and storage of funds has led to it being used as a tax haven for corporations; there are 100,000 companies registered in the Cayman Islands, more than the population itself. The Cayman Islands have come under criticism for allegations of money laundering and other financial crimes, including a 2016 statement by then US president Barack Obama that described a particular building which was the registered address of over 12,000 corporations as a "tax scam".
The Cayman Islands holds a relatively low unemployment rate of about 4.24% as of 2015, lower than the value of 4.7% that was recorded in 2014.
With an average income of US$109,684 Caymanians have the highest standard of living in the Caribbean. According to the CIA World Factbook, the Cayman Islands' real GDP per capita is the tenth highest in the world, but the CIA's data for Cayman dates to 2018 and is likely to be lower than present-day values. The territory prints its own currency, the Cayman Islands dollar (KYD), which is pegged to the US dollar US$1.227 to 1 KYD. However, in many retail stores throughout the islands, the KYD is typically traded at US$1.25.
Cayman Islands have a high cost of living, even when compared to UK and US. For example, a loaf of multigrain bread is $5.49 (KYD), while a similar loaf sells for $2.47 (KYD) in the US and $1.36 (KYD) in the UK.
The minimum wage (as of February 2021) is $6 KYD for standard positions, and $4.50 for workers in the service industry, where tips supplement income. This contributes to wealth disparity. A small segment of the population lives in condemned properties lacking power and running water.
The government has established a Needs Assessment Unit to relieve poverty in the islands. Local charities, including Cayman's Acts of Random Kindness (ARK) also provide assistance.
The government's primary source of income is indirect taxation: there is no income tax, capital gains tax, or corporation tax.Tourism
One of Grand Cayman's main attractions is Seven Mile Beach, site of a number of the island's hotels and resorts. Named one of the Ultimate Beaches by Caribbean Travel and Life, Seven Mile Beach (due to erosion over the years, the number has decreased to 5.5 miles) is a public beach on the western shore of Grand Cayman Island. Historical sites in Grand Cayman, such as Pedro St. James Castle in Savannah, also attract visitors. ]]
All three islands offer scuba diving, and the Cayman Islands are home to several snorkelling locations where tourists can swim with stingrays. The most popular area to do this is Stingray City, Grand Cayman. Stingray City is a top attraction in Grand Cayman and originally started in the 1980s when divers started feeding squid to stingrays. The stingrays started to associate the sound of the boat motors with food, and thus visit this area year-round.
There are two shipwrecks off the shores of Cayman Brac, including the MV Captain Keith Tibbetts; Grand Cayman also has several shipwrecks off its shores, including one deliberate one. On 30 September 1994, the was decommissioned and struck from the Naval Vessel Register. In November 2008 her ownership was transferred for an undisclosed amount to the government of the Cayman Islands, which had decided to sink the Kittiwake in June 2009 to form a new artificial reef off Seven Mile Beach, Grand Cayman. Following several delays, the ship was finally scuttled according to plan on 5 January 2011. The Kittiwake has become a dynamic environment for marine life. While visitors are not allowed to take anything, there are endless sights. Each of the five decks of the ship offers squirrelfish, rare sponges, Goliath groupers, urchins, and more. Experienced and beginner divers are invited to swim around the Kittiwake. Pirates Week is an annual 11-day November festival started in 1977 by the then-Minister of Tourism Jim Bodden to boost tourism during the country's tourism slow season.
Other Grand Cayman tourist attractions include the ironshore landscape of Hell; the marine theme park "Cayman Turtle Centre: Island Wildlife Encounter", previously known as "Boatswain's Beach"; the production of gourmet sea salt; and the Mastic Trail, a hiking trail through the forests in the centre of the island. The National Trust for the Cayman Islands provides guided tours weekly on the Mastic Trail and other locations.
Another attraction to visit on Grand Cayman is the Observation Tower, located in Camana Bay. The Observation Tower is 75 feet tall and provides 360-degree views across Seven Mile Beach, George Town, the North Sound, and beyond. It is free to the public and climbing the tower has become a popular thing to do in the Cayman Islands.
Points of interest include the East End Light (sometimes called Gorling Bluff Light), a lighthouse at the east end of Grand Cayman island. The lighthouse is the centrepiece of East End Lighthouse Park, managed by the National Trust for the Cayman Islands; the first navigational aid on the site was the first lighthouse in the Cayman Islands.
Shipping
, 360 commercial vessels and 1,674 pleasure craft were registered in the Cayman Islands totalling 4.3 million GT.LabourThe Cayman Islands has a population of 69,656 () and therefore a limited workforce. Work permits may, therefore, be granted to foreigners. On average, there have been more than 24,000+ foreigners holding valid work permits.
Work permits for non-citizens
To work in the Cayman Islands as a non-citizen, a work permit is required. This involves passing a police background check and a health check. A prospective immigrant worker will not be granted a permit unless certain medical conditions are met, including testing negative for syphilis and HIV. A permit may be granted to individuals on special work.
A foreigner must first have a job to move to the Cayman Islands. The employer applies and pays for the work permit. Work permits are not granted to foreigners who are in the Cayman Islands (unless it is a renewal). The Cayman Islands Immigration Department requires foreigners to remain out of the country until their work permit has been approved.
The Cayman Islands presently imposes a controversial "rollover" in relation to expatriate workers who require a work permit. Non-Caymanians are only permitted to reside and work within the territory for a maximum of nine years unless they satisfy the criteria of key employees. Non-Caymanians who are "rolled over" may return to work for additional nine-year periods, subject to a one-year gap between their periods of work. The policy has been the subject of some controversy within the press. Law firms have been particularly upset by the recruitment difficulties that it has caused. Other less well-remunerated employment sectors have been affected as well. Concerns about safety have been expressed by diving instructors, and realtors have also expressed concerns. Others support the rollover as necessary to protect Caymanian identity in the face of immigration of large numbers of expatriate workers.
Concerns have been expressed that in the long term, the policy may damage the preeminence of the Cayman Islands as an offshore financial centre by making it difficult to recruit and retain experienced staff from onshore financial centres. Government employees are no longer exempt from this "rollover" policy, according to this report in a local newspaper. The governor has used his constitutional powers, which give him absolute control over the disposition of civil service employees, to determine which expatriate civil servants are dismissed after seven years service and which are not.
CARICOM Single Market Economy
In recognition of the CARICOM (Free Movement) Skilled Persons Act which came into effect in July 1997 in some of the CARICOM countries such as Jamaica and which has been adopted in other CARICOM countries, such as Trinidad and Tobago it is possible that CARICOM nationals who hold the "A Certificate of Recognition of Caribbean Community Skilled Person" will be allowed to work in the Cayman Islands under normal working conditions.
Government
See Also: Politics of the Cayman Islands
The Cayman Islands are a British overseas territory, listed by the UN Special Committee of 24 as one of the 17 non-self-governing territories. The current Constitution, incorporating a Bill of Rights, was ordained by a statutory instrument of the United Kingdom in 2009. A 19-seat (not including two non-voting members appointed by the Governor which brings the total to 21 members) Parliament is elected by the people every four years to handle domestic affairs. Of the elected Members of the Parliament (MPs), seven are chosen to serve as government Ministers in a Cabinet headed by the Governor. The Premier is appointed by the Governor. Although geographically remote, the Islands (like other British Overseas Territories) share a direct connection with elements of supervisory governance (as did the now independent Commonwealth Nations) still exercisable by the UK’s Government in London, UK.
A Governor is appointed by the King of the United Kingdom on the advice of the British Government to represent the monarch. Governors can exercise complete legislative and executive authority if they wish through blanket powers reserved to them in the constitution. Bills which have passed the Parliament require royal assent before becoming effective. The Constitution empowers the Governor to withhold royal assent in cases where the legislation appears to be repugnant to or inconsistent with the Constitution or affects the rights and privileges of the Parliament or the Royal Prerogative, or matters reserved to the Governor by article 55. The executive authority of the Cayman Islands is vested in the King and is exercised by the Government, consisting of the Governor and the Cabinet. There is an office of the Deputy Governor, who must be a Caymanian and have served in a senior public office. The Deputy Governor is the acting Governor when the office of Governor is vacant, or the Governor is not able to discharge their duties or is absent from the Cayman Islands. The current Governor of the Cayman Islands is Jane Owen.
The Cabinet is composed of two official members and seven elected members, called Ministers; one of whom is designated Premier. The premier can serve for two consecutive terms. After two terms the premier is barred from attaining the office again. Although an MP can only be premier twice any person who meets the qualifications and requirements for a seat in the Parliament can be elected to the Parliament indefinitely.
There are two official members of the Parliament, the Deputy Governor and the Attorney General. They are appointed by the Governor in accordance with His Majesty's instructions, and although they have seats in the Parliament, under the 2009 Constitution, they do not vote. They serve in a professional and advisory role to the MPs, the Deputy Governor represents the Governor who is a representative of the King and the British Government. While the Attorney General serves to advise on legal matters and has special responsibilities in Parliament, they are generally responsible for changes to the Penal code.
The seven Ministers are voted into office by the 19 elected members of the Parliament of the Cayman Islands. One of the Ministers, the leader of the majority political party, is appointed Premier by the Governor.
After consulting the Premier, the Governor allocates a portfolio of responsibilities to each Cabinet Minister. Under the principle of collective responsibility, all Ministers are obliged to support in the Parliament any measures approved by Cabinet.
Almost 80 departments, sections and units carry out the business of government, joined by a number of statutory boards and authorities set up for specific purposes, such as the Port Authority, the Civil Aviation Authority, the Immigration Board, the Water Authority, the University College Board of Governors, the National Pensions Board and the Health Insurance Commission.
Since 2000, there have been two official major political parties: The Cayman Democratic Party (CDP) and the People's Progressive Movement (PPM). While there has been a shift to political parties, many contending for office still run as independents. The two parties are notably similar, though they consider each other rivals in most cases, their differences are generally in personality and implementation rather than actual policy. The Cayman Islands generally lacks any form of organised political parties. As of the May 2017 General Election, members of the PPM and CDP have joined with three independent members to form a government coalition despite many years of enmity.
Before the 2021 Caymanian general election, leader of the CDP McKeeva Bush received a two-month suspended jail sentence for assaulting a woman in February 2020 leading to a no-confidence motion against him. Premier McLaughlin asked Governor Martyn Roper to dissolve Parliament on 14 February, triggering early elections instead of having the vote on the motion. In the lead-up to the election, the Democratic Party was described as "[appearing] to be defunct" as figures previously of the party (including Bush) instead contested as independents.
Police
Policing in the country is provided chiefly by the RCIPS or Royal Cayman Islands Police Service and the CICBC or Cayman Islands Customs & Border Control. These two agencies co-operate in aspects of law enforcement, including their joint marine unit.
Military and defence
The defence of the Cayman Islands is the responsibility of the United Kingdom. The Royal Navy maintains a ship on permanent station in the Caribbean (HMS Medway (P223)) and, from time-to-time, the Royal Navy or Royal Fleet Auxiliary may deploy another ship as a part of Atlantic Patrol (NORTH) tasking. These ships' main mission in the region is to maintain British sovereignty for the overseas territories, provide humanitarian aid and disaster relief during disasters such as hurricanes, which are common in the area, and to conduct counter-narcotic operations. In July 2024, the patrol vessel HMS Trent (which had temporarily replaced her sister ship HMS Medway on her normal Caribbean tasking) deployed to the islands to provide assistance in the aftermath of Hurricane Beryl.Cayman Islands Regiment
On 12 October 2019, the government announced the formation of the Cayman Islands Regiment, a new British Armed Forces unit. The Cayman Islands Regiment which became fully operational in 2020, with an initial 35–50 personnel of mostly reservists. Between 2020 through 2021 the Regiment grew to over a hundred personnel and over the next several years expected to grow to over several hundred personnel.
In mid-December 2019, recruitment for commanding officers and junior officers began, with the commanding officers expected to begin work in January 2020 and the junior officers expected to begin in February 2020.
In January 2020, the first officers were chosen for the Cayman Islands Regiment.
Since the formation of the Regiment, it has been deployed on a few operational tours providing HADR, or Humanitarian Aid and Disaster Relief as well as assisting with the COVID-19 Pandemic.
Cadet Corps
The Cayman Islands Cadet Corps was formed in March 2001 and carries out military-type training with teenage citizens of the country.Coast Guard
In 2018, the PPM-led Coalition government pledged to form a coast guard to protect the interests of the Cayman Islands, especially in terms of illegal immigration and illegal drug importation as well as search and rescue. In mid-2018, the Commander and second-in-Command of the Cayman Islands Coast Guard were appointed. Commander Robert Scotland was appointed as the first commanding officer and Lieutenant Commander Leo Anglin was appointed as Second-in-Command.
In mid-2019, the commander and second-in-command took part in international joint operations with the United States Coast Guard and the Jamaica Defense Force Coast Guard called Operation Riptide. This makes it the first deployment for the Cayman Islands Coast Guard and the first in ten years any Cayman Representative has been on a foreign military ship for a counternarcotic operation.
In late November 2019, it was announced that the Cayman Islands Coast Guard would become operational in January 2020, with initial total of 21 Coast Guardsmen half of which would come from the joint marine unit, with further recruitment in the new year. One of the many taskings of the Coast Guard will be to push enforcement of all laws that apply to the designated Wildlife Interaction Zone.
On 5 October 2021, the Cayman Islands Parliament passed the Cayman Islands Coast Guard Act thus establishing the Cayman Islands Coast Guard as a uniformed and disciplined department of Government.Taxation
No direct taxation is imposed on residents and Cayman Islands companies. The government receives the majority of its income from indirect taxation. Duty is levied against most imported goods, which is typically in the range of 22% to 25%. Some items are exempted, such as baby formula, books, cameras, electric vehicles and certain items are taxed at 5%. Duty on automobiles depends on their value. The duty can amount to 29.5% up to $20,000.00 KYD CIF (cost, insurance and freight) and up to 42% over $30,000.00 KYD CIF for expensive models. The government charges flat licensing fees on financial institutions that operate in the islands and there are work permit fees on foreign labour. A 13% government tax is placed on all tourist accommodations in addition to a US$37.50 airport departure tax which is built into the cost of an airline ticket. There is a 7.5% sales tax on the proceeds of the sale of the property, payable by the purchaser. There are no taxes on corporate profits, capital gains, or personal income. There are no estate or death inheritance taxes payable on Cayman Islands real estate or other assets held in the Cayman Islands.
The legend behind the lack of taxation comes from the Wreck of the Ten Sail, when multiple ships ran aground on the reef off the north coast of Grand Cayman. Local fishermen are said to have then sailed out to rescue the crew and salvage goods from the wrecks. It is said that out of gratitude, and due to their small size, King George III then issued the edict that the citizens of the country of the Cayman Islands would never pay tax. There is, however, no documented evidence for this story besides oral tradition.Foreign relations
, 1953]]
Foreign policy is controlled by the United Kingdom, as the islands remain an overseas territory of the United Kingdom. Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands' most important relationships were with Britain and Jamaica, in recent years, as a result of economic dependence, a relationship with the United States has developed.
Though the Cayman Islands is involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and money laundering. In an attempt to address this, the government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty of 1986 with the United States, to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities. In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to co-operate with foreign investigators.
Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands has no separate representation either in the United Nations or in most other international organisations. However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organisations, being an associate member of CARICOM and UNESCO, and a member of a sub-bureau of Interpol.
Emergency services
Access to emergency services is available using 9-1-1, the emergency telephone number, the same number as is used in Canada and the United States. The Cayman Islands Department of Public Safety's Communications Centre processes 9-1-1 and non-emergency police assistance, ambulance service, fire service and search and rescue calls for all three islands. The Communications Centre dispatches RCIP and EMS units directly; the Cayman Islands Fire Service maintains their own dispatch room at the airport fire station.
The police services are handled by the Royal Cayman Islands Police Service. The fire services are handled by the Cayman Islands Fire Service. There are 4 main hospitals in the Cayman Islands, private and public health in the Cayman Islands with various localised health clinics around the islands.
Infrastructure
Ports
George Town is the port capital of Grand Cayman. There are no berthing facilities for cruise ships, but up to four cruise ships can anchor in designated anchorages. There are three cruise terminals in George Town, the North, South, and Royal Watler Terminals. The ride from the ship to the terminal is about 5 minutes.Airports and airlines
There are three airports which serve the Cayman Islands. The islands' national flag carrier is Cayman Airways, with Owen Roberts International Airport hosting the airline as its hub.
• Owen Roberts International Airport
• Charles Kirkconnell International Airport
• Edward Bodden Airfield
Main highways
There are three highways, as well as crucial feeder roads that serve the Cayman Islands capital city, George Town. Residents in the east of the city will rely on the East-West Arterial Bypass to go into George Town; as well as Shamrock Road coming from Bodden Town and the eastern districts.
Other main highways and carriageways include:
• Linford Pierson Highway (most popular roadway into George Town from the east)
• Esterly Tibbetts Highway (serves commuters to the north of the city and West Bay)
• North Sound Road (main road for Central George Town)
• South Sound Road (used by commuters to the south of the city)
• Crewe Road (alternative to taking Linford Pierson Highway)
Education
Primary and secondary schools
The Cayman Islands Education Department operates state schools. Caymanian children are entitled to free primary and secondary education. There are two public high schools on Grand Cayman, John Gray High School and Clifton Hunter High School, and one on Cayman Brac, Layman E. Scott High School. Various churches and private foundations operate several private schools.
Colleges and universities
The University College of the Cayman Islands has campuses on Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac and is the only government-run university on the Cayman Islands.
The International College of the Cayman Islands is a private college in Grand Cayman. The college was established in 1970 and offers associate's, bachelor's and master's degree programmes. Grand Cayman is also home to St. Matthew's University, which includes a medical school and a school of veterinary medicine. Truman Bodden Law School, a branch of the University of Liverpool, is based on Grand Cayman.
The Cayman Islands Civil Service College, a unit of the Cayman Islands government organised under the Portfolio of the Civil Service, is in Grand Cayman. Co-situated with University College of the Cayman Islands, it offers both degree programs and continuing education units of various sorts. The college opened in 2007 and is also used as a government research centre.
There is a University of the West Indies Open campus in the territory. Sports
Truman Bodden Sports Complex is a multi-use complex in George Town. The complex is separated into an outdoor, six-lane swimming pool, full purpose track and field and basketball/netball courts. The field surrounded by the track is used for association football matches as well as other field sports.
Association football is the national and most popular sport, with the Cayman Islands national football team representing the Cayman Islands in FIFA.
The Cayman Islands Basketball Federation joined the international basketball governing body FIBA in 1976. The country's national team attended the Caribbean Basketball Championship for the first time in 2011. Cayman Islands National Male National Team has won back-to-back Gold Medal victories in 2017 and 2019 Natwest Island Games.
Rugby union is a developing sport, and has its own national men's team, women's team, and Sevens team. .
The Cayman Islands are a member of FIFA, the International Olympic Committee and the Pan American Sports Organisation, and also competes in the biennial Island Games.
The Cayman Islands are a member of the International Cricket Council which they joined in 1997 as an Affiliate, before becoming an Associate member in 2002. The Cayman Islands national cricket team represents the islands in international cricket. The team has previously played the sport at first-class, List A and Twenty20 level. It competes in Division Five of the World Cricket League.
Squash is popular in the Cayman Islands with a vibrant community of mostly ex-pats playing out of the 7-court South Sound Squash Club. In addition, the women's professional squash association hosts one of their major events each year in an all-glass court being set up in Camana Bay. In December 2012, the former Cayman Open will be replaced by the Women's World Championships, the largest tournament in the world.
Flag football (CIFFA) has men's, women's, and mixed-gender leagues.
Other organised sports leagues include softball, beach volleyball, Gaelic football and ultimate frisbee.
The Cayman Islands Olympic Committee was founded in 1973 and was recognised by the IOC (International Olympic Committee) in 1976.
In April 2005 Black Pearl Skate Park was opened in Grand Cayman by Tony Hawk. At the time the park was the largest in the Western Hemisphere.
In February 2010, the first purpose-built track for kart racing in the Cayman Islands was opened. Corporate karting leagues at the track have involved widespread participation with 20 local companies and 227 drivers taking part in the 2010 Summer Corporate Karting League.
In December 2022, swimmer Jordan Crooks became the first Caymanian athlete to become world champion in any sport, after winning the gold medal in the 50 m freestyle event at the 2022 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m). In addition, during the 2024 World Aquatics Swimming Championships (25 m), he established a new world record in the 50 m freestyle event with a time of 19.90, becoming the first swimmer in history to break the 20-second barrier.
Arts and culture
Music
The Cayman National Cultural Foundation manages the F.J. Harquail Cultural Centre and the US$4 million Harquail Theatre. The Cayman National Cultural Foundation, established in 1984, helps to preserve and promote Cayman folk music, including the organisation of festivals such as the Cayman Islands International Storytelling Festival, the Cayman JazzFest, Seafarers Festival and Cayfest. The jazz, calypso and reggae genres of music styles feature prominently in Cayman music as celebrated cultural influences.
Art
The National Gallery of the Cayman Islands is an art museum in George Town. Founded in 1996, NGCI is an arts organisation that seeks to fulfil its mission through exhibitions, artist residencies, education/outreach programmes and research projects in the Cayman Islands. The NGCI is a non-profit institution, part of the Ministry of Health and Culture.
Media
There are two print newspapers currently in circulation throughout the islands: the Cayman Compass and The Caymanian Times. Online news services include Cayman Compass, Cayman News Service, Cayman Marl Road, The Caymanian Times and Real Cayman News. Olive Hilda Miller was the first paid reporter to work for a Cayman Islands newspaper, beginning her career on the Tradewinds newspaper, which her work helped to establish.
Local radio stations are broadcast throughout the islands.
Feature films that have been filmed in the Cayman Islands include: The Firm, Haven, Cayman Went and Zombie Driftwood.
Television in the Cayman Islands consist of three over-the-air broadcast stations, Trinity Broadcasting Network – CIGTV (the government-owned channel) – Seventh Day Adventist Network. Cable television is available in the Cayman Islands through three providers, C3 Pure Fibre – FLOW TV – Logic TV. Satellite television is provided by Dish Direct TV. In the past, between 1992 and 2019, there was also Cayman 27.
Broadband is widely available on the Cayman Islands, with Digicel, C3 Pure Fibre, FLOW and Logic all providing super fast fibre broadband to the islands. Notable Caymanians
<!---At the national level, prime ministers etc are not notable because everyone has them. Okay further down the list (Island/Department).
ALPHABETICAL ORDER
A WIKIPEDIA ARTICLE MUST EXIST FOR EACH LIST ENTRY:---> See also
*Outline of the Cayman Islands
* Index of Cayman Islands–related articles
References
Further reading *
*
* Originally from the CIA World Factbook 2000.
*
* External links
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* [http://www.gov.ky/ Cayman Islands Government]
* [http://www.caymanislands.ky/ Cayman Islands Department of Tourism]
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722142126/http://www.cifilm.ky/ Cayman Islands Film Commission] (archived 22 July 2011)
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cayman-islands/ Cayman Islands]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080407223030/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/caymanislands.htm Cayman Islands] from UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 7 April 2008)
* [http://www.artscayman.org/ Cayman National Cultural Foundation]
Geographic locale
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5469 | History of the Cayman Islands | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
s attracted ships and settlers to the islands]]
The Cayman Islands are a British overseas territory located in the Caribbean that have been under various governments since their discovery by Europeans. Christopher Columbus sighted the Cayman Islands on May 10, 1503, and named them Las Tortugas after the numerous sea turtles seen swimming in the surrounding waters. Columbus had found the two smaller sister islands (Cayman Brac and Little Cayman) and it was these two islands that he named "Las Tortugas".
The 1523 "Turin map" of the islands was the first to refer to them as Los Lagartos, meaning alligators or large lizards, By 1530 they were known as the Caymanes after the Carib word caimán for the marine crocodile, either the American or the Cuban crocodile, Crocodylus acutus or C. rhombifer, which also lived there. Recent sub-fossil findings suggest that C. rhombifer, a freshwater species, were prevalent until the 20th century.
Settlement
Archaeological studies of Grand Cayman have found no evidence that humans occupied the islands prior to the sixteenth century.
The first recorded English visitor was Sir Francis Drake in 1586, who reported that the caymanas were edible, but it was the turtles which attracted ships in search of fresh meat for their crews. Overfishing nearly extinguished the turtles from the local waters. Turtles were the main source for an economy on the islands. In 1787, Captain Hull of HMS Camilla estimated between 1,200 and 1,400 turtles were captured and sold at seaports in Jamaica per year. According to historian Edward Long the inhabitants on Grand Cayman had the principal occupation of turtle-fishery. Once Caymanian turtlers greatly reduced the turtle population around the islands they journeyed to the waters of other islands in order to maintain their livelihood.
Caymanian folklore explains that the island's first inhabitants were men with the surnames Bodden and Watler, who first arrived in Cayman in 1658 after serving in Oliver Cromwell's army in Jamaica. The first recorded permanent inhabitant of the Cayman Islands, Isaac Bodden, was born on Grand Cayman around 1700. He was the grandson of the original settler named Bodden.
Most, if not all, early settlers were people who came from outside of the Cayman Islands and were on the fringes of society. Due to this, the Cayman Islands have often been described as "a total colonial frontier society": effectively lawless during the early settlement years. The Cayman Islands remained a frontier society until well into the twentieth century. The year 1734 marked the rough beginning period of permanent settlement in Grand Cayman. Cayman Brac and Little Cayman were not permanently settled until 1833. A variety of people settled on the islands: pirates, refugees from the Spanish Inquisition, shipwrecked sailors, and slaves. The majority of Caymanians are of African, Welsh, Scottish or English descent, with considerable interracial mixing.
During the early years, settlements on the north and west sides of Grand Cayman were often subject to raids by Spanish forces coming from Cuba. On 14 April 1669, the Spanish Privateer Rivero Pardal completed a successful raid on the village of Little Cayman. In the process of the raid, the forces burned twenty dwellings to the ground.British control
on Grand Cayman Island]]
England took formal control of Cayman, along with Jamaica, under the Treaty of Madrid in 1670 after the first settlers came from Jamaica in 1661–71 to Little Cayman and Cayman Brac. These first settlements were abandoned after attacks by Spanish privateers, but English privateers often used the Cayman Islands as a base and in the 18th century they became an increasingly popular hideout for pirates, even after the end of legitimate privateering in 1713. Following several unsuccessful attempts, permanent settlement of the islands began in the 1730s. In the early morning hours of February 8, 1794, ten vessels which were part of a convoy escorted by HMS Convert, were wrecked on the reef in Gun Bay, on the East end of Grand Cayman. Despite the darkness and pounding surf on the reef, local settlers braved the conditions attempting to rescue the passengers and crew of the fledgling fleet. There are conflicting reports, but it is believed that between six, and eight people died that night, among them, the Captain of the Britannia. However, the overwhelming majority, more than 450 people, were successfully rescued. The incident is now remembered as The Wreck of the Ten Sail. Legend has it that among the fleet, there was a member of the British Royal Family on board. Most believe it to be a nephew of King George III. To reward the bravery of the island's local inhabitants, King George III reportedly issued a decreed that Caymanians should never be conscripted for war service, and shall never be subject to taxation. However, no official documentation of this decree has been found. All evidence for this being the origin of their tax-free status is purely anecdotal. Regardless, the Cayman Islands' status as a tax-free British overseas territory remains to this day.
From 1670, the Cayman Islands were effective dependencies of Jamaica, although there was considerable self-government. In 1831, a legislative assembly was established by local consent at a meeting of principal inhabitants held at Pedro St. James Castle on December 5 of that year. Elections were held on December 10 and the fledgling legislature passed its first local legislation on December 31, 1831. Subsequently, the Jamaican governor ratified a legislature consisting of eight magistrates appointed by the Governor of Jamaica and 10 (later increased to 27) elected representatives.
The collapse of the Federation of the West Indies created a period of decolonization in the English-speaking Caribbean. In regards to independence, of the six dependent territories, the Cayman Islands were the most opposed because it lacked the natural resources needed. This opposition came from the fear that independence might prevent any special United States visas that aided Caymanian sailors working on American ships and elsewhere in the United States. The people had concerns about their economic viability if the country was to become independent. The Cayman Islands were not the only smaller British territory that was reluctant in regards to gaining independence. The United Kingdom authorities established a new governing constitution framework for the reluctant territories. In place of the Federation of the West Indies, a constitution was created that allowed for the continuation of formal ties with London. In the Cayman Islands, the Governor's only obligation to the British Crown is that of keeping the Executive Council informed.SlaveryGrand Cayman was the only island of the three that had institutionalized slavery. Although slavery was instituted, Grand Cayman did not have violent slave revolts. While scholars tend to agree that to an extent a slave society existed on at least Grand Cayman, there are debates among them on how important slavery was to the society as a whole. The slave period for the Cayman Islands lasted between 1734 and 1834. In 1774, George Gauld estimated that approximately four hundred people lived on Grand Cayman; half of the inhabitants were free while the other half were constituted slaves. By 1802, of 933 inhabitants, 545 people were owned by slave owners. An April 1834 census recorded a population of 1,800 with roughly 46 percent considered free Caymanians. By the time of emancipation, enslaved people outnumbered that of slave owners or non-enslaved people on Grand Cayman. In 1835, Governor Sligo arrived in Cayman from Jamaica to declare all enslaved people free in accordance with the British Slavery Abolition Act 1833.
Caymanian settlers resented their administrative association with Jamaica, which caused them to seize every opportunity to undermine the authorities. This problematic relationship reached its peak during the period leading up to emancipation in 1835. Caymanian slave owners who did not want to give up the free labour they extracted from their human chattel refused to obey changes in British legislation outlawing slavery. In response to the Slave Trade Act 1807, the Slave Trade Felony Act 1811, and the Emancipation Act 1834, slave owners organized resistance efforts against the authorities in Jamaica.
Local White residents of the Cayman Islands also resisted the stationing of troops of the West India Regiment. This animosity stemmed from the fact that the West India Regiment enlisted Black men, which the White establishment opposed because they were 'insulted' at the idea of Black soldiers defending their settlements.Dependency of Jamaica
The Cayman Islands were officially declared and administered as a dependency of Jamaica from 1863 but were rather like a parish of Jamaica with the nominated justices of the peace and elected vestrymen in their Legislature. From 1750 to 1898 the Chief Magistrate was the administrating official for the dependency, appointed by the Jamaican governor. In 1898 the Governor of Jamaica began appointing a Commissioner for the Islands. The first Commissioner was Frederick Sanguinetti. In 1959, upon the formation of the Federation of the West Indies the dependency status with regards to Jamaica ceased officially although the Governor of Jamaica remained the Governor of the Cayman Islands and had reserve powers over the islands. Starting in 1959 the chief official overseeing the day-to-day affairs of the islands (for the Governor) was the Administrator. Upon Jamaica's independence in 1962, the Cayman Islands broke its administrative links with Jamaica and opted to become a direct dependency of the British Crown, with the chief official of the islands being the Administrator.
In 1953 the first airfield in the Cayman Islands was opened as well as the George Town Public hospital. Barclays ushered in the age of formalised commerce by opening the first commercial bank.
Governmental changes
Following a two-year campaign by women to change their circumstances, in 1959 Cayman received its first written constitution which, for the first time, allowed women to vote. Cayman ceased to be a dependency of Jamaica.
During 1966, legislation was passed to enable and encourage the banking industry in Cayman.
In 1971, the governmental structure of the islands was again changed, with a governor now running the Cayman Islands. Athel Long CMG, CBE was the last administrator and the first governor of the Cayman Islands.
In 1991, a review of the 1972 constitution recommended several constitutional changes to be debated by the Legislative Assembly. The post of chief secretary was reinstated in 1992 after having been abolished in 1986. The establishment of the post of chief minister was also proposed. However, in November 1992 elections were held for an enlarged Legislative Assembly and the Government was soundly defeated, casting doubt on constitutional reform. The "National Team" of government critics won 12 (later reduced to 11) of the 15 seats, and independents won the other three, after a campaign opposing the appointment of
chief minister and advocating spending cuts. The unofficial leader of the team, Thomas Jefferson, had been the appointed financial secretary until March 1992, when he resigned over public spending disputes to fight the election. After the elections, Mr. Jefferson was appointed minister and leader of government business; he also held the portfolios of Tourism, Aviation and Commerce in the executive council. Three teams with a total of 44 candidates contested the general election held on November 20, 1996: the governing National Team, Team Cayman and the Democratic Alliance Group. The National Team were returned to office but with a reduced majority, winning 9 seats. The Democratic Alliance won 2 seats in George Town, Team Cayman won one in Bodden Town and independents won seats in George Town, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman.
Although all administrative links with Jamaica were broken in 1962, the Cayman Islands and Jamaica continue to share many links, including a common united church (the United Church in Jamaica and the Cayman Islands) and Anglican diocese (although there is debate about this). They also shared a common currency until 1972. In 1999, 38–40% of the expat population of the Cayman Islands was of Jamaican origin and in 2004/2005 little over 50% of the expatriates working in the Cayman Islands (i.e. 8,000) were Jamaicans (with the next largest expatriate communities coming from the United States, United Kingdom and Canada).
Hurricane Ivan
damage in the Cayman Islands]]
In September 2004, The Cayman Islands were hit by Hurricane Ivan, causing mass devastation, loss of animal life (both wild and domestic/livestock) and flooding; however, there was no loss of human life. Some accounts reported that the majority of Grand Cayman had been underwater and with the lower floors of some buildings being completely flooded in excess of 8 ft. An Ivan Flood Map is available from the Lands & Survey Dept. of The Cayman Islands indicating afflicted areas and their corresponding flood levels. This natural disaster also led to the bankruptcy of a heavily invested insurance company called Doyle. The company had re-leased estimates covering 20% damage to be re-insured at minimal fees when in fact the damage was over 65% and every claim was in the millions. The company simply could not keep paying out and the adjusters could not help lower the payments due to the high building code the Islands adhere to.
Much suspense was built around the devastation that Hurricane Ivan had caused as the leader of Government business Mr. Mckeeva Bush decided to close the Islands to any and all reporters, aid and denied permissions to land any aircraft except for Cayman Airways. The line of people wishing to leave, but unable to do so, extended from the airport to the post office each day, as thousands who were left stranded with no shelter, food, or fresh water hoped for a chance to evacuate. As a result, most evacuations and the mass exodus which ensued in the aftermath was done so by private charter through personal expense, with or without official permission. It was also a collective decision within the government at that time to turn away two British warships that had arrived the day after the storm with supplies. This decision was met by outrage from the Islanders who thought that it should have been their decision to make. Power and water was cut off due to damaged pipes and destroyed utility poles, with all utilities restored to various areas over the course of the next three months. Fortis Inc., a Canadian-owned utility company, sent a team down to Grand Cayman to assist the local power company, CUC, with restoration. The official report, extent of damage, duration and recovery efforts in the words of Mr. Bush himself are first recorded a month following to the Select Committee on Foreign Affairs Written Evidence, Letter from the Cayman Islands Government Office in the United Kingdom, 8 October 2004.
"Hurricane Ivan weakened to a category four hurricane as it moved over Grand Cayman. It is the most powerful hurricane ever to hit the cayman islands. The eye of the storm passed within eight to 15 miles of Grand Cayman. It struck on Sunday 12 September, bringing with it sustained winds of 155 miles per hour, gusts of up to 217 mph, and a storm surge of sea water of eight to 10 feet, which covered most of the Island. A quarter of Grand Cayman remained submerged by flood waters two days later. Both Cayman Brac and Little Cayman suffered damage, although not to the same extent as Grand Cayman.
Damage on Grand Cayman has been extensive. "I include with this letter, for your reference, a detailed briefing about the damage and the recovery effort, and some photographs of the devastation. 95% of our housing stock has sustained damage, with around 25% destroyed or damaged beyond repair. We currently have 6,000 homes that are uninhabitable-these are homes that house teachers, nurses, manual and other workers. Thankfully, loss of life in Cayman has been limited, relative to the impact of the storm."- Honourable McKeeva Bush, OBE, JP.<ref name="auto1"/>
While there still remains visible signs of damage, in the vegetation and destruction to buildings particularly along the southern and eastern coastal regions, the Island took considerable time to become suitable as a bustling financial & tourism destination again. There remain housing issues for many of the residents as of late 2005, with some buildings still lying derelict due to insurance claims as of 2013, feasibility, new regulations and building codes. Many residents simply were unable to rebuild, and abandoned the damaged structures.
References
External links | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Cayman_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.461931 |
5470 | Geography of the Cayman Islands | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
The Cayman Islands are a British dependency and island country. It is a three-island archipelago in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and Little Cayman. Georgetown, the capital of the Cayman Islands is south of Havana, Cuba, and northwest of Kingston, Jamaica, northeast of Costa Rica, north of Panama and are between Cuba and Central America. Georgetown's geographic coordinates are 19.300° north, 81.383° west.
Geology
The islands are located on the Cayman Rise which forms the northern margin of the Cayman Trough. The trough is the deepest point in the Caribbean Sea and forms part of the tectonic boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate. The Cayman Rise extends from southeastern Cuba along the northern margin of the Cayman Trough toward Costa Rica and resulted from Paleocene to Eocene island arc formation with associated volcanism along an extinct subduction zone. The islands are formed of marine limestone and dolomite that was uplifted during the late Miocene epoch. Due to the islands' location, the Cayman Islands do get earthquakes.
Climate
The Cayman Islands have a tropical wet and dry climate, with a wet season from May to December, and a dry season that runs from January to April. Terrain is mostly a low-lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs.
Besides earthquakes another major natural hazard is the tropical cyclones that form during the Atlantic hurricane season from June to November.
{|style"width:100%;text-align:center;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto" class"wikitable mw-collapsible"
|-
!Colspan=14|Climate data for George Town
|-
!Month
!Jan
!Feb
!Mar
!Apr
!May
!Jun
!Jul
!Aug
!Sep
!Oct
!Nov
!Dec
!style="border-left-width:medium"|Year
|-
!Average sea temperature °C (°F)
|style="background:#ff6600;color:#000000;"|26.6<br />(79.9)
|style="background:#ff6600;color:#000000;"|26.6<br />(79.9)
|style="background:#ff6600;color:#000000;"|26.8<br />(80.2)
|style="background:#ff5f00;color:#000000;"|27.7<br />(81.9)
|style="background:#ff5a00;color:#000000;"|28.3<br />(82.9)
|style="background:#ff5800;color:#000000;"|28.7<br />(83.7)
|style="background:#ff5400;color:#000000;"|29.2<br />(84.6)
|style="background:#ff4e00;color:#000000;"|30.0<br />(86.0)
|style="background:#ff4e00;color:#000000;"|29.9<br />(85.8)
|style="background:#ff5400;color:#000000;"|29.3<br />(84.7)
|style="background:#ff5a00;color:#000000;"|28.6<br />(83.5)
|style="background:#ff5a00;color:#000000;"|28.0<br />(82.4)
|style="background:#ff5f00;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium"|27.9<br />(82.2)
|-
!Colspan14 style"background:#f8f9fa;font-weight:normal;font-size:95%;"|Source #1: seatemperature.org
|-
!Colspan14 style"background:#f8f9fa;font-weight:normal;font-size:95%;"|Source #2: Weather Atlas
|}
Environmental issues
An important environmental issue is the lack of fresh water resources. Drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchment and desalination. There is also a problem with trash washing up on the beaches or being deposited by there by residents. The Cayman Islands have no recycling or waste treatment facilities. Natural resources
Natural resources include fish and a climate and beaches that foster tourism, which is the islands' major industry. A 2012 estimate of land use determined that the Cayman Islands' had 0.83 percent arable land and 2.08 percent permanent crops.
In Cayman Islands forest cover is around 53% of the total land area, equivalent to 12,720 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 13,130 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 12,720 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 0 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity). For the year 2015, 0% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership, 12% private ownership and 88% with ownership listed as other or unknown. Districts
The territory is subdivided into six districts that are governed by district managers and that have a role as electoral districts and as regional units for statistics. Five of the districts are located on the main island, Grand Cayman. The sixth, Sister Islands, comprises the islands of Little Cayman and Cayman Brac.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-style="background: #EEE;"
|-style="background: #CCC;"
! Nr. || District or island || align"right"| Area<br>(km<sup>2</sup>)||align"right"| Pop.<br>1999-10-10 ||align="right"| Pop.<br>2007 est. ||Pop.-<br>density
|-
|1|| Bodden Town || align"right"| || align"right"| 5,764|| align"right"| 6,918 || align"right"| 865
|-
|2|| Cayman Brac || align"right"| 36 || align"right"| 1,822|| align"right"| 1,500|| align"right"| 42
|-
|3|| East End || align"right"| 50 || align"right"| 1,371|| align"right"| 1,552|| align"right"| 31
|-
|4|| George Town || align"right"| 29 || align"right"| 20,626|| align"right"| 31,785|| align"right"| 1096
|-
|5|| Little Cayman || align"right"| 26 || align"right"| 115|| align"right"| 200|| align"right"| 8
|-
|6|| North Side || align"right"| || align"right"| 1,079|| align"right"| 1,258|| align"right"| 14
|-
|7|| West Bay || align"right"| 19 || align"right"| 8,243|| align"right"| 11,436|| align"right"| 602
|-
|-style"background: #DDD;" | class"sortbottom"
| ||Cayman Islands|| align"right"| 259 || align"right"| 39,020|| align"right"| 54.649||align"right"| 211
|}
The population is concentrated in the three (south-)western districts George Town (capital), West Bay, and Bodden Town. Those have a population density many times higher than all remaining districts.
Extreme points
*Northernmost point – Booby Point, Cayman Brac
*Easternmost point – North East Point, Cayman Brac
*Southernmost point – Great Pedro Point, Grand Cayman
*Westernmost point – North West Point, Grand Cayman
*Lowest point – Caribbean Sea (0m)
*Highest point – 1 km SW of The Bluff, Cayman Brac (50m)
References
External links
*[http://www.statoids.com/uky.html Districts of Cayman Islands], Statoids.com
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-16493787 Cayman vents are world's hottest (BBC News, 10 January 2012)]
*[http://caymanislandsland4sale.com/blog/ Cayman Islands Land] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_the_Cayman_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.497933 |
5471 | Demographics of the Cayman Islands | <!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see WP:SDNONE -->
This is a demography of the population of the Cayman Islands including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
Population
}}
With its success in the tourism and financial service industries, the Cayman Islands have attracted many international businesses and citizens to relocate. The largest numbers of expatriates living in the Cayman Islands hail from Jamaica (11,703), the United Kingdom (1,708), the Philippines (4,119), and India (1,218). Approximately 8,139 more residents are citizens of various other countries. While the government does not restrict foreign land ownership, it does strongly enforce its immigration laws. Businesses are required to grant access to job openings to Caymanian citizens first; if none of them are suitable, the business may then seek employees from other countries. In order to work in the Cayman Islands, foreigners must have a job offer before immigrating. The Cayman Islands population is expected to reach 100,000 people before 2030, as an explosion in immigration after COVID-19 lockdowns continues to increase the population significantly.
Structure of the population
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 27 106
| align="right" | 28 585
| align="right" | 55 691
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 4 512
| align="right" | 4 831
| align="right" | 9 343
| align="right" | 16.78
|-
| align="right" | 15–24
| align="right" | 2 873
| align="right" | 2 916
| align="right" | 5 789
| align="right" | 10.39
|-
| align="right" | 25–34
| align="right" | 4 727
| align="right" | 5 043
| align="right" | 9 771
| align="right" | 17.55
|-
| align="right" | 35–44
| align="right" | 5 746
| align="right" | 5 955
| align="right" | 11 701
| align="right" | 21.01
|-
| align="right" | 45–54
| align="right" | 4 836
| align="right" | 5 070
| align="right" | 9 907
| align="right" | 17.79
|-
| align="right" | 55–64
| align="right" | 2 530
| align="right" | 2 744
| align="right" | 5 274
| align="right" | 9.47
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 1 881
| align="right" | 2 025
| align="right" | 3 907
| align="right" | 7.02
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 71 105
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 3 683
| align="right" | 5.18
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 3 700
| align="right" | 5.20
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 3 931
| align="right" | 5.53
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 3 254
| align="right" | 4.58
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 3 552
| align="right" | 5.00
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 5 445
| align="right" | 7.66
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 6 776
| align="right" | 9.53
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 7 086
| align="right" | 9.97
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 6 870
| align="right" | 9.66
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 6 559
| align="right" | 9.22
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 5 939
| align="right" | 8.35
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 4 833
| align="right" | 6.80
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 3 358
| align="right" | 4.72
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 5 602
| align="right" | 7.88
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 11 314
| align="right" | 15.91
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 53 674
| align="right" | 75.49
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 5 602
| align="right" | 7.88
|-
| align="right" | unknown
| align="right" | 515
| align="right" | 0.72
|-
|}
District populations
The vast majority of its residents live on the island of Grand Cayman, at 67,493. According to the 2021 census, only 2,163 people lived on Cayman Brac or Little Cayman, bringing the total population to 69,656,
broken down as follows:
*George Town: 34,399
*West Bay: 14,931
*Bodden Town: 14,268
*North Side: 1,840
*East End: 1,749
*Cayman Brac and Little Cayman (Sister Islands): 2,163
Vital statistics
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right;"
|-
!
! width="70pt"|Average population (x 1000)
! width="70pt"|Live births
! width="70pt"|Deaths
! width="70pt"|Natural change
! width="70pt"|Crude birth rate (per 1000)
! width="70pt"|Crude death rate (per 1000)
! width="70pt"|Natural change (per 1000)
! width="70pt"|Infant mortality rate (per 1000 live births)
|-
| 1950
| 6.4
| 198|| 58|| 140
|30.9||style="color: red"|9.0||21.8 ||
|-
| 1951
| 6.3
| 213|| 42|| 171
|34.0||6.7||27.3 ||
|-
| 1952
| 6.2
| 197|| 46|| 151
|31.5||7.4||24.2 ||
|-
| 1953
| 6.3
| 244|| 32|| 212
|style"color: blue"|38.6||5.1||style"color: blue"|33.5 ||
|-
| 1954
| 6.5
| 237|| 48|| 189
|36.6||7.4||29.2 ||
|-
| 1955
| 6.7
| 226|| 52|| 174
|33.9||7.8||26.1 ||
|-
| 1956
| 6.9
| 235|| 62|| 173
|34.0||9.0||25.0 ||
|-
| 1957
| 7.2
| 248|| 60|| 188
|34.6||8.4||26.2 ||
|-
| 1958
| 7.4
| 207|| 66|| 141
|27.9||8.9||19.0 ||
|-
| 1959
| 7.7
| 272|| 50|| 222
|35.5||6.5||29.0 ||
|-
| 1960
| 7.9
| 264|| 54|| 210
|33.6||6.9||26.7 ||
|-
| 1961
| 8.0
| 277|| 68|| 209
|34.5||8.5||26.0 ||
|-
| 1962
| 8.1
| 290|| 51|| 239
|35.6||6.3||29.4 ||
|-
| 1963
| 8.2
| 303|| 61|| 242
|36.8||7.4||29.4 ||
|-
| 1964
| 8.3
| 270|| 73|| 197
|32.5||8.8||23.7 ||
|-
| 1965
| 8.4
| 241|| 63|| 178
|28.8||7.5||21.3 ||
|-
| 1966
| 8.4
| 267|| 67|| 200
|31.6||7.9||23.7 ||
|-
| 1967
| 8.5
| 269|| 60|| 209
|31.6||7.0||24.5 ||
|-
| 1968
| 8.6
| 282|| 54|| 228
|32.7||6.3||26.4 ||
|-
| 1969
| 8.8
| 272|| 46|| 226
|30.8||5.2||25.6 ||
|-
| 1970
| 9.1
| 313|| 71|| 242
|34.2||7.8||26.5 ||
|-
| 1971
| 9.6
| 287|| 65|| 222
|29.9||6.8||23.2 ||
|-
| 1972
| 10.1
| 351|| 68|| 283
|34.6||6.7||27.9 ||
|-
| 1973
| 10.8
| 319|| 83|| 236
|29.6||7.7||21.9 ||
|-
| 1974
| 11.5
| 281|| 84|| 197
|24.4||7.3||17.1 ||
|-
| 1975
| 12.2
| 327|| 77|| 250
|26.7||6.3||20.4 ||
|-
| 1976
| 13.3
| 282|| 81|| 201
|21.7||6.2||15.4 ||
|-
| 1977
| 13.8
| 270|| 84|| 186
|19.5||6.1||13.4 ||
|-
| 1978
| 14.7
| 273|| 78|| 195
|18.6||5.3||13.3 ||
|-
| 1979
| 15.4
| 289|| 98|| 191
|18.7||6.3||12.4 ||
|-
| 1980
| 16.2
| 326|| 105|| 221
|20.2||6.5||13.7 ||
|-
| 1981
| 16.8
| 347|| 106|| 241
|20.7||6.3||14.3 ||
|-
| 1982
| 17.4
| 339|| 107|| 232
|19.5||6.2||13.4 ||
|-
| 1983
| 17.9
| 387|| 105|| 282
|21.6||5.9||15.7 ||
|-
| 1984
| 18.5
| 414|| 114|| 300
|22.3||6.1||16.2 ||
|-
| 1985
| 19.3
| 367|| 126|| 241
|19.0||6.5||12.5 ||
|-
| 1986
| 20.3
| 360|| 141|| 219
|17.8||7.0||10.8 ||
|-
| 1987
| 21.3
| 359|| 118|| 241
|16.8||5.5||11.3 ||
|-
| 1988
| 22.5
| 380|| 124|| 256
|16.9||5.5||11.4 ||
|-
| 1989
| 23.8
| 438|| 122|| 316
|18.4||5.1||13.3 ||
|-
| 1990
| 25.0
| 490|| 120|| 370
|19.6||4.8||14.8 ||
|-
| 1991
| 26.2
| 500|| 127|| 373
|19.1||4.8||14.2 ||
|-
| 1992
| 27.4
| 520|| 128|| 392
|19.0||4.7||14.3 ||
|-
| 1993
| 28.7
| 528|| 133|| 395
|18.4||4.6||13.8 ||
|-
| 1994
| 30.1
| 531|| 149|| 382
|17.7||5.0||12.7 ||
|-
| 1995
| 31.7
| 485|| 110|| 375
|15.3||3.5||11.8 ||
|-
| 1996
| 33.5
| 560|| 125|| 435
|16.7||3.7||13.0 ||
|-
| 1997
| 35.6
| 572|| 123|| 449
|16.1||3.5||12.6 ||
|-
| 1998
| 37.7
| 545|| 117|| 428
|14.4||3.1||11.3 ||
|-
| 1999
| 39.8
| 604|| 128|| 476
|15.2||3.2||12.0 ||
|-
| 2000
| 41.7
| 619|| 137|| 482
|14.8||3.3||11.6 ||
|-
| 2001
| 43.3
| 622|| 132|| 490
|14.4||3.0||11.3 ||
|-
| 2002
| 44.7
| 583|| 120|| 463
|13.0||style="color: blue"|2.7||10.3
|13.7
|-
| 2003
| 46.0
| 623|| 153|| 470
|13.5||3.3||10.2
|4.8
|-
| 2004
| 47.3
| 611|| 165|| 446
|12.9||3.5||9.4
|6.4
|-
| 2005
| 48.6
| 699|| 170|| 529
|14.4||3.5||10.9
|7.0
|-
| 2006
| 52.229
| 710|| 182|| 528
|13.4||3.4||10.0
|8.7
|-
| 2007
| 52.939
| 744|| 160|| 584
|13.8||3.0||10.8
|8.3
|-
| 2008
| 55.448
| 793|| 166|| 627
|14.2||3.0||11.2
|2.5
|-
| 2009
| 56.507
|style="color: blue"|824|| 177|| 647
|14.6||3.1||11.4
|3.7
|-
| 2010
| 55.521
| 821|| 164||style="color: blue"| 657
|14.8||3.0||11.8
|2.5
|-
| 2011
| 55.277
| 800|| 176|| 624
|14.5||3.2||11.3
|6.3
|-
| 2012
| 56.124
| 759|| 172|| 587
|13.6||3.3||10.3 ||4.0
|-
| 2013
| 56.239
| 705|| 182|| 523
|12.5||3.2||9.3 ||2.9
|-
| 2014
| 56.993
| 711|| 163|| 548
|12.5||2.9||9.6 ||
|-
| 2015
| 59.054
| 649|| 170|| 479
|11.0||2.9||8.1 ||
|-
| 2016
| 61.331
| 660|| 193|| 467
|10.8||3.1||7.7 ||
|-
| 2017
| 63.115
| 625|| 216|| 409
|9.9||3.4||6.5 ||
|-
| 2018
| 64.420
| 640|| 214|| 426
|9.9||3.3||6.6 ||
|-
| 2019
| 69.914
| 646|| 250|| 396
|9.2||3.7||5.5 ||
|-
| 2020
| 65.786
| 817|| 215|| 602
| 12.4 || 3.3 || 9.1 ||
|-
|2021
|67.721
| 818 || style="color: red" | 341 || 477
| 12.4 || 4.0 || 8.4 ||
|-
|2022
|78.554
| 798 || 310 || 488
| 10.2 || 3.9 || 6.3 ||
|-
|2023
|83.671
| 760|| 308|| 452
| 9.1|| 3.7|| 5.4||
|}
Ethnic groups
}}
Although many Caribbean islands were initially populated by Amerindian groups such as the Taíno and Kalinago, no evidence of this has been found in the Cayman Islands. Therefore, native Caymanians do not have any Amerindian heritage from their own islands; however, a significant number of Jamaicans have settled in the Cayman Islands over the years, so they and their descendants may have some Amerindian blood via Jamaica. Slavery was less common on the Cayman Islands than in many other parts of the Caribbean, resulting in a more even division of African and European ancestry. Those of mixed race make up 41.3% of the population, with white Caymanians and immigrants of European ancestry making up 24.1%, and black Caymanians and immigrants of African ancestry following at 23.9%. South Asians, mainly Filipinos and Indians, as well as Caymanians of South Asian descent, make up 8.1%, and the remaining 2.6% belong to various ethnic groups.
Language
}}
The official language of the Cayman Islands is English. The Caymanian accent retains elements passed down from English, Scottish, and Welsh settlers (among others) in a language variety known as Cayman Creole. Young Caymanians often borrow terms from Jamaican patois due to the popularity of Jamaican pop culture and influences from Jamaican immigrants in the islands. It is also quite commonplace to hear some residents converse in Spanish as many citizens have relocated from Latin America to work and live on Grand Cayman. The Latin American nations with greatest representation are Honduras, Cuba, Colombia, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. Spanish speakers comprise almost 10% of the population and is predominantly of the Caribbean dialect. Tagalog is spoken by about 8% of inhabitants most of whom are Filipino residents on work permits. The remainder of the population converse in various languages, with some including Hindi, Afrikaans and Portuguese.
Religion
}}
}}
The predominant religion on the Cayman Islands, as of 2021, is Christianity at 66.9%; this is down from over 80% in 2010. Denominations practiced include; Church of God, United Church, Anglican Church, Baptist Church, Roman Catholic Church, Seventh-day Adventist Church, and Pentecostal Church. Roman Catholic churches are St. Ignatius Church, George Town and Stella Maris Church, Cayman Brac. Many citizens are deeply religious, regularly going to church, however, the number of Caymanians who identify as non-religious has skyrocketed since the 2010 census, with around 25% professing no religion or a denomination not widespread. This is up from 9.3% during the last census.
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Percent of Hindus
! Increase
|-
| 2000
| 0.25%
|
|-
| 2008
| 1%
| style="background: lightgreen" | +0.75%
|-
| 2011
| 0.8%
| style="background:pink" | −0.2%
|-
| 2021
| 2.4%
|style="background: lightgreen" |+2.6%
|}
Hinduism is a minority religion in the Cayman Islands and is one of the smallest religions. Although it is unknown as to when Hinduism was introduced to the Cayman Islands. There is no Hindu temple located in the Cayman
Islands, but there is at least one home which is set aside for the purpose of worship. There were only 98 Hindus in Cayman according to the 2000 census (about 0.25% of the population). In the 2008 census, the number of Hindus increased to 510 (1% of the total population). The 2010 Census showed the number of Hindus decreasing to 454 (0.8% of the total Cayman Islands population).ReferencesExternal links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061206183844/http://www.caymanchamber.ky/index.htm Cayman Islands Chamber of Commerce]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051107021234/http://www2.unesco.org/wef/countryreports/cayman/rapport_1_1.html UNESCO report on education in the Cayman Islands]
}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Cayman_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.536417 |
5472 | Politics of the Cayman Islands | The politics of the Cayman Islands takes place within a framework of parliamentary democracy, within the confines of the Government of the Cayman Islands.
Constitutional Modernisation
Constitutional Modernisation has come to the forefront of politics recently with the collapse of the now defunct Euro Bank Corporation in 2003. The prosecution in the trial was forced to reveal that the British Government had planted moles (and used wire taps) throughout the banking industry using MI6, with the consent of the Governor. This caused the trial's collapse, and subsequent release of those charged with wrongdoing. Along with this, the only mole that was known at the time was allowed to leave the country, never to answer for what he (or the United Kingdom) was doing. This infuriated the elected members of the Legislative Assembly as they maintained that the Governor and the United Kingdom had put into question the Cayman Islands' reputation as a tightly regulated offshore jurisdiction. Some saw this as the United Kingdom meddling in the territory's affairs to benefit itself (and the EU), at the expense of the islands' economy.
Constitutional talks however went on hold following Hurricane Ivan in 2004. Subsequently, in May 2005 the ruling UDP was ousted by the PPM, which restarted the process of constitutional modernisation. The new constitution took effect on 6 November 2009.
See also
Elections in the Cayman Islands
References
External Links | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_Cayman_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.538257 |
5473 | Economy of the Cayman Islands | 84,738
| gdp $7.139 billion (2023 est., nominal)<br />$2.507 billion (2021, PPP)
| gdp rank = 161st (nominal)<br />191st (PPP)
| growth 4.0% (2023)
| gini 0.3995 (2010)
| hdi 0.984 (2022)
| labor 60,513 (2023)
| occupations = Agriculture: 1.9%<br />Manual Industry: 19.1%<br />Finance, Law and Tourism: 79%
| unemployment 2.1% (2022) The Cayman Islands enjoys the strongest and one of the most stable economies in the Caribbean.
The emergence of what is now considered the Cayman Islands' "twin pillars of economic development" (tourism and international finance) started in the 1950s with the introduction of modern transportation and telecommunications.History
From the earliest settlement of the Cayman Islands, economic activity was hindered by isolation and a limited natural resource base. The harvesting of sea turtles to resupply passing sailing ships was the first major economic activity on the islands, but local stocks were depleted by the 1790s. Agriculture, while sufficient to support the small early settler population, has always been limited by the scarcity of arable land. Fishing, shipbuilding, and cotton production boosted the economy during the early days of settlement. In addition, settlers scavenged shipwreck remains from the surrounding coral reefs.
The boom in the Cayman Islands' international finance industry can also be at least partly attributed to the British overseas territory having no direct taxation. A popular legend attributes the tax-free status to the heroic acts of the inhabitants during a maritime tragedy in 1794, often referred to as "Wreck of the Ten Sails". The wreck involved nine British merchant vessels and their naval escort, the frigate HMS Convert, that ran aground on the reefs off Grand Cayman. Due to the rescue efforts by the Caymanians using canoes, the loss of life was limited to eight. However, records from the colonial era indicate that Cayman Islands, then a dependency of Jamaica, was not tax-exempt during the period that followed. In 1803, the inhabitants signed a petition addressed to the Jamaican governor asking him to grant them a tax exemption from the "Transient Tax on Wreck Goods".
Sir Vassel Johnson, the second Caymanian to be knighted, was a pioneer of Cayman's financial services industry. Cayman Islands Past Governor Stuart Jack said. "As one of the architects of modern Cayman, especially the financial industry, Sir Vassel guided the steady growth of these Islands as the first financial secretary. His remarkable vision set the foundation for the prosperity and economic stability of these islands. Without his input, Cayman might well have remained the islands that time forgot."
International finance
The Cayman Islands' tax-free status has attracted numerous banks and other companies to its shores. More than 92,000 companies were registered in the Cayman Islands as of 2014, including almost 600 banks and trust companies, with banking assets exceeding $500 billion. Numerous large corporations are based in the Cayman Islands, including, for example, Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC). The Cayman Islands Stock Exchange was opened in 1997.
Financial services industry
in George Town]]
The Cayman Islands is a major international financial centre. The largest sectors are "banking, hedge fund formation and investment, structured finance and securitisation, captive insurance, and general corporate activities". Regulation and supervision of the financial services industry is the responsibility of the Cayman Islands Monetary Authority (CIMA). Sir Vassel Johnson was a pioneer of Cayman's financial services industry.
Sir Vassel, who became the only Caymanian ever knighted in 1994, served as the Cayman Islands financial secretary from 1965 through 1982 and then as an Executive Council member from 1984 through 1988. In his government roles, Sir Vassel was a driving force in shaping the Cayman Islands financial services industry.
The Cayman Islands is the fifth-largest banking centre in the world, with $1.5 trillion in banking liabilities . Financial services generated KYD$1.2 billion of GDP in 2007 (55% of the total economy), 36% of all employment and 40% of all government revenue. In 2010, the country ranked fifth internationally in terms of value of liabilities booked and sixth in terms of assets booked. It has branches of 40 of the world's 50 largest banks. The Cayman Islands is the second largest captive domicile (Bermuda is largest) in the world with more than 700 captives, writing more than US$7.7 billion of premiums and with US$36.8 billion of assets under management.
There are a number of service providers. These include global financial institutions including HSBC, Deutsche Bank, UBS, and Goldman Sachs; over 80 administrators, leading accountancy practices (incl. the Big Four auditors), and offshore law practices including Maples & Calder. They also include wealth management such as Rothschilds private banking and financial advice.
Since the introduction of the Mutual Funds Law in 1993, which has been copied by jurisdictions around the world,<!---the "copied" phrase needs to be broken out as a separate stand-alone sentence and justified with a ref and not be a throwaway phrase in the middle of another sentence---> the Cayman Islands has grown to be the world's leading offshore hedge fund jurisdiction.
Starting in the mid-late 1990s, offshore financial centres, such as the Cayman Islands, came under increasing pressure from the OECD for their allegedly harmful tax regimes, where the OECD wished to prevent low-tax regimes from having an advantage in the global marketplace. The OECD threatened to place the Cayman Islands and other financial centres on a "black list" and impose sanctions against them. However, the Cayman Islands successfully avoided being placed on the OECD black list in 2000 by committing to regulatory reform to improve transparency and begin information exchange with OECD member countries about their citizens.
A report published by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), in March 2005, assessing supervision and regulation in the Cayman Islands' banking, insurance and securities industries, as well as its money laundering regime, recognised the jurisdiction's comprehensive regulatory and compliance frameworks. "An extensive program of legislative, rule and guideline development has introduced an increasingly effective system of regulation, both formalizing earlier practices and introducing enhanced procedures", noted IMF assessors. The report further stated that "the supervisory system benefits from a well-developed banking infrastructure with an internationally experienced and qualified workforce as well as experienced lawyers, accountants and auditors", adding that, "the overall compliance culture within Cayman is very strong, including the compliance culture related to AML (anti-money laundering) obligations".
On 4 May 2009, the United States President, Barack Obama, declared his intentions to curb the use of financial centres by multinational corporations. In his speech, he singled out the Cayman Islands as a tax shelter. The next day, the Cayman Island Financial Services Association submitted an open letter to the president detailing the Cayman Islands' role in international finance and its value to the US financial system.
The Cayman Islands was ranked as the world's second most significant tax haven on the Tax Justice Network's "Financial Secrecy Index" from 2011, scoring slightly higher than Luxembourg and falling behind only Switzerland. In 2013, the Cayman Islands was ranked by the Financial Secrecy Index as the fourth safest tax haven in the world, behind Hong Kong but ahead of Singapore. In the first conviction of a non-Swiss financial institution for US tax evasion conspiracy, two Cayman Islands financial institutions pleaded guilty in Manhattan Federal Court in 2016 to conspiring to hide more than $130 million in Cayman Islands bank accounts. The companies admitted to helping US clients hide assets in offshore accounts, and agreed to produce account files of non-compliant US taxpayers.
Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act
On 30 June 2014, the tax jurisdiction of the Cayman Islands was deemed to have an inter-governmental agreement (IGA) with the United States of America with respect to the "Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act" of the United States of America.
* The Tax Information Exchange Agreement (TIEA) between the United States of America and The Cayman Islands which was signed in London, United Kingdom on 29 November 2013. Page 1 – Clause 2 of the FATCA Agreement. The Government of the Cayman Islands plans to challenge this law, arguing that it violates the Constitutional sovereignty granted to the islands.TourismTourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America. Unspoiled beaches, duty-free shopping, scuba diving, and deep-sea fishing draw almost a million visitors to the islands each year. Due to the well-developed tourist industry, many citizens work in service jobs in that sector.DiversificationThe Cayman Islands is seeking to diversify beyond its two traditional industries, and invest in health care and technology. Health City Cayman Islands, opened in 2014, is a medical tourism hospital in East End, led by surgeon Devi Shetty. Cayman Enterprise City is a special economic zone that was opened in 2011 for technology, finance, and education investment. Cayman Sea Salt (producing gourmet sea salt) and Cayman Logwood products are now made in the Cayman Islands.Standard of living
Because the islands cannot produce enough goods to support the population, about 100% of their food and consumer goods must be imported. In addition, the islands have few natural fresh water resources. Desalination of sea water is used to solve this.
Despite those challenges, the Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world.
Education is compulsory to the age of 16 and is free to all Caymanian children. Most schools follow the British educational system. Ten primary, one special education and two high schools ('junior high and senior high') are operated by the government, along with eight private high schools. In addition, there is a law school, a university-college and a medical school.
Poverty relief is provided by the Needs Assessment Unit, a government agency established by the Poor Persons (Relief) Law in January 1964.
The Cayman Islands enjoys the lowest rates of poverty in the Caribbean, with the percentage of the population living below the poverty line being below 1%.
See also
* Economy of the Caribbean
* Cayman Islands dollar
* Cayman Islands Monetary Authority
* Cayman Islands Stock Exchange
* Central banks and currencies of the Caribbean
* List of countries by credit rating
* List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP
* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth
* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)
* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)
* List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP
* List of countries by future gross government debt
* List of countries by leading trade partners
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Cayman_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.547496 |
5474 | Telecommunications in the Cayman Islands | Communications in the Cayman Islands
Telephone
Telephones – main lines in use: 37,400 (2009)
Telephones – mobile cellular: 99,900 (2004)
Telephone system:
Domestic: Reasonably good overall telephone system with a high fixed-line teledensity. Liberalization of telecom market in 2003; introduction of competition in the mobile-cellular market in 2004. FLOW Cayman, Digicel
International: The Cayman Islands have landing points for the MAYA-1, and the Cayman-Jamaica Fiber System submarine cables that provide links to the US and parts of Central and South America. Service on both of these cables are controlled by Liberty Latin America.
Satellite earth station – 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2007) Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio
Radio broadcast stations: AM 0, FM 17, shortwave 0 (2006)
List of radio stations in Cayman Islands
Radios: 36,000 (1997)
Television
Television broadcast stations:
Internet
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):Four companies offer internet service in the islands with in fixed configurations or mobile or both:
Liberty Latin America d/b/a FLOW
Digicel
Logic - Fibre based service. Founded in 2004 as WestTel when it was granted a telecommunications license. Purchased TeleCayman in 2013
C3
Country code (Top-level domain): .ky
References
Cayman Islands
Cayman | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cayman_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.550422 |
5475 | Transport in the Cayman Islands | thumb|500px|Map of the Cayman Islands, with major roads marked in red.
The transport infrastructure of the Cayman Islands consists of a public road network, two seaports, and three airports.
Roads
As of 2000, the Cayman Islands had a total of 488 miles (785 km) of paved highway.
Driving is on the left, and speed is reckoned in miles per hour, as in the UK. The legal blood alcohol content is 100mg per 100ml (0.1%), the highest in the world.
Seaports
Two ports, Cayman Brac and George Town, serve the islands. One hundred and twenty-three ships (of 1,000 GT or more) are registered in the Cayman Islands, with a total capacity of 2,402,058 GT/. Some foreign ships (including vessels from Cyprus, Denmark, Greece, Norway, the UK, and US) are registered in the Cayman Islands under a flag of convenience. (All figures are 2002 estimates.)
Airports
thumb|Charles Kirkconnell International Airport (Cayman Brac)
There are three airports on the Islands. The main airport Owen Roberts International Airport serving Grand Cayman, Charles Kirkconnell International Airport serving Cayman Brac and Edward Bodden Airfield serving Little Cayman.
Buses
A fleet of share taxi minibuses serves Grand Cayman.
A daily service starts at 6.00 from the depot and runs as follows from George Town to:
West Bay — every 15 minutes: 6.00–23.00 (24.00 on Fr, Sa). CI$1.50 each way.
Bodden Town — every 30 minutes: 6.00–23.00 (24.00 on Fr, Sa). CI$1.50 each way.
East End and North Side — every hour, 6.00–21.00 (24.00 on Fr). CI$2 each way.
Colour-coded logos on the front and rear of the buses (white mini-vans) identify the routes:
Bus routes travelling through George Town Line Route Route 1 George Town to West Bay Route 2 George Town to West Bay Route 3 George Town depot to Bodden Town Route 4 George Town depot to East End Route 5 North Side to East End Route 6 North Side to West Bay Route 7 George Town inter-district service Route 8 George Town depot to Hutland in North Side Route 9 George Town through Frank Sound North Side
See also
Cayman Islands
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_the_Cayman_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.555254 |
5477 | Foreign relations of the Cayman Islands | The foreign relations of the Cayman Islands are largely managed from the United Kingdom, as the islands remains one of 14 overseas territories under British jurisdiction and sovereignty. However, the Government of the Cayman Islands have autonomy and often resolves important issues with foreign governments alone, without intervention from Britain. Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands' most important relationships were with Britain and Jamaica, in recent years, this has shifted, and they now rely more so on the United States and Canada.
Though the Cayman Islands are involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and money laundering. In an attempt to address this, the Government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty of 1986 with the United States, in order to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities. In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to cooperate with foreign investigators.
Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands have no representation either on the United Nations, or in most other international organizations. However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organisations, being a full member of the Central Development Bank and International Olympic Committee, an associate member of Caricom and UNESCO, and a member of a subbureau of Interpol.
Bilateral relations
India
United States
References
See also
Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
British Overseas Territories
Category:Government of the Cayman Islands
Category:Foreign relations of the Caribbean | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Cayman_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.557517 |
5478 | Central African Republic | *
}}
| image_flag = Flag of the Central African Republic.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of the Central African Republic.svg
| national_motto =
* "All people are people"
*
* "Unity, Dignity, Work"
}}
| national_anthem =
*
* "The Renaissance"
}}
| image_map
| map_caption | image_map2
| capital = Bangui
| coordinates =
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages FrenchSango <small>(co-official)</small>
| national_languages =
| ethnic_groups =
| religion
| religion_year = 2020
| religion_ref
| demonym = Central African
| government_type = Unitary presidential republic
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 = Faustin-Archange Touadéra
| leader_title2 = Prime Minister
| leader_name2 = Félix Moloua
| leader_title3 = President of the National Assembly
| leader_name3 = Simplice Sarandji
| legislature = National Assembly
| sovereignty_type = Independence
| established_event1 = Republic established
| established_date1 = 1 December 1958
| established_event2 = from France
| established_date2 = 13 August 1960
| established_event3 = Central African Empire established
| established_date3 = 4 December 1976
| established_event4 = Coronation of Bokassa I
| established_date4 = 4 December 1977
| established_event5 = Bokassa I's overthrow and republic restored
| established_date5 = 21 September 1979
| area_km2 = 622,984
| area_rank = 44th <!-- Area rank should match List of countries and dependencies by area -->
| area_sq_mi = 240,534 <!--Do not remove per WP:MOSNUM-->
| percent_water | population_estimate 5,650,957
| population_estimate_year = 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 119th
| population_density_km2 = 7.1
| population_density_sq_mi = 18.4 <!--Do not remove per WP:MOSNUM-->
| population_density_rank = 221st
| GDP_PPP $5.678 billion
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 170th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita $1,109
| HDI = 0.387 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = steady <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref
| HDI_rank = 191st
| currency =
| time_zone = WAT
| utc_offset = +1
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy
| drives_on right
| calling_code = +236
| iso3166code = CF
| cctld = .cf
| ethinc_groups_year | today
}}
The Central African Republic (CAR), |, ; abbreviated RCA or , }}}} is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Chad to the north, Sudan to the northeast, South Sudan to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south, the Republic of the Congo to the southwest, and Cameroon to the west. Bangui is the country's capital and largest city, bordering the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Central African Republic covers a land area of about . As of 2024, it has a population of 5,357,744, consisting of about 80 ethnic groups, and is in the scene of a civil war, which has been ongoing since 2012. Having been a French colony under the name Ubangi-Shari,}} French is the official language, with Sango, a Ngbandi-based creole language, as the national and co-official language.
The Central African Republic mainly consists of Sudano-Guinean savanna, but the country also includes a Sahelo-Sudanian zone in the north and an equatorial forest zone in the south. Two-thirds of the country is within the Ubangi River basin (which flows into the Congo), while the remaining third lies in the basin of the Chari, which flows into Lake Chad.
What is today the Central African Republic has been inhabited since at least 8,000 BCE. The country's borders were established by France, which began annexing portions to the French Congo in the late 19th century and in 1903 established the separate colony of Ubangi-Shari, part of French Equatorial Africa. After gaining independence from France in 1960, the Central African Republic was ruled by a series of autocratic leaders, including under Jean-Bedel Bokassa who changed the country's name to the Central African Empire and ruled as a monarch from 1976 to 1979.
By the 1990s, calls for democracy led to the first multi-party democratic elections in 1993. Ange-Félix Patassé became president, but was later removed by General François Bozizé in a 2003 coup. The Central African Republic Bush War began in 2004 and, despite a peace treaty in 2007 and another in 2011, civil war resumed in 2012. The civil war perpetuated the country's poor human rights record: it was characterized by widespread and increasing abuses by various participating armed groups, such as arbitrary imprisonment, torture, and restrictions on freedom of the press and freedom of movement.
Despite its significant mineral deposits and other resources, such as uranium reserves, crude oil, gold, diamonds, cobalt, lumber, and hydropower, , according to the Human Development Index (HDI), the country had the third-lowest level of human development, ranking 191 out of 193 countries. The country had the second lowest inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI), ranking 164th out of 165 countries. The Central African Republic is also estimated to be the unhealthiest country as well as the worst country to be in for young people.
The Central African Republic is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the Economic Community of Central African States, the and the Non-Aligned Movement. Etymology
The name of the Central African Republic is derived from the country's geographical location in the central region of Africa and its republican form of government. From 1976 to 1979, the country was known as the Central African Empire.
During the colonial era, the country's name was Ubangi-Shari (), a name derived from two major rivers and Central African waterways – Ubangi and Chari. Barthélemy Boganda, the country's first prime minister, favored the name "Central African Republic" over Ubangi-Shari, reportedly because he envisioned a larger union of countries in Central Africa.
History
Early history
Megaliths, pictured here on a 1967 Central African stamp, date back to the very late Neolithic Era ().]]
Approximately 10,000 years ago, desertification forced hunter-gatherer societies south into the Sahel regions of northern Central Africa, where some groups settled. Farming began as part of the Neolithic Revolution. Initial farming of white yam progressed into millet and sorghum, and before 3000BCE the domestication of African oil palm improved the groups' nutrition and allowed for expansion of the local populations. This agricultural revolution, combined with a "Fish-stew Revolution", in which fishing began to take place and the use of boats, allowed for the transportation of goods. Products were often moved in ceramic pots.
The Bouar Megaliths in the western region of the country indicate an advanced level of habitation dating back to the very late Neolithic Era (). Ironwork developed in the region around 1000BCE.
The Ubangian people settled along the Ubangi River in what is today the Central and East Central African Republic while some Bantu people migrated from the southwest of Cameroon.
Bananas arrived in the region during the first millennium BCE and added an important source of carbohydrates to the diet; they were also used in the production of alcoholic beverages. Production of copper, salt, dried fish, and textiles dominated the economic trade in the Central African region.16th–19th century
and his wives, 1906]]
In the 16th and 17th centuries, slave traders began to raid the region as part of the expansion of the Saharan and Nile River slave routes. Their captives were enslaved and shipped to the Mediterranean coast, Europe, Arabia, the Western Hemisphere, or to the slave ports and factories along the West and North Africa or South along the Ubangui and Congo rivers. During the 18th century Bandia-Nzakara Azande peoples established the Bangassou Kingdom along the Ubangi River. In 1875, the Sudanese sultan Rabih az-Zubayr governed Upper-Oubangui, which included present-day Central African Republic.
French colonial period
The European invasion of Central African territory began in the late 19th century during the Scramble for Africa. Europeans, primarily the French, Germans, and Belgians, arrived in the area in 1885. France seized and colonized Ubangi-Shari territory in 1894. In 1911 at the Treaty of Fez, France ceded a nearly 300,000 km<sup>2</sup> portion of the Sangha and Lobaye basins to the German Empire which ceded a smaller area (in present-day Chad) to France. After World War I France again annexed the territory. Modeled on King Leopold's Congo Free State, concessions were doled out to private companies that endeavored to strip the region's assets as quickly and cheaply as possible before depositing a percentage of their profits into the French treasury. The concessionary companies forced local people to harvest rubber, coffee, and other commodities without pay and held their families hostage until they met their quotas.
in Bangui, 1940]]
In 1920, French Equatorial Africa was established and Ubangi-Shari was administered from Brazzaville. During the 1920s and 1930s the French introduced a policy of mandatory cotton cultivation, New forms of forced labour were also introduced and a large number of Ubangians were sent to work on the Congo-Ocean Railway. Through the period of construction until 1934 there was a continual heavy cost in human lives, with total deaths among all workers along the railway estimated in excess of 17,000 of the construction workers, from a combination of both industrial accidents and diseases including malaria. In 1928, a major insurrection, the Kongo-Wara rebellion or 'war of the hoe handle', broke out in Western Ubangi-Shari and continued for several years. The extent of this insurrection, which was perhaps the largest anti-colonial rebellion in Africa during the interwar years, was carefully hidden from the French public because it provided evidence of strong opposition to French colonial rule and forced labour.
French colonization in Oubangui-Chari is considered to be the most brutal of the French colonial Empire.
In September 1940, during the Second World War, pro-Gaullist French officers took control of Ubangi-Shari and General Leclerc established his headquarters for the Free French Forces in Bangui. In 1946 Barthélemy Boganda was elected with 9,000 votes to the French National Assembly, becoming the first representative of the Central African Republic in the French government. Boganda maintained a political stance against racism and the colonial regime but gradually became disheartened with the French political system and returned to the Central African Republic to establish the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (''Mouvement pour l'évolution sociale de l'Afrique noire'', MESAN) in 1950. Since independence (1960–present) In the Ubangi-Shari Territorial Assembly election in 1957, MESAN captured 347,000 out of the total 356,000 votes and won every legislative seat, which led to Boganda being elected president of the Grand Council of French Equatorial Africa and vice-president of the Ubangi-Shari Government Council. Within a year, he declared the establishment of the Central African Republic and served as the country's first prime minister. MESAN continued to exist, but its role was limited. The Central African Republic was granted autonomy within the French Community on 1 December 1958, a status which meant it was still counted as part of the French Empire in Africa.
After Boganda's death in a plane crash on 29 March 1959, his cousin, David Dacko, took control of MESAN. Dacko became the country's first president when the Central African Republic formally received independence from France at midnight on 13 August 1960, a date celebrated by the country's Independence Day holiday. Dacko threw out his political rivals, including Abel Goumba, former Prime Minister and leader of Mouvement d'évolution démocratique de l'Afrique centrale (MEDAC), whom he forced into exile in France. With all opposition parties suppressed by November 1962, Dacko declared MESAN as the official party of the state.Bokassa and the Central African Empire (1965–1979)
, self-crowned Emperor of Central Africa In September 1979, France overthrew Bokassa and restored Dacko to power (subsequently restoring the official name of the country and the original government to the Central African Republic). Dacko, in turn, was again overthrown in a coup by General André Kolingba on 1 September 1981. Central African Republic under Kolingba Kolingba suspended the constitution and ruled with a military junta until 1985. He introduced a new constitution in 1986 which was adopted by a nationwide referendum. Membership in his new party, the Rassemblement Démocratique Centrafricain (RDC), was voluntary. In 1987 and 1988, semi-free elections to parliament were held, but Kolingba's two major political opponents, Abel Goumba and Ange-Félix Patassé, were not allowed to participate.
By 1990, inspired by the fall of the Berlin Wall, a pro-democracy movement arose. Pressure from the United States, France, and from a group of locally represented countries and agencies called GIBAFOR (France, the US, Germany, Japan, the EU, the World Bank, and the United Nations) finally led Kolingba to agree, in principle, to hold free elections in October 1992 with help from the UN Office of Electoral Affairs. After using the excuse of alleged irregularities to suspend the results of the elections as a pretext for holding on to power, President Kolingba came under intense pressure from GIBAFOR to establish a "Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la République" (Provisional National Political Council, CNPPR) and to set up a "Mixed Electoral Commission", which included representatives from all political parties.
On 28 May 2001, rebels stormed strategic buildings in Bangui in an unsuccessful coup attempt. The army chief of staff, Abel Abrou, and General François N'Djadder Bedaya were killed, but Patassé regained the upper hand by bringing in at least 300 troops of the Congolese rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba and Libyan soldiers.
In the aftermath of the failed coup, militias loyal to Patassé sought revenge against rebels in many neighborhoods of Bangui and incited unrest including the murder of many political opponents. Eventually, Patassé came to suspect that General François Bozizé was involved in another coup attempt against him, which led Bozizé to flee with loyal troops to Chad. In March 2003, Bozizé launched a surprise attack against Patassé, who was out of the country. Libyan troops and some 1,000 soldiers of Bemba's Congolese rebel organization failed to stop the rebels and Bozizé's forces succeeded in overthrowing Patassé.
Civil wars
François Bozizé suspended the constitution and named a new cabinet, which included most opposition parties. Abel Goumba was named vice-president. Bozizé established a broad-based National Transition Council to draft a new constitution, and announced that he would step down and run for office once the new constitution was approved.
In 2004, the Central African Republic Bush War began as forces opposed to Bozizé took up arms against his government. In May 2005, Bozizé won the presidential election, which excluded Patassé, and in 2006 fighting continued between the government and the rebels. In November 2006, Bozizé's government requested French military support to help them repel rebels who had taken control of towns in the country's northern regions. Though the initial public details of the agreement pertained to logistics and intelligence, by December the French assistance included airstrikes by Dassault Mirage 2000 fighters against rebel positions.
The Syrte Agreement in February and the Birao Peace Agreement in April 2007 called for a cessation of hostilities, the billeting of FDPC fighters and their integration with FACA, the liberation of political prisoners, the integration of FDPC into government, an amnesty for the UFDR, its recognition as a political party, and the integration of its fighters into the national army. Several groups continued to fight but other groups signed on to the agreement or similar agreements with the government (e.g., UFR on 15 December 2008). The only major group not to sign an agreement at the time was the CPJP, which continued its activities and signed a peace agreement with the government on 25 August 2012.
In 2011, Bozizé was reelected in an election which was widely considered fraudulent.
s of the fighting in the Central African Republic, January 2014]]
Michel Djotodia took over as president. Prime Minister Nicolas Tiangaye requested a UN peacekeeping force from the UN Security Council and on 31 May former President Bozizé was indicted for crimes against humanity and incitement to genocide. By the end of the year, there were international warnings of a "genocide" and fighting was largely reprisal attacks on civilians by Seleka's predominantly Muslim fighters and Christian militias called "anti-balaka".
French President François Hollande called on the UN Security Council and the African Union to increase their efforts to stabilize the country. On 18 February 2014, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon called on the UN Security Council to immediately deploy 3,000 troops to the country, bolstering the 6,000 African Union soldiers and 2,000 French troops already in the country, to combat civilians being murdered in large numbers. The Séléka government was said to be divided, and in September 2013, Djotodia officially disbanded Seleka, but many rebels refused to disarm, becoming known as ex-Seleka, and veered further out of government control. It is argued that the focus of the initial disarmament efforts exclusively on the Seleka inadvertently handed the anti-Balaka the upper hand, leading to the forced displacement of Muslim civilians by anti-Balaka in Bangui and western Central African Republic. Catherine Samba-Panza was elected interim president by the National Transitional Council, becoming the first ever female Central African president. On 23 July 2014, following Congolese mediation efforts, Séléka and anti-balaka representatives signed a ceasefire agreement in Brazzaville. By the end of 2014, the country was de facto partitioned with the anti-Balaka in the southwest and ex-Seleka in the northeast. On 14 December 2015, Séléka rebel leaders declared an independent Republic of Logone.
Touadéra government (2016–present)
Presidential elections were held in December 2015. As no candidate received more than 50% of the vote, a second round of elections was held on 14 February 2016 with run-offs on 31 March 2016. In the second round of voting, former Prime Minister Faustin-Archange Touadéra was declared the winner with 63% of the vote, defeating Union for Central African Renewal candidate Anicet-Georges Dologuélé, another former Prime Minister. While the elections suffered from many potential voters being absent as they had taken refuge in other countries, the fears of widespread violence were ultimately unfounded, and the African Union regarded the elections as successful.
Touadéra was sworn in on 30 March 2016. No representatives of the Seleka rebel group or the "anti-balaka" militias were included in the subsequently formed government.
After the end of Touadéra's first term, presidential elections were held on 27 December 2020 with a possible second round planned for 14 February 2021. Former president François Bozizé announced his candidacy on 25 July 2020 but was rejected by the Constitutional Court of the country, which held that Bozizé did not satisfy the "good morality" requirement for candidates because of an international warrant and United Nations sanctions against him for alleged assassinations, torture and other crimes.
As large parts of the country were at the time controlled by armed groups, the election could not be conducted in many areas of the country. Some 800 of the country's polling stations, or 14% of the total, were closed due to violence. Three Burundian peacekeepers were killed and an additional two were wounded during the run-up to the election. President Faustin-Archange Touadéra was reelected in the first round of the election in December 2020. Russian mercenaries from the Wagner Group have supported President Faustin-Archange Touadéra in the fight against rebels. Russia's Wagner group has been accused of harassing and intimidating civilians. In December 2022, Roger Cohen wrote in The New York Times, "Wagner shock troops form a Praetorian Guard for Mr. Touadéra, who is also protected by Rwandan forces, in return for an untaxed license to exploit and export the Central African Republic's resources" and "one Western ambassador called the Central African Republic...a 'vassal state' of the Kremlin."
Geography
The Central African Republic is a landlocked nation within the interior of the African continent. It is bordered by Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Republic of the Congo. The country lies between latitudes 2° and 11°N, and longitudes 14° and 28°E.
Much of the country consists of flat or rolling plateau savanna approximately above sea level. In addition to the Fertit Hills in the northeast of the Central African Republic, there are scattered hills in the southwest regions. In the northwest is the Yade Massif, a granite plateau with an altitude of . The Central African Republic contains six terrestrial ecoregions: Northeastern Congolian lowland forests, Northwestern Congolian lowland forests, Western Congolian swamp forests, East Sudanian savanna, Northern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic, and Sahelian Acacia savanna.
At , the Central African Republic is the world's 44th-largest country.
Much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the Congo River; the Mbomou River in the east merges with the Uele River to form the Ubangi River, which also comprises portions of the southern border. The Sangha River flows through some of the western regions of the country, while the eastern border lies along the edge of the Nile River watershed. The deforestation rate is about 0.4% per annum, and lumber poaching is commonplace. The Central African Republic had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.28/10, ranking it seventh globally out of 172 countries.
In 2008, Central African Republic was the world's least light pollution affected country.
The Central African Republic is the focal point of the Bangui Magnetic Anomaly, one of the largest magnetic anomalies on Earth. Climate
<nowiki/> map of the Central African Republic]]
The climate of the Central African Republic is generally tropical, with a wet season that lasts from June to September in the northern regions of the country, and from May to October in the south. During the wet season, rainstorms are an almost daily occurrence, and early morning fog is commonplace. Maximum annual precipitation is approximately in the upper Ubangi region.
The northern areas are hot and humid from February to May, but can be subject to the hot, dry, and dusty trade wind known as the Harmattan. The southern regions have a more equatorial climate, but they are subject to desertification, while the extreme northeast regions of the country are a steppe. Biodiversity
]]
In the southwest, the Dzanga-Sangha National Park is located in a rain forest area. The country is noted for its population of forest elephants and western lowland gorillas. In the north, the Manovo-Gounda St Floris National Park is well-populated with wildlife, including leopards, lions, cheetahs and rhinos, and the Bamingui-Bangoran National Park is located in the northeast of the Central African Republic. The parks have been seriously affected by the activities of poachers, particularly those from Sudan, over the past two decades.
In the Central African Republic forest cover is around 36% of the total land area, equivalent to 22,303,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 23,203,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 22,301,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 2,000 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 9% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity). For the year 2015, 91% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 9% private ownership. In 2021, the rate of deforestation in the Central African Republic increased by 71%.
Government and politics
with US President Joe Biden, and Dr. Jill Biden, 14 December 2022]]
Politics in the Central African Republic formally take place in a framework of a presidential republic. In this system, the President is the head of state, with a Prime Minister as head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. Executive branch The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term, and the prime minister is appointed by the president. The president also appoints and presides over the Council of Ministers, which initiates laws and oversees government operations. However, as of 2018 the official government is not in control of large parts of the country, which are governed by rebel groups.
Acting president since April 2016 is Faustin-Archange Touadéra who followed the interim government under Catherine Samba-Panza, interim prime minister André Nzapayeké. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 140 members, elected for a five-year term using the two-round (or run-off) system. The Supreme Court, or Cour Suprême, is made up of judges appointed by the president. There is also a Constitutional Court, and its judges are also appointed by the president.
The prefectures are Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui, Basse-Kotto, Haute-Kotto, Haut-Mbomou, Kémo, Lobaye, Lim-Pendé, Mambéré, Mambéré-Kadéï, Mbomou, Nana-Mambéré, Ombella-M'Poko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Fafa, Ouham-Pendé, and Vakaga. The economic prefectures are Nana-Grébizi and Sangha-Mbaéré.
Foreign relations
with Russian President Vladimir Putin, 23 May 2018]]
Foreign aid and UN involvement
The Central African Republic is heavily dependent on foreign aid, and numerous NGOs provide services that the government does not provide. In 2019, over US$100 million in foreign aid was spent in the country, mostly on humanitarian assistance.
In 2006, due to ongoing violence, over 50,000 people in the country's northwest were at risk of starvation, but this was averted due to assistance from the United Nations. On 8 January 2008, the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon declared that the Central African Republic was eligible to receive assistance from the Peacebuilding Fund. Three priority areas were identified: first, the reform of the security sector; second, the promotion of good governance and the rule of law; and third, the revitalization of communities affected by conflicts. On 12 June 2008, the Central African Republic requested assistance from the UN Peacebuilding Commission, which was set up in 2005 to help countries emerging from conflict avoid devolving back into war or chaos.
In response to concerns of a potential genocide, a peacekeeping force – the International Support Mission to the Central African Republic (MISCA) – was authorized in December 2013. This African Union force of 6,000 personnel was accompanied by the French Operation Sangaris.
Human rights
The 2009 Human Rights Report by the United States Department of State noted that human rights in the Central African Republic were poor and expressed concerns over numerous government abuses. The U.S. State Department alleged that major human rights abuses such as extrajudicial executions by security forces, torture, beatings, and rape of suspects and prisoners occurred with impunity. It also alleged harsh and life-threatening conditions in prisons and detention centers, arbitrary arrest, prolonged pretrial detention and denial of a fair trial, restrictions on freedom of movement, official corruption, and restrictions on workers' rights. Freedom of movement is limited in the northern part of the country "because of actions by state security forces, armed bandits, and other non-state armed entities", and due to fighting between government and anti-government forces, many people have been internally displaced.
Violence against children and women in relation to accusations of witchcraft has also been cited as a serious problem in the country. Witchcraft is a criminal offense under the penal code. and the United Nations's Human Development Index ranked the country 188th out of 188 countries surveyed. The Bureau of International Labor Affairs has also mentioned it in its last edition of the List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor. Economy
shopping district]]
The per capita income of the Republic is often listed as being approximately $400 a year, one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the unregistered sale of foods, locally produced alcoholic beverages, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicine.
The currency of the Central African Republic is the CFA franc, which is accepted across the former countries of French West Africa and trades at a fixed rate to the euro. Diamonds constitute the country's most important export, accounting for 40–55% of export revenues, but it is estimated that between 30% and 50% of those produced each year leave the country clandestinely. Bitcoin (BTC) was adopted as an additional legal tender. Lawmakers unanimously adopted a bill that made Bitcoin legal tender alongside the CFA franc and legalized the use of cryptocurrencies. President Faustin-Archange Touadéra signed the measure into law, said his chief of staff Obed Namsio. After an extraordinary meeting on 6 May 2022, COBAC published DECISION D-071-2022 in which it banned the use of crypto currency. It subsequently repealed its status as legal tender.
Agriculture is dominated by the cultivation and sale of food crops such as cassava, peanuts, maize, sorghum, millet, sesame, and plantain. The annual growth rate of real GDP is slightly above 3%. The importance of food crops over exported cash crops is indicated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between 200,000 and 300,000 tonnes a year, while the production of cotton, the principal exported cash crop, ranges from 25,000 to 45,000 tonnes a year. Food crops are not exported in large quantities, but still constitute the principal cash crops of the country because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus food crops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or coffee.
The Republic's primary import partner is France (17.1%). Other imports come from the United States (12.3%), India (11.5%), and China (8.2%). Its largest export partner is France (31.2%), followed by Burundi (16.2%), China (12.5%), Cameroon (9.6%), and Austria (7.8%). Infrastructure Transportation
]]
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through the Central African Republic: the Tripoli-Cape Town Highway and the Lagos-Mombasa Highway. Bangui is the transport hub of the Central African Republic. As of 1999, eight roads connected the city to other main towns in the country, Cameroon, Chad, and South Sudan; of these, only the toll roads are paved. During the rainy season from July to October, some roads are impassable.
River ferries sail from the river port at Bangui to Brazzaville and Zongo. The river can be navigated most of the year between Bangui and Brazzaville. From Brazzaville, goods are transported by rail to Pointe-Noire, Congo's Atlantic port. The river port handles the overwhelming majority of the country's international trade and has a cargo handling capacity of 350,000 tons; it has length of wharfs and of warehousing space.
Energy
The Central African Republic primarily uses hydroelectricity as there are few other low cost resources for generating electricity. Access to electricity is very limited with 15.6% of the total population having electrification, 34.6% in urban areas and 1.5% in rural areas.
Communications
Presently, the Central African Republic has active television services, radio stations, internet service providers, and mobile phone carriers; Socatel is the leading provider for both internet and mobile phone access throughout the country. The primary governmental regulating bodies of telecommunications are the Ministère des Postes and Télécommunications et des Nouvelles Technologies. In addition, the Central African Republic receives international support on telecommunication related operations from ITU Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) within the International Telecommunication Union to improve infrastructure.Demographics
]]
The population of the Central African Republic has almost quadrupled since independence. In 1960, the population was 1,232,000; as of a UN estimate, it is approximately .
The United Nations estimates that approximately 4% of the population aged between 15 and 49 is HIV positive. Only 3% of the country has antiretroviral therapy available, compared to 17% coverage in the neighboring countries of Chad and the Republic of the Congo.
The nation comprises over 80 ethnic groups, each having its own language. The largest ethnic groups are the Baggara Arabs, Baka, Banda, Bayaka, Fula, Gbaya, Kara, Kresh, Mbaka, Mandja, Ngbandi, Sara, Vidiri, Wodaabe, Yakoma, Yulu, and Zande, with others including Europeans of mostly French descent. The most common ethnic groups are Gbaya (Baya) (28.8%) and Banda (22.9%), comprising together slightly over half of the country's population in 2003.
Bimbo
| div_2 = Bangui
| pop_2 = 124,176
|city_3 = Berbérati
| div_3 = Mambéré-Kadéï
| pop_3 = 76,918
|city_4 = Carnot, Central African RepublicCarnot
| div_4 = Mambéré-Kadéï
| pop_4 = 45,421
|city_5 = Bambari
| div_5 = Ouaka
| pop_5 = 41,356
|city_6 = Bouar
| div_6 = Nana-Mambéré
| pop_6 = 40,353
|city_7 = Bossangoa
| div_7 = Ouham
| pop_7 = 36,478
|city_8 = Bria, Central African RepublicBria
| div_8 = Haute-Kotto
| pop_8 = 35,204
|city_9 = Bangassou
| div_9 = Mbomou
| pop_9 = 31,553
|city_10 = Nola, Central African RepublicNola
| div_10 = Sangha-Mbaéré
| pop_10 = 29,181
|city_11 = Kaga-Bandoro
| div_11 = Nana-Grébizi
| pop_11 = 24,661
|city_12 = Sibut
| div_12 = Kémo
| pop_12 = 22,419
|city_13 = Mbaïki
| div_13 = Lobaye
| pop_13 = 22,166
|city_14 = Bozoum
| div_14 = Ouham-Pendé
| pop_14 = 20,665
|city_15 = Paoua
| div_15 = Ouham-Pendé
| pop_15 = 17,370
|city_16 = Batangafo
| div_16 = Ouham
| pop_16 = 16,420
|city_17 = Kabo
| div_17 = Ouham
| pop_17 = 16,279
|city_18 = Bocaranga
| div_18 = Ouham-Pendé
| pop_18 = 15,744
|city_19 = Ippy
| div_19 = Ouaka
| pop_19 = 15,196
|city_20 = Alindao
| div_20 = Basse-Kotto
| pop_20 = 14,401
}}
Languages
The Central African Republic's two official languages are French and Sango (also spelled Sangho), a creole developed as an inter-ethnic lingua franca based on the local Ngbandi language. The Central African Republic is one of the few African countries to have granted official status to an African language. Religion
. Christianity is the main religion in the Central African Republic.]]
According to the 2003 national census, 80.3% of the population was Christian (51.4% Protestant and 28.9% Roman Catholic), 10% was Muslim and 4.5 percent other religious groups, with 5.5 percent having no religious beliefs. More recent work from the Pew Research Center estimated that, as of 2010, Christians constituted 89.8% of the population (60.7% Protestant and 28.5% Catholic) while Muslims made up 8.9%. The Catholic Church claims over 1.5 million adherents, approximately one-third of the population. Indigenous belief (animism) is also practiced, and many indigenous beliefs are incorporated into Christian and Islamic practice. A UN director described religious tensions between Muslims and Christians as being high.
There are many missionary groups operating in the country, including Lutherans, Baptists, Catholics, Grace Brethren, and Jehovah's Witnesses. While these missionaries are predominantly from the United States, France, Italy, and Spain, many are also from Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and other African countries. Large numbers of missionaries left the country when fighting broke out between rebel and government forces in 2002–3, but many of them have now returned to continue their work.
According to Overseas Development Institute research, during the crisis ongoing since 2012, religious leaders have mediated between communities and armed groups; they also provided refuge for people seeking shelter. Education
.]]
Public education in the Central African Republic is free and is compulsory from ages 6 to 14. However, approximately half of the adult population of the country is illiterate. The two institutions of higher education in the Central African Republic are the University of Bangui, a public university located in Bangui, which includes a medical school; and Euclid University, an international university. Health
, waiting for the two drops of the oral polio vaccine.]]
The largest hospitals in the country are located in the Bangui district. As a member of the World Health Organization, the Central African Republic receives vaccination assistance, such as a 2014 intervention for the prevention of a measles epidemic. In 2007, female life expectancy at birth was 48.2 years, and male life expectancy at birth was 45.1 years.
Women's health is poor in the Central African Republic. , the country had the fourth highest maternal mortality rate in the world. The total fertility rate in 2014 was estimated at 4.46 children born/woman. Many births in the country are guided by traditional birth attendants, who often have little or no formal training.
Malaria is endemic in the Central African Republic and one of the leading causes of death. According to 2009 estimates, the HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is about 4.7% of the adult population (ages 15–49). This is in general agreement with the 2016 United Nations estimate of approximately 4%. Government expenditure on health was US$20 (PPP) per person in 2006
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index, Central African Rep. ranks 119th out of the 127 countries with sufficient data to calculate 2024 GHI scores. With a score of 31.5 Culture The nation comprises over 80 ethnic groups, each having its own language. The largest ethnic groups are the Baggara Arabs, Baka, Banda, Bayaka, Fula, Gbaya, Kara, Kresh, Mbaka, Mandja, Ngbandi, Sara, Vidiri, Wodaabe, Yakoma, Yulu, and Zande, with others including Europeans of mostly French descent. Sports
Football is the country's most popular sport. The national football team is governed by the Central African Football Federation and stages matches at the Barthélemy Boganda Stadium.
Basketball also is popular and its national team won the African Championship twice and was the first Sub-Saharan African team to qualify for the Basketball World Cup, in 1974.
See also
* Outline of the Central African Republic
* List of Central African Republic–related topics
Notes
References
Sources
*
*
*
* Balogh, Besenyo, Miletics, Vogel: [https://www.academia.edu/24965665/La_R%C3%A9publique_Centrafricaine La République Centrafricaine]
Further reading
* Doeden, Matt, Central African Republic in Pictures (Twentyfirst Century Books, 2009).
* Petringa, Maria, Brazza, A Life for Africa (2006). .
* Titley, Brian, Dark Age: The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa, 2002.
* Woodfrok, Jacqueline, Culture and Customs of the Central African Republic (Greenwood Press, 2006).
External links
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Overviews
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1067518.stm Country Profile] from BBC News
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/central-african-republic/ Central African Republic]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080727023147/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/car.htm Central African Republic] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
*
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?CountryCF Key Development Forecasts for the Central African Republic] from International FuturesNews* [http://allafrica.com/centralafricanrepublic/ Central African Republic news headline links] from AllAfrica.comOther
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090122192217/http://hdptcar.net/ Central African Republic] at Humanitarian and Development Partnership Team (HDPT)
* Johann Hari in Birao, Central African Republic. [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/inside-frances-secret-war-396062.html "Inside France's Secret War"] from The Independent, 5 October 2007
* [https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/central-african-republic-population/#:~:text=the%20Central%20African%20Republic%202024,5%2C330%2C690%20people%20at%20mid%20year. - Central African Republic Population-Worldometer]
}}
Category:French-speaking countries and territories
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Category:Observer states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_African_Republic | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.614509 |
5479 | History of the Central African Republic | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
The history of the Central African Republic is roughly composed of four distinct periods. The earliest period of settlement began around 10,000 years ago when nomadic people first began to settle, farm and fish in the region. The next period began around 10,000 years prior.
Early history
Approximately 10,000 years ago, desertification forced hunter-gatherer societies south into the Sahel regions of northern Central Africa, where some groups settled and began farming as part of the Neolithic Revolution. Initial farming of white yam progressed into millet and sorghum, and then later the domestication of African oil palm improved the groups' nutrition and allowed for expansion of the local populations. Bananas arrived in the region and added an important source of carbohydrates to the diet; they were also used in the production of alcohol. This Agricultural Revolution, combined with a "Fish-stew Revolution", in which fishing began to take place, and the use of boats, allowed for the transportation of goods. Products were often moved in ceramic pots, which are the first known examples of artistic expression from the region's inhabitants. Ironworking arrived in the region by around 1000 BC, likely from early Bantu cultures in what is today southeast Nigeria and/or Cameroon. The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–173 BC and 907–196 BC respectively. Some earlier iron metallurgy dates of 2,000 BC from the site of Oboui (also in the Central Africa Republic) have also been proposed, but these are disputed by some archaeologists.
During the Bantu Migrations from about 1000 BC to AD 1000, Ubangian-speaking people spread eastward from Cameroon to Sudan, Bantu-speaking people settled in the southwestern regions of the CAR, and Central Sudanic-speaking people settled along the Ubangi River in what is today Central and East CAR.
Production of copper, salt, dried fish, and textiles dominated the economic trade in the Central African region.
The territory of modern Central African Republic is known to have been settled from at least the 7th century on by overlapping empires, including the Kanem-Bornu, Ouaddai, Baguirmi, and Dafour groups based on the Lake Chad region and along the Upper Nile. Early modern history During the 16th and 17th centuries Muslim slave traders began to raid the region and their captives were shipped to the Mediterranean coast, Europe, Arabia, the Western Hemisphere, or to the slave ports and factories along the West African coast. During the 18th century Bandia-Nzakara peoples established the Bangassou Kingdom along the Ubangi river.
Colonial period
The European occupation of Central African territory began in the late 19th century during the Scramble for Africa. Count Savorgnan de Brazza established the French Congo and sent expeditions up the Ubangi River from Brazzaville in an effort to expand France's claims to territory in Central Africa. Belgium, Germany, and the United Kingdom also competed to establish their claims to territory in the region. In 1875, the Sudanese sultan Rabih az-Zubayr governed Upper-Oubangui, which included present-day Central African Republic. but they did not consolidate their control over Ubangi-Shari until 1903 when they established colonial administration throughout the territory.
in Bangui, 1940]]
Growing economy and World War II
During the 1930s, cotton, tea, and coffee emerged as important cash crops in Ubangi-Shari and the mining of diamonds and gold began in earnest. Several cotton companies were granted purchasing monopolies over large areas of cotton production and were able to fix the prices paid to cultivators, which assured profits for their shareholders.
In September 1940, during the Second World War, pro-Gaullist French officers took control of Ubangi-Shari. In August 1940, the territory responded, with the rest of the AEF, to the call from General Charles de Gaulle to fight for Free France. His cousin, David Dacko, replaced him as head of Government. On 13 August 1960 the Central African Republic became an independent country and David Dacko became its first president.
Independence
David Dacko in 1962]]
David Dacko began to consolidate his power soon after taking office in 1960. He amended the Constitution to transform his regime into a one-party state with a strong presidency elected for a term of seven years. On 5 January 1964, Dacko was elected in an election in which he ran alone.
During his first term as president, Dacko significantly increased diamond production in the Central African Republic by eliminating the monopoly on mining held by concessionary companies and decreeing that any Central African could dig for diamonds. He also succeeded in having a diamond-cutting factory built in Bangui. Dacko encouraged the rapid "Centralafricanization" of the country's administration, which was accompanied by growing corruption and inefficiency, and he expanded the number of civil servants, which greatly increased the portion of the national budget needed to pay salaries. On 4 December 1976, the republic became a monarchy – the Central African Empire – with the promulgation of the imperial constitution and the coronation of the president as Emperor Bokassa I. and ruled with a military junta, the Military Committee for National Recovery (CMRN) for four years. Kolingba's two major political opponents, Abel Goumba and Ange-Félix Patassé, boycotted these elections because their parties were not allowed to participate.
By 1990, inspired by the fall of the Berlin Wall, a pro-democracy movement became very active. In May 1990, a letter signed by 253 prominent citizens asked for the convocation of a National Conference. André Kolingba refused this request and instead detained several opponents. Pressure from a group of locally represented countries and agencies called GIBAFOR (Groupe informel des bailleurs de fonds et representants residents), the United States, France, Japan, Germany, EU, World Bank and the UN finally led André Kolingba to agree, in principle, to hold free elections in October 1992.
during military exercises in the Central African Republic in 1992]]
Alleging irregularities, André Kolingba opted to suspend the results of the elections and held on to power. GIBAFOR applied intense pressure on him to establish a Provisional National Political Council (Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la République / CNPPR) and to set up a "Mixed Electoral Commission", which included representatives from all political parties.
Ange-Félix Patassé
When elections were finally held in 1993, again with the help of the international community and the UN Electoral Assistance Unit, Ange-Félix Patassé led in the first round and Kolingba came in fourth behind Abel Goumba and David Dacko. In the second round, Patassé won 53% of the vote while Goumba won 45.6%. Most of Patassé's support came from Gbaya, Kare, and Kaba voters in seven heavily populated prefectures in the northwest while Goumba's support came largely from ten less populated prefectures in the south and east. Patassé's party, the Mouvement pour la Libération du Peuple Centrafricain (MLPC) or Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People, gained a plurality but not an absolute majority of seats in parliament, which meant it required coalition partners to rule effectively.
Patassé relieved former president Kolingba of his military rank of General in March 1994 and then charged several former ministers with various crimes. Ange-Félix Patassé also removed many Yakoma from important, lucrative posts in the government. Two hundred predominantly Yakoma members of the presidential guard were also dismissed or reassigned to the army. Kolingba's RDC loudly proclaimed that Patassé's government was conducting a "witch hunt" against the Yakoma.
A new constitution was approved on 28 December 1994 and promulgated on 14 January 1995, but this constitution, like those before it, did not have much impact on the country's politics. In 1996 - 1997, reflecting steadily decreasing public confidence in the government's erratic behaviour, three mutinies against Patassé's administration were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and heightened ethnic tension.
On 25 January 1997, the Bangui Agreements, which provided for the deployment of an inter-African military mission, the Mission Interafricaine de Surveillance des Accords de Bangui (MISAB), were signed. Mali's former president, Amadou Touré, served as chief mediator and brokered the entry of ex-mutineers into the government on 7 April 1997. The MISAB mission was later replaced by a U.N. peacekeeping force, the Mission des Nations Unies en RCA (MINURCA).
In 1998, parliamentary elections resulted in Kolingba's RDC winning 20 out of 109 seats, constituting a significant political comeback. In 1999, however, Patassé won free elections to become president for a second term, despite widespread public anger in urban centres over his rule.
François Bozizé
On 28 May 2001, rebels stormed strategic buildings in Bangui in an unsuccessful coup attempt. The army chief of staff, Abel Abrou, and General François N'Djadder Bedaya were killed, but Patasse retained power with the assistance of troops from Libya and rebel FLC soldiers from the DRC led by Jean-Pierre Bemba.
In the aftermath of the failed coup, militias loyal to Patassé sought revenge against rebels in many neighborhoods of the capital, Bangui. They incited unrest which resulted in the destruction of homes as well as the torture and murder of opponents.
Patassé came to suspect that General François Bozizé was involved in another coup attempt against him, which led Bozizé to flee with loyal troops to Chad. In March 2003, François Bozizé launched a surprise attack against Patassé, who was out of the country. This time, Libyan troops and some 1,000 soldiers of Bemba's Congolese rebel organization failed to stop the rebels, who took control of the country and thus succeeded in overthrowing Patassé. On 15 March 2003, rebels moved into Bangui and installed their François Bozizé, as president.
Patassé was found guilty of major crimes in Bangui. CAR brought a case against him and Jean-Pierre Bemba to the International Criminal Court, accusing them both of multiple crimes in suppressing one of the mutinies against Patasse.
Bozizé's won the 2005 presidential election, and his coalition was the leader in the 2005 legislative election.
2003 - 2007: Bush War
After François Bozizé seized power in 2003, the Central African Republic Bush War began with the rebellion by the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity (UFDR), led by Michel Djotodia. This quickly escalated into major fighting during 2004. The UFDR rebel forces consisted of three allies, the ''Groupe d'action patriotique pour la liberation de Centrafrique'' (GAPLC), the Convention of Patriots for Justice and Peace (CPJP), the People's Army for the Restoration of Democracy (APRD), the Movement of Central African Liberators for Justice (MLCJ), and the Front démocratique Centrafricain (FDC).
In early 2006, Bozizé's government appeared stable.
On 13 April 2007, a peace agreement between the government and the UFDR was signed in Birao. The agreement provided for an amnesty for the UFDR, its recognition as a political party, and the integration of its fighters into the army. Further negotiations resulted in an agreement in 2008 for reconciliation, a unity government, and local elections in 2009 and parliamentary and presidential elections in 2010. The new unity government that resulted was formed in January 2009.
2012 - 2014: Civil War
In late 2012, a coalition of old rebel groups under new name of Séléka renewed fighting. Two other, previously unknown groups, the Alliance for Revival and Rebuilding (A2R) and the Patriotic Convention for Saving the Country (CPSK) also joined the coalition, as well as the Chadian group FPR.
On 27 December 2012, CAR President Francois Bozizé requested international assistance to help with the rebellion, in particular from France and the United States. French President François Hollande rejected the plea, saying that the 250 French troops stationed at Bangui M'Poko International Airport are there "in no way to intervene in the internal affairs".
On 11 January 2013, a ceasefire agreement was signed Libreville, Gabon. The rebels dropped their demand for President François Bozizé to resign, but he had to appoint a new prime minister from the opposition party by 18 January 2013. On 13 January, Bozizé signed a decree that removed Prime Minister Faustin-Archange Touadéra from power, as part of the agreement with the rebel coalition. On 17 January, Nicolas Tiangaye was appointed prime minister.
On 24 March 2013, rebel forces heavily attacked the capital Bangui and took control of major structures, including the presidential palace. Bozizé's family fled across the river to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and then to Yaounde, the capital of Cameroon where he was granted temporary refuge.
Djotodia
Séléka leader Michel Djotodia declared himself president. Djotodia said that there would be a three-year transitional period and that Tiangaye would continue to serve as prime minister. Djotodia promptly suspended the constitution and dissolved the government, as well as the National Assembly. He then reappointed Tiangaye as prime minister on 27 March 2013. Top military and police officers met with Djotodia and recognized him as president on 28 March 2013. Catherine Samba-Panza assumed the office of interim president on 23 January 2014.
Peacekeeping largely transitioned from the Economic Community of Central African States-led MICOPAX to the African Union-led MISCA, which was deployed in December 2013. In September 2014, MISCA transferred its authority to the UN-led MINUSCA while the French peacekeeping mission was known as Operation Sangaris.
2015 – Present: Civil War <!-- Copied from "Central African Republic Civil War (2015–present)" -->
By 2015, there was little government control outside of the capital, Bangui. The dissolution of Séléka led to ex-Séléka fighters forming new militias that often fought each other. By 2017, more than 14 armed groups vied for territory, and about 60% of the country's territory was controlled by four notable factions led by ex-Séléka leaders, including the FRP led by Adam; the Union Pour la Paix en Centrafrique (UPC), led by Ali Darassa, the Mouvement patriotique pour la Centrafrique (MPC) led by Mahamat Al-Khatim. The factions have been described as ethnic in nature with the FPRC associated with the Gula and Runga people and the UPC associated with the Fulani. but sporadic fighting continued.
succeeded interim head Catherine Samba-Panza to become president following the 2015–16 elections]]
In February 2016, after a peaceful election, the former prime minister Faustin-Archange Touadéra was elected president. In October 2016, France announced that Operation Sangaris, its peacekeeping mission in the country, was a success and largely withdrew its troops.
Tensions erupted in competition between ex-Séléka militias arising over control of a goldmine in November 2016, where a coalition formed by the MPC attacked the UPC. The fight for Bambari in early 2017 displaced 20,000. of FPRC was killed by MINUSCA after crossing one of the red lines. At the same time, MINUSCA negotiated the removal of Darassa from the city. This led to UPC to find new territory, spreading the fighting from urban to rural areas previously spared.
The thinly spread MINUSCA relied on Ugandan as well as American special forces to keep the peace in the southeast as they were part of a campaign to eliminate the Lord's Resistance Army but the mission ended in April 2017. About 15,000 people fled from their homes in an attack in May and six U.N. peacekeepers were killed – the deadliest month for the mission yet.
In June 2017, another ceasefire was signed in Rome by the government and 14 armed groups including FPRC but the next day fighting between an FPRC faction and Anti-balaka militias killed more than 100 people. In October 2017, another ceasefire was signed between the UPC, the FPRC, and Anti-balaka groups. The FPRC announced Ali Darassa as coalition vice-president but fighting continued afterward. Further clashes between the UPC and MINUSCA/government forces occurred early in 2019.Conflicts in Western and Northwestern CARIn Western CAR, a new rebel group called Return, Reclamation, Rehabilitation (3R), with no known links to Séléka or Anti-balaka, formed in 2015. Self-proclaimed General Sidiki Abass claimed 3R would protect Muslim Fulani people from an Antibalaka militia led by Abbas Rafal. 3R are accused of displacing 17,000 people in November 2016 and at least 30,000 people in the Ouham-Pendé prefecture in December 2016. in November 2017. The conflict displaced 60,000 people since December 2017. The MNLC, founded in October 2017, was led by Ahamat Bahar, a former member and co-founder of FPRC and MRC, and is allegedly backed by Fulani fighters from Chad. The Christian militant group RJ was formed in 2013, mostly by members of the presidential guard of former president Ange Felix Patassé, and were composed mainly of ethnic Sara-Kaba.
2020s
In December 2020, President Faustin Archange Touadéra was reelected in the first round of the presidential election. The opposition did not accept the result because of allegations of fraud and irregularities.
Russian mercenaries from the Wagner Group have supported President Faustin-Archange Touadéra in the fight against rebels. Russia's Wagner group has been accused of harassing and intimidating civilians.
See also
* Brazzaville Conference
* French Equatorial Africa
* History of Central Africa
* Ubangi-Shari
References
*
Central African Republic | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Central_African_Republic | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.655564 |
5480 | Geography of the Central African Republic | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
]]
The Central African Republic is a landlocked nation within the interior of the African continent. It is bordered by Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo. Much of the country consists of flat, or rolling plateau savanna, about above sea level. In the northeast are the Fertit Hills, and there are scattered hills in the southwestern part of the country. To the northwest is the Karre Mountains (also known as Yade Massif), a granite plateau with an altitude of .
At , the Central African Republic is the world's 45th-largest country (after Somalia). It is comparable in size to Ukraine.
Much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the Congo River, with the Mbomou River in the east merging with the Uele River to form the Ubangi River. In the west, the Sangha River flows through part of the country. The eastern border lies along the edge of the Congo-Nile watershed.
In the Central African Republic forest cover is around 36% of the total land area, equivalent to 22,303,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 23,203,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 22,301,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 2,000 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 9% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity). For the year 2015, 91% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 9% private ownership. In 2021, the rate of deforestation in the Central African Republic increased by 71%. The forest is highly diverse and includes commercially important species of Ayous, Sapele and Sipo.
Climate
The climate of the Central African Republic is generally a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw), although there are areas with a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen Am) and in the north there is also a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh). There is a wet season and a dry season, and the temperature is hot throughout the year. The northern areas are subject to harmattan winds, which are hot, dry, and carry dust. The tip of the northern regions have been subject to desertification. The remainder of the country is prone to flooding from nearby rivers. About one third of the Central African Republic's population do not have access to clean water.
Notes
Location:
Central Africa, north of Democratic Republic of the Congo
; Area comparative
:* Slightly smaller than Somalia
:* Slightly larger than Ukraine
:* Australia comparative: slightly more than the size of New South Wales
:* Canada comparative: slightly smaller than Manitoba
:* United Kingdom comparative: slightly more than 2 times the size of the United Kingdom
:* United States comparative: approximately smaller than Texas
:* EU comparative: approximately larger than Spain
Land boundaries:
<br>total:
5,920 km
<br>border countries:
Cameroon 901 km, Chad 1,556 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,747 km, Republic of the Congo 487 km, Sudan 174 km and South Sudan 1,055 km
Coastline:
0 km (landlocked)
Terrain:
vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest
Elevation extremes:
<br>lowest point:
Oubangui River 335 m
<br>highest point:
Mont Ngaoui 1,420 m
Natural resources:
diamonds, uranium, timber, gold, petroleum, hydropower
Land use:
<br>arable land:
2.89%
<br>permanent crops:
0.13%
<br>other:
96.98% (2012 est.)
Irrigated land:
1.35 km<sup>2</sup> (2003)
Total renewable water resources:
144.4 km<sup>3</sup> (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
<br>total:
0.07 km<sup>3</sup>/yr (83%/17%/1%)
<br>per capita:
17.42 m<sup>3</sup>/yr (2005)
Natural hazards:
hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common
Environment — current issues:
tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished its reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification
Environment — international agreements:
<br>party to:
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
<br>signed, but not ratified:
Law of the Sea
Geography — note:
landlocked; almost the precise center of Africa
Extreme points
This is a list of the extreme points of the Central African Republic, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
*Northernmost point - unnamed location in the Aoukal river on the border with Chad, Vakaga Prefecture
*Easternmost point - unnamed location immediately East of the tripoint with South Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and south of the town of Ezo in South Sudan, Haut-Mbomou Prefecture
*Southernmost point - the tripoint with Cameroon and the Republic of Congo, Sangha-Mbaéré Prefecture
*Westernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Cameroon west of the town of Koundé in Central African Republic near Cameroon's Lokoti to Garoua Boulai road, Nana-Mambéré Prefecture
References
pt:República Centro-Africana#Geografia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_the_Central_African_Republic | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.667640 |
5481 | Demographics of the Central African Republic | <!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see WP:SDNONE -->
Demographic features of the population of the Central African Republic include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
, year 2022.]]
There are more than 80 ethnic groups in the Central African Republic (CAR), each with its own language. The largest ethnic groups are Gbaya (Baya) 28.8%, Banda 22.9%, Mandjia 9.9%, Sara 7.9%, M'Baka-Bantu 7.9%, Arab-Fulani (Peuhl) 6%, Mbum 6%, Ngbanki 5.5%, Zande-Nzakara 3%, other Central African Republic ethnic groups 2%, non-Central African Republic ethnic groups .1%, as of 2003. Sangho, the language of a small group along the Oubangui River, is the national language spoken by the majority of Central Africans. Only a small part of the population has more than an elemental knowledge of French, the official language.
More than 55% of the population of the CAR lives in rural areas. The chief agricultural areas are around the Bossangoa and Bambari. Bangui, Berberati, Bangassou, and Bossangoa are the most densely populated urban centers.
Population
According to the total population was in , compared to only 1 327 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 40.4%, 55.6% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 4% were 65 years or older.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: right;"
|-
|+Population by age group
|-
!Year
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|0–14 (%)
! width="80pt"|15–64 (%)
! width="80pt"|65+ (%)
|-
| 1950
|1 327 000||36.2||58.7||5.1
|-
| 1955
|1 399 000||37.0||58.3||4.7
|-
| 1960
|1 504 000||38.2||57.5||4.3
|-
| 1965
|1 649 000||39.6||56.2||4.2
|-
| 1970
|1 829 000||40.6||55.3||4.1
|-
| 1975
|2 017 000||41.7||54.2||4.1
|-
| 1980
|2 274 000||42.2||53.6||4.1
|-
| 1985
|2 627 000||42.4||53.6||4.0
|-
| 1990
|2 935 000||43.2||52.8||4.0
|-
| 1995
|3 328 000||42.5||53.5||4.0
|-
| 2000
|3 702 000||42.0||54.0||3.9
|-
| 2005
|4 018 000||41.6||54.5||4.0
|-
| 2010
|4 401 000||40.4||55.6||4.0
|-
| 2015
|4 410 000||40.8||55.8||4.0
|}
Vital statistics
Registration of vital events is not complete in the Central African Republic. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
}}
|}
Source: UN DESA, World Population Prospects, 2022
Demographic and Health Surveys
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:50pt;"| Year
! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Total)
! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Total)
! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Urban)
! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Urban)
! style="width:50pt;"| CBR (Rural)
! style="width:50pt;"| TFR (Rural)
|-
| 1994–95
| style="text-align:right;"| 38,0
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,07 (4,7)
| style="text-align:right;"| 37,9
| style="text-align:right;"| 4,86 (4,3)
| style="text-align:right;"| 37,9
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,23 (5,0)
|-
|}
Life expectancy
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
!Period
!Life expectancy in <br /> Years
|-
|1950–1955
|33.44
|-
|1955–1960
| 35.50
|-
|1960–1965
| 37.57
|-
|1965–1970
| 40.16
|-
|1970–1975
| 43.90
|-
|1975–1980
| 47.62
|-
|1980–1985
| 49.56
|-
|1985–1990
| 49.49
|-
|1990–1995
| 47.65
|-
|1995–2000
| 44.96
|-
|2000–2005
| 43.68
|-
|2005–2010
| 45.99
|-
|2010–2015
| 49.40
|}
, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimates]]
Ethnic groups
An approximate distribution of the ethnic groups is shown in the chart below:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Ethnic groups in Central African Republic
! Ethnic group
! Percentage
! Population
|-
| Baggara Arabs
| align=center|2.4%
| align=center|107,000
|-
| Baka
| align=center|0.5%
| align=center|20,000
|-
| Banda
| align=center|27%
| align=center|1,190,700
|-
| Bayaka
| align=center|?
| align=center|?
|-
| Fula
| align=center|?
| align=center|?
|-
| Gbaya
| align=center|33%
| align=center|1,300,000
|-
| Kara
| align=center|2.3%
| align=center|100,000
|-
| Kresh
| align=center|?
| align=center|?
|-
| Mbaka
| align=center|4%
| align=center|176,400
|-
| Mandja
| align=center|13%
| align=center|573,300
|-
| Ngbandi
| align=center|?
| align=center|?
|-
| Sara
| align=center|10%
| align=center|441,000
|-
| Vidiri
| align=center|?
| align=center|?
|-
| Wodaabe
| align=center|2.3%
| align=center|100,000
|-
| Yakoma
| align=center|4%
| align=center|176,400
|-
| Yulu
| align=center|?
| align=center|?
|-
| Zande
| align=center|1.4%
| align=center|62,000
|-
| Others
| align=center|?
| align=center|?
|}
Languages
:Sango (lingua franca and official language), French (official), tribal languages
note: animistic beliefs and practices strongly influence the Christian majority
See also
*Demographics of Africa
*List of ethnic groups of Africa
References
Attribution:
* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Central_African_Republic | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.742228 |
5482 | Politics of the Central African Republic | The politics of the Central African Republic formally take place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic. In this system, the President is the head of state, with a Prime Minister as head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.
Changes in government have occurred in recent years by three methods: violence, negotiations, and elections. Both François Bozizé and Michel Djotodia assumed the Presidency through takeover by violent means; however, elections were held in March 2005 and promised in 2013. A ceasefire agreement in January 2013 called for a multipartisan unity government.
The government was deposed on 13 March 2003 by forces under the rebel leader Bozizé, who promised elections in 18 to 30 months. A new cabinet was set up on 1 April 2003. Elections were held on 13 March 2005.
On 11 January 2013, a ceasefire was signed by the Séléka rebel coalition, which had aimed to bring down the government of President Bozizé. According to this agreement, a new unity government would be formed. The President would appoint a new prime minister from the opposition parties, and the National Assembly of the Central African Republic would be dissolved and new legislative elections would be held within twelve months.
However, two months later, the Séléka rebels felt their terms were not being met, and at the culmination of the Central African Civil War, they attacked and took the capital, Bangui. The president, Bozizé, fled to neighboring Cameroon via the Democratic Republic of Congo on 24 March 2013.
On 14 December 2015, a new constitution by referendum and ratified on 27 March 2016. Since 30 March 2016, Faustin-Archange Touadéra is the president of the Central African Republic.
Executive branch
|President
|Faustin-Archange Touadéra
|Independent
|30 March 2016
|-
|Prime Minister
|Félix Moloua
|Independent
|7 February 2022
|-
|}
The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, the prime minister is appointed by the president. The president also appoints and presides over the Council of Ministers, which initiates laws and oversees government operations.
Legislative branch
Since 27 March 2016, the Parliament of the Central African Republic is composed of two bodies: the National Assembly and the Senate.
The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 105 members, elected for a five-year term using the two-round (or Run-off) system.
The Senate (Sénat) will have members, elected for a five-year term using an indirect vote.
Political parties and elections
Judicial branch
The Supreme Court, or Cour Supreme, is made up of judges appointed by the president. There is also a Constitutional Court, and its judges are also appointed by the president.
Administrative divisions
The Central African Republic is divided in 14 prefectures (prefectures), 2 economic prefectures* (prefectures economiques), and 1 commune**; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui**, Basse-Kotto, Gribingui*, Haute-Kotto, Haute-Sangha, Haut-Mbomou, Kemo-Gribingui, Lobaye, Mbomou, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha*, Vakaga.
International organization participation
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC (observer), OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
References
External links
Constitution of the Central African Republic
pt:República Centro-Africana#Política | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_Central_African_Republic | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.746411 |
5483 | Economy of the Central African Republic | |fixed exchange |year Calendar year
|organs = AU, AfCFTA (signed), WTO, ECCAS
|group =
|gdp = $3.031 billion (nominal, 2025 est.)
* $7.242 billion (PPP, 2025 est.)
*66.3% on less than $1.90/day (2008)}}
|gini 56.2 (2008)
|hdi = 0.381 (2018) (188th)
*0.222 IHDI (2018)}}
|edbr 184th (below average, 2020)
|labor 1,919,063 (2019)
|occupations |unemployment 6.5% (2019)
|industries = gold and diamond mining, logging, brewing, textiles, footwear, assembly of bicycles and motorcycles
|exports $113.7 million (2017 est.)
|revenue 282.9 million (2017 est.) with an estimated annual per capita income of just $529 as measured nominally in 2024.
Sparsely populated and landlocked, the Central African Republic is overwhelmingly agrarian.
Principal food crops include cassava, peanuts, sorghum, millet, maize, sesame, and plantains. Principal cash crops for export include cotton, coffee, and tobacco. Timber has accounted for about 16% of export earnings and the diamond industry for nearly 54%.
Forestry
In 2014, the country exported 59.3 million US dollars of forest products such as timber. This accounts for 40% of total export earnings in the C.A.R.
Foreign companies are involved in illegal logging activities in the country. For example, in 2013, the French Industrie forestière de Batalimo (IFB), Lebanese Société d’exploitation forestière centrafricaine (SEFCA) and Chinese Vicwood Group reportedly made illegal tax payments totalling €3,7 million to the Ministry of Finance under the presidency of Michel Djotodia, as well as monthly payments to Séléka fighters to safeguard their installations. SEFCA also paid an additional "advance" of €380,876 directly to Djotodia's government. In 2014, the same companies paid approximately €127,864 to Anti-balaka militias at road checkpoints. The ongoing timber trade has been linked since 2021 to a "tripartite agreement" between government officials, Wagner Group mercenaries, and a Russian company from Saint Petersburg named Bois Rouge, with Wagner having branched out into the timber industry and logging a forest in Lobaye. The Wagner mercenaries reportedly invaded and "emptied" entire villages to log timber at virtually no cost, creating a potential revenue of up to $890 million on international markets. Natural resources The country has rich natural resources in the form of diamonds, gold, uranium, and other minerals.
Central African Republic produced in 2019:
* 730 thousand tons of cassava;
* 511 thousand tons of yam (7th largest producer in the world);
* 143 thousand tons of peanut;
* 140 thousand tons of taro;
* 138 thousand tons of banana;
* 120 thousand tons of sugar cane;
* 90 thousand tons of maize;
* 87 thousand tons of plantain;
* 75 thousand tons of vegetable;
* 36 thousand tons of orange;
* 30 thousand tons of sorghum;
* 21 thousand tons of cotton;
* 19 thousand tons of pumpkin;
* 17 thousand tons of pineapple;
* 12 thousand tons of mango;
* 10 thousand tons of millet;
* 10 thousand tons of coffee;
* 8.5 thousand tons of avocado;
* 6.7 thousand tons of sesame seed;
In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.
Finance and banking
The financial sector of the CAR, the smallest in the CEMAC, plays a limited role in supporting economic growth. Suffering from weak market infrastructure and legal and judicial frameworks, the financial system remains small, undeveloped, and dominated by commercial banks. Because of economic and security concerns, financial institutions, and particularly microfinance institutions (MFIs), have consolidated their business in the capital, Bangui, over the past few years.
With less than 1% of the total population holding a bank account, access to financial services is extremely limited in the CAR. Microfinance accounts only for 1% of the total credit facilities, serving 0.5 percent of the population. Low levels of mobile penetration – which stand at 30%, a significantly lower percentage than in the rest of the continent – dampen the potential expansion of access to financial services through mobile technology. Economic aid and development
, Central African Republic.]]
The CAR is heavily dependent upon multilateral foreign aid and the presence of numerous NGO's which provide numerous services which the government fails to provide. As one UNDP official put it, the CAR is a country "sous serum," or a country hooked up to an IV (Mehler 2005:150). The presence of numerous foreign personnel and organizations in the country, including peacekeepers and refugee camps, provides an important source of revenue for many Central Africans.
In the 40 years since independence, the CAR has made slow progress toward economic development.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
! Year
! GDP
(in bil. US$ PPP)
! GDP per capita
(in US$ PPP)
!GDP
(in bil. US$ nominal)
! GDP growth<br />(real)
! Inflation<br />(in Percent)
! Government debt<br />(Percentage of GDP)
|-
|1980
|1.14
|514
|0.71
| rowspan="5" |
| rowspan="5" |
| rowspan="5" |
|-
|1985
|1.72
|680
|0.88
|-
|1990
|2.30
|800
|1.57
|-
|1995
|2.81
|839
|1.12
|-
|2000
|3.06
|797
|0.87
|-
|2005
|3.61
|841
|1.41
|2.9%
|2.9%
|103.0%
|-
|2006
|3.90
|890
|1.54
|4.8%
|6.9%
|46.8%
|-
|2007
|4.16
|933
|1.76
|4.0%
|0.9%
|47.9%
|-
|2008
|4.35
|955
|2.03
|2.6%
|9.3%
|35.8%
|-
|2009
|4.50
|995
|2.06
|2.8%
|3.6%
|20.3%
|-
|2010
|4.77
|1,062
|2.14
|4.6%
|1.5%
|19.9%
|-
|2011
|5.07
|1,111
|2.44
|4.2%
|1.2%
|19.7%
|-
|2012
|5.43
|1,177
|2.51
|5.1%
|5.9%
|31.5%
|-
|2013
|3.51
|756
|1.69
|−36.4%
|4.0%
|51.8%
|-
|2014
|3.58
|773
|1.90
|0.1%
|17.8%
|62.2%
|-
|2015
|3.77
|813
|1.70
|4.3%
|1.4%
|59.8%
|-
|2016
|3.98
|845
|1.83
|4.8%
|4.9%
|53.9%
|-
|2017
|4.24
|884
|2.07
|4.5%
|4.2%
|50.3%
|-
|2018
|4.53
|929
|2.28
|3.8%
|1.6%
|50.0%
|-
|2019
|5.00
|1,010
|2.28
|3.0%
|2.8%
|48.2%
|-
|2020
|5.49
|1,093
|2.39
|1.0%
|0.9%
|44.4%
|-
|2021
|5.92
|1,159
|2.59
|1.0%
|4.3%
|48.5%
|-
|2022
|6.38
|1,251
|2.46
|0.5%
|5.6%
|51.0%
|-
|2023
|6.65
|1,291
|2.63
|0.7%
|3.0%
|57.6%
|-
|2024
|6.91
|1,296
|2.82
|1.4%
|4.7%
|57.4%
|}
Exchange rates
See also
* Central African Republic
* Economy of Africa
* Mining industry of the Central African Republic
* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
References
Notes
Central African Republic
Central African Republic | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Central_African_Republic | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.765248 |
5484 | Telecommunications in the Central African Republic | Telecommunications in the Central African Republic includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet as well as the postal system.
Persistent conflict has hampered telecommunication and media development in the Central African Republic. There are active television services, radio stations, internet service providers, and mobile phone carriers. Radio is the most-popular communications medium.
Socatel is the leading provider for both Internet and mobile phone access throughout the country. The primary governmental regulating bodies of telecommunications are the Ministère des Postes (Ministry of Posts), and Télécommunications et des Nouvelles Technologies (Telecommunications and New Technologies). Support is received from the ITU Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) within the International Telecommunication Union to improve telecommunications infrastructure.
Radio and television
Radio stations: the State-owned radio network, Radio Centrafrique, is supplemented by a small number of privately owned broadcast stations as well as a few community radio stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are available (2007).
The BBC World Service (90.2 FM), Radio France Internationale, and the Voice of America are available via local relays in the capital, Bangui.
Telephones
Calling code: +236
Main lines: 5,600 lines in use, 209th in the world (2012).
Internet
Top-level domain: .cf
22,600 users, 192nd in the world (2009).
Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Moov, Orange, Socatel, and Telecel.
Internet censorship and surveillance
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.
More than five million websites (except for Spotify was not available in that country) are available/accessible in the Central African Republic.
Although the constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, authorities occasionally arrest journalists critical of the government and in some cases the government impedes individuals’ right to free speech. Imprisonment for defamation and censorship were abolished in 2005; however, journalists found guilty of libel or slander face fines of 100,000 to eight million CFA francs ($200 to US$16,000). The law provides for imprisonment and fines of as much as one million CFA francs (US$2,000) for journalists who use the media to incite disobedience among security forces or incite persons to violence, hatred, or discrimination. Similar fines and imprisonment of six months to two years may be imposed for the publication or broadcast of false or fabricated information that "would disturb the peace."
See also
Media of the Central African Republic
Economy of the Central African Republic
Central African Republic
References
External links
Central African Republic profile, BBC News.
Category:Communications in the Central African Republic | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Central_African_Republic | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.774196 |
5485 | Transport in the Central African Republic | thumb|Ferries such as this one near Djemah are sometimes used to transport vehicles across rivers.
Modes of transport in the Central African Republic include road, water, and air. Most of the country is connected to the road network, but not all of it. Some roads in the country do not connect to the rest of the national road network and may become impassable, especially during heavy monsoon rain. Many remote areas that not connected to the country's road network, especially in the eastern part of the country outside of the major cities and towns, can only be reached by light aircraft, boat (via river) or on foot. Most roads are unpaved, and which centres on the routes nationales identified as RN1 to RN11. Bangui serves as a seaport, and 900 km of inland waterways are navigable, the main route being the Oubangui river. There is one international airport at Bangui-Mpoko, two other paved airports, and over 40 with unpaved runways.
Railways
There are presently no railways in the Central African Republic.
A line from Cameroon port of Kribi to Bangui was proposed in 2002.
Highways
thumb|Most highways in the Central African Republic are unpaved and susceptible to damage.
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through the Central African Republic: the Tripoli-Cape Town Highway and the Lagos-Mombasa Highway.
Total: 23,810 km
Paved: 643 km
Unpaved: 23,167 km (1999 est.)
Major roads include:
RN1 (Route Nationale 1) north from Bangui. 482 km via Bossangoa to Moundou, Chad.
RN2 east from Bangui. 1202 km via Bambari and Bangassou to the South Sudanese border at Bambouti.
RN3 west from RN1 at Bossembélé. 453 km via Bouar and Baboua to Boulai on the Cameroon border as part of the east-west Trans-African Highway 8 Lagos-Mombasa.
RN4 from RN2 at Damara, 76 km north of Bangui, north 554 km via Bouca and Batangafo to Sarh, Chad.
RN6 south and west from Bangui, 605 km via Mbaïki, Carnot and Berbérati to Gamboula on the border with Cameroon.
RN8 north-east from RN2 at Sibut, 023 km via Kaga Bandoro, Ndéle, and Birao to the Sudanese border.
RN10 south from RN6 at Berbérati, 136 km via Bania to Nola.
RN11 from Baoro on RN3 south, 104 km to Carnot on RN6.
The roads east to Sudan and north to Chad are poorly maintained.
Waterways
900 km; traditional trade carried on by means of shallow-draft dugouts; Oubangui is the most important river, navigable all year to craft drawing 0.6 m or less; 282 km navigable to craft drawing as much as 1.8 m.
Ports and harbors
There is only one river port. It is at the city of Bangui.
Airports
thumb|The majority of airfields in the Central African Republic have unpaved runways and are only used by chartered flights such as this one from the Red Cross.
Airports with paved runways
Total: 3
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (2002)
The most important airport in the Central African Republic is Bangui M'Poko International Airport (ICAO: FEFF)
Airports with unpaved runways
Total: 47
2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 10
914 to 1,523 m: 23
Under 914 m: 13 (2002)
See also
Central African Republic
References
External links
UN Map | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_the_Central_African_Republic | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.777198 |
5486 | Central African Armed Forces | (FACA)
| image | alt
| caption | image2
| alt2 | caption2
| motto | founded 1960
| current_form | disbanded
| branches Ground Forces<br />Air Force<br /><br />Republican Guard<br />National Police
| headquarters = Camp Le Roux, Bangui
| website = <!---->
<!-- Leadership -->
| commander-in-chief = Faustin-Archange Touadéra
| commander-in-chief_title = Commander-in-Chief
| chief minister | chief minister_title
| minister = Rameaux-Claude Bireau
| minister_title = Minister of Defense
| commander = Zéphirin Mamadou
| commander_title = Chief of the Defence Staff
<!-- Manpower -->
| age | conscription Voluntary, after the age of 18 years
| manpower_data = 2005 est.
| manpower_age = 18–49
| available = 853,760
| available_f | fit 416,091
| fit_f | reaching
| reaching_f | active 30,000 (2022)
| ranked | reserve
| deployed =
<!-- Financial -->
| amount $25 million (2021)<br>
<br><br><br><br>
| imports | exports
<!-- Related articles -->
| history = Lord's Resistance Army insurgency<br>Central African Republic Bush War<br>Central African Republic Civil War
| ranks = Military ranks of Central African Republic
}}
The Central African Armed Forces (; FACA) are the armed forces of the Central African Republic and have been barely functional since the outbreak of the civil war in 2012. Today they are among the world's weakest armed forces, dependent on international support to provide security in the country. In recent years the government has struggled to form a unified national army. It consists of the Ground Force (which includes the air service), the gendarmerie, and the National Police.
Its disloyalty to the president came to the fore during the mutinies in 1996–1997, and since then has faced internal problems. It has been strongly criticised by human rights organisations due to terrorism, including killings, torture and sexual violence. In 2013 when militants of the Séléka rebel coalition seized power and overthrew President Bozizé they executed many FACA troops.HistoryRole of military in domestic politics
The military has played an important role in the history of Central African Republic. The immediate former president, General François Bozizé was a former army chief-of-staff and his government included several high-level military officers. Among the country's five presidents since independence in 1960, three have been former army chiefs-of-staff, who have taken power through coups d'état. No president with a military background has, however, ever been succeeded by a new military president.
The country's first president, David Dacko was overthrown by his army chief-of-staff, Jean-Bédel Bokassa in 1966. Following the ousting of Bokassa in 1979, David Dacko was restored to power, only to be overthrown once again in 1981 by his new army chief of staff, General André Kolingba.
In 1993, Ange-Félix Patassé became the Central African Republic's first elected president. He soon became unpopular within the army, resulting in violent mutinies in 1996–1997. In May 2001, there was an unsuccessful coup attempt by Kolingba and once again Patassé had to turn to friends abroad for support, this time Libya and DR Congo. Some months later, at the end of October, Patassé sacked his army chief-of-staff, François Bozizé, and attempted to arrest him. Bozizé then fled to Chad and gathered a group of rebels. In 2002, he seized Bangui for a short period, and in March 2003 took power in a coup d'état.Importance of ethnicityWhen General Kolingba became president in 1981, he implemented an ethnicity-based recruitment policy for the administration. Kolingba was a member of the Yakoma people from the south of the country, which made up approximately 5% of the total population. During his rule, members of Yakoma were granted all key positions in the administration and made up a majority of the military. This later had disastrous consequences when Kolingba was replaced by a member of a northerner tribe, Ange-Félix Patassé.Army mutinies of 1996–1997Soon after the election 1993, Patassé became unpopular within the army, not least because of his inability to pay their wages (partly due to economic mismanagement and partly because France suddenly ended its economic support for the soldiers' wages). Another reason for the irritation was that most of FACA consisted of soldiers from Kolingba's ethnic group, the Yakoma. During Patassé's rule they had become increasingly marginalised, while he created militias favouring his own Gbaya tribe, as well as neighbouring Sara and Kaba. This resulted in army mutinies in 1996–1997, where fractions of the military clashed with the presidential guard, the Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP) and militias loyal to Patassé.
* On April 18, 1996, between 200 and 300 soldiers mutinied, claiming that they had not received their wages since 1992–1993. The confrontations between the soldiers and the presidential guard resulted in 9 dead and 40 wounded. French forces provided support (Operation Almandin I) and acted as negotiators. The unrest ended when the soldiers were finally paid their wages by France and the President agreed not to start legal proceedings against them.
* On May 18, 1996, a second mutiny was led by 500 soldiers who refused to be disarmed, denouncing the agreement reached in April. French forces were once again called to Bangui (Operation Almadin II), supported by the militaries of Chad and Gabon. 3,500 foreigners were evacuated during the unrest, which left 43 persons dead and 238 wounded.
* On May 26, a peace agreement was signed between France and the mutineers. The latter were promised amnesty, and were allowed to retain their weapons. Their security was ensured by the French military.
* On November 15, 1996, a third mutiny took place, and 1,500 French soldiers were flown in to ensure the safety of foreigners. The mutineers demanded the discharge of the president.
On 6 December, a negotiation process started, facilitated by Gabon, Burkina-Faso, Chad and Mali. The military — supported by the opposition parties — insisted that Patassé had to resign. In January, 1997, however, the Bangui Agreements were signed and the French EFAO troop were replaced by the 1,350 soldiers of the Mission interafricaine de surveillance des Accords de Bangui (MISAB). In March, all mutineers were granted amnesty. The fighting between MISAB and the mutineers continued with a large offensive in June, resulting in up to 200 casualties. After this final clash, the mutineers calmed.
Crimes conducted by Patassé's militias and Congolese soldiers during this period are now being investigated by the International Criminal Court, who wrote that "sexual violence appears to have been a central feature of the conflict", having identified more than 600 rape victims.
Present situation
on patrol during a 2007 joint military operation in Birao]]
The FACA has been dominated by soldiers from the Yakoma ethnic group since the time of Kolingba. It has hence been considered disloyal by the two northerner presidents Patassé and Bozizé, both of whom have equipped and run their own militias outside FACA. The military also proved its disloyalty during the mutinies in 1996–1997. Although Francois Bozizé had a background in FACA himself (being its chief-of-staff from 1997 to 2001), he was cautious by retaining the defence portfolio, as well as by appointing his son Jean-Francis Bozizé cabinet director in charge of running the Ministry of Defence. He kept his old friend General Antoine Gambi as Chief of Staff. Due to failure to curb deepening unrest in the northern part of the country, Gambi was in July 2006 replaced with Bozizé's old friend from the military academy, Jules Bernard Ouandé.Military's relations with the societyThe forces assisting Bozizé in seizing the power in 2003 were not paid what they were promised and started looting, terrorising and killing ordinary citizens. Summary executions took place with the implicit approval of the government. The situation has deteriorated since early 2006, and the regular army and the presidential guard regularly execute extortion, torture, killings and other human rights violations. There is no possibility for the national judicial system to investigate these cases. At the end of 2006, there were an estimated 150,000 internally displaced people in CAR. During a UN mission in the northern part of the country in November 2006, the mission had a meeting with a prefect who said that he could not maintain law and order over the military and the presidential guards. The FACA currently conducts summary executions and burns houses. On the route between Kaga-Bandoro and Ouandago some 2,000 houses have been burnt, leaving an estimated 10,000 persons homeless.Reform of the army
Both the Multinational Force in the Central African Republic (FOMUC) and France are assisting in the current reform of the army. One of the key priorities of the reform of the military is make it more ethnically diversified. It should also integrate Bozizé's own rebel group (mainly consisting of members of his own Gbaya tribe). Many of the Yakoma soldiers who left the country after the mutinies in 1996–1997 have now returned and must also be reintegrated into the army. At the same time, BONUCA holds seminars in topics such as the relationship between military and civil parts of society. 2018 saw Russia send mercenaries to help train and equip the CAR military and by 2020 Russia has increased its influence in the region.
Army equipment
Most of the army's heavy weapons and equipment were destroyed or captured by Séléka militants during the 2012–2014 civil war. In the immediate aftermath of the war, the army was only in possession of 70 rifles. Prior to 2014, the army's stocks of arms and ammunition were primarily of French, Soviet, and Chinese origin.
Small arms
{| class"wikitable" style"width:90%;"
|-
! width=16%| Name
! width=10%| Image
! width=15%| Caliber
! width=12%| Type
! width=10%| Origin
! width=28%| Notes
|-
! colspan="6"| Pistols
|-
| MAC 50
|
| 9×19mm
| Semi-automatic pistol
|
|
|-
| Walther PP
|
| 9×19mm
| Submachine gun
|
|
|-
| Carl Gustaf m/45
|
| 9×19mm
| Submachine gun
| Sweden
|
|-
| Sten
|
| 9×19mm
| Submachine gun
|
|
|-
| MAS-38
|
| 7.65×20mm
| Submachine gun
|
|
|-
| MAT-49
|
| 7.62×39mm
| Semi-automatic rifle
|
|
|-
| AKM
|
| 7.62×39mm
| Assault rifle
|
|
|-
| PM md. 63
|-
| IMI Galil
|
| 5.56×45mm
| Assault rifle
|
| In service as of 2004; likely acquired from Zaire and Chad.
|
| 5.56×45mm
| Assault rifle
|
|
|-
| M14
|
| 5.56×45mm
| Bullpup<hr>Assault rifle
|
|
|-
| FN FAL
|
| 7.62×51mm
| Battle rifle
|
|
|-
| MAS-36
|
| 7.5×54mm
| Bolt-action rifle
|
|
|-
| Lee Enfield
|
| .303 British
| Bolt-action rifle
|
|
|-
! colspan="6"| Sniper rifles
|-
| SVD<br>Type 85
|
| 7.62×54mmR
| Designated marksman rifle<br>Sniper rifle
| <br>
|
|-
! colspan="6"| Machine guns
|-
| SG-43 Goryunov
|
| 7.62×54mmR
| Medium machine gun
|
|
|-
| RP-46
|
| 7.62×54mmR
| General-purpose machine gun
|
|
|-
| DShK
|
| 12.7×108mm
| Heavy machine gun
|
|
|-
| Type 67
|
| |7.62×54mmR
| General-purpose machine gun
|
|
|-
| FM 24/29
|
| 7.5×54mm
| Light machine gun
|
|
|-
| AA-52
|
| |7.62×54mmR
| General-purpose machine gun
|
|
|-
| FN MAG
|
| 7.62×51mm
| General-purpose machine gun
|
|
|-
| Browning M1919
|
| 7.62×51mm
| Medium machine gun
|
|
|-
| Browning M2
|
| .50 BMG
| Heavy machine gun
|
|
|-
! colspan="6"| Rocket propelled grenade launchers
|-
| RPG-7
|}
Mortars
{| class"wikitable" style"width:90%;"
|-
! width=14%| Name
! width=20%| Image
! width=14%| Type
! width=12%| Origin
! width=10%| Quantity
! width=06%| Status
! width=24%| Notes
|-
| PM-43
|
| Mortar
|
| Unknown
|
|
|}
Vehicles
<!--READ FIRST: This section is for cited entries only. Please do not add entries or notes to an equipment table without a citation from a reliable source. All entries without a citation will be removed. Thank you.-->
Scout cars
{| class"wikitable" style"width:90%;"
|-
! width=14%| Name
! width=20%| Image
! width=14%| Type
! width=12%| Origin
! width=10%| Quantity
! width=06%| Status
! width=24%| Notes
|-
| BRDM-2
|
| Armored personnel carrier
|
| 25
|
|
|-
| VAB
{| class"wikitable" style"margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ International Peace Supporting Missions in Central African Republic
! Mission Name || Organisation || Dates || Greatest Strength || Tasks
|-
| Inter-African Mission to Monitor the Implementation of the Bangui Agreements <br>(Mission interafricaine de surveillance des Accords de Bangui, MISAB) || Burkina Faso, Chad, Gabon, Mali, Senegal and Togo || February 1997 to April 1998 || 820 || To monitor the fulfilling of the Bangui Agreements
|-
| UN Mission in the Central African Republic <br>(Mission des Nations Unies en République centrafricaine, MINURCA) || UN || April 1998 to February 2000 || 1,350 || Maintain peace and security; supervise disarmament; technical assistance during 1998 elections
|-
| United Nations Peace-building Office <br>(''Bureau politique d'observation des Nations Unies en Centrafrique, BONUCA) || UN || February 2000 to 1 January 2010 || Five military and six civilian police advisers to follow up on security-related reforms and to assist in the implementation of the training programmes for the national police. || Consolidate peace and national reconciliation; strengthen democratic institutions; facilitate international mobilization for national reconstruction and economic recovery. Succeeded by UN Integrated Peace-building Office (BINUCA).
|-
| Community of Sahel-Saharan States <br>(CEN-SAD) || CEN-SAD || December 2001 to January 2003 || 300 || Enforce and restore peace
|-
| Multinational Force in the Central African Republic <br>(Force multinationale en Centrafrique, FOMUC'') || Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) || January 2003 to July 2008 || 380 || Ensure security; restructure FACA; and fight rebels in north-east. Replaced by MICOPAX.
|}
Chad
In addition to the multilateral forces, CAR has received bilateral support from other African countries, such as the Libyan and Congolese assistance to Patassé mentioned above. Bozizé is in many ways dependent on Chad's support. Chad has an interest in CAR, since it needs to ensure calmness close to its oil fields and the pipeline leading to the Cameroonian coast, close to CAR's troubled northwest. Before seizing power, Bozizé built up his rebel force in Chad, trained and augmented by the Chadian military. Chadian President Déby assisted him actively in taking the power in March 2003 (his rebel forces included 100 Chadian soldiers). After the coup, Chad provided another 400 soldiers. Current direct support includes 150 non-FOMUC Chadian troops that patrol the border area near Goré, a contingent of soldiers in Bangui, and troops within the presidential lifeguard. In Central African Republic, the Bouar base and the Béal Camp (at that time home to 1,400 French soldiers) in Bangui were shut down, as the French concentrated its African presence to Abidjan, Dakar, Djibouti, Libreville and N'Djamena and the deployment of a ''Force d'action rapide'', based in France.
However, due to the situation in the country, France has retained a military presence. During the mutinies, 2,400 French soldiers patrolled the streets of Bangui. Their official task was to evacuate foreign citizens, but this did not prevent direct confrontations with the mutineers (resulting in French and mutineer casualties). The level of French involvement resulted in protests among the Central African population, since many sided with the mutineers and accused France of defending a dictator against the people's will. Criticism was also heard in France, where some blamed their country for its protection of a discredited ruler, totally incapable of exerting power and managing the country. After the mutinies in 1997, the MISAB became a multilateral force, but it was armed, equipped, trained and managed by France. The Chadian, Gabonese and Congolese troops of the current Force multinationale en Centrafrique (FOMUC) mission in the country also enjoy logistical support from French soldiers.
A study carried out by the US Congressional Research Service revealed that France has again increased its arms sales to Africa, and that during the 1998–2005 period it was the leading supplier of arms to the continent.
Components and units
Air Force
The Air Force is almost inoperable. Lack of funding has almost grounded the air force apart from an AS 350 Ecureuil delivered in 1987. Mirage F1 planes from the French Air Force regularly patrolled troubled regions of the country and also participated in direct confrontations until they were withdrawn and retired in 2014. According to some sources, Bozizé used the money he got from the mining concession in Bakouma to buy two old MI 8 helicopters from Ukraine and one Lockheed C-130 Hercules, built in the 1950s, from the US. In late 2019 Serbia offered two new Soko J-22 orao attack aircraft to the CAR Air Force but was it is unknown whether the orders were approved by the Air Force. The air force otherwise operates 7 light aircraft, including a single helicopter:
{| class="wikitable"
! Aircraft
! Type
! Versions
! In service
! Notes
|-
| Aermacchi AL-60
| Utility
| AL-60C-5 Conestoga
| 6–10
|
|-
| Eurocopter AS 350 Ecureuil
| Utility helicopter
| AS 350B
| 1
|
|-
| Mil Mi-8 Hip
| Transport helicopter
| Mi-8
| 2
| Unconfirmed
|-
| Lockheed C-130 Hercules
| Transport
| C-130
| 1
| Unconfirmed
|-
| [Avion chaser to entraitment L-
| 39 Albatros]:
| 10
| -
| [Avion chaser Soukhoï-25]:8
|
|
|
|}
Garde républicaine (GR)
The Presidential Guard (garde présidentielle) or Republican Guard is officially part of FACA but it is often regarded as a separate entity under the direct command of the President. Since 2010 the Guard has received training from South Africa and Sudan, with Belgium and Germany providing support. GR consists of so-called patriots that fought for Bozizé when he seized power in 2003 (mainly from the Gbaya tribe), together with soldiers from Chad. They are guilty of numerous assaults on the civil population, such as terror, aggression, sexual violence. Only a couple of months after Bozizé's seizure of power, in May 2003, taxi and truck drivers conducted a strike against these outrages. The riverine patrol force has approximately one hundred personnel and operates seven patrol boats.
Veteran soldiers
A program for disarmament and reintegration of veteran soldiers is currently taking place. A national commission for the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration was put in place in September 2004. The commission is in charge of implementing a program wherein approximately 7,500 veteran soldiers will be reintegrated in civil life and obtain education.
* FORSIDIR: The presidential lifeguard, Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP), was in March 1998 transformed into the Force spéciale de défense des institutions républicaines (FORSDIR). In contrary to the army – which consisted mainly of southerner Yakoma members and which thereby was unreliable for the northerner president – this unit consisted of northerners loyal to the president. Before eventually being dissolved in January 2000, this highly controversial group became feared for their terror and troubled Patassé's relations with important international partners, such as France. Of its 1,400 staff, 800 were subsequently reintegrated into FACA, under the command of the chief-of-staff. The remaining 400 recreated the USP (once again under the command of the chief-of-staff).<ref name="two" />
* Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP): USP was Patassé's presidential guard before and after FORSIDIR. When he was overthrown by Bozizé in 2003, the USP was dissolved and while some of the soldiers have been absorbed by FACA, others are believed to have joined the pro-Patassé Democratic Front of the Central African People rebel group that is fighting FACA in the north of the country.<ref name="two" />
* The Patriots or Liberators: Accompanied Bozizé when he seized power in March 2003. They are now a part of Bozizé's lifeguard, the Garde républicaine, together with soldiers from Chad.<ref name="two" />
* Office central de répression du banditisme (OCRB): OCRB was a special unit within the police created to fight the looting after the army mutinies in 1996 and 1997. OCRB has committed numerous summary executions and arbitrary detentions, for which it has never been put on trial.<ref name="two" />
* MLPC Militia: Le Mouvement de libération du peuple centrafricain (MLPC) was the armed component of former president Patassé's political party. The MPLC's militia was already active during the 1993 election, but was strengthened during the mutinies 1996 and 1997, particularly through its Karako contingent. Its core consisted of Sara people from Chad and Central African Republic, but during the mutinies it recruited many young people in Bangui.<ref name="two" />
* DRC Militia: Rassemblement démocratique centrafricain (RDC) is the militia of the party of General Kolingba, who led the country during the 1980s. The RDC's militia is said to have camps in Mobaye and to have bonds with former officials of Kolingba's "cousin" Mobutu Sese Seko in DR Congo.<ref name"two" /> References External links
* 'France donates equipment to CAR,' Jane's Defence Weekly, 28 January 2004, p. 20. First of three planned battalions of new army completed training and guaduated 15 January [2004]. See also JDW 12 November 2003.
* Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series, Volume 43 Issue 12, Pages 16909A – 16910A, Published Online: 26 January 2007: Operation Boali, French aid mission to FACA
*
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/central-african-republic/ CIA World Factbook]
* [https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4007.htm US Department of State – Bureau of African Affairs: Background note]
* [http://www.girafprod.com/portfolio/centrafrique-au-coeur-du-chaos/ "Spécial investigation: Centrafrique, au cœur du chaos" Giraf Prod 13 jan 2014]
Category:Government of the Central African Republic
Category:Military of the Central African Republic | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_African_Armed_Forces | 2025-04-05T18:27:14.816288 |
5487 | Foreign relations of the Central African Republic | The Central African Republic (CAR) has diplomatic relations with 114 out of the 193 United Nations member states as well as the State of Palestine.
The country's attempts at an open policy towards neighbouring countries have been strained due to the long-standing civil war as well as broader regional conflicts such as reoccurring tensions between Chad and Sudan. In the 2010s, France maintained a military presence in the country. This was largely halted in 2016. The last French troops left in 2022 after relations with France soured due to the country's increasing ties to Russia under Faustin-Archange Touadéra. Since 2018, the Wagner Group, a Russian private military company, has carried out operations in the CAR.
Participation in international organisations
The Central African Republic is an active member in several Central African organizations, including the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC), the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), the Bank of Central African States (BEAC) and the African Development Bank (AfDB). It is also a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Standardization of tax, customs, and security arrangements between the Central African states is a major foreign policy objective of the CAR government. The CAR is a participant in the Community of Sahel–Saharan States (CEN-SAD), and the African Union (AU). Additionally, it is a member of the Francophonie and an observer state of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).
Other multilateral organizations—including the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, United Nations agencies, European Union, and the African Development Bank—and bilateral donors—including the Republic of Korea, Germany, Japan, the European Union, and the United States—are significant development partners for the CAR.
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which the Central African Republic maintains diplomatic relations with:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
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|113
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|114
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|115
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|Unknown
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Bilateral relations
Sixteen countries have resident diplomatic representatives in Bangui, and the CAR maintains approximately nineteen missions abroad. The countries the CAR maintains bilateral relations with include the following:
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal relations began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|||1960||
Cameroon is the most important regional trade partner of the CAR, its exports to the CAR having increased massively over the course of recent years. to $250,56 million. 80% of the CAR's imports arrive through the port of Douala, before being transported along a 1,450 km road to Bangui which includes unpaved stretches. The war has created a massive influx of refugees into Cameroon; as of 2024, the country held 282,000 Central African refugees. The two countries suffer from border-related issues including violent rebel raids for supplies as well as competing claims to some villages and towns. In 2022, Cameroon and the CAR held three-day talks in Yaoundé, where they agreed to demarcate the border and intensify their joint military presence in border towns.
|- valign="top"
|||29 February 1964||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 February 1964 when has been accredited first Permanent Representative (Ambassador) of Chad to Central African Republic Mr. Thomas Keiro.
Chad's president Idriss Déby has an interest in tranquility in north-western CAR, due to the proximity to the location of the Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Development and Pipeline Project. In April 2006, the Chadian rebel group United Front for Democratic Change, which is based in Darfur used C.A.R. as a transit route to Chad, when attacking N'Djamena. Bozizé, who has received much support from President Déby, immediately decided to close the CAR-Sudan border (a decision which he has no capacity at all to enforce).
|-
|
|29 September 1964
|
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 September 1964 under the government of David Dacko, which thereby cut off relations with Taiwan. It is believed that France tacitly supported the 1966 coup by Jean-Bédel Bokassa because of Dacko's rapprochement to China. The Central African government once again switched it alliance to Taiwan on 8 July 1991 (under Kolingba) and finally back to China with a joint communiqué signed on 29 January 1998 (under Patassé). nine Chinese workers died in the 2023 Chimbolo massacre, and four workers died in a 2024 rebel attack on the gold mining town of Gaga. a solar power plant near Bangui intended to deal with the widespread power cuts in the CAR (finished in 2023), and a highway from Bossarangba to Mbaïki (started in 2023).
The CAR was among 53 countries backing the Hong Kong national security law at the UN in June 2020.
|- valign="top"
|||<!--Date started-->||
Bozizé has surprisingly good relations both with the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) President Joseph Kabila and the former rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba. When the old president Kolingba tried to overthrow Patassé in May 2001, the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC) came to his rescue. MLC controlled the northern part of DRC and its rebels were stationed on the other side of the Ubangi river from Bangui. The MLC executed between 60 and 120 persons, mainly from the Yakoma tribe and committed atrocities–including killing, looting and rape–against the population. This terror and the crimes carried out during MLC's war against Bozizé's rebels between October 2002 and March 2003 is now being investigated by the International Criminal Court, which says it has identified 600 rape victims and the real numbers are expected to be higher.
Most of the crimes were committed by Congolese MLC soldiers, but Bozizé's rebels, including elements from Chad, were also responsible. During Bozizé's time in power, new clashes have taken place between his soldiers and the MLC. Bozizé has strengthened military presence along the border and deployed an amphibious force patrolling the Ubangi river. There were refugees from DRC in C.A.R. from July 1999 (when Kabila advanced in the region bordering C.A.R.). The refugees were repatriated following an agreement between UNHCR and the governments of the two countries in 2004. Refugees from C.A.R. in DRC were beginning to be repatriated in July 2004.
The CAR was a French colony under the name Ubangi-Shari between 1903 and 1960. Throughout the Cold War and afterwards, the country retained political and economic ties with France as well as a French military presence. As of 2022, imports from France accounted for $50,308 million, a significant decrease from €109,426 million in 2017.
The Cold War involvement of France in Central African politics included propping up David Dacko to be the first president, tacitly supporting the 1965 coup by Jean-Bédel Bokassa and providing substantial support to his lavish coronation ceremony in 1977, The French military advisor , serving as head of the Presidential Guard under Dacko and Kolingba, was described as a "proconsul" and as "the president of President Kolingba", implying he was even more powerful than Kolingba himself. The military ties with France were further restored by sending the Foreign Legion general Jean-Pierre Pérez - who was also connected to the private military company EHC - to be Bozizé's counseller.
Between 2013 and 2016, France carried out a military intervention codenamed Operation Sangaris against Séléka and Anti-balaka rebel militias. France officially ended Sangaris in 2016 and the last French troops left in 2022, after bilateral relations significantly cooled due to the CAR's increasing ties to Russia under Faustin-Archange Touadéra.
* France has an embassy in Bangui.
|-
|
|14 June 1967
|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 June 1967.
|- valign="top"
|||7 June 1976||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 June 1976. The two countries signed a protocol to hold recurring "Foreign Office Consultations" in 2010, although only one such consultation was held (in 2011), and have maintained contacts in the context of economic cooperation.
|- valign="top"
|||10 November 1961||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 November 1961 when government of the CAR agreed to the appointment of Ephraim Ben-Haim as Israel's first Ambassador to Central African Republic. But CAR severed diplomatic relations with Israel on 21 October 1973. Diplomatic relations were restored on 16 January 1989.
The CAR also recognizes the State of Palestine. In the United Nations General Assembly, its position has varied over time. In the Bokassa era, as the country remained a Western and especially French ally, it was among 35 countries voting against the 1975 resolution determining that Zionism is a form of racism. However, it has taken a more favorable stance towards Palestine in recent years, voting in favour of the 2023 resolution calling for a ceasefire in the Gaza war and the 2024 resolution upgrading Palestine's rights in the UN.
|- valign="top"
|||6 May 1971||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 May 1971
Libya was previously one of the former president Patassé's closest allies, providing him with strong military support when he no longer trusted his own military or France. Patassé granted Libyan enterprises outstanding economic advantages, such as a 99-year concession on diamonds, gold, oil and uranium all over the country. It is not known whether these agreements are still valid, but Bozizé has anyway a continuously good relation with Libya.
|- valign="top"
|||4 February 2020||
Both nations established diplomatic relations on 4 February 2020 in New York City, with the signing by their respective ambassadors to the United Nations.
* Mexico is accredited to the Central African Republic from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York City.
|- valign="top"
|||5 September 1969||
Both nations established diplomatic relations on 5 September 1969
While insignificant in recent years, there existed some contacts between the two countries during the Cold War, including state visits by both Bokassa to Pyongyang.
|- valign="top"
|||2 April 1974||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 April 1974 when Pakistan's first ambassador to the Central African Republic, Mr. Sha Ansani, presented credentials to President Jean Bedel Bokassa.
The Central African Republic has maintained friendly relations with Pakistan, although these are not very intense. Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif paid a state visit to Bangui in 1997. Pakistan is the third largest military contributor to the UN mission MINUSCA, only surpassed by Rwanda and Bangladesh. It is also the third largest recipient of Central African exports (behind the United Arab Emirates and Italy), receiving $23.1 million as of 2022. The advisers are believed to be members of the Wagner Group. , the CAR is considering hosting a Russian Armed Forces base. A former Russian intelligence official has been installed by the Central African president as his top security adviser.
|- valign="top"
|||21 May 1964||
The CAR and Yugoslavia established diplomatic relations on 21 May 1964 However, it again withdrew this recognition in 2019, making it the fourteenth country to do so. Serbian prime minister Ivica Dačić visited the CAR in 2018 and Faustin-Archange Touadéra visited Serbia in 2024.
|- valign="top"
|||27 November 1964||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 November 1964
During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005), there was a massive uncontrolled crossing of the Sudan-C.A.R. border by soldiers from the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), looking for safety during periods of attacks or drought. At the same time, C.A.R. was used by the Sudanese Armed Forces when launching attacks on the SPLA. Moreover, thousands of Sudanese refugees lived in C.A.R.; at the peak of the influx, by the early 1990s there were 36,000 Sudanese refugees in Mboki in south-east C.A.R. About half of the refugees were SPLA soldiers with more than 5000 weapons, who allegedly occupied towns as far as 200 km into the C.A.R. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was forced to close its refugee camp at Mboki in October 2002, due to the high prevalence of weapons. Sudan was one of the contributors to the peacekeeping force of the Community of Sahel–Saharan States (CEN-SAD) in Central African Republic in 2001–2002.
|- valign="top"
|||29 January 1980||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 January 1980 After a 2022 visit of Foreign Minister Sylvie Baïpo-Temon to Turkey, the two countries signed agreements on political and economic cooperation.
* Central African Republic has an Honorary Consulate in Istanbul.
*The Turkish ambassador in Yaoundé to Cameroon is also accredited to the Central African Republic. to $91.9 million. These exports increased over tenfold between 2017 and 2022. When the embargo was still active, organizations including Amnesty International found that traders in Dubai and Antwerp (two major hubs of the diamond trade) used loopholes to continue trading illegally acquired diamonds from the CAR.
Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum met with Faustin-Archange Touadéra to discuss bilateral relations on multiple occasions, including in Abu Dhabi in 2021, Dubai in 2023 and Bangui in 2024. In January 2024, the two countries also agreed to build a new airport in Bangui with $200 million in Emirati funding.
|- valign="top"
|||||
The UK established diplomatic relations with the Central African Republic on 9 December 1960.
|- valign="top"
|||13 August 1960||
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 August 1960
The U.S. Embassy in Bangui was briefly closed as a result of the 1996–97 mutinies. It reopened in 1998 with limited staff, but U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and Peace Corps missions previously operating in Bangui did not return. The American Embassy in Bangui again temporarily suspended operations on November 2, 2002, in response to security concerns raised by the October 2002 launch of François Bozizé's 2003 military coup.
The Embassy reopened in January 2005; however, there currently is limited U.S. diplomatic/consular representation in the CAR. As a result, the ability of the Embassy to provide services to American citizens remains extremely limited. The United States Department of State approved the lifting of Section 508 aid restrictions triggered by the coup; U.S. assistance to the Central African Republic had been prohibited except in the areas of humanitarian aid and support for democratization.
* Central African Republic has an embassy in Washington, DC.
* United States has an embassy in Bangui.
|}
See also
* List of diplomatic missions in the Central African Republic
* List of diplomatic missions of the Central African Republic
Notes
References
Category:Government of the Central African Republic
Category:Politics of the Central African Republic | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Central_African_Republic | 2025-04-05T18:27:15.075265 |
5488 | Chad | |}}
| image_flag = Flag of Chad.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Chad.svg
| symbol_type = Coat of arms
| national_motto ||"Unity, Work, Progress"}}
| national_anthem ||"The Song of Chad"}}<div style"padding-top:0.5em;" class="center"></div>
| image_map
| capital = N'Djamena
| coordinates =
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages =
| religion
| religion_year = 2020
| religion_ref
| upper_house = Senate
| lower_house = National Assembly
| sovereignty_type = Independence from France
| established_event1 = Colony established
| established_date1 = 5 September 1900
| established_event2 = Autonomy granted
| established_date2 = 28 November 1958
| established_event3 = Sovereign state
| established_date3 = 11 August 1960
| area_km2 = 1,300,000
| area_footnote | area_rank 20th
| area_sq_mi | percent_water 1.9
| population_estimate 19,093,595
| population_estimate_year = 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 66th
| population_density_km2 = 14.4
| population_density_rank | GDP_PPP $32.375 billion
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 147th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita $1,806
| HDI = 0.394 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref
| HDI_rank = 189th
| currency = Central African CFA franc
| currency_code = XAF
| time_zone = West Africa Time
| utc_offset = +01:00
| utc_offset_DST | time_zone_DST (Not Observed)
| calling_code = +235
| cctld = .td
| today =
}}
Chad, <br>, |, }}}} officially the Republic of Chad,تْشَاد|Jumhūriyyat Tšād}}|}}}} is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon to the southwest, Nigeria to the southwest (at Lake Chad), and Niger to the west. Chad has a population of 16 million, of which 1.6 million live in the capital and largest city of N'Djamena. With a total area of around , Chad is the fifth-largest country in Africa and the twentieth largest nation by area.
Chad has several regions: the Sahara desert in the north, an arid zone in the centre known as the Sahel, and a more fertile Sudanian Savanna zone in the south. Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the second-largest wetland in Africa. Chad's official languages are Arabic and French. It is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups. Islam (55.1%) and Christianity (41.1%) are the main religions practiced in Chad.
Beginning in the 7th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers. By the end of the 1st millennium AD, a series of states and empires had risen and fallen in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controlling the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region. France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa. In 1960, Chad obtained independence under the leadership of François Tombalbaye. Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long-lasting civil war in 1965. In 1979 the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the South's hegemony. The rebel commanders then fought amongst themselves until Hissène Habré defeated his rivals. The Chadian–Libyan conflict erupted in 1978 by the Libyan invasion which stopped in 1987 with a French military intervention (Operation Épervier). Hissène Habré was overthrown in turn in 1990 by his general Idriss Déby. With French support, a modernisation of the Chad National Army was initiated in 1991. From 2003, the Darfur crisis in Sudan spilt over the border and destabilised the nation. Already poor, the nation struggled to accommodate the hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees in eastern Chad.
While many political parties participated in Chad's legislature, the National Assembly, power laid firmly in the hands of the Patriotic Salvation Movement during the presidency of Idriss Déby, whose rule was described as authoritarian. After President Déby was killed by FACT rebels in April 2021, the Transitional Military Council led by his son Mahamat Déby assumed control of the government and dissolved the Assembly.
controlled almost all of what is today Chad|left]]
For more than 2,000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary people. The region became a crossroads of civilisations. The earliest of these was the legendary Sao, known from artifacts and oral histories. The Sao fell to the Kanem Empire, the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad's Sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD. Two other states in the region, Sultanate of Bagirmi and Wadai Empire, emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries. The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region. In Kanem, about a third of the population were slaves.
French colonial period (1900–1960)
French colonial expansion led to the creation of the in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa. French rule in Chad was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies.
The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the Sara of the south was governed effectively; French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal. The educational system was affected by this neglect. Tensions between farmers and elites culminated in the 1952 Bébalem massacre by colonial authorities.
during World War II. The Free French Forces included 15,000 soldiers from Chad]]
After World War II, France granted Chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the National Assembly and a Chadian assembly. The largest political party was the Chadian Progressive Party (, PPT), based in the southern half of the colony. Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960 with the PPT's leader, François Tombalbaye, an ethnic Sara, as its first president. Tombalbaye rule (1960–1979) Two years later, Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one-party system. Tombalbaye's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated inter-ethnic tensions. In 1965, Muslims in the north, led by the National Liberation Front of Chad (, FRONILAT), began a civil war. Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in 1975, but the insurgency continued. In 1979 the rebel factions led by Hissène Habré took the capital, and all central authority in the country collapsed. Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power. Chad's first civil war (1979–1987) The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country. Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in Chad's civil war. Libya's adventure ended in disaster in 1987; the French-supported president, Hissène Habré, evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil. Dictatorship of Habré (1987–1990) Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule. The president favoured his own Toubou ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, the Zaghawa. His general, Idriss Déby, overthrew him in 1990. Attempts to prosecute Habré led to his placement under house arrest in Senegal in 2005; in 2013, Habré was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule. In May 2016, he was found guilty of human-rights abuses, including rape, sexual slavery, and ordering the killing of 40,000 people, and sentenced to life in prison. Déby lineage & democracy with second Civil War (1990–present)
continuously ruled Chad from 1990 until his death in 2021]]
Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved a new constitution by referendum, and in 1996, Déby easily won a competitive presidential election. He won a second term five years later. Oil exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would, at last, have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a new civil war broke out. Déby unilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties.
In 2006 Déby won a third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has warned that a genocide like that in Darfur may yet occur in Chad. In 2006 and in 2008 rebel forces attempted to take the capital by force, but failed on both occasions. An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed 15 January 2010, marked the end of a five-year war. The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home, the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure, and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border. In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against President Idriss Déby that had been in preparation for several months.
Chad is one of the leading partners in a West African coalition in the fight against Boko Haram and other Islamist militants. Déby's son, General Mahamat Idriss Déby, has been named interim president by a Transitional Council of military officers. That transitional council has replaced the Constitution with a new charter, granting Mahamat Déby the powers of the presidency and naming him head of the armed forces. On 23 May 2024, Mahamat Idriss Déby was sworn in as President of Chad after the disputed 6 May election.
Geography
in the south, the Sahara in the north, and the Sahelian belt in the centre]]
Chad is a large landlocked country spanning north-central Africa. It covers an area of , and is the twentieth-largest country in the world. Chad is, by size, slightly smaller than Peru and slightly larger than South Africa.
Chad is bounded to the north by Libya, to the east by Sudan, to the west by Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon, and to the south by the Central African Republic. The country's capital is from the nearest seaport, Douala, Cameroon. Because of this distance from the sea and the country's largely desert climate, Chad is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa".
The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north and east by the Ennedi Plateau and Tibesti Mountains, which include Emi Koussi, a dormant volcano that reaches above sea level. Lake Chad, after which the country is named (and which in turn takes its name from the Kanuri word for "lake"), is the remains of an immense lake that occupied of the Chad Basin 7,000 years ago. the lake is Africa's second largest wetland.
Chad is home to six terrestrial ecoregions: East Sudanian savanna, Sahelian Acacia savanna, Lake Chad flooded savanna, East Saharan montane xeric woodlands, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands. The region's tall grasses and extensive marshes make it favourable for birds, reptiles, and large mammals. Chad's major rivers—the Chari, Logone and their tributaries—flow through the southern savannas from the southeast into Lake Chad.
Each year a tropical weather system known as the intertropical front crosses Chad from south to north, bringing a wet season that lasts from May to October in the south, and from June to September in the Sahel. Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones. The Sahara lies in the country's northern third. Yearly precipitations throughout this belt are under ; only occasional spontaneous palm groves survive, all of them south of the Tropic of Cancer.
Elephants, lions, buffalo, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, giraffes, antelopes, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and many species of snakes are found here, although most large carnivore populations have been drastically reduced since the early 20th century. Elephant poaching, particularly in the south of the country in areas such as Zakouma National Park, is a severe problem. The small group of surviving West African crocodiles in the Ennedi Plateau represents one of the last colonies known in the Sahara today.
In Chad forest cover is around 3% of the total land area, equivalent to 4,313,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 6,730,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 4,293,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 19,800 hectares (ha). For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.
Chad had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.18/10, ranking it 83rd globally out of 172 countries. Extensive deforestation has resulted in loss of trees such as acacias, baobab, dates and palm trees. This has also caused loss of natural habitat for wild animals; one of the main reasons for this is also hunting and livestock farming by increasing human settlements. Populations of animals like lions, leopards and rhino have fallen significantly.
Efforts have been made by the Food and Agriculture Organization to improve relations between farmers, agro-pastoralists and pastoralists in the Zakouma National Park (ZNP), Siniaka-Minia, and Aouk reserve in southeastern Chad to promote sustainable development. As part of the national conservation effort, more than 1.2 million trees have been replanted to check the advancement of the desert, which incidentally also helps the local economy by way of financial return from acacia trees, which produce gum arabic, and also from fruit trees. The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers. Demographics
nomads in the Ennedi Mountains ]]
Chad's national statistical agency projected the country's 2015 population between 13,630,252 and 13,679,203, with 13,670,084 as its medium projection; based on the medium projection, 3,212,470 people lived in urban areas and 10,457,614 people lived in rural areas. The country's population is young: an estimated 47% is under 15. The birth rate is estimated at 42.35 births per 1,000 people, and the mortality rate at 16.69. The life expectancy is 52 years. The agency assessed the population as at mid 2017 at 15,775,400, of whom just over 1.5 million were in N'Djaména.
Chad's population is unevenly distributed. Density is in the Saharan Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region but in the Logone Occidental Region. In the capital, it is even higher.
Urban life is concentrated in the capital, whose population is mostly engaged in commerce. The other major towns are Sarh, Moundou, Abéché and Doba, which are considerably smaller but growing rapidly in population and economic activity.
Polygamy is common, with 39% of women living in such unions. This is sanctioned by law, which automatically permits polygamy unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage. Although violence against women is prohibited, domestic violence is common. Female genital mutilation is also prohibited, but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition; 45% of Chadian women undergo the procedure, with the highest rates among Arabs, Hadjarai, and Ouaddaians (90% or more). Lower percentages were reported among the Sara (38%) and the Toubou (2%). Women lack equal opportunities in education and training, making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal-sector jobs. Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women, local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men, according to traditional practice. || 2009 Census Ethnic groups
The peoples of Chad carry significant ancestry from Eastern, Central, Western, and Northern Africa.
Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups, According to a 2012 Pew Research survey, 48% of Muslim Chadians professed to be Sunni, 21% Shia, 4% Ahmadi and 23% non-denominational Muslim. Islam is expressed in diverse ways; for example, 55% of Muslim Chadians belong to Sufi orders. Its most common expression is the Tijaniyah, an order followed by the 35% of Chadian Muslims which incorporates some local African religious elements. In 2020, the ARDA estimated the vast majority of Muslims Chadians to be Sunni belonging to the Sufi brotherhood Tijaniyah. A small minority of the country's Muslims (5–10%) hold more fundamentalist practices, which, in some cases, may be associated with Saudi-oriented Salafi movements.
Roman Catholics represent the largest Christian denomination in the country.
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Muslims are largely concentrated in northern and eastern Chad, and animists and Christians live primarily in southern Chad and Guéra.
In 2013, the U.S. Department of Labor's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor in Chad reported that school attendance of children aged 5 to 14 was as low as 39%. This can also be related to the issue of child labor as the report also stated that 53% of children aged 5 to 14 were working, and that 30% of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school. A more recent DOL report listed cattle herding as a major agricultural activity that employed underage children.
Government and politics
thumb|Chadian woman voting during the 2016 presidential election
Chad's constitution provides for a strong executive branch headed by a president who dominates the political system. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the cabinet, and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad's para-statal firms. In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly, may declare a state of emergency. The president is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term; in 2005, constitutional term limits were removed, allowing a president to remain in power beyond the previous two-term limit.
Chad's legal system is based on French civil law and Chadian customary law where the latter does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality. Despite the constitution's guarantee of judicial independence, the president names most key judicial officials. The legal system's highest jurisdictions, the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Council, have become fully operational since 2000. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councillors, appointed for life by the president and the National Assembly. The Constitutional Court is headed by nine judges elected to nine-year terms. It has the power to review legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption. In 2005, opposition parties and human rights organisations supported the boycott of the constitutional referendum that allowed Déby to stand for re-election for a third term amid reports of widespread irregularities in voter registration and government censorship of independent media outlets during the campaign. Correspondents judged the 2006 presidential elections a mere formality, as the opposition deemed the polls a farce and boycotted them.
Chad is listed as a failed state by the Fund for Peace (FFP). Chad had the seventh-highest rank in the Fragile States Index in 2021. Corruption is rife at all levels; Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2021 ranked Chad 164th among the 180 countries listed. Critics of former President Déby had accused him of cronyism and tribalism.
In southern Chad, bitter conflicts over land are becoming more common. They frequently turn violent. Long-standing community culture is being eroded – and so are the livelihoods of many farmers.
Longtime Chad President Idriss Déby's death on 20 April 2021 resulted in both the nation's National Assembly and government being dissolved and national leadership being replaced with a transitional military council consisting of military officers and led by his son Mahamat Kaka. The constitution is currently suspended, pending replacement with one drafted by a civilian National Transitional Council, yet to be appointed. The military council has stated that elections will be held at the end of an 18-month transitional period.
According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Chad is 16th lowest ranked electoral democracy worldwide and 4th lowest ranked electoral democracy in Africa. Internal opposition and foreign relations
]]
Déby faced armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but were united in their intention to overthrow him. These forces stormed the capital on 13 April 2006, but were ultimately repelled. Chad's greatest foreign influence is France, which maintains 1,000 soldiers in the country. Déby relied on the French to help repel the rebels, and France gives the Chadian army logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability. Nevertheless, Franco-Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the American Exxon company in 1999. In 2025, the French military handed over its last base in Chad to the Chadian military, ending its presence in the country, which it had since 1960.
There have been numerous rebel groups in Chad throughout the last few decades. In 2007, a peace treaty was signed that integrated United Front for Democratic Change soldiers into the Chadian Army. The Movement for Justice and Democracy in Chad also clashed with government forces in 2003 in an attempt to overthrow President Idriss Déby. In addition, there have been various conflicts with Khartoum's Janjaweed rebels in eastern Chad, who killed civilians by use of helicopter gunships. Presently, the Union of Resistance Forces (UFR) are a rebel group that continues to battle with the government of Chad. In 2010, the UFR reportedly had a force estimating 6,000 men and 300 vehicles.
The UAE foreign aid was inaugurated in the Chadian city of Amdjarass on 3 August 2023. The UAE's continuous efforts to provide assistance to the Chadian people and support endeavors to provide humanitarian and relief aid through the UAE's humanitarian institutions to Sudanese refugees in Chad.
Military
, organized by the U.S. Africa Command]]
As of 2024 Chad was estimated to have 33,250 active military personnel, including 27,500 in the Ground Forces, 350 in the Air Force, and 5,400 in the General Directorate of the Security Services of State Institutions (DGSSIE). There are also 4,500 in the National Gendarmerie and 7,400 in the National and Nomadic Guard. The Ground Forces are organized into seven military regions and twelve battalions, including one armored, seven infantry, one artillery, and three logistical. Chad is a member of the G5 Sahel and the Multinational Joint Task Force, which were formed to fight against Islamic insurgent groups in the region, and has contributed troops to the MINUSMA mission in Mali before it was dissolved. As of 2023, its last year in the mission, 1,449 Chadian soldiers were deployed there. France has been Chad's main security partner for years, including in training the Chadian military.
The CIA World Factbook estimates the military budget of Chad to be 4.2% of GDP as of 2006. Given the then GDP ($7.095 bln) of the country, military spending was estimated to be about $300 million. This estimate however dropped after the end of the Civil war in Chad (2005–2010) to 2.0% as estimated by the World Bank for 2011. Administrative divisions
Since 2012 Chad has been divided into 23 regions. The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process, when the government abolished the previous 14 prefectures. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Prefects administer the 61 departments within the regions. The departments are divided into 200 sub-prefectures, which are in turn composed of 446 cantons.
The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by communautés rurales, but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed. The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development. To this end, the constitution declares that each administrative subdivision be governed by elected local assemblies, but no local elections have taken place, and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed.
Chad's currency is the CFA franc. In the 1960s, the mining industry of Chad produced sodium carbonate, or natron. There have also been reports of gold-bearing quartz in the Biltine Prefecture. However, years of civil war have scared away foreign investors; those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. In 2000, major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began, boosting the country's economic prospects. and the failure to support local agricultural production has meant that the majority of Chadians live in daily uncertainty and hunger. Over 80% of Chad's population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood. Cotton remains a primary export, although exact figures are not available. Rehabilitation of Cotontchad, a major cotton company weakened by a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed by France, the Netherlands, the European Union, and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). The parastatal is now expected to be privatised. In February 2008 in the aftermath of the Battle of N'Djamena, UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs John Holmes expressed "extreme concern" that the crisis would have a negative effect on the ability of humanitarians to deliver life-saving assistance to half a million beneficiaries, most of whom – according to him – heavily rely on humanitarian aid for their survival. UN spokesperson Maurizio Giuliano stated to The Washington Post: "If we do not manage to provide aid at sufficient levels, the humanitarian crisis might become a humanitarian catastrophe". In addition, organisations such as Save the Children have suspended activities due to killings of aid workers.
Chad has made some progress in reducing poverty, there was a decline in the national poverty rate from 55% to 47% between 2003 and 2011. However, the number of poor people increased from 4.7 million (2011) to 6.5 million (2019) in absolute numbers. By 2018, 4.2 out of 10 people still live below the poverty line.
Infrastructure
Transport
Three trans-African automobile routes pass through Chad:
* the Tripoli-Cape Town Highway (3)
* the Dakar-Ndjamena Highway (5)
* the Ndjamena-Djibouti Highway (6)
Civil war crippled the development of transport infrastructure; in 1987, Chad had only of paved roads. Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network to by 2004. Nevertheless, the road network is limited; roads are often unusable for several months of the year. With no railways of its own, Chad depends heavily on Cameroon's rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the seaport of Douala.
Chad had an estimated 59 airports, only 9 of which had paved runways. An international airport serves the capital and provides regular nonstop flights to Paris and several African cities.
Energy
Chad's energy sector has had years of mismanagement by the parastatal Chad Water and Electric Society (STEE), which provides power for 15% of the capital's citizens and covers only 1.5% of the national population. Most Chadians burn biomass fuels such as wood and animal manure for power.
ExxonMobil leads a consortium of Chevron and Petronas that has invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at one billion barrels in southern Chad. Oil production began in 2003 with the completion of a pipeline (financed in part by the World Bank) that links the southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon. As a condition of its assistance, the World Bank insisted that 80% of oil revenues be spent on development projects. In January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan programme when the Chadian government passed laws reducing this amount.
Telecommunications
The telecommunication system is basic and expensive, with fixed telephone services provided by the state telephone company SotelTchad. In 2000, there were only 14 fixed telephone lines per 10,000 inhabitants in the country, one of the lowest telephone densities in the world. In September 2013, Chad's Ministry for Posts and Information & Communication Technologies (PNTIC) announced that the country will be seeking a partner for fiber optic technology.
Chad is ranked last in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. In September 2010 the mobile phone penetration rate was estimated at 24.3% over a population estimate of 10.7 million. Culture Because of its great variety of peoples and languages, Chad possesses a rich cultural heritage. The Chadian government has actively promoted Chadian culture and national traditions by opening the Chad National Museum and the Chad Cultural Centre. Carcaje is a popular sweet red tea extracted from hibiscus leaves. Alcoholic beverages, though absent in the north, are popular in the south, where people drink millet beer, known as billi-billi when brewed from red millet, and as coshate when from white millet.
The music group Chari Jazz formed in 1964 and initiated Chad's modern music scene. Later, more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition. Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on sai, a traditional style of music from southern Chad. The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music. However, in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists. Piracy and a lack of legal protections for artists' rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry.LiteratureAs in other Sahelian countries, literature in Chad has seen an economic, political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers. Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse. Since 1962, 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction. Among the most internationally renowned writers are Joseph Brahim Seïd, Baba Moustapha, Antoine Bangui and Koulsy Lamko. In 2003 Chad's sole literary critic, Ahmat Taboye, published his to further knowledge of Chad's literature.
Media and cinema
Chad's television audience is limited to N'Djamena. The only television station is the state-owned Télé Tchad. Radio has a far greater reach, with 13 private radio stations. Newspapers are limited in quantity and distribution, and circulation figures are small due to transportation costs, low literacy rates, and poverty. While the constitution defends liberty of expression, the government has regularly restricted this right, and at the end of 2006 began to enact a system of prior censorship on the media.
The development of a Chadian film industry, which began with the short films of Edouard Sailly in the 1960s, was hampered by the devastations of civil wars and from the lack of cinemas, of which there is currently only one in the whole country. The Chadian feature film industry began growing again in the 1990s, with the work of directors Mahamat-Saleh Haroun, Issa Serge Coelo and Abakar Chene Massar. Haroun's film Abouna was critically acclaimed, and his Daratt won the Grand Special Jury Prize at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival. The 2010 feature film A Screaming Man won the Jury Prize at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival, making Haroun the first Chadian director to enter, as well as win, an award in the main Cannes competition. Issa Serge Coelo directed the films Daresalam and DP75: Tartina City.
Sports
Football is Chad's most popular sport. The country's national team is closely followed during international competitions<ref name"culture"/> and Chadian footballers have played for French teams. Basketball and freestyle wrestling are widely practiced, the latter in a form in which the wrestlers put on traditional animal hides and cover themselves with dust.<ref name"culture"/> See also
* Outline of Chad
*Index of Chad-related articles
<!-- * Bibliography of Chad -->
<!-- * -->
Notes
References
Citations
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* Manley, Andrew; "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4809420.stm Chad's vulnerable president] ", BBC News, 15 March 2006.
* "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/5328462.stm Mirren crowned 'queen' at Venice] ", BBC News, 9 September 2006.
* Ndang, Tabo Symphorien (2005); "[http://www.pep-net.org/fileadmin/medias/pdf/files_events/4th_colombo/PMMA/Ndang-pa.pdf ] " (PDF). 4th PEP Research Network General Meeting. Poverty and Economic Policy.
*
* Pollack, Kenneth M. (2002); Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
* "[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html Rank Order – Area] ". The World Factbook. United States Central Intelligence Agency. 10 May 2007.
* "[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023258.pdf Republic of Chad – Public Administration Country Profile] " (PDF). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. November 2004.
*
* Spera, Vincent (8 February 2004); . United States Department of Commerce.
* "[http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/D7238E/D7238E03.htm Symposium on the evaluation of fishery resources in the development and management of inland fisheries] ". CIFA Technical Paper No. 2. FAO. 29 November – 1 December 1972.
* "[http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/tchad/contents.html ] ". . UNESCO, Education for All.
* "[https://web.archive.org/web/20110905003712/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/central-africa/chad/French%20translations/Chad%20Back%20towards%20War%20French.pdf ]" (PDF). International Crisis Group. 1 June 2006.
* Wolfe, Adam; , PINR, 6 December 2006.
* World Bank (14 July 2006). [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:20994138~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html World Bank, Govt. of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction] . Press release.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090905200753/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Population Database]. 2006. United Nations Population Division.
* "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4351076.stm Worst corruption offenders named] ", BBC News, 18 November 2005.
* Young, Neil (August 2002); [http://www.jigsawlounge.co.uk/film/harouninterview.html An interview with Mahamet-Saleh Haroun, writer and director of Abouna ("Our Father")] .
External links
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/chad/ Chad]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/tdtoc.html Chad country study] from Library of Congress
*
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13164686 Chad profile] from the BBC News
*
*
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=TD Key Development Forecasts for Chad] from International Futures
}}
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Category:1960 establishments in Chad | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad | 2025-04-05T18:27:15.174822 |
5489 | Chile | | common_name = Chile
| name =
| image_flag = Flag of Chile.svg
| alt_flag | image_coat Coat of arms of Chile (c).svg
| coa_size = 115
| national_motto = <br />("By reason or by force")
| national_anthem <br />("National Anthem of Chile")<div style"padding-top:0.5em;"></div>
| image_map = File:CHL orthographic (+all claims).svg
| map_width = 260px
| alt_map | map_caption Chilean territory in dark green; claimed but uncontrolled territory in light green
| capital = Santiago<sup>a</sup>
| coordinates =
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages | languages_type National language
| languages = Spanish
| languages2 | languages2_type Other spoken languages
| demonym =
| religion =
* 56% Christianity
** 42% Catholicism
** 14% other Christian
|37% no religion
|6% other}}
| religion_ref
| religion_year = 2021
| government_type = Unitary presidential republic
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 =
| leader_title2 = President of the Senate
| leader_name2 =
| leader_title3 = President of the Chamber of Deputies
| leader_name3 =
| leader_title4 = President of Supreme Court
| leader_name4 =
| legislature =
| upper_house = Senate
| lower_house =
| sovereignty_type = Independence
| sovereignty_note = from Spain
| established_event1 = Government Junta
| established_date1 = 18 September 1810
| established_event2 = Declared
| established_date2 = 12 February 1818
| established_event3 = Recognized
| established_date3 = 25 April 1844
| established_event4 =
| established_date4 = 11 March 1981
| area_rank = 37th
| area_km2 756,101.96
| area_sq_mi = 291,930.4
| area_footnote = <sup>b</sup>
| percent_water 2.1 (as of 2015)
| population_estimate 19,629,588
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank = 63rd
| population_density_km2 = 24
| population_density_sq_mi = 61
| population_density_rank = 198th
| GDP_PPP $674.388 billion
| GDP_PPP_rank = 45th
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024
| GDP_PPP_per_capita $33,574
| GDP_nominal_rank = 45th
| GDP_nominal_year = 2024
| GDP_nominal_per_capita $17,936
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 63rd
| Gini_year = 2022
| Gini_change = decrease
| Gini = 44.8 <!--number only-->
| Gini_ref
| Gini_rank | HDI_year 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI = 0.860 <!--number only-->
| HDI_ref
| HDI_rank = 44th
| currency = Chilean peso
| currency_code = CLP
| time_zone =
| utc_offset = −4 and −6
| time_zone_DST | utc_offset_DST -3 and −5
| DST_note = April to September
| calling_code = +56
| iso3166code | cctld .cl
| footnote_a = Legislature is based in Valparaíso.
| footnote_b = Includes Easter Island and Isla Salas y Gómez; does not include of territory claimed in Antarctica.
}}
Chile, , ), ~ on a spectrum from lower to upper classes, respectively, the former being a somewhat-stigmatized basilect. See the "Sample" section for an IPA-transcribed text in a lower-class form of the dialect.}}}} officially the Republic of Chile, .}} is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Chile had a population of 17.5 million as of the latest census in 2017 and has a territorial area of , and experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, while relying increasingly on exports from copper mining to support its economy. During the 1960s and 1970s, the country was marked by severe left-right political polarization and turmoil, which culminated in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that overthrew Salvador Allende's democratically elected left-wing government. This was followed by a 16-year right-wing military dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet, in which the 1980 Chilean Constitution was made with the consultancy of the Ortúzar Commission as well as several political and economic reforms, and resulted in more than 3,000 deaths or disappearances. Chile also performs well in the region in terms of sustainability of the state and democratic development. Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), and the Pacific Alliance, and joined the OECD in 2010.
Etymology<!--linked-->
There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile. According to 17th-century Spanish chronicler Diego de Rosales, the Incas called the valley of the Aconcagua Chili by corruption of the name of a Picunche tribal chief () called Tili, who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century. Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. from the Mapuche word , which may mean 'where the land ends'" or from the Quechua chiri, 'cold', or , meaning either 'snow' or "the deepest point of the Earth". Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic —the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known as trile.
The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves the "men of Chilli".HistoryEarly history
, the oldest of which are from around 5050 BCE]]
Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indigenous peoples settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile. Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodón and the Pali-Aike Crater's lava tube.
The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the Mapuche (or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards) successfully resisted many attempts by the Inca Empire to subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river.]]
In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named after him (the Strait of Magellan) thus becoming the first European to set foot on what is now Chile. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting.
Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous territories in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontier garrison, the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, especially the English and the Dutch. Buccaneers and pirates menaced the colony in addition to the Mapuche, as was shown by Sir Francis Drake's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port. Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a drain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
A 2021 study by Baten and Llorca-Jaña shows that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms of numeracy, even if the overall number of migrants was small. This effect might be related to externalities: the surrounding population adopted a similar behavior as the small non-European immigrant group, and new schools were created. Ironically, there might have been positive spillover effects from the educational investment made by migrants, at the same time numeracy might have been reduced by the greater inequality in these regions. However, the positive effects of immigration were apparently stronger.Independence and nation building
(left) and Bernardo O'Higgins (right) during the crossing of the Andes]]
In 1808, Napoleon's enthronement of his brother Joseph as the Spanish King precipitated the drive by Chile for independence from Spain. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand – heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810. The Government Junta of Chile proclaimed an autonomous government for Chile within the Spanish monarchy (in memory of this day, Chile celebrates its National Day on 18 September each year).
After these events, a movement for total independence, under the command of José Miguel Carrera (one of the most renowned patriots) and his two brothers Juan José and Luis Carrera, soon gained a wider following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the Reconquista led to a prolonged struggle, including infighting from Bernardo O'Higgins, who challenged Carrera's leadership.
Intermittent warfare continued until 1817. With Carrera in prison in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohort José de San Martín, hero of the Argentine War of Independence, led an army that crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On 12 February 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic. The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful.
on 21 May 1879. The victory of Chile in the War of the Pacific allowed its expansion into new territories.]]
Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders. By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago of Chiloé was incorporated in 1826. The economy began to boom due to the discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru. At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifying penetration into Araucanía and colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848. Through the founding of Fort Bulnes by the Schooner Ancud under the command of John Williams Wilson, the Magallanes Region started to be controlled by country in 1843, while the Antofagasta Region, at the time in dispute with Bolivia, began to fill with people.
After the Chilean Civil War of 1829–1830 in which the conservatives won, under the Joaquín Prieto Administration, the Chilean Constitution of 1833 was written and put into effect with high influence from the triple minister Diego Portales. Two other civil wars happened in Chile in the 1850s, one in 1851 and the other one in 1859.
Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by the Occupation of Araucanía. The Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan but also made the country to renounce to its claims in the rest of East Patagonia after a dispute that started in 1842. As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined the stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870.
On 9 September 1888, Chile took possession of Easter Island by the signing of a mutual will agreement with the local king, thanks to the efforts of the Bishop of Tahiti, Monsignor José María Verdier since the island was constantly attacked by slave merchants. The naval officer Policarpo Toro represented the Chilean Government and Atamu Tekena was the head of the Council of Rapanui. The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty, without renouncing their titles as chiefs, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions on equal terms. The Rapa Nui sold nothing, they were integrated in equal conditions to Chile.
The 1891 Chilean Civil War brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established a parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards which had strong ties to foreign investors. Soon after, the country engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race with Argentina that nearly led to war, as well because of the Puna de Atacama dispute.
After the War of the Pacific, Chile became a Naval Power in the Americas, even sending a ship in protests in the Panama crisis of 1885 against the United States intervention in the then Colombian territory. The United States and Chile had the Baltimore crisis which almost became a war as Chile was a potential threat to the intentions of hegemony from the United States in the Western Hemisphere.20th century
in 1921]]
In 1902 Chile and Argentina received the result from the arbitral award of the Andes resolved by the British Crown.
In 1903 the Puna de Atacama dispute was solved.
In 1904 Chile and Bolivia signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship which clarified the border between both countries.
The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, Arturo Alessandri, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose.
By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term.
The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.
]]
In the 1970 election, Senator Salvador Allende of the Socialist Party of Chile (then part of the "Popular Unity" coalition which included the Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action),
An economic depression that began in 1972 was exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward. Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of the banking sector was nationalized. Many enterprises within the copper, coal, iron, nitrate, and steel industries were expropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year. replacing the judicial system with "socialist legality", nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy, the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to swiftly destabilize Allende's government. In addition, US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile.
The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending, financed mostly through printing money, and by poor credit ratings given by commercial banks.
Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate a campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization, some of which was backed by the United States. By early 1973, inflation was out of control.
On 26 May 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, which was opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende's disruption of the legality of the nation. Although illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet's soon-to-be seizure of power.Pinochet era (1973–1990)
bombing the Presidential Palace of La Moneda during the Chilean coup of 1973]]
A military coup overthrew Allende on 11 September 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace, Allende apparently committed suicide. After the coup, Henry Kissinger told U.S. president Richard Nixon that the United States had "helped" the coup indirectly. According to the historian Sebastián Hurtado, there isn't documentary evidence to support that the United States Government acted actively in the coordination and execution of the September 11 coup actions by the Chilean Armed Forces, however, Richard Nixon's interest from the beginning was that the Allende government would not be consolidated and acted actively and decisively in the campaign to destabilize his government. In 1970, when Allende was first elected, Henry Kissinger had stated "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go Communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people". There is no documentary evidence to support that the United States Government acted actively in the coordination and execution of the coup actions by the Chilean Armed Forces, however, Richard Nixon's interest from the beginning was that the Allende government would not be consolidated. In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death. According to the Rettig Report and Valech Commission, at least 2,115 were killed, and at least 27,265 were tortured (including 88 children younger than 12 years old). At the national stadium, filled with detainees, one of those tortured and killed was internationally known poet-singer Víctor Jara (see "Music and Dance", below).
]]
A new Constitution was approved by a controversial plebiscite on 11 September 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term. After Pinochet obtained rule of the country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua, guerrilla forces in Argentina or training camps in Cuba, Eastern Europe and Northern Africa.
In the late 1980s, largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapse and mass civil resistance in 1983–88, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity. The government launched market-oriented reforms with Hernán Büchi as Minister of Finance. Chile moved toward a free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened to competition. In a plebiscite on 5 October 1988, Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a bicameral congress on 14 December 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación, received an absolute majority of votes (55%). President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period.21st century
(1990–2022), celebrating the Bicentennial of Chile]]
In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%). Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile. In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet Jeria, of the Socialist Party, defeating Sebastián Piñera, of the National Renewal party, extending the Concertación governance for another four years. In January 2010, Chileans elected Sebastián Piñera as the first rightist President in 20 years, defeating former President Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Concertación, for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet. Due to term limits, Sebastián Piñera did not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting in Michelle Bachelet returning to office. Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again in 2018 as the President of Chile after winning the December 2017 presidential election.
On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 earthquake, the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks. Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$15–30 billion, around 10% to 15% of Chile's real gross domestic product.
Chile achieved global recognition for the successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010. On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile, trapping 33 men below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over a period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world.
towards Plaza Baquedano, Santiago]]
2019–20 Chilean protests are a series of country-wide protests in response to a rise in the Santiago Metro's subway fare, the increased cost of living, privatization and inequality prevalent in the country. On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call a national referendum in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution, later postponed to October due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 25 October 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 per cent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 per cent rejected the change. Voter turnout was 51 percent. An election for the members of the Constitutional Convention was held in Chile between 15 and 16 May 2021.
On 19 December 2021, a leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leader Gabriel Boric, won Chile's presidential election to become the country's youngest ever leader. On 11 March 2022, Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Piñera. Out of 24 members of Gabriel Boric's female-majority Cabinet, 14 are women.
On 4 September 2022, voters rejected the new constitution proposal in the constitutional referendum, which was put forward by the left-leaning Constitutional Convention. On 17 December 2023, voters rejected a second new constitution proposal in a new constitutional referendum, written by the conservative-led Constitutional Council.
Geography
}}
A long and narrow coastal Southern Cone country on the west side of the Andes Mountains, Chile stretches over north to south, but only at its widest point east to west and at its narrowest point east to west, with an average width of . This encompasses a large variety of climates and landscapes. It contains of land area. It is situated within the Pacific Ring of Fire. Excluding its Pacific islands and Antarctic claim, Chile lies between latitudes 17° and 56°S, and longitudes 66° and 75°W.
Chile is among the longest north–south countries in the world. If one considers only mainland territory, Chile is unique within this group in its narrowness from east to west, with the other long north–south countries (including Brazil, Russia, Canada, and the United States, among others) all being wider from east to west by a factor of more than 10. Chile also claims of Antarctica as part of its territory (Chilean Antarctic Territory). However, this latter claim is suspended under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty, of which Chile is a signatory. It is the world's southernmost country that is geographically on the mainland.
Chile controls Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and the Juan Fernández Islands, more than from the mainland. Also controlled but only temporarily inhabited (by some local fishermen) are the small islands of San Ambrosio and San Felix. These islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific Ocean.
The northern Atacama Desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and nitrates. The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area is also the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests, grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border.
Topography
Chile is located along a highly seismic and volcanic zone, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, due to the subduction of the Nazca and Antarctic plates in the South American Plate. In the late Paleozoic, 251 million years ago, Chile belonged to the continental block called Gondwana. It was just a depression that accumulated marine sediments began to rise at the end of the Mesozoic, 66 million years ago, due to the collision between the Nazca Plate and South American Plate, resulting in the Andes. The territory would be shaped over millions of years by the folding of the rocks, forming the current relief.
The Chilean relief consists of the central depression, which crosses the country longitudinally, flanked by two mountain ranges that make up about 80% of the territory: the Andes mountains to the east-natural border with Bolivia and Argentina in the region of Atacama and the Coastal Range west-minor height from the Andes. Chile's highest peak is the Nevado Ojos del Salado, at 6891.3 m, which is also the highest volcano in the world. The highest point of the Coastal Range is Vicuña Mackenna, at 3114 meters, located in the Sierra Vicuña Mackenna, the south of Antofagasta. Among the coastal mountains and the Pacific is a series of coastal plains, of variable length, which allow the settlement of coastal towns and big ports. Some areas of the plains territories encompass territory east of the Andes, and the Patagonian steppes and Magellan, or are high plateaus surrounded by high mountain ranges, such as the Altiplano or Puna de Atacama.
The Far North is the area between the northern boundary of the country and the parallel 26° S, covering the first three regions. It is characterized by the presence of the Atacama desert, the most arid in the world. The desert is fragmented by streams that originate in the area known as the pampas Tamarugal. The Andes, split in two and whose eastern arm runs through Bolivia, has a high altitude and volcanic activity, which has allowed the formation of the Andean altiplano and salt structures as the Salar de Atacama, due to the gradual accumulation of sediments over time.
To the south is the Norte Chico, extending to the Aconcagua river. Los Andes begin to decrease its altitude to the south and closer to the coast, reaching 90 km away at the height of Illapel, the narrowest part of the Chilean territory. The two mountain ranges intersect, virtually eliminating the intermediate depression. The existence of rivers flowing through the territory allows the formation of transverse valleys, where agriculture has developed strongly in recent times, while the coastal plains begin to expand.
, located in Bernardo O'Higgins National Park]]
The Central area is the most populated region of the country. The coastal plains are wide and allow the establishment of cities and ports along the Pacific. The Andes maintain altitudes above 6000m but descend slowly in height to 4000 meters on average. The intermediate depression reappears becoming a fertile valley that allows agricultural development and human settlement, due to sediment accumulation. To the south, the Cordillera de la Costa reappears in the range of Nahuelbuta while glacial sediments create a series of lakes in the area of La Frontera.
Patagonia extends from within Reloncavi, at the height of parallel 41°S, to the south. During the last glaciation, this area was covered by ice that strongly eroded Chilean relief structures. As a result, the intermediate depression sinks in the sea, while the coastal mountains rise to a series of archipelagos, such as Chiloé and the Chonos, disappearing in Taitao peninsula, in the parallel 47°S. The Andes mountain range loses height and erosion caused by the action of glaciers has caused fjords. East of the Andes, on the continent, or north of it, on the island of Tierra del Fuego are located relatively flat plains, which in the Strait of Magellan cover large areas. The Andes, as he had done previously Cordillera de la Costa, begins to break in the ocean causing a myriad of islands and islets and disappear into it, sinking and reappearing in the Southern Antilles arc and then the Antarctic Peninsula, where it is called Antartandes, in the Chilean Antarctic Territory, lying between the meridians 53°W and 90°W.
In the middle of the Pacific, the country has sovereignty over several islands of volcanic origin, collectively known as Insular Chile. The archipelago of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island is located in the fracture zone between the Nazca plate and the Pacific plate known as East Pacific Rise.
Climate and hydrography
The diverse climate of Chile ranges from the world's driest desert in the north—the Atacama Desert—through a Mediterranean climate in the center, tropical in Easter Island, to an oceanic climate, including alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south. According to the Köppen system, Chile within its borders hosts at least eighteen major climatic subtypes. There are four seasons in most of the country: summer (December to February), autumn (March to May), winter (June to August), and spring (September to November).
Due to the characteristics of the territory, Chile is crossed by numerous rivers generally short in length and with low flow rates. They commonly extend from the Andes to the Pacific Ocean, flowing from East to West. Because of the Atacama desert, in the Norte Grande there are only short endorheic character streams, except for the Loa River, the longest in the country 440 km. In the high valleys, wetland areas generate Chungará Lake, located at 4500 meters above sea level. It and the Lauca River are shared with Bolivia, as well as the Lluta River. In the center-north of the country, the number of rivers that form valleys of agricultural importance increases. Noteworthy are the Elqui with 75 kmBiodiversity
'' trees in Conguillío National Park]]
The flora and fauna of Chile are characterized by a high degree of endemism, due to its particular geography. In continental Chile, the Atacama Desert in the north and the Andes mountains to the east are barriers that have led to the isolation of flora and fauna. Add to that the enormous length of Chile (over ) and this results in a wide range of climates and environments that can be divided into three general zones: the desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south.
The native flora of Chile consists of relatively fewer species compared to the flora of other South American countries. The northernmost coastal and central region is largely barren of vegetation, approaching the most absolute desert in the world.
On the slopes of the Andes, in addition to the scattered tola desert brush, grasses are found. The central valley is characterized by several species of cacti, the hardy espinos, the Chilean pine, the southern beeches and the copihue, a red bell-shaped flower that is Chile's national flower.
The cold temperatures and winds of the extreme south preclude heavy forestation. Grassland is found in East Magallanes Province and northern Tierra del Fuego (in Patagonia). Much of the Chilean flora is distinct from that of neighboring Argentina, indicating that the Andean barrier existed during its formation. Chile had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.37/10, ranking it 43rd globally out of 172 countries.
Just over 3,000 species of fungi are recorded in Chile, but this number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Chile is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7 percent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered. Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Chile, and 1995 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country.
Chile's geographical isolation has restricted the immigration of faunal life so that only a few of the many distinctive South American animals are found. Among the larger mammals are the puma or cougar, the llama-like guanaco and the fox-like chilla. In the forest region, several types of marsupials and a small deer known as the pudu are found. and subsequently approved via a national plebiscite—regarded as "highly irregular" by some observers
Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the Supreme Court of Chile. In June 2005, Chile completed a nationwide overhaul of its criminal justice system. The reform has replaced inquisitorial proceedings with an adversarial system with greater similarity to that of common law jurisdictions such as the United States.
For parliamentary elections, between 1989 and 2013 the binominal system was used, which promoted the establishment of two majority political blocs -Concertación and Alliance- at the expense of the exclusion of non-majority political groups. The opponents of this system approved in 2015 a moderate proportional electoral system that has been in force since the 2017 parliamentary elections, allowing the entry of new parties and coalitions. The Congress of Chile has a 50-seat Senate and a 155-member Chamber of Deputies. Senators serve for eight years with staggered terms, while deputies are elected every 4 years. The last congressional elections were held on 21 November 2021, concurrently with the presidential election. The Congress is located in the port city of Valparaíso, about west of the capital, Santiago.
The main existing political coalitions in Chile are:
Government:
* Apruebo Dignidad (Approve Dignity) is a left-wing coalition that has its origin in the 2021 Chilean Constitutional Convention election. After the success in that election, it held presidential primaries, in which Gabriel Boric (CS, FA) was the winner. It is formed by the coalition Frente Amplio (Broad Front) and the coalition Chile Digno (Worthy Chile) formed by the Communist Party of Chile and other left-wing parties.
* Democratic Socialism is a center-left coalition, successor of the Constituent Unity coalition, itself a successor of the Concertation coalition which supported the "NO" option in the 1988 plebiscite and subsequently governed the country from 1990 to 2010. This pact is formed by the Socialist, for Democracy, Radical, and Liberal parties.
Opposition:
* Chile Vamos (''Let's go Chile) is a center-right coalition with roots of liberal conservatism, formed by the parties Renovación Nacional (National Renewal), Unión Demócrata Independiente (Independent Democratic Union'') and Evópoli. It has its origins in the Alliance coalition, formed by the main parties that supported the "YES" option in the 1988 plebiscite, although it has used different names since then. It was the ruling coalition during the first and second government of Sebastián Piñera, (2010–2014) and (2018–2022).
In the National Congress, Chile Vamos has 52 deputies and 24 senators, while the parliamentary group of Apruebo Dignidad is formed by 37 deputies and 6 senators. Democratic Socialism is the third political force with 30 deputies and 13 senators. The other groups with parliamentary representation are the Republican Party (15 deputies and 1 senator), the Christian Democratic Party (8 deputies and 5 senators), the Party of the People (8 deputies) and the independents outside of a coalition (5 deputies and 1 senator).
Foreign relations
thumb|upright=1.5|left|State of Chile's international relations in the world:
Since the early decades after independence, Chile has always had an active involvement in foreign affairs. In 1837, the country aggressively challenged the dominance of Peru's port of Callao for preeminence in the Pacific trade routes, defeating the short-lived alliance between Peru and Bolivia, the Peru–Bolivian Confederation (1836–39) in the War of the Confederation. The war dissolved the confederation while distributing power in the Pacific. A second international war, the War of the Pacific (1879–83), further increased Chile's regional role, while adding considerably to its territory.
On 26 June 1945, Chile participated as a founding member of the United Nations being among 50 countries that signed the United Nations Charter in San Francisco, California. With the military coup of 1973, Chile became isolated politically as a result of widespread human rights abuses. It was also elected to one of five non-permanent seats on the UN Security Council in 2013. Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004. It also hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005 and the Ibero-American Summit in November 2007. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile has been a major player in international economic issues and hemispheric free trade. including 2,500 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only eight are operational major combatants (frigates). Those ships are based in Valparaíso. The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates four submarines based in Talcahuano.
Air Force General (four-star) Jorge Rojas Ávila heads the 12,500-strong Chilean Air Force. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on King George Island, Antarctica. The Air Force took delivery of the final two of ten F-16s, all purchased from the U.S., in March 2007 after several decades of U.S. debate and previous refusal to sell. Chile also took delivery in 2007 of a number of reconditioned Block 15 F-16s from the Netherlands, bringing to 18 the total of F-16s purchased from the Dutch. men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.
Chile is the 64th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.
Administrative divisions
In 1978 Chile was administratively divided into regions, and in 1979 subdivided into provinces and these into communes. The country has 16 regions,<!------> 56 provinces and 348 communes.
Each region was designated by a name and a Roman numeral assigned from north to south, except for the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which did not have a number. The creation of two new regions in 2007, Arica and Parinacota (XV) and Los Ríos (XIV), and a third region in 2018, Ñuble (XVI) made this numbering lose its original order meaning.
]]
{|class="wikitable col1izq col2izq col3der col4der col5der col6izq floatcenter"
|-
!colspan=7|Administrative divisions of Chile
|-
! scope"col" | RegionEconomy
]]
The Central Bank of Chile in Santiago serves as the central bank for the country. The Chilean currency is the Chilean peso (CLP). Chile is one of South America's most stable and prosperous nations,
The think tank The Heritage Foundation states that Chile has the highest degree of economic freedom in South America (ranking 22nd worldwide), owing to its independent and efficient judicial system and prudent public finance management. In May 2010 Chile became the first South American country to join the OECD. In 2006, Chile became the country with the highest nominal GDP per capita in Latin America. As of 2020, Chile ranks third in Latin America (behind Uruguay and Panama) in nominal GDP per capita.
Copper mining makes up 20% of Chilean GDP and 60% of exports. Escondida is the largest copper mine in the world, producing over 5% of global supplies. The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6%. Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4% in 2006. GDP expanded by 5% in 2007. Real GDP growth in 2012 was 5.5%. Growth slowed to 4.1% in the first quarter of 2013.
and Titanium La Portada (background) skyscrapers in Sanhattan]]
The unemployment rate was 7.8% in 2022, according to The World Bank. There are reported labor shortages in agriculture, mining, and construction. Critics in Chile, however, argue that true poverty figures are considerably higher than those officially published. Using the relative yardstick favoured in many European countries, 27% of Chileans would be poor, according to Juan Carlos Feres of the ECLAC.
, about 11.1 million people (64% of the population) benefit from government welfare programs, via the "Social Protection Card", which includes the population living in poverty and those at a risk of falling into poverty. The privatized national pension system (AFP) has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP. Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds. Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then. The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006.
Mineral resources
, the largest open pit copper mine in the world]]
Chile is rich in mineral resources, especially copper and lithium. It is thought that due to the importance of lithium for batteries for electric vehicles and stabilization of electric grids with large proportions of intermittent renewables in the electricity mix, Chile could be strengthened geopolitically. However, this perspective has also been criticized for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production in other parts of the world.
The country was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of copper, iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth producer of sulfur and the thirteenth producer of iron ore in the world. In 2023, it was fourth largest silver producer globally. The country also has considerable gold production: between 2006 and 2017, the country produced annual amounts ranging from 35.9 tonnes in 2017 to 51.3 tonnes in 2013, where the gold production in 2015 is 43 metric tonnes.Agriculture
in Puente Alto]]
Agriculture in Chile encompasses a wide range of different activities due to its particular geography, climate and geology and human factors. Historically agriculture is one of the bases of Chile's economy. Now agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing account for only 4.9% of the GDP and employ 13.6% of the country's labor force. Chile is one of the 5 largest world producers of cherry and blueberry, and one of the 10 largest world producers of grape, apple, kiwi, peach, plum and hazelnut, focusing on exporting high-value fruits. Some other major agriculture products of Chile include pears, onions, wheat, maize, oats, garlic, asparagus, beans, beef, poultry, wool, fish, timber and hemp. Due to its geographical isolation and strict customs policies Chile is free from diseases and pests such as mad cow disease, fruit fly and Phylloxera. This, its location in the Southern Hemisphere, which has quite different harvesting times from the Northern Hemisphere, and its wide range of agriculture conditions are considered Chile's main comparative advantages. However, Chile's mountainous landscape limits the extent and intensity of agriculture so that arable land corresponds only to 2.62% of the total territory. Chile currently utilizes 14,015 Hectares of agricultural land.
Chile is the world's second largest producer of salmon, after Norway. In 2019, it was responsible for 26% of the global supply. In wine, Chile is usually among the 10 largest producers in the world. In 2018 it was in 6th place.
Tourism
city, a UNESCO World Heritage Site]]
in Chilean Patagonia]]
s, human figures dated between 1250 and 1500 in the Easter Island]]
Tourism in Chile has experienced sustained growth over the last few decades. In 2005, tourism grew by 13.6%, generating more than 4.5 billion dollars of which 1.5 billion was attributed to foreign tourists. According to the National Service of Tourism (Sernatur), 2 million people a year visit the country. Most of these visitors come from other countries in the American continent, mainly Argentina; followed by a growing number from the United States, Europe, and Brazil with a growing number of Asians from South Korea and China.
The main attractions for tourists are places of natural beauty situated in the extreme zones of the country: San Pedro de Atacama, in the north, is very popular with foreign tourists who arrive to admire the Incaic architecture, the altiplano lakes, and the Valley of the Moon. In Putre, also in the north, there is the Chungará Lake, as well as the Parinacota and the Pomerape volcanoes, with altitudes of 6,348 m and 6,282 m, respectively. Throughout the central Andes there are many ski resorts of international repute, including Portillo, Valle Nevado and Termas de Chillán.
The main tourist sites in the south are national parks (the most popular is Conguillío National Park in the Araucanía) and the coastal area around Tirúa and Cañete with the Isla Mocha and the Nahuelbuta National Park, Chiloé Archipelago and Patagonia, which includes Laguna San Rafael National Park, with its many glaciers, and the Torres del Paine National Park. The central port city of Valparaíso, which is World Heritage with its unique architecture, is also popular. Finally, Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean is one of the main Chilean tourist destinations.
For locals, tourism is concentrated mostly in the summer (December to March), and mainly in the coastal beach towns. Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, La Serena and Coquimbo are the main summer centers in the north, and Pucón on the shores of Lake Villarrica is the main center in the south. Because of its proximity to Santiago, the coast of the Valparaíso Region, with its many beach resorts, receives the largest number of tourists. Viña del Mar, Valparaíso's more affluent northern neighbor, is popular because of its beaches, casino, and its annual song festival, the most important musical event in Latin America. Pichilemu in the O'Higgins Region is widely known as South America's "best surfing spot" according to Fodor's.
In November 2005 the government launched a campaign under the brand "Chile: All Ways Surprising" intended to promote the country internationally for both business and tourism. Museums in Chile such as the Chilean National Museum of Fine Arts built in 1880, feature works by Chilean artists.
Chile is home to the world-renowned Patagonian Trail that resides on the border between Argentina and Chile. Chile recently launched a massive scenic route for tourism in hopes of encouraging development based on conservation. The Route of Parks covers and was designed by Tompkin Conservation (founders Douglas Tompkins and wife Kristine).Transport
at the junction with Route 60]]
Due to Chile's topography a functioning transport network is vital to its economy. In 2020, Chile had of highways, with paved. In the same year, the country had of duplicated highways, the second largest network in South America, after Brazil. Since the mid-1990s, there has been a significant improvement in the country's roads, through bidding processes that allowed the construction of an efficient road network, with emphasis on the duplication of continuous of the Panamerican Highway (Chile Route 5) between Puerto Montt and Caldera (in addition to the planned duplication in the Atacama Desert area), the excerpts in between Santiago, Valparaiso and the Central Coast, and the northern access to Concepción and the large project of the Santiago urban highways network, opened between 2004 and 2006. Buses are now the main means of long-distance transportation in Chile, following the decline of its railway network. The bus system covers the entire country, from Arica to Santiago (a 30-hour journey) and from Santiago to Punta Arenas (about 40 hours, with a change at Osorno).
Chile has a total of 372 runways (62 paved and 310 unpaved). Important airports in Chile include Chacalluta International Airport (Arica), Diego Aracena International Airport (Iquique), Andrés Sabella Gálvez International Airport
(Antofagasta), Carriel Sur International Airport (Concepción), El Tepual International Airport (Puerto Montt), Presidente Carlos Ibáñez del Campo International Airport (Punta Arenas), La Araucanía International Airport (Temuco), Mataveri International Airport (Easter Island), the most remote airport in the world, as defined by distance to another airport, and the Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport (Santiago) with a traffic of 12,105,524 passengers in 2011. Santiago is headquarters of Latin America's largest airline holding company and Chilean flag carrier LATAM Airlines.
Internet and telecommunications
in Santiago de Chile, with the Andes mountains in the background]]
Chile has a telecommunication system which covers much of the country, including Chilean insular and Antarctic bases. Privatization of the telephone system began in 1988; Chile has one of the most advanced telecommunications infrastructure in South America with a modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities and a domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations.
The Chilean internet country code is ".cl". In 2017 the government of Chile launched its first cyber security strategy, which receives technical support from the Organization of American States (OAS) Cyber Security Program of the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism (CICTE).
Energy
near Canela, Chile]]
Chile's total energy supply (TES) was 23.0GJ per capita in 2020. Energy in Chile is dominated by fossil fuels, with coal, oil and gas accounting for 73.4% of the total primary energy. Biofuels and waste account for another 20.5% of primary energy supply, with the rest sourced from hydro and other renewables. As the Atacama Desert has the highest solar irradiation in the world, and Chile has always had problems obtaining oil, gas and coal (the country basically does not produce them, so it has to import them), renewable energy is seen as the solution for the country's shortcomings in the energy field.
In 2023 Chile emitted 107.99 million tonnes of greenhouse gases, equivalent to around 0.2% of the global total. In recent years Chile has emerged as a global leader in clean energy, particularly solar and wind. and has committed to net zero by 2050. According to Climate Action Tracker, the nation is making "considerable progress" in climate action by expanding renewables and phasing-out coal. Demographics
Chile's 2017 census reported a population of 17,574,003. Its rate of population growth has been decreasing since 1990, due to a declining birth rate. By 2050 the population is expected to reach approximately 20.2 million people.
Ancestry and ethnicity
women of Tirúa]]
Mexican professor Francisco Lizcano, of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, estimated that 52.7% of Chileans were white, 39.3% were mestizo, and 8% were Amerindian. According to Encyclopædia Britannica as of year 2002 only 22% of Chileans were white and 72% were mestizo.
In 1984, a study called Sociogenetic Reference Framework for Public Health Studies in Chile, from the Revista de Pediatría de Chile determined an ancestry of 67.9% European, and 32.1% Native American. In 1994, a biological study determined that the Chilean composition was 64% European and 35% Amerindian. The recent study in the Candela Project establishes that the genetic composition of Chile is 52% of European origin, with 44% of the genome coming from Native Americans (Amerindians), and 4% coming from Africa, making Chile a primarily mestizo country with traces of African descent present in half of the population. Another genetic study conducted by the University of Brasília in several South American countries shows a similar genetic composition for Chile, with a European contribution of 51.6%, an Amerindian contribution of 42.1%, and an African contribution of 6.3%. In 2015 another study established genetic composition in 57% European, 38% Native American, and 2.5% African.
A public health booklet from the University of Chile states that 35% of the population is of Caucasian origin; "predominantly White" Mestizos are estimated to amount to a total of 65%, while Native Americans (Amerindians) comprise the remaining 5%.
Despite the genetic considerations, many Chileans, if asked, would self-identify as White. The 2011 Latinobarómetro survey asked respondents in Chile what race they considered themselves to belong to. Most answered "White" (59%), while 25% said "Mestizo" and 8% self-classified as "indigenous". A 2002 national poll revealed that a majority of Chileans believed they possessed some (43.4%) or much (8.3%) "indigenous blood", while 40.3% responded that they had none.
Chile is one of 22 countries to have signed and ratified the only binding international law concerning indigenous peoples, the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989. It was adopted in 1989 as the International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 169. Chile ratified it in 2008. A Chilean court decision in November 2009, considered to be a landmark ruling on indigenous rights, made use of the convention. The Supreme Court decision on Aymara water rights upheld rulings by both the Pozo Almonte tribunal and the Iquique Court of Appeals and marks the first judicial application of ILO Convention 169 in Chile.
The earliest European immigrants were Spanish colonizers who arrived in the 16th century. The Amerindian population of central Chile was absorbed into the Spanish settler population in the beginning of the colonial period to form the large mestizo population that exists in Chile today; mestizos create modern middle and lower classes. In the 18th and 19th centuries, many Basques came to Chile where they integrated into the existing elites of Castilian origin. Postcolonial Chile was never a particularly attractive destination for migrants, owing to its remoteness and distance from Europe. Europeans preferred to stay in countries closer to their homelands instead of taking the long journey through the Straits of Magellan or crossing the Andes. Spaniards were the only major European migrant group to Chile, and there was never large-scale immigration such as that to Argentina or Brazil. Great Britain, Germany, and Croatia, among others. Descendants of different European ethnic groups often intermarried in Chile. This intermarriage and mixture of cultures and races have helped to shape the present society and culture of the Chilean middle and upper classes. Also, roughly 500,000 of Chile's population is of full or partial Palestinian origin, and 800,000 Arab descents. Chile currently has 1.5 million of Latin American immigrants, mainly from Venezuela, Peru, Haiti, Colombia, Bolivia and Argentina; 8% of the total population in 2019, without counting descendants. According to the 2002 national census, Chile's foreign-born population has increased by 75% since 1992. As of November 2021, numbers of people entering Chile from elsewhere in Latin America have grown swiftly in the last decade, tripling in the last three years to 1.5 million, with arrivals stemming from humanitarian crises in Haiti (ca. 180,000) and Venezuela (ca 460,000).
Urbanization
About 85% of the country's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living in Greater Santiago. The largest agglomerations according to the 2002 census are Greater Santiago with 5.6 million people, Greater Concepción with 861,000
and Greater Valparaíso with 824,000.
Religion
}}
, built between 1748 and 1906]]
, built in the 18th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage site ]]
Historically, the indigenous peoples in Chile observed a variety of religions before the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. During Spanish rule and the first century of Chilean independence, the Catholic Church was one of the most powerful institutions in the country. In the late 19th century, liberal policies (the so-called Leyes laicas or "lay laws") started to reduce the influence of the clergy and the promulgation of a new Constitution in 1925 established the separation of church and state.
, 66.6% of Chilean population over 15 years of age claimed to adhere to the Roman Catholic church, a decrease from the 70% reported in the 2002 census. In the same census of 2012, 17% of Chileans reported adherence to an Evangelical church ("Evangelical" in the census referred to all Christian denominations other than the Roman Catholic and Orthodox—Greek, Persian, Serbian, Ukrainian, and Armenian—churches, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventists, and Jehovah's Witnesses: essentially, those denominations generally still termed "Protestant" in most English-speaking lands, although Adventism is often considered an Evangelical denomination as well). Approximately 90% of Evangelical Christians are Pentecostal. but Wesleyan, Lutheran, Anglican, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, other Reformed, Baptist, and Methodist churches also are present amongst Chilean Evangelical churches. Irreligious people, atheists, and agnostics account for around 12% of the population.
By 2015, the major religion in Chile remained Christianity (68%), with an estimated 55% of Chileans belonging to the Roman Catholic church, 13% to various Evangelical churches, and just 7% adhering to any other religion. Agnostics and atheist were estimated at 25% of the population.
Chile has a Baháʼí religious community, and is home to the Baháʼí mother temple, or continental House of Worship, for Latin America. Completed in 2016, it serves as a space for people of all religions and backgrounds to gather, meditate, reflect, and worship. It is formed from cast glass and translucent marble and has been described as innovative in its architectural style.
The Constitution guarantees the right to freedom of religion, and other laws and policies contribute to generally free religious practice. The law at all levels fully protects this right against abuse by either governmental or private actors. Government officials attend Roman Catholic events as well as major Evangelical and Jewish ceremonies.
The patron saints of Chile are Our Lady of Mount Carmel and Saint James the Greater (Santiago). In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI canonized Alberto Hurtado, who became the country's second native Roman Catholic saint after Teresa de los Andes.
Languages
written in Mapuche language and Chilean Spanish. The Mapudungun alphabet used here does not reflect an agreed-upon standard. In fact, there are three distinct alphabets currently used to write the Mapuche language.]]
The Spanish spoken in Chile is distinctively accented and quite unlike that of neighboring South American countries because final syllables are often dropped, and some consonants have a soft pronunciation. Accent varies only very slightly from north to south; more noticeable are the differences in accent based on social class or whether one lives in the city or the country. That the Chilean population was largely formed in a small section at the center of the country and then migrated in modest numbers to the north and south helps explain this relative lack of differentiation, which was maintained by the national reach of radio, and now television, which also helps to diffuse and homogenize colloquial expressions.
German is still spoken to some extent in southern Chile, either in small countryside pockets or as a second language among the communities of larger cities.
Through initiatives such as the English Opens Doors Program, the government made English mandatory for students in fifth grade and above in public schools. Most private schools in Chile start teaching English from kindergarten. Common English words have been absorbed and appropriated into everyday Spanish speech.
Health
(Fonasa)]]
The Ministry of Health (Minsal) is the cabinet-level administrative office in charge of planning, directing, coordinating, executing, controlling and informing the public health policies formulated by the President of Chile. The National Health Fund (Fonasa), created in 1979, is the financial entity entrusted to collect, manage and distribute state funds for health in Chile. It is funded by the public. All employees pay 7% of their monthly income to the fund.
Fonasa is part of the NHSS and has executive power through the Ministry of Health (Chile). Its headquarters are in Santiago and decentralized public service is conducted by various Regional Offices. More than 12 million beneficiaries benefit from Fonasa. Beneficiaries can also opt for more costly private insurance through Isapre.
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index, Chile is one of 22 countries with a GHI score of less than 5.
Education
of the University of Chile in Santiago]]
In Chile, education begins with preschool until the age of 5. Primary school is provided for children between ages 6 and 13. Students then attend secondary school until graduation at age 17.
Secondary education is divided into two parts: During the first two years, students receive a general education. Then, they choose a branch: scientific humanistic education, artistic education, or technical and professional education. Secondary school ends two years later on the acquirement of a certificate (licencia de enseñanza media).
Chilean education is segregated by wealth in a three-tiered system – the quality of the schools reflects socioeconomic backgrounds:
* city schools (colegios municipales) that are mostly free and have the worst education results, mostly attended by poor students;
* subsidized schools that receive some money from the government which can be supplemented by fees paid by the student's family, which are attended by mid-income students and typically get mid-level results; and
* entirely private schools that consistently get the best results. Many private schools charge attendance fees of 0,5 to 1 median household income.
Upon successful graduation of secondary school, students may continue into higher education. The higher education schools in Chile consist of Chilean Traditional Universities and are divided into public universities or private universities. There are medical schools and both the Universidad de Chile and Universidad Diego Portales offer law schools in a partnership with Yale University.Culture
From the period between early agricultural settlements and up to the late pre-Columbian period, northern Chile was a region of Andean culture that was influenced by altiplano traditions spreading to the coastal valleys of the north, while southern regions were areas of Mapuche cultural activities. Throughout the colonial period following the conquest, and during the early Republican period, the country's culture was dominated by the Spanish. Other European influences, primarily English, French, and German began in the 19th century and have continued to this day. German migrants influenced the Bavarian style rural architecture and cuisine in the south of Chile in cities such as Valdivia, Frutillar, Puerto Varas, Osorno, Temuco, Puerto Octay, Llanquihue, Faja Maisan, Pitrufquén, Victoria, Pucón and Puerto Montt.
Music and dance
, one of the most recognized Chilean rock bands]]
Music in Chile ranges from folkloric, popular and classical music. Its large geography generates different musical styles in the north, center and south of the country, including also Easter Island and Mapuche music. The national dance is the cueca. Another form of traditional Chilean song, though not a dance, is the tonada. Arising from music imported by the Spanish colonists, it is distinguished from the cueca by an intermediate melodic section and a more prominent melody.
From the 1950s to the 1970s, native folk musical forms were revitalized with the movement led by composers such as Violeta Parra, Raúl de Ramón and Pedro Messone, which was also associated with political activists and reformers such as Víctor Jara, Inti-Illimani, and Quilapayún. Also, many Chilean rock bands like Los Jaivas, Los Prisioneros, La Ley, Los Tres and Los Bunkers have reached international success, some incorporating strong folk influences, such as Los Jaivas. In February, annual music and comedy festivals are held in Viña del Mar.
Literature
Chile is a country of poets. Gabriela Mistral was the first Latin American to receive a Nobel Prize in Literature (1945). Chile's most famous poet is Pablo Neruda, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature (1971) and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics. His three highly personalized homes in Isla Negra, Santiago and Valparaíso are popular tourist destinations.
Among the list of other Chilean poets are Carlos Pezoa Véliz, Vicente Huidobro, Gonzalo Rojas, Pablo de Rokha, Nicanor Parra, Ivonne Coñuecar and Raúl Zurita. Isabel Allende is the best-selling Chilean novelist, with 51 million of her novels sold worldwide. Novelist José Donoso's novel The Obscene Bird of Night is considered by critic Harold Bloom to be one of the canonical works of 20th-century Western literature. Another internationally recognized Chilean novelist and poet is Roberto Bolaño whose translations into English have had an excellent reception from the critics.Cuisine
(barbecue) and marraqueta'']]
Chilean cuisine is a reflection of the country's topographical variety, featuring an assortment of seafood, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Traditional recipes include asado, cazuela, empanadas, humitas, pastel de choclo, pastel de papas, curanto, and sopaipillas. Crudos is an example of the mixture of culinary contributions from the various ethnic influences in Chile. The raw minced llama, heavy use of shellfish, and rice bread were taken from native Quechua Andean cuisine, (although beef, brought to Chile by Europeans, is also used in place of the llama meat), lemon and onions were brought by the Spanish colonists, and the use of mayonnaise and yogurt was introduced by German immigrants, as was beer.
Folklore
The folklore of Chile, cultural and demographic characteristics of the country, is the result of the mixture of Spanish and Amerindian elements that occurred during the colonial period. Due to cultural and historical reasons, they are classified and distinguished four major areas in the country: northern areas, central, southern and south. Most of the traditions of the culture of Chile have a festive purpose, but some, such as dances and ceremonies, have religious components.
Chilean mythology is the mythology and beliefs of the Folklore of Chile. This includes Chilote mythology, Rapa Nui mythology and Mapuche mythology.
Sports
]]
Chile's most popular sport is association football. Chile has appeared in nine FIFA World Cups which includes hosting the 1962 FIFA World Cup where the national football team finished third. Other results achieved by the national football team include two Copa América titles (2015 and 2016), two runners-up positions, one silver and two bronze medals at the Pan American Games, a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics and two third places finishes in the FIFA under-17 and under-20 youth tournaments. The top league in the Chilean football league system is the Chilean Primera División, which is named by the IFFHS as the ninth strongest national football league in the world.
The main football clubs are Colo-Colo, Universidad de Chile and Universidad Católica. Colo-Colo is the country's most successful football club, having both the most national and international championships, including the coveted Copa Libertadores South American club tournament. Universidad de Chile was the last international champion (Copa Sudamericana 2011).
Tennis is Chile's most successful sport. Its national team won the World Team Cup clay tournament twice (2003 & 2004), and played the Davis Cup final against Italy in 1976. At the 2004 Summer Olympics the country captured gold and bronze in men's singles and gold in men's doubles (Nicolás Massú obtained two gold medals). Marcelo Ríos became the first Latin American man to reach the number one spot in the ATP singles rankings in 1998. Anita Lizana won the US Open in 1937, becoming the first woman from Latin America to win a Grand Slam tournament. Luis Ayala was twice a runner-up at the French Open and both Ríos and Fernando González reached the Australian Open men's singles finals. González also won a silver medal in singles at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.
At the Summer Olympic Games Chile boasts a total of two gold medals (tennis), seven silver medals (athletics, equestrian, boxing, shooting and tennis) and four bronze medals (tennis, boxing and football). In 2012, Chile won its first Paralympic Games medal (gold in Athletics).
and the trophy of the 2015 World Polo Championship]]
Rodeo is the country's national sport and is practiced in the more rural areas of the nation. A sport similar to hockey called chueca was played by the Mapuche people during the Spanish conquest. Skiing and snowboarding are practiced at ski centers located in the Central Andes, and in southern ski centers near to cities as Osorno, Puerto Varas, Temuco and Punta Arenas. Surfing is popular at some coastal towns. Polo is professionally practiced within Chile, with the country achieving top prize in the 2008 and 2015 World Polo Championship.
Basketball is a popular sport in which Chile earned a bronze medal in the first men's FIBA World Championship held in 1950 and won a second bronze medal when Chile hosted the 1959 FIBA World Championship. Chile hosted the first FIBA World Championship for Women in 1953 finishing the tournament with the silver medal. San Pedro de Atacama is host to the annual "Atacama Crossing", a six-stage, footrace which annually attracts about 150 competitors from 35 countries. The Dakar Rally off-road automobile race has been held in both Chile and Argentina since 2009.
Cultural heritage
]]
The cultural heritage of Chile consists, first, of its intangible heritage, composed of various cultural events and activities, such as visual arts, crafts, dances, holidays, cuisine, games, music and traditions. Secondly, its tangible heritage consists of those buildings, objects and sites of archaeological, architectural, traditional, artistic, ethnographic, folkloric, historical, religious or technological significance scattered through Chilean territory. Among them, some are declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972, ratified by Chile in 1980. These cultural sites are the Rapa Nui National Park (1995), the Churches of Chiloé (2000), the historical district of the port city of Valparaíso (2003), Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works (2005) and the mining city Sewell (2006).
In 1999 Cultural Heritage Day was established as a way to honour and commemorate Chile's cultural heritage. It is an official national event celebrated in May every year.
See also
* Index of Chile-related articles
* Outline of Chile
References
Notes
<references group"lower-alpha" />
Citations
Further reading
* Christian Balteum: The Strip. A Marxist critique of a semicomparador economy, University of Vermont Press, 2018
* Simon Collier and William F. Sater, A History of Chile, 1808–1894, Cambridge University Press, 1996
* Paul W. Drake, and others., Chile: A Country Study, Library of Congress, 1994
* Luis Galdames, A History of Chile, University of North Carolina Press, 1941
*
* Brian Lovemen, Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism, 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, 2001
* John L. Rector, The History of Chile, Greenwood Press, 2003
External links
*[https://www.gob.cl/en/ Official Chile Government website]
*[https://thisischile.cl ThisIsChile Tourism & Commerce Website]
*[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/chile/ Chile]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081011194320/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/chile.htm Chile] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1222764.stm Chile profile] from the BBC News
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140116103522/http://www.ubicachile.cl/ Road maps of Chile, interactive]
*[http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/CHL/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Chile]
*
*
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CL Key Development Forecasts for Chile] from International Futures
* [http://www.chileculture.org/ Chile Cultural Society]
}}
Category:G15 nations
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Category:Spanish-speaking countries and territories
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Category:CPTPP | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile | 2025-04-05T18:27:15.273932 |
5490 | History of Chile | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
The territory of Chile has been populated since at least 3000 BC. By the 16th century, Spanish invaders began to raid the region of present-day Chile, and the territory was a colony from 1540 to 1818, when it gained independence from Spain. The country's economic development was successively marked by the export of first agricultural produce, then saltpeter and later copper. The wealth of raw materials led to an economic upturn, but also led to dependency, and even wars with neighboring states. Chile was governed during most of its first 150 years of independence by different forms of restricted government, where the electorate was carefully vetted and controlled by an elite.
Failure to address the economic and social increases and increasing political awareness of the less-affluent population, as well as indirect intervention and economic funding to the main political groups by the CIA, as part of the Cold War, led to a political polarization under Socialist president Salvador Allende. This in turn resulted in the 1973 coup d'état and the military dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet, whose seventeen-year regime was responsible for many human rights violations and deep market-oriented economic reforms. In 1990, Chile made a peaceful transition to democracy and initiate a succession of democratic governments.Early history (pre-1540)
About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in the fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile. Pre-Hispanic Chile was home to over a dozen different Amerindian societies. The current prevalent theories are that the initial arrival of humans to the continent took place either along the Pacific coast southwards in a rather rapid expansion long preceding the Clovis culture, or even trans-Pacific migration. These theories are backed by findings in the Monte Verde archaeological site, which predates the Clovis site by thousands of years. Specific early human settlement sites from the very early human habitation in Chile include the Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Crater's lava tube.
, a Pre-Columbian Atacameño culture]]
Despite such diversity, it is possible to classify the indigenous people into three major cultural groups: the northern people, who developed rich handicrafts and were influenced by pre-Incan cultures; the Araucanian culture, who inhabited the area between the river Choapa and the island of Chiloé, and lived primarily off agriculture; and the Patagonian culture composed of various nomadic tribes, who supported themselves through fishing and hunting (and who in Pacific/Pacific Coast immigration scenario would be descended partly from the most ancient settlers).
No elaborate, centralized, sedentary civilization reigned supreme.
The Araucanians, a fragmented society of hunters, gatherers, and farmers, constituted the largest Native American group in Chile. Mobile people who engaged in trade and warfare with other indigenous groups lived in scattered family clusters and small villages. Although the Araucanians had no written language, they did use a common tongue. Those in what became central Chile were more settled and more likely to use irrigation. Those in the south combined slash-and-burn agriculture with hunting. Of the three Araucanian groups, the one that mounted the fiercest resistance to the attempts at seizure of their territory were the Mapuche, meaning "people of the land." As the Spaniards would after them, the Incas encountered fierce resistance and so were unable to exert control in the south. During their attempts at conquest in 1460 and again in 1491, the Incas established forts in the Central Valley of Chile, but they could not colonize the region. The Mapuche fought against the Sapa Tupac Inca Yupanqui (c. 1471–1493) and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river, which subsequently became the boundary between the Incan empire and the Mapuche lands until the arrival of the Spaniards.
Scholars speculate that the total Araucanian population may have numbered 1.5 million at most when the Spaniards arrived in the 1530s; a century of European conquest and disease reduced that number by at least half. During the conquest, the Araucanians quickly added horses and European weaponry to their arsenal of clubs and bows and arrows. They became adept at raiding Spanish settlements and, albeit in declining numbers, managed to hold off the Spaniards and their descendants until the late 19th century. The Araucanians' valor inspired the Chileans to mythologize them as the nation's first national heroes, a status that did nothing, however, to elevate the wretched living standard of their descendants. used by Magellan to describe the native people whom his expedition thought to be giants. It is now believed the Patagons were actually Tehuelches with an average height of 1.80 m (~5′11″) compared to the 1.55 m (~5′1″) average for Spaniards of the time.
The Argentine portion of Patagonia includes the provinces of Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut and Santa Cruz, as well as the eastern portion of Tierra del Fuego archipelago. The Argentine politico-economic Patagonic Region includes the Province of La Pampa.
The Chilean part of Patagonia embraces the southern part of Valdivia, Los Lagos in Lake Llanquihue, Chiloé, Puerto Montt and the Archaeological site of Monte Verde, also the fiords and islands south to the regions of Aisén and Magallanes, including the west side of Tierra del Fuego and Cape Horn.
European conquest and colonization (1540–1810)
]]
The first European to sight Chilean territory was Ferdinand Magellan, who crossed the Strait of Magellan on November 1, 1520. However, the title of discoverer of Chile is usually assigned to Diego de Almagro. Almagro was Francisco Pizarro's partner, and he received the Southern area (Nueva Toledo). He organized an expedition that brought him to central Chile in 1537, but he found little of value to compare with the gold and silver of the Incas in Peru. Left with the impression that the inhabitants of the area were poor, he returned to Peru, later to be garotted following defeat by Hernando Pizarro in a Civil War.
After this initial excursion there was little interest from colonial authorities in further exploring modern-day Chile. However, Pedro de Valdivia, captain of the army, realizing the potential for expanding the Spanish empire southward, asked Pizarro's permission to invade and conquer the southern lands. With a couple of hundred men, he subdued the local inhabitants and founded the city of Santiago de Nueva Extremadura, now Santiago de Chile, on February 12, 1541.
" of Pedro Subercaseaux that show to genius military and hero of the Arauco war after the arrival of the Spanish to Chilean territory]]
Although Valdivia found little gold in Chile he could see the agricultural richness of the land. He continued his explorations of the region west of the Andes and founded over a dozen towns and established the first encomiendas. The greatest resistance to Spanish rule came from the Mapuche people, who opposed European conquest and colonization until the 1880s; this resistance is known as the Arauco War. Valdivia died at the Battle of Tucapel, defeated by Lautaro, a young Mapuche toqui (war chief), but the European conquest was well underway.
The Spaniards never subjugated the Mapuche territories; various attempts at conquest, both by military and peaceful means, failed. The Great Uprising of 1598 swept all Spanish presence south of the Bío-Bío River except Chiloé (and Valdivia which was decades later reestablished as a fort), and the great river became the frontier line between Mapuche lands and the Spanish realm.
North of that line cities grew up slowly, and Chilean lands eventually became an important source of food for the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Valdivia became the first governor of the Captaincy General of Chile. In that post, he obeyed the viceroy of Peru and, through him, the King of Spain and his bureaucracy. Responsible to the governor, town councils known as Cabildo administered local municipalities, the most important of which was Santiago, which was the seat of a Royal Appeals Court (Real Audiencia) from 1609 until the end of colonial rule.
Chile was the least wealthy realm of the Spanish Crown for most of its colonial history. Only in the 18th century did a steady economic and demographic growth begin, an effect of the reforms by Spain's Bourbon dynasty and a more stable situation along the frontier.
Independence (1810–1818)
]]
The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by the usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte. The Chilean War of Independence was part of the larger Spanish American independence movement, and it was far from having unanimous support among Chileans, who became divided between independentists and royalists. What started as an elitist political movement against their colonial master, finally ended as a full-fledged civil war between pro-Independence Criollos who sought political and economic independence from Spain and royalist Criollos, who supported the continued allegiance to and permanence within the Spanish Empire of the Captaincy General of Chile. The struggle for independence was a war within the upper class, although the majority of troops on both sides consisted of conscripted mestizos and Native Americans.
The beginning of the Independence movement is traditionally dated as of September 18, 1810, when a national junta was established to govern Chile in the name of the deposed king Ferdinand VII. Depending on what terms one uses to define the end, the movement extended until 1821 (when the Spanish were expelled from mainland Chile) or 1826 (when the last Spanish troops surrendered and Chiloé was incorporated into the Chilean republic). The independence process is normally divided into three stages: Patria Vieja, Reconquista, and Patria Nueva.
Chile's first experiment with self-government, the "Patria Vieja" (old fatherland, 1810–1814), was led by José Miguel Carrera, an aristocrat then in his mid-twenties. The military-educated Carrera was a heavy-handed ruler who aroused widespread opposition. Another of the earliest advocates of full independence, Bernardo O'Higgins, captained a rival faction that plunged the Criollos into civil war. For him and certain other members of the Chilean elite, the initiative for temporary self-rule quickly escalated into a campaign for permanent independence, although other Criollos remained loyal to Spain.
Among those favouring independence, conservatives fought with liberals over the degree to which French revolutionary ideas would be incorporated into the movement. After several efforts, Spanish troops from Peru took advantage of the internecine strife to reconquer Chile in 1814, when they reasserted control by the Battle of Rancagua on October 12. O'Higgins, Carrera and many of the Chilean rebels escaped to Argentina.
The second period was characterized by the Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during the period known as the Reconquista of 1814–1817 ("Reconquest": the term echoes the Reconquista in which the Christian kingdoms retook Iberia from the Muslims). During this period, the harsh rule of the Spanish loyalists, who punished suspected rebels, drove more and more Chileans into the insurrectionary camp. More members of the Chilean elite were becoming convinced of the necessity of full independence, regardless of who sat on the throne of Spain. As the leader of guerrilla raids against the Spaniards, Manuel Rodríguez became a national symbol of resistance.
(February 12, 1817) led by José de San Martín]]
In exile in Argentina, O'Higgins joined forces with José de San Martín. Their combined army freed Chile with a daring assault over the Andes in 1817, defeating the Spaniards at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12 and marking the beginning of the Patria Nueva. San Martín considered the liberation of Chile a strategic stepping-stone to the emancipation of Peru, which he saw as the key to hemispheric victory over the Spanish.
Chile won its formal independence when San Martín defeated the last large Spanish force on Chilean soil at the Battle of Maipú on April 5, 1818. San Martín then led his Argentine and Chilean followers north to liberate Peru; and fighting continued in Chile's southern provinces, the bastion of the royalists, until 1826.
A declaration of independence was officially issued by Chile on February 12, 1818, and formally recognized by Spain in 1840, when full diplomatic relations were established.
Republican era (1818–1891)
Constitutional organization (1818–1833)
]]
. The painting depicts a woman being kidnapped during a malón]]
From 1817 to 1823, Bernardo O'Higgins ruled Chile as supreme director. He won plaudits for defeating royalists and founding schools, but civil strife continued. O'Higgins alienated liberals and provincials with his authoritarianism, conservatives and the church with his anticlericalism, and landowners with his proposed reforms of the land tenure system. His attempt to devise a constitution in 1818 that would legitimize his government failed, as did his effort to generate stable funding for the new administration. O'Higgins's dictatorial behavior aroused resistance in the provinces. This growing discontent was reflected in the continuing opposition of partisans of Carrera, who was executed by the Argentine regime in Mendoza in 1821, as were his two brothers three years earlier.
Although opposed by many liberals, O'Higgins angered the Roman Catholic Church with his liberal beliefs. He maintained Catholicism's status as the official state religion but tried to curb the church's political powers and to encourage religious tolerance as a means of attracting Protestant immigrants and traders. Like the church, the landed aristocracy felt threatened by O'Higgins, resenting his attempts to eliminate noble titles and, more important, to eliminate entailed estates.
O'Higgins's opponents also disapproved of his diversion of Chilean resources to aid San Martín's liberation of Peru. O'Higgins insisted on supporting that campaign because he realized that Chilean independence would not be secure until the Spaniards were routed from the Andean core of the empire. However, amid mounting discontent, troops from the northern and southern provinces forced O'Higgins to resign. Embittered, O'Higgins departed for Peru, where he died in 1842.
After O'Higgins went into exile in 1823, civil conflict continued, focusing mainly on the issues of anticlericalism and regionalism. Presidents and constitutions rose and fell quickly in the 1820s. The civil struggle's harmful effects on the economy, and particularly on exports, prompted conservatives to seize national control in 1830.
In the minds of most members of the Chilean elite, the bloodshed and chaos of the late 1820s were attributable to the shortcomings of liberalism and federalism, which had been dominant over conservatism for most of the period. The political camp became divided by supporters of O'Higgins, Carrera, liberal Pipiolos and conservative Pelucones, the two last being the main movements that prevailed and absorbed the rest. The abolition of slavery in 1823—long before most other countries in the Americas—was considered one of the Pipiolos' few lasting achievements. One Pipiolo leader from the south, Ramón Freire, rode in and out of the presidency several times (1823–1827, 1828, 1829, 1830) but could not sustain his authority. From May 1827 to September 1831, with the exception of brief interventions by Freire, the presidency was occupied by Francisco Antonio Pinto, Freire's former vice president.
In August 1828, Pinto's first year in office, Chile abandoned its short-lived federalist system for a unitary form of government, with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. By adopting a moderately liberal constitution in 1828, Pinto alienated both the federalists and the liberal factions. He also angered the old aristocracy by abolishing estates inherited by primogeniture (mayorazgo) and caused a public uproar with his anticlericalism. After the defeat of his liberal army at the Battle of Lircay on April 17, 1830, Freire, like O'Higgins, went into exile in Peru.
Conservative Era (1830–1861)
]]
Although never president, Diego Portales dominated Chilean politics from the cabinet and behind the scenes from 1830 to 1837. He installed the "autocratic republic", which centralized authority in the national government. His political program enjoyed support from merchants, large landowners, foreign capitalists, the church, and the military. Political and economic stability reinforced each other, as Portales encouraged economic growth through free trade and put government finances in order. Portales was an agnostic who said that he believed in the clergy but not in God. He realized the importance of the Roman Catholic Church as a bastion of loyalty, legitimacy, social control and stability, as had been the case in the colonial period. He repealed Liberal reforms that had threatened church privileges and properties.
The "Portalian State" was institutionalized by the Chilean Constitution of 1833. One of the most durable charters ever devised in Latin America, the Portalian constitution lasted until 1925. The constitution concentrated authority in the national government, more precisely, in the hands of the president, who was elected by a tiny minority. The chief executive could serve two consecutive five-year terms and then pick a successor. Although the Congress had significant budgetary powers, it was overshadowed by the president, who appointed provincial officials. The constitution also created an independent judiciary, guaranteed inheritance of estates by primogeniture, and installed Catholicism as the state religion. In short, it established an autocratic system under a republican veneer.
Portales also achieved his objectives by wielding dictatorial powers, censoring the press, and manipulating elections. For the next forty years, Chile's armed forces would be distracted from meddling in politics by skirmishes and defensive operations on the southern frontier, although some units got embroiled in domestic conflicts in 1851 and 1859.
The Portalian president was General Joaquín Prieto, who served two terms (1831–1836, 1836–1841). President Prieto had four main accomplishments: implementation of the 1833 constitution, stabilization of government finances, defeat of provincial challenges to central authority, and victory over the Peru-Bolivia Confederation. During the presidencies of Prieto and his two successors, Chile modernized through the construction of ports, railroads, and telegraph lines, some built by United States entrepreneur William Wheelwright. These innovations facilitated the export-import trade as well as domestic commerce.
, 1854]]
Prieto and his adviser, Portales, feared the efforts of Bolivian general Andrés de Santa Cruz to unite with Peru against Chile. These qualms exacerbated animosities toward Peru dating from the colonial period, now intensified by disputes over customs duties and loans. Chile also wanted to become the dominant South American military and commercial power along the Pacific. Santa Cruz united Peru and Bolivia in the Peru–Bolivian Confederation in 1836 with a desire to expand control over Argentina and Chile. Portales got Congress to declare war on the Confederation. Portales was killed by traitors in 1837. The general Manuel Bulnes defeated the Confederation in the Battle of Yungay in 1839.
After his success Bulnes was elected president in 1841. He served two terms (1841–1846, 1846–1851). His administration concentrated on the occupation of the territory, especially the Strait of Magellan and the Araucanía. The Venezuelan Andres Bello made important intellectual advances in this period, most notably the creation of the University of Santiago. But political tensions, including a liberal rebellion, led to the Chilean Civil War of 1851. In the end the conservatives defeated the liberals.
The last conservative president was Manuel Montt, who also served two terms (1851–1856, 1856–1861), but his poor administration led to the liberal rebellion in 1859. Liberals triumphed in 1861 with the election of Jose Joaquin Perez as president.
]]
Liberal era (1861–1891)
The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful.
Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by persistently suppressing the Mapuche during the Occupation of the Araucanía. In 1881, it signed the Boundary Treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan, but conceding all of oriental Patagonia, and a considerable fraction of the territory it had during colonial times. As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–1883), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence.
In the 1870s, the church influence started to diminish slightly with the passing of several laws that took some old roles of the church into the State's hands such as the registry of births and marriages.
]]
In 1886, José Manuel Balmaceda was elected president. His economic policies visibly changed the existing liberal policies. He began to violate the constitution and slowly began to establish a dictatorship. Congress decided to depose Balmaceda, who refused to step down. Jorge Montt, among others, directed an armed conflict against Balmaceda, which soon extended into the 1891 Chilean Civil War. Defeated, Balmaceda fled to Argentina's embassy, where he committed suicide. Jorge Montt became the new president.
Parliamentary era (1891–1925)
The so-called Parliamentary Republic was not a true parliamentary system, in which the chief executive is elected by the legislature. It was, however, an unusual regime in presidentialist Latin America, for Congress really did overshadow the rather ceremonial office of the president and exerted authority over the chief executive's cabinet appointees. In turn, Congress was dominated by the landed elites. This was the heyday of classic political and economic liberalism.
For many decades thereafter, historians derided the Parliamentary Republic as a quarrel-prone system that merely distributed spoils and clung to its laissez-faire policy while national problems mounted. The characterization is epitomized by an observation made by President Ramón Barros Luco (1910–1915), reputedly made in reference to labor unrest: "There are only two kinds of problems: those that solve themselves and those that can't be solved."
At the mercy of Congress, cabinets came and went frequently, although there was more stability and continuity in public administration than some historians have suggested. Chile also temporarily resolved its border disputes with Argentina with the Puna de Atacama Lawsuit of 1899, the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina and the 1902 General Treaty of Arbitration, though not without engaging in an expensive naval arms race beforehand.
Political authority ran from local electoral bosses in the provinces through the congressional and executive branches, which reciprocated with payoffs from taxes on nitrate sales. Congressmen often won election by bribing voters in this clientelistic and corrupt system. Many politicians relied on intimidated or loyal peasant voters in the countryside, even though the population was becoming increasingly urban. The lackluster presidents and ineffectual administrations of the period did little to respond to the country's dependence on volatile nitrate exports, spiraling inflation, and massive urbanization.
As a dissident Liberal running for the presidency, Alessandri attracted support from the more reformist Radicals and Democrats and formed the so-called Liberal Alliance. He received strong backing from the middle and working classes as well as from the provincial elites. Students and intellectuals also rallied to his banner. At the same time, he reassured the landowners that social reforms would be limited to the cities. the Chilean Congress, keeping with tradition, conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri. This procedure had previously been a near-formality, yet became quite fraught in 1970. After assurances of legality on Allende's part, the murder of the Army Commander-in-Chief, General René Schneider and Frei's refusal to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende – on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the oligarchs – Allende was chosen by a vote of 153 to 35.
The Popular Unity platform included the nationalization of U.S. interests in Chile's major copper mines, the advancement of workers' rights, deepening of the Chilean land reform, reorganization of the national economy into socialized, mixed, and private sectors, a foreign policy of "international solidarity" and national independence and a new institutional order (the "people's state" or "poder popular"), including the institution of a unicameral congress. Immediately after the election, the United States expressed its disapproval and raised a number of economic sanctions against Chile.
Recognizing that U.S. intelligence forces were trying to destabilize his presidency through a variety of methods, the KGB offered financial assistance to the first democratically elected Marxist president. However, the reason behind the U.S. covert actions against Allende concerned not the spread of Marxism but fear over losing control of its investments. "By 1968, 20 percent of total U.S. foreign investment was tied up in Latin America...Mining companies had invested $1 billion over the previous fifty years in Chile's copper mining industry – the largest in the world – but they had sent $7.2 billion home." Part of the CIA's program involved a propaganda campaign that portrayed Allende as a would-be Soviet dictator. In fact, however, "the U.S.'s own intelligence reports showed that Allende posed no threat to democracy." Nevertheless, the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to quickly destabilize Allende's government.
In addition, Nixon gave instructions to make the Chilean economy scream, and international financial pressure restricted economic credit to Chile. Simultaneously, the CIA funded opposition media, politicians, and organizations, helping to accelerate a campaign of domestic destabilization. By 1972, the economic progress of Allende's first year had been reversed, and the economy was in crisis. Political polarization increased, and large mobilizations of both pro- and anti-government groups became frequent, often leading to clashes.
By 1973, Chilean society had grown highly polarized, between strong opponents and equally strong supporters of Salvador Allende and his government. Military actions and movements, separate from the civilian authority, began to manifest in the countryside. The Tanquetazo was a failed military coup d'état attempted against Allende in June 1973.
In its "Agreement", on August 22, 1973, the Chamber of Deputies of Chile asserted that Chilean democracy had broken down and called for "redirecting government activity", to restore constitutional rule. Less than a month later, on September 11, 1973, the Chilean military deposed Allende, who shot himself in the head to avoid capture as the Presidential Palace was surrounded and bombed. Subsequently, rather than restore governmental authority to the civilian legislature, Augusto Pinochet exploited his role as Commander of the Army to seize total power and to establish himself at the head of a junta.
CIA involvement in the coup is documented. As early as the Church Committee Report (1975), publicly available documents have indicated that the CIA attempted to prevent Allende from taking office after he was elected in 1970; the CIA itself released documents in 2000 acknowledging this and that Pinochet was one of their favored alternatives to take power.
According to the Vasili Mitrokhin and Christopher Andrew, the KGB and the Cuban Intelligence Directorate launched a campaign known as Operation TOUCAN.
Military dictatorship (1973–1990)
]]
By early 1973, inflation had risen 600% under Allende's presidency.'''' The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous strikes by physicians, teachers, students, truck owners, copper workers, and the small business class. A military coup overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973. As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace (Palacio de La Moneda), Allende committed suicide. A military government, led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, took over control of the country.
The first years of the regime were marked by human rights violations. The junta jailed, tortured, and executed thousands of Chileans. In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death. At least a thousand people were executed during the first six months of Pinochet in office, and at least two thousand more were killed during the next sixteen years, as reported by the Rettig Report. At least 29,000 were imprisoned and tortured. According to the Latin American Institute on Mental Health and Human Rights (ILAS), "situations of extreme trauma" affected about 200,000 persons.; this figure includes individuals killed, tortured or exiled, and their immediate families. About 30,000 left the country.
The four-man junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet abolished civil liberties, dissolved the national congress, banned union activities, prohibited strikes and collective bargaining, and erased the Allende administration's agrarian and economic reforms.
The junta embarked on a radical program of liberalization, deregulation and privatization, slashing tariffs as well as government welfare programs and deficits. Economic reforms were drafted by a group of technocrats who became known as the Chicago Boys because many of them had been trained or influenced by University of Chicago professors. Under these new policies, the rate of inflation dropped:
{| class="wikitable"
|- class="hintergrundfarbe5"
! style"width:10.5em;" style"text-align:left;" | Year
! style="width:4.5em;" | 1973
! style="width:4.5em;" | 1974
! style="width:4.5em;" | 1975
! style="width:4.5em;" | 1976
! style="width:4.5em;" | 1977
! style="width:4.5em;" | 1978
! style="width:4.5em;" | 1979
! style="width:4.5em;" | 1980
! style="width:4.5em;" | 1981
! style="width:4.5em;" | 1982
|-
| style"text-align: center;" style"text-align:left;" | Inflation (%)
| style="text-align: center;" | 508.1
| style="text-align: center;" | 376.0
| style="text-align: center;" | 340.0
| style="text-align: center;" | 174.0
| style="text-align: center;" | 63.5
| style="text-align: center;" | 30.3
| style="text-align: center;" | 38.9
| style="text-align: center;" | 31.2
| style="text-align: center;" | 9.5
| style="text-align: center;" | 20.7
|}
(1971–2007)]]
A new constitution was approved by plebiscite characterized by the absence of registration lists, on September 11, 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an 8-year term.
In 1982–1983 Chile witnessed a severe economic crisis with a surge in unemployment and a meltdown of the financial sector. 16 out of 50 financial institutions faced bankruptcy. In 1982 the two biggest banks were nationalized to prevent an even worse credit crunch. In 1983 another five banks were nationalized and two banks had to be put under government supervision.
After the economic crisis, Hernán Büchi became Minister of Finance from 1985 to 1989, introducing a more pragmatic economic policy. He allowed the peso to float and reinstated restrictions on the movement of capital in and out of the country. He introduced Bank regulations, simplified and reduced the corporate tax. Chile went ahead with privatizations, including public utilities plus the re-privatization of companies that had returned to the government during the 1982–1983 crisis. From 1984 to 1990, Chile's gross domestic product grew by an annual average of 5.9%, the fastest on the continent. Chile developed a good export economy, including the export of fruits and vegetables to the northern hemisphere when they were out of season, and commanded high prices.
The military junta began to change during the late 1970s. Due to problems with Pinochet, Leigh was expelled from the junta in 1978 and replaced by General Fernando Matthei. In the late 1980s, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity. Due to the Caso Degollados ("slit throats case"), in which three Communist party members were assassinated, César Mendoza, member of the junta since 1973 and representants of the carabineros, resigned in 1985 and was replaced by Rodolfo Stange. The next year, Carmen Gloria Quintana was burnt alive in what became known as the Caso Quemado ("Burnt Alive case").
Chile's constitution established that in 1988 there would be another plebiscite in which the voters would accept or reject a single candidate proposed by the Military Junta. Pinochet was, as expected, the candidate proposed, but was denied a second 8-year term by 54.5% of the vote. President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period. In February 1991 Aylwin created the National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation, which released in February 1991 the Rettig Report on human rights violations committed during the military rule.
This report counted 2,279 cases of "disappearances" which could be proved and registered. Of course, the very nature of "disappearances" made such investigations very difficult. The same problem arose, several years later, with the Valech Report, released in 2004 and which counted almost 30,000 victims of torture, among testimonies from 35,000 persons.
In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%). Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile, by a very tight score of fewer than 200,000 votes (51,32%).
In 1998, Pinochet travelled to London for back surgery. But under orders of Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón, he was arrested there, attracting worldwide attention, not only because of the history of Chile and South America, but also because this was one of the first arrests of a former president based on the universal jurisdiction principle. Pinochet tried to defend himself by referring to the State Immunity Act of 1978, an argument rejected by the British justice. However, UK Home Secretary Jack Straw took the responsibility to release him on medical grounds, and refused to extradite him to Spain. Thereafter, Pinochet returned to Chile in March 2000. Upon descending the plane on his wheelchair, he stood up and saluted the cheering crowd of supporters, including an army band playing his favorite military march tunes, which was awaiting him at the airport in Santiago. President Ricardo Lagos later commented that the retired general's televised arrival had damaged the image of Chile, while thousands demonstrated against him. Bachelet and Piñera
(1990–2022), celebrating the Bicentennial of Chile]]
The Concertación coalition has continued to dominate Chilean politics for last two decades. In January 2006 Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet, of the Socialist Party. She was sworn in on March 11, 2006, extending the Concertación coalition governance for another four years.
In 2002 Chile signed an association agreement with the European Union (comprising a free trade agreement and political and cultural agreements), in 2003, an extensive free trade agreement with the United States, and in 2004 with South Korea, expecting a boom in import and export of local produce and becoming a regional trade-hub. Continuing the coalition's free trade strategy, in August 2006 President Bachelet promulgated a free trade agreement with China (signed under the previous administration of Ricardo Lagos), the first Chinese free trade agreement with a Latin American nation; similar deals with Japan and India were promulgated in August 2007. In October 2006, Bachelet promulgated a multilateral trade deal with New Zealand, Singapore and Brunei, the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (P4), also signed under Lagos' presidency. Regionally, she has signed bilateral free trade agreements with Panama, Peru and Colombia.
After 20 years, Chile went in a new direction with the win of center-right Sebastián Piñera, in the Chilean presidential election of 2009–2010, defeating former President Eduardo Frei in the runoff.
On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 M<sub>W</sub> earthquake, the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks. Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$15–30 billion, around 10 to 15 percent of Chile's real gross domestic product.
Chile achieved global recognition for the successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010. On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile, trapping 33 men below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over a period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world.
Despite good macroeconomic indicators, there was increased social dissatisfaction, focused on demands for better and fairer education, culminating in massive protests demanding more democratic and equitable institutions. Approval of Piñera's administration fell irrevocably.
In 2013, Bachelet, a Social Democrat, was elected again as president, seeking to make the structural changes claimed in recent years by the society relative to education reform, tributary reform, same sex civil union, and definitely end the Binomial System, looking to further equality and the end of what remains of the dictatorship. In 2015 a series of corruption scandals (most notably Penta case and Caval case) became public, threatening the credibility of the political and business class.
On 17 December 2017, Sebastián Piñera
Estallido Social and Constitutional Referendum
In October 2019 there were violent protests about costs of living and inequality, resulting in Piñera declaring a state of emergency. On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call a national referendum in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution. But the COVID-19 pandemic postponed the date of the elections, while Chile was one of the hardest hit nations in the Americas as of May 2020. On October 25, 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 per cent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 per cent rejected the change. Voter turnout was 51 per cent. A second vote was held on April 11, 2021, to select 155 Chileans who form the convention which will draft the new constitution.
On 19 December 2021, leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leader, Gabriel Boric, won Chile's presidential election to become the country's youngest ever leader, after the most polarizing election since democracy was restored, defeating right wing pinochetist and leader of the Chilean Republican Party José Antonio Kast. The center-left and center-right political conglomerates alternating power during the last 32 years (ex-Concertación and Chile Vamos) ended up in fourth and fifth place of the presidential election. Gabriel Boric presidency (2022- ) On 11 March 2022, Gabriel Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Pinera. Out of 24 members of Gabriel Boric's female-majority Cabinet, 14 are women.
On 4 September 2022, voters rejected overwhelmingly the new constitution in the constitutional referendum, which was put forward by the constitutional convention and strongly backed by President Boric. Prior to the dismissal of the proposed constitution the issue of constitutional plurinationalism was noted in polls as particularly divisive in Chile. In May 2023, the far-right Republican Party became first in Chilean Constitutional Council election.The Republican party won 22 out of the 51 seats, with right-wing parties winning another 11 seats, in the assembly tasked with drawing up Chile's new constitution. In December 2023, Chilean voters rejected in a referendum a proposed new constitution drafted by a conservative-led committee.See also
*Arauco War
*Chincha Islands War
*COVID-19 pandemic in Chile
*Economic history of Chile
*List of presidents of Chile
*Miracle of Chile
*Occupation of the Araucanía
*Politics of Chile
*Timeline of Chilean history
*U.S. intervention in Chile
*War of the Confederation
*War of the Pacific
*Criollo people
*History of Peru
*Constitutional history of Chile
General:
*History of the Americas
*History of Latin America
*History of South America
*Spanish colonization of the Americas
*History of Easter Island
References
Further reading
In English
* (See pp. 153–160.)
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* Antezana-Pernet, Corinne. "Peace in the World and Democracy at Home: The Chilean Women's Movement in the 1940s" in Latin America in the 1940s, David Rock, ed. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1994, pp. 166–186.
* Bergquist, Charles W. Labor in Latin America: Comparative Essays on Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, and Colombia. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1986.
* Burr, Robert N. By Reason or Force: Chile and the Balancing Power of South America 1830–1905. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1965.
*Collier, Simon. Ideas and Politics of Chilean Independence, 1808–1833. New York: Cambridge University Press 1967.
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* Drake, Paul. Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932–1952. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1978.
* Drake, Paul. "International Crises and Popular Movements in Latin America: Chile and Peru from the Great Depression to the Cold War," in Latin America in the 1940s, David Rock, ed. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1994, 109–140.
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* Harvey, Robert. "Liberators: Latin America`s Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830". John Murray, London (2000).
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* Klubock, Thomas. ''La Frontera: Forests and Ecological Conflict in Chile's Frontier Territory. Durham: Duke University Press 2014.
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* Mallon, Florencia. Courage Tastes of Blood: The Mapuche Community of Nicolás Ailío and the Chilean State, 1906–2001. Durham: Duke University Press 2005.
* Pike, Frederick B. Chile and the United States, 1880–1962: The Emergence of Chile's Social Crisis and challenge to United States Diplomacy. University of Notre Dame Press 1963.
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* Stern, Steve J. Battling for Hearts and Minds: Memory Struggles in Pinochet's Chile, 1973–1988. Durham: Duke University Press 2006.
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In Spanish
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*Cronología de Chile in the Spanish-language Wikipedia.
* Díaz, J.; Lüders. R. y Wagner, G. (2016). Chile 1810–2010. La República en Cifras. Historical Statistics.'' (Santiago: Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile); a compendium of indicators, from macroeconomic aggregates to demographic trends and social policies, focused on economic and social history; [https://web.archive.org/web/20181118152019/http://ediciones.uc.cl/ediciones-uc-econom%C3%ADa-y-administraci%C3%B3n-republica-cifras-p-10205.html more information]; Data can be obtained from: [http://cliolab.economia.uc.cl/BD.html online]
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External links
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* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/Chile/_Topics/history/_Texts/GALHOC/home.html History of Chile] (book by Chilean historian Luis Galdames)
}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chile | 2025-04-05T18:27:15.363906 |
5493 | Politics of Chile | Chile's government is a representative democratic republic, in which the President of Chile serves as both head of state and head of government, within a formal multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and their cabinet. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Congress. The judiciary operates independently of both the executive and legislative branches.
The Constitution of Chile was approved in a national plebiscite in September 1980, during the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, and came into effect in March 1981. After Pinochet was voted out of office in 1988, the Constitution was amended the following year to simplify the process for future amendments.
In September 2006, President Ricardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These reforms included eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years, while also prohibiting immediate re-election.
According to the V-Dem Democracy indices, Chile was the third most electorally democratic country in Latin America in 2023.
Statistical analysis suggests that Chilean politicians in Congress are not randomly drawn from the population but over-represent high-income communities. As a result, Chileans of Castilian-Basque, Palestinian, and Jewish ancestry are disproportionately represented.
History
The autocratic and conservative republic (1831–1861) was replaced by the liberal republic (1861–1891), during which some political conquests were made, such as proportional representation (1871) and the abolition of the condition of ownership to have the right to vote (1885).
Parliamentary Republic
When the era of the parliamentary republic began in 1891, the struggle between liberals (pipiolos) and conservatives (pelucones) had already evolved due to the emergence of a multi-party system. In the 1880s, the Liberals split into two factions: the moderates, who did not want to impose secularism too quickly and were willing to compromise with the Conservatives, and the radical Liberals, who joined the Radical Party founded in 1863 or the new Democratic Party with more progressive, if not socialist, ideas.
European and particularly British companies having appropriated a large part of the country's economy (saltpeter, bank, railroad, trade), President José Balmaceda (1886–1891), leader of moderate liberals, decided to react by directing his policy in two directions: the nationalization of saltpeter mines and the intervention of the State in economic matters. Already facing the conservative aristocracy, he alienated the bankers. He was dismissed by a vote of Parliament and pressure from part of the army. He committed suicide by firearm at the end of the civil war that his supporters lost.
Workers' struggles and social reforms
A new parliamentary regime emerged from the civil war; it was the government of Fronda aristocrática. From 1906 onwards, the Radical Party demanded social reforms and the establishment of a democratic regime. That same year, the leader of the Federation of Workers, Luis Emilio Recabarren, was elected to the House but his election was canceled by the House. In 1912 he founded the Socialist Workers Party.
Despite the country's good economic performance, life remains particularly hard for a large part of the population (12 or 14-hour working days for workers, very low wages, illiteracy of more than 50% in the years 1900–1910, etc.). Trade unionism was organized and fought; strikes and workers' demonstrations multiplied, sometimes very harshly repressed: general strike in Santiago (1905), railroads and mines in Antofagasta (1906), a demonstration in Iquique (1907). From 1911 to 1920, there were 293 strikes. Some repressions kill hundreds of people. The workers' movement was organized in the 1910s with the creation of the Chilean Regional Workers' Federation in 1913 and the Chilean branch of the Industrial Workers of the World in 1919.
In 1920, the economic crisis worsened the standard of living of the middle classes, which were politically closer to the working classes. This new situation led to the election of Arturo Alessandri Palma. During his first term in office, he pursued a progressive policy: labor law, the establishment of the tax on property income, the establishment of the Central Bank, creation of social security funds, etc. However, it must constantly deal with the Senate, always under Conservative control, which systematically tries to block its reforms. Shortly before his withdrawal from power, he drew up a new Constitution that was considered to be the advent of true democracy in Chile. This Constitution enshrines the separation of Church and State and religious freedom, declares compulsory primary education, restores presidentialism by electing the president by universal suffrage, and above all proclaims that property must be regulated in such a way as to ensure its social function.
Legislative branch
thumb|left|National Congress of Chile in Valparaíso
Pinochet's legacy continues to be a hot subject in Chilean politics, especially since many leftist politicians, such as Tucapel Jiménez in the picture, had their parents killed.-->
The bicameral National Congress (Congreso Nacional) consists of the Senate (Senado) and the Chamber of Deputies (). The Senate is made up of 50 members elected from regions or subregions. Senators serve approximately eight-year terms. The Chamber of Deputies has 155 members, who are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The last congressional elections were held on November 21, 2021.
For parliamentary elections, between 1989 and 2013 the binominal system was used, which promoted the establishment of two majority political blocs -Concertación and Alliance- at the expense of the exclusion of non-majority political groups. The opponents of this system approved in 2015 a moderate proportional electoral system that has been in force since the 2017 parliamentary elections, allowing the entry of new parties and coalitions.
Elections are very labor-intensive but efficient, and vote counting normally takes place the evening of the election day. One voting table, with a ballot-box each, is set up for at-most 200 names in the voting registry. Each table is staffed by five people (vocales de mesa) from the same registry. Vocales have the duty to work as such during a cycle of elections, and can be penalized legally if they do not show up. A registered citizen can only vote after his identity has been verified at the table corresponding to his registry. Ballots are manually counted by the five vocales, after the table has closed, at least eight hours after opening, and the counting witnessed by representatives of all the parties who choose to have observers.
The main existing political coalitions in Chile are:
Government:
(Approve Dignity) is a left-wing coalition that has its origin in the 2021 Chilean Constitutional Convention election. After the success in that election, it held presidential primaries, in which Gabriel Boric (CS, FA) was the winner. It is formed by the coalition Frente Amplio (Broad Font) and the coalition Chile Digno (Worthy Chile) formed by the Communist Party of Chile and others left-wing parties.
Democratic Socialism is a center-left coalition, successor of the Constituent Unity, and this of the Concertation -which supported the "NO" option in the 1988 plebiscite and subsequently governed the country from 1990 to 2010-. This pact is formed by the parties Socialist, for Democracy, Radical, and Liberal.
Opposition:
Chile Vamos (Let's go Chile) is a center-right coalition with roots of liberal conservatism, formed by the parties Renovación Nacional (National Renewal), Unión Demócrata Independiente (Independent Democratic Union) and Evópoli. It has its origins in the Alliance coalition, formed by the main parties that supported the "YES" option in the 1988 plebiscite, although it has used different names since then. It was the ruling coalition during the first and second government of Sebastián Piñera, (2010–2014) and (2018–2022).
In the National Congress, Chile Vamos has 52 deputies and 24 senators, while the parliamentary group of Apruebo Dignidad is formed by 37 deputies and 6 senators. Democratic Socialism is the third political force with 30 deputies and 13 senators. The other groups with parliamentary representation are the Republican Party (15 deputies and 1 senator), the Christian Democratic Party (8 deputies and 5 senators), the Party of the People (8 deputies), and the independents outside of a coalition (5 deputies and 1 senator).
Since 1987, the Congress operates in the port city of Valparaíso, about northwest of the capital, Santiago. However some commissions are allowed to meet in other places, especially Santiago. Congressional members have repeatedly tried to relocate the Congress back to Santiago, where it operated until the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, but have not been successful. The last attempt was in 2000, when the project was rejected by the Constitutional Court, because it allocated funds from the national budget, which, under the Chilean Constitution, is a privilege of the President.
Legal system
thumb|The Palacio de los Tribunales de Justicia de Santiago.
Chile's legal system is civil law based. It is primarily based on the Civil code of 1855, derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by European law of the last half of the 19th Century. It does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction.
From the year 2000 onwards, Chile completely overhauled its criminal justice system; a new, US-style adversarial system has been gradually implemented throughout the country with the final stage of implementation in the Santiago metropolitan region completed on June 9, 2001.
Political parties and elections
Pressure groups
Pressure groups according to the CIA World Factbook:
Student federations at all major universities
Roman Catholic Church
Workers' United Center of Chile trade unionists from Chile's five largest labor confederations.
Advocacy for public policy change
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play an important role in advocating for public policy change in Chile. Certain NGOs, such as those working with migrants, have increased in Chile in the past decades. For example, one prominent NGO, Servicio Jesuita a Migrantes (SJM), conducts research in order to influence public policy. SJM has published dozens of papers with findings that ultimately influence public policy in Chile -- ranging from educational access for immigrants to labor laws for immigrants. In December 2024, SJM and UNICEF hosted a joint seminar on the legal regularization of migrant children in Chile. Student groups also have a strong history of impacting public policy, with perhaps the most prominent example being the 2011 student protests against neoliberal educational policies called the "Chilean Winter." The United Chilean Student Confederation (CONFECH), an organization composed of various student unions, including the Student Federation of the University of Chile (FECH) and the Student Federation of Catholic University (FEUC), led this movement.
Student groups, NGOs, and other advocacy organizations all face challenges to change-making within the Chilean political system. For example, many NGOs who help migrants receive limited funding and work amongst insufficient legislation, leading them to focus primarily on the individual, care-related needs of migrants rather than focusing on fulfilling the role of advocating for the advancement of migrant rights. Student groups have faced similar obstacles, such as legal barriers, in the fight for public policy change in Chile. These barriers do not completely overshadow political advocates' strengths, and it is not to dismantle the successful work they have done.
Central-local government relations
Chile has an enduring unitary and centralised state power structure. The national government has substantial political, administrative and particularly fiscal control (see Table 1 below). For example, despite the establishment of regional governors in 2017 (covered further below), the executive positions of Presidential Delegates remain at regional and provincial levels (see Figure 1 below), with their appointment and dismissal at the President’s discretion. The regional governor and regional presidential delegate constitutionally share functions, compromising good practice regional governance and the intended levels of political decentralisation.
thumb|Figure 1: Structure and relationships of national and subnational government in Chile
Chile’s unitary structure has persisted due to:
Colonial rule centralising decision-making with national government, which persisted after independence.
Chile’s long, narrow geography and enduring population concentration in the Central Valley (including the nation’s capital, Santiago), meaning that unitary governance is perceived as more practical.
Lack of empowered demand for an alternative (e.g. federal) structure due to a historical lack of strong and autonomous subnational movements.
A desire to build a unified nation and avoid the regional conflicts or independence movements in other Latin American nations attempting federalism (e.g. Argentina).
A desire to preserve the performance of Chile’s economy through unified national control, and avoid the negative economic impacts of how decentralisation efforts were designed and implemented in other Latin American countries (e.g. Argentina).
The Pinochet regime (1973-1990), which enacted martial law, overthrew and banned democratic institutions and established the 1980s constitution. This constitution cemented military power, neoliberalism and established a deconcentration approach, where underfunded municipalities controlled by appointed officials were required to implement national policies.
Municipalities are the only self-government entities in Chile, with constitutionally-guaranteed autonomy, including for their:
institution;
interests and competences;
election of their governing bodies;
powers to set local regulations withstanding national equivalents.
Despite their partial political and administrative autonomy, municipalities have very low fiscal autonomy, with proportionally small and mostly pre-allocated funding (see Table 1 below). Chile is the only OECD country not to allow municipalities to borrow.
Table 1: Local and total government expenditure in Chile vs OECD average
AspectChileOECD averageLocal government expenditure (% of GDP)3%17%Total public expenditure (% of GDP)13%40%
Chile has very large disparities between municipalities, including in the concentration of population (almost twice the OECD average) and GDP (second highest in the OECD). One cause of these disparities is the dominance of very substantial copper and other mining activities in specific areas, without similar economic drivers in other areas.
Chile’s centralised structure, and strong comparative disadvantage of many municipalities, creates incentives for municipal leadership to directly lobby national, rather than regional, government for local policy decisions or funded interventions which need significant executive power. For example, facing resource constraints and a fragmented Congress, municipalities approached the national government for support responding to escalating crime rates (particularly violent crime).
The President and Ministers may also engage directly with municipalities affected by their policies or interventions. These informal bilateral exchanges (see Figure 2 below) bypass the intended governance structure, undermine provincial and regional authorities, and create inefficiencies and inequity in forming and implementing policies and interventions.
thumb|Figure 2: Four types of relational exchanges involving local governments
Where regions and municipalities coordinate or collaborate, this often depends on the autonomous power of the presidential delegate or head of the public service, or on the relationships or other capacities of the mayor or municipality to influence national institutions’ decisions.
The 2017 Constitutional Reforms established the role of publicly-elected regional governors. These governors, first-elected in 2021 to represent regional constituents, share responsibility with presidentially-appointed regional delegates/intendants, who represent national ministries. Their election was a turning point in decentralization efforts, introducing a new dynamic in national-regional relations and providing regions with a stronger voice in governance. However, Navarrete Yáñez argues that introducing this system, typical of federal structures, tends to fragment authority and create overlapping jurisdictions to promote coordination relations, which in practice is generating conflict. The current President of Chile, Gabriel Boric (2022–2026), stated that before his term ends, the presidential delegate position will disappear.
The decentralisation agenda in Chile recently received impetus, with:
a presidential advisory commission for decentralisation defining a decentralisation agenda
2018 laws introducing direct election of regional governors, rather than the previous presidential appointment only. These laws also defined the powers and responsibilities of regional authorities and encouraged citizen participation. The first election of regional governors occurred in 2021.
A 2020 referendum, in which 78% of voters supported the creation of a new constitution and the establishment of a Constitutional Convention. Two subsequent referendums (September 2022 and December 2023) proposed replacements of the existing Pinochet-era constitution, including:
reducing the dominance of central government and strengthening regional governance
establishing ‘regional states’ comprising autonomous regions, communes, indigenous territorial autonomies and special territories.
Despite the strong impetus for a new constitution, both new constitutional proposals were rejected by voters. Particularly given the substantial social upheaval in 2019 related to inequality, and majority support for a constitutional re-write, these rejections are significant. By comparison, from 1789 to 2016, 94% of 179 referendums for new constitutions were ratified, making Chile’s twin rejections rare exceptions.
Unclear sector responsibilities, siloed work
There are many unclear sector responsibilities at national level. Significant work occurs in silos, with poor integration across both policy and investment areas. For example, responsibilities for the intercity network, for the urban transport utilising that network and for investment in urban roads lie with three different national ministries. Inadequate inter-sector coordination and consultation about local conditions leads to poor quality decisions – for example, decisions on types of transport infrastructure, routes and frequencies which don’t suit local needs or represent good value for taxpayers. Chilean citizens feel affected by the lack of national sector coordination.
thumb|Figure 3: Gini index vs. perceptions of unfair income distribution (Chile is circled)
Poor central-regional-local coordination and subnational consultation
Local policies, planning instruments and priorities are centrally defined by national ministries but with weak subnational consultation and coordination. For example, the Government response to COVID reinforced a need to formalise how coordination between national, regional and local government occurs, particularly during emergency situations involving constitutional exceptions.
thumb|Figure 4: Perceptions of unfair access to services (Chile in red box)
There are positive developments in subnational consultation. In January 2023, an agreement was signed with the Association of Regional Governors of Chile (AGORECHI) to advance political decentralisation, particularly intra-government coordination and local participation, administrative decentralization, fiscal decentralization and the development of a National Decentralization Policy.
Social inequity and intra-government structure and relations
thumb|Figure 5: Perceptions the country is governed in the interests of a powerful few (Chile in red box)
One study shows that 91%-95% of Chileans perceive that access to income is inequitable (Figure 3); that access to healthcare, justice and education is inequitable (Figure 4); and that Chile is governed in the interests of a powerful few (Figure 5).
Chile’s centralized governance system contributes to limiting equitable resource distribution and effective local solutions.
International organization participation
Chile or Chilean organizations participate in the following international organizations:
See also
President of Chile
List of presidents of Chile
List of political parties in Chile
Foreign relations of Chile
Law of Chile
Human rights in Chile
Judiciary of Chile
Chilean political scandals
Augusto Pinochet
References
External links
Presidency
Judicial Branch
National Congress
Ministries
Chile Atiende - Government Portal
Global Integrity Report: Chile has reporting on anti-corruption in Chile
Government of Chile - Not Official
Category:Government of Chile | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Chile | 2025-04-05T18:27:15.400628 |
5494 | Economy of Chile | | population 19,629,590 (2022)
| gdp = $362.24 billion (nominal, 2025)
* $702.98 billion (PPP, 2025)
* -1.0%
}}
| components | inflation 3.045% (2020)
| poverty 6.2% (2022)
| gini 44.4 (2017, World Bank)
| hdi = 0.860 (2022) (44th)
* 0.704 IHDI (56th) (2022)
* 56% employment rate (2023)}}
| occupations = 6.9% (September 2019)
* 18.9% youth unemployment rate (August 2019)}}
| average gross salary CLP 957,741 / $1,082 monthly (2022)
| average net salary CLP 890,699 / $1,006 monthly (2022)
| industries = copper, lithium, other minerals, foodstuffs, fish processing, iron and steel, wood and wood products, transport equipment, cement, textiles
| edbr 59th (easy, 2020)
| exports $104.5 billion (2023)
| export-goods =
| export-partners = (+) 39.0%
*(+) 14.5%
*(+) 8.0%
*(+) 6.2%
*(+) 5.0%
*(2022)
| import-goods = $206.2 billion (31 December 2017 est.)
| revenue 57.75 billion (2017 est.)
| expenses 65.38 billion (2017 est.)
| credit =
| reserves $39.166 billion (2020)
| cianame = chile
| spelling = US
}}
The economy of Chile operates as a market economy and is classified as a high-income economy by the World Bank. It is recognized as one of the most prosperous countries in South America, leading the region in areas such as competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, economic freedom, and low levels of perceived corruption. Despite its prosperity, Chile experiences significant economic inequality, as reflected by its Gini index, though this is close to the regional average. Among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, Chile has a robust social security system, with social welfare expenditures amounting to approximately 19.6% of GDP.
In 2006, Chile achieved the highest nominal GDP per capita in Latin America. In May 2010, it became the first South American nation to join the OECD. However, tax revenues, which were 20.2% of GDP in 2013, remained the second lowest among the 34 OECD countries, having been the lowest in 2010. Chile's inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (HDI) was 0.704, compared to 0.747 for Argentina, 0.720 for Uruguay, and 0.577 for Brazil. According to statistics of the Chilean government, 20.9% of the population continues to be affected by multidimensional poverty. Chile’s privatized national pension system, known as the Administradoras de Fondos de Pensiones (AFP), contributed to a domestic savings rate of about 21% of GDP. In 2023, in response to an economic slowdown, Chile introduced a temporary basic income program aimed at supporting families through transfer payments as part of an expansionary fiscal policy.
History
]]
After Spanish arrival in the 15th century Chilean economy came to revolve around autarchy estates called fundos and around the army that was engaged in the Arauco War. During early colonial times there were gold exports to Peru from placer deposits which soon depleted. Trade restrictions and monopolies established by the Spanish crown are credited for having held back economic development for much of the colonial times. As effect of these restrictions the country incorporated very few new crops and animal breeds after initial conquest. Other sectors that were held back by restrictions were the wine and mining industries. The Bourbon reforms in the 18th century eased many monopolies and trade restrictions.
In the 1830s Chile consolidated under the ideas of Diego Portales as a stable state open to foreign trade. Foreign investment in Chile grew over the 19th century. After the War of the Pacific the Chilean treasury grew by 900%. The League of Nations labeled Chile the country hardest hit by the Great Depression because 80% of government revenue came from exports of copper and nitrates, which were in low demand. After the Great Depression Chilean economic policies changed toward import substitution industrialization and the Production Development Corporation was established.
Under the influence of the Chicago Boys the Pinochet regime made of Chile a leading country in establishing neoliberal policies. These policies allowed large corporations to consolidate their power over the Chilean economy, leading to long-term economic growth.
The crisis of 1982 caused the appointment of Hernán Büchi as minister of finance and a sharp revision of economic policy. Despite a general selling of state property and contrary to neoliberal prescriptions, the regime retained the lucrative state owned mining company Codelco which stands for about 30% of government income.
According to the CIA World Factbook, during the early 1990s, Chile's reputation as a role model for economic reform was strengthened when the democratic government of Patricio Aylwin, who took over from the military in 1990, deepened the economic reform initiated by the military government. The Aylwin government departed significantly from the neoliberal doctrine of the Chicago boys, as evidenced by higher government expenditure on social programs to tackle poverty and poor quality housing. Growth in real GDP averaged 8% from 1991 to 1997, but fell to half that level in 1998 because of tight monetary policies (implemented to keep the current account deficit in check) and lower exports due to the Asian financial crisis. Chile's economy has since recovered and has seen growth rates of 5–7% over the past several years.
After a decade of impressive growth rates, Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999, brought on by unfavorable global economic conditions related to the Asian financial crisis, which began in 1997. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% real GDP growth. The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6.0%. Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4.0% in 2006. GDP expanded by 5.1% in 2007.
Sectors
During 2012, the largest sectors by GDP were mining (mainly copper), business services, personal services, manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade. Mining also represented 59.5% of exports in the period, while the manufacturing sector accounted for 34% of exports, concentrated mainly in food products, chemicals and pulp, paper and others.Agriculture
Chile is one of the 5 largest world producers of cherry and cranberry, and one of the 10 largest world producers of grape, apple, kiwi, peach, plum and hazelnut, focusing on exporting high-value fruits.
In 2018, Chile was the 9th largest producer of grapes in the world, with 2 million tons produced; the 10th largest producer of apples in the world, with 1.7 million tons produced; and the 6th largest producer of kiwi in the world, with 230 thousand tons produced, in addition to producing 1.4 million tons of wheat, 1.1 million tons of maize, 1.1 million tons of potatoes, 951 thousand tons of tomatoes, 571 thousand tons of oats, 368 thousand tons of onions, 319 thousand tons of peaches, 280 thousand tons of pears, 192 thousand tons of rice, 170 thousand tons of barley, 155 thousand tons of cherries, 151 thousand tons of lemons, 118 thousand tons of tangerines, 113 thousand tons of oranges, 110 thousand tons of olives, 106 thousand tons of cranberries, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.
Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounts only for 4.9% of the GDP as of 2007 and employed 13.6% of the country's labor force. Some major agriculture products of Chile includes grapes, apples, pears, onions, wheat, corn, oats, peaches, garlic, asparagus, beans, beef, poultry, wool, fish and timber.
Chile's position in the Southern Hemisphere leads to an agricultural season cycle opposite to those of the principal consumer markets, primarily located in the Northern Hemisphere.Forestry
The Chilean forestry industry grew to comprise 13% of the country's total exports in 2005, making it one of the largest export sectors for Chile.Wine
Chile's unique geography and climate make it ideal for winegrowing and the country has made the top ten list of wine producers many times in the last few decades.
The popularity of Chilean wine has been attributed not just to the quantity produced but also to increasing levels of quality. The combination of quantity and quality allows Chile to export excellent wines at reasonable prices to the international market.
Mining
The mining sector in Chile is one of the pillars of Chilean economy. The Chilean government strongly supports foreign investment in the sector and has modified its mining industry laws and regulations to create a favorable investing environment for foreigners. Thanks to a large amount of copper resources, complaisant legislation and an unregulated investment environment, Chile has become one of the main copper producers, with almost 30% of the global annual copper output.
In addition to copper, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth producer of sulfur and the thirteenth producer of iron ore in the world. The country also has considerable gold production: between 2006 and 2017, the country produced annual amounts ranging from 35.9 tonnes in 2017 to 51.3 tonnes in 2013.ServicesThe service sector in Chile has grown fast and consistently in recent decades, reinforced by the rapid development of communication and information technology, access to education and an increase in specialist skills and knowledge among the workforce.
Chilean foreign policy has recognized the importance of the tertiary sector or service sector to the economy, boosting its international liberalization and leading to the signing of several free trade area agreements.
Chilean service exportation consists mainly of maritime and aeronautical services, tourism, retail (department stores, supermarkets, and shopping centers), engineering and construction services, informatics, health and education.
Chile ranked first among Latin American countries (and No. 32 worldwide) in Adecco's 2019 Global Talent Competitiveness Index (GTCI).
Finance
Chile's financial sector has grown quickly in recent years, with a banking reform law approved in 1997 that broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. The Chilean Government implemented a further liberalization of capital markets in 2001, and there is further pending legislation proposing further liberalization. Over the last ten years, people who live in Chile have enjoyed the introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards. The introduction of these new products has also been accompanied by an increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $70 billion at the end of 2006, has been an important source of investment capital for the capital market. However, by 2009, it has been reported that $21 billion had been lost from the pension system to the global financial crisis.Tourism
, wine and pisco region]]
Tourism in Chile has experienced sustained growth over the last decades. Chile received about 2.25 million foreign visitors in 2006, up to 2.50 million in 2007
The percentages of foreign tourists arrivals by land, air and sea were, respectively, 55.3%, 40.5% and 4.2% for that year. and continued privatization, though at a slower pace. The government's role in the economy is mostly limited to regulation, although the state continues to operate copper giant Codelco and a few other enterprises such as BancoEstado.
Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds. According to the CIA World FactBook, the GDP contracted an estimated −1.7% in 2009.
The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, which is tasked with identifying new sectors and industries to promote. It is hoped that this, combined with some tax reforms to encourage domestic and foreign investment in research and development, will bring in additional FDI to new parts of the economy.
There are three main ways for Chilean firms to raise funds abroad: bank loans, issuance of bonds, and the selling of stocks on U.S. markets through American Depository Receipts (ADRs). Nearly all of the funds raised through these means go to finance domestic Chilean investment. In 2006, the Government of Chile ran a surplus of $11.3 billion, equal to almost 8% of GDP. The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006. The target was of 1% of GDP between 2001 and 2007, it was reduced to 0.5% in 2008 and then to 0% in 2009 in the wake of the global financial crisis. In 2005, key elements of this voluntary policy were incorporated into legislation through the Fiscal Responsibility Law (Law 20,128). By the end of 2012, they had respective market values of US$5.883 million and US$14.998 million.
The main taxes in Chile in terms of revenue collection are the value added tax (45.8% of total revenues in 2012) and the income tax (41.8% of total revenues in 2012). The value added tax is levied on sales of goods and services (including imports) at a rate of 19%, with a few exemptions. The income tax revenue comprises different taxes. While there is a corporate income tax of 20% over profits from companies (called First Category Tax), the system is ultimately designed to tax individuals. Therefore, corporate income taxes paid constitute a credit towards two personal income taxes: the Global Complementary Tax (in the case of residents) or the Additional Tax (in the case of non-residents). The Global Complementary Tax is payable by those that have different sources of income, while those receiving income solely from dependent work are subject to the Second Category Tax. Both taxes are equally progressive in statutory terms, with a top marginal rate of 40%. Income arising from corporate activity under the Global Complementary Tax only becomes payable when effectively distributed to the individual. There are also special sales taxes on alcohol and luxury goods, as well as specific taxes on tobacco and fuel. Other taxes include the inheritance tax and custom duties.
In 2012, general government expenditure reached 21.5% of GDP, while revenues were equivalent to 22% of GDP. Gross financial debt amounted to 12.2% of GDP, while in net terms it was −6.9% of GDP, both well below OECD averages. Inflation has followed a relatively stable trajectory since the year 2000, remaining under 10%, despite the temporary surge of some inflationary pressures in the year 2008. The Chilean peso's rapid appreciation against the U.S. dollar in recent years has helped dampen inflation. Most wage settlements and loans are indexed, reducing inflation's volatility.
The CBoC is granted autonomous status by Chile's National Constitution, providing credibility and stability beyond the political cycle. According to the Basic Constitutional Act of the Central Bank of Chile (Law 18,840), its main objectives are to safeguard "the stability of the currency and the normal functioning of internal and external payments". To meet these objectives, the CBoC is enabled to use monetary and foreign exchange policy instruments, along with some discretion on financial regulation. In practice, the CBoC monetary policy is guided by an inflation targeting regime, while the foreign exchange policy is led by a floating exchange rate and, although unusual, the bank reserves the right to intervene in the foreign exchange markets.
Chile unilaterally lowered its across-the-board import tariff for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement to 6% in 2003. Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands. The price bands were ruled inconsistent with Chile's World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations in 2002, and the government has introduced legislation to modify them. Under the terms of the U.S.–Chile FTA, the price bands will be completely phased out for U.S. imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar within 12 years.
More recently, Chile has also been an active participant of deeper plurilateral trade agreement negotiations. Notably, Chile is currently in talks with eleven other economies in the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), a proposed agreement that would stem from the existing P-4 Agreement between Brunei, Chile, New Zealand and Singapore. Chile has signed some form of bilateral or plurilateral agreement with each of the parties at TPP, although with different degrees of integration.
Chile is also a party in conversations to establish the Pacific Alliance along with Peru, Mexico and Colombia.
Foreign trade
and the eighth largest producer.]]
2006 was a record year for Chilean trade. Total trade registered a 31% increase over 2005. During 2006, exports of goods and services totaled US$58 billion, an increase of 41%. This figure was somewhat distorted by the skyrocketing price of copper. In 2006, copper exports reached a historical high of US$33.3 billion. Imports totaled US$35 billion, an increase of 17% compared to the previous year. Chile thus recorded a positive trade balance of US$2.3 billion in 2006.
Issues
Unemployment hovered at 8–10% after the start of the economic slowdown in 1999, above the 7% average for the 1990s. Unemployment finally dipped to 7.8% in 2006, and continued to fall in 2007, averaging 6.8% monthly (up to August). Wages have risen faster than inflation as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The percentage of Chileans with household incomes below the poverty line – defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs – fell from 45.1% in 1987 to 11.7% in 2015, according to government polls. Critics in Chile, however, argue that poverty figures are considerably higher than those officially published; until 2016, the government defined the poverty line based on an outdated 1987 household consumption poll, instead of more recent polls from 1997 or 2007. According to critics who use data from the 1997 poll, the poverty rate goes up to 29%; a study published in 2017 claims that it reaches 26%. Using the relative yardstick favoured in many European countries, 27% of Chileans would be poor, according to Juan Carlos Feres of the ECLAC. Starting in 2016, a new Multidimensional Poverty Index is also used, which reached 20.9% using 2015 data. Chile's Gini Coefficient in 2003 (53.8) has slightly changed in comparison with the value in 1995 (56.4). In 2005 the 10% poorest among the Chileans received 1.2% of GNP (2000 1.4%), while the 10% richest received 47% of GNP (2000 46%).
Regarding the census, assessments have exhibited mixed results. An initial evaluation by a domestic independent experts panel released in August 2013 placed the omission rate in 9.3%, three times as much as other census in the region, and recommended annulling the census to hold a new version in 2015. The government sought an assessment by international experts before making a final decision. Social inequalities By 2021, the combined wealth of Chile's billionaires represented 16.1% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP).
Historians generally explain the origin of the social gap by tracing it back to colonial times, when most land was divided between Spaniards and their descendants. This gave rise to the hacienda, in which society was divided between owners, employees, tenants and workers. Since this agrarian inequality, the concentration of wealth has spread to other economic sectors that exploit natural resources, such as mining. In more recent history, social inequality deepened in the 1970s and 1980s under Augusto Pinochet's regime, with the privatization of public enterprises in favor of large family fortunes, the repression of trade unions and the rejection of the welfare state. As social mobility is very low in Chile, social status is often passed down from generation to generation.
{| class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" style"text-align:center;"
!Year
!GDP<br /><small>(in bn. US$ PPP)</small>
!GDP per capita<br /><small>(in US$ PPP)</small>
!GDP<br /><small>(in bn. US$ nominal)</small>
!GDP per capita<br /><small>(in US$ nominal)</small>
!GDP growth<br /><small>(real)</small>
!Inflation rate<br /><small>(in Percent)</small>
!Unemployment<br /><small>(in Percent)</small>
!Government debt<br /><small>(in % of GDP)</small>
|-
|1980
|38.1
|3,411.9
|29.0
|2,597.5
|7.9%
|35.1%
|11.5%
|n/a
|-
|1981
|44.3
|3,901.8
|34.4
|3,025.3
|6.2%
|19.7%
|10.3%
|n/a
|-
|1982
|40.7
|3,522.4
|25.6
|2,219.4
|-13.6%
|9.9%
|19.8%
|n/a
|-
|1983
|41.1
|3,501.5
|20.8
|1,774.3
|-2.8%
|27.3%
|21.0%
|n/a
|-
|1984
|45.1
|3,781.6
|20.2
|1,698.6
|5.9%
|19.9%
|17.5%
|n/a
|-
|1985
|47.4
|3,917.0
|17.4
|1,434.1
|2.0%
|30.7%
|15.0%
|n/a
|-
|1986
|51.1
|4,145.7
|18.7
|1,514.7
|5.6%
|19.5%
|12.3%
|n/a
|-
|1987
|55.8
|4,450.0
|22.0
|1,755.8
|6.6%
|19.9%
|11.0%
|n/a
|-
|1988
|61.9
|4,859.2
|25.9
|2,034.9
|7.3%
|14.7%
|9.9%
|n/a
|-
|1989
|71.2
|5,492.5
|29.9
|2,305.1
|10.6%
|17.0%
|8.0%
|n/a
|-
|1990
|76.6
|5,810.7
|33.2
|2,521.0
|3.7%
|26.0%
|7.8%
|n/a
|-
|1991
|85.3
|6,356.6
|38.2
|2,849.1
|7.8%
|21.8%
|8.2%
|37.1%
|-
|1992
|97.0
|7,059.6
|46.6
|3,391.3
|11.1%
|15.5%
|6.7%
|30.5%
|-
|1993
|105.9
|7,589.3
|49.8
|3,571.3
|6.7%
|12.7%
|6.5%
|28.1%
|-
|1994
|113.7
|8,020.5
|57.5
|4,057.6
|5.1%
|11.5%
|7.8%
|22.6%
|-
|1995
|126.3
|8,785.7
|74.1
|5,152.7
|8.9%
|8.2%
|7.4%
|17.3%
|-
|1996
|137.0
|9,396.4
|78.6
|5,386.1
|6.5%
|7.4%
|6.5%
|14.6%
|-
|1997
|149.7
|10,126.4
|85.7
|5,796.3
|7.4%
|6.1%
|6.1%
|12.8%
|-
|1998
|157.8
|10,534.9
|82.0
|5,474.1
|4.2%
|5.1%
|6.2%
|12.1%
|-
|1999
|159.5
|10,516.9
|75.5
|4,980.1
|-0.3%
|3.3%
|10.0%
|13.3%
|-
|2000
|171.2
|11,158.9
|78.2
|5,096.3
|5.0%
|3.8%
|9.7%
|13.2%
|-
|2001
|180.6
|11,635.4
|71.5
|4,606.8
|3.1%
|3.6%
|9.9%
|14.4%
|-
|2002
|189.3
|12,060.7
|70.3
|4,478.9
|3.2%
|2.5%
|9.8%
|15.0%
|-
|2003
|202.1
|12,744.8
|76.5
|4,824.7
|4.7%
|2.8%
|9.5%
|12.6%
|-
|2004
|221.3
|13,814.3
|99.1
|6,184.4
|6.7%
|1.1%
|10.0%
|10.3%
|-
|2005
|241.7
|14,932.2
|122.3
|7,559.8
|5.9%
|3.1%
|9.3%
|7.0%
|-
|2006
|264.2
|16,161.0
|153.9
|9,414.7
|6.1%
|3.4%
|8.0%
|5.0%
|-
|2007
|285.4
|17,277.4
|172.5
|10,445.4
|5.2%
|4.4%
|7.0%
|3.9%
|-
|2008
|301.9
|18,082.8
|179.5
|10,751.5
|3.8%
|8.7%
|7.8%
|4.9%
|-
|2009
|300.4
|17,795.9
|171.6
|10,162.9
|-1.1%
|1.5%
|11.1%
|5.9%
|-
|2010
|321.8
|18,857.6
|216.9
|12,711.0
|5.8%
|1.4%
|8.3%
|8.6%
|-
|2011
|349.0
|20,330.5
|251.1
|14,552.1
|6.2%
|3.3%
|7.3%
|11.1%
|-
|2012
|374.3
|21,584.7
|267.1
|15,313.6
|6.2%
|3.0%
|6.6%
|11.9%
|-
|2013
|392.7
|22,425.6
|277.3
|15,743.3
|3.3%
|1.8%
|6.1%
|12.8%
|-
|2014
|402.9
|22,779.4
|259.4
|14,583.0
|1.8%
|4.7%
|6.5%
|15.0%
|-
|2015
|405.5
|22,691.5
|242.5
|13,494.1
|2.2%
|4.3%
|6.3%
|17.4%
|-
|2016
|424.8
|23,492.3
|249.2
|13,717.6
|1.7%
|3.8%
|6.7%
|21.1%
|-
|2017
|450.8
|24,546.9
|276.2
|14,994.3
|1.3%
|2.2%
|7.0%
|23.7%
|-
|2018
|478.0
|25,564.5
|295.1
|15,739.9
|3.9%
|2.3%
|7.4%
|25.8%
|-
|2019
|492.2
|25,853.8
|278.3
|14,567.6
|0.9%
|2.3%
|7.2%
|28.3%
|-
|2020
|491.4
|25,468.2
|252.3
|12,968.5
|-6.1%
|3.0%
|10.8%
|32.6%
|-
|2021
|566.2
|29,050.1
|316.8
|16,065.0
|11.7%
|4.5%
|8.9%
|36.3%
|-
|2022
|619.2
|31,586.1
|310.9
|15,603.6
|2.0%
|11.6%
|7.9%
|36.2%
|-
|2023
|653.3
|33,285.5
|335.6
|16,816.4
|0.2%
|8.7%
|8.3%
|36.9%
|-
|2024
|679.6
|34,579.9
|333.8
|16,616.1
|2.0%
|4.1%
|8.2%
|37.8%
|-
|2025
|706.6
|35,977.6
|374.7
|18,546.7
|2.3%
|3.0%
|7.8%
|38.4%
|-
|2026
|734.4
|37,237.9
|391.8
|19,258.7
|2.4%
|3.0%
|7.4%
|38.8%
|-
|2027
|763.6
|38,791.8
|408.8
|20,010.3
|2.5%
|3.0%
|7.2%
|38.5%
|-
|2028
|793.9
|40,104.8
|426.9
|20,787.3
|2.5%
|3.0%
|7.2%
|38.5%
|-
|2029
|825.3
|41,787.2
|445.1
|21,567.2
|2.5%
|3.0%
|7.2%
|38.5%
|}
GDP composition
Main macroeconomic aggregates of GDP.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:right"
|-
!Aggregate!!2015<br /><small>(millions of CLP$)</small>!! % !! Change<br />year-on-year (%)
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Private consumption || 101,141,482 || 64.4 || 1.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Government consumption || 21,103,758 || 13.4 || 5.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Changes in inventories || −391,923 || −0.2 || —
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Gross fixed capital formation || 35,707,922 || 22.7 || −1.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| (Exports) || (47,221,915) || (30.1) || −1.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| (Imports) || (47,652,270) || (30.3) || −2.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Exports minus Imports || −430,355 || −0.3 || —
|-
! style="text-align:left;"| GDP || 157,130,884 || 100.0 || 2.1
|}
<small>Note: Data are preliminary. Source: Cuentas Nacionales de Chile – Evolución de la actividad económica en el año 2015 (p. 29), Central Bank of Chile, accessed on 23 March 2016.</small>
GDP by sector
Gross domestic product by sector of the economy.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:right"
|-
!Sector!!2011<br /><small>(millions of CLP$)</small>!!%
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Agriculture and forestry || 3,328,749 || 2.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Fishing || 424,545 || 0.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Mining
:Copper
:Other
|18,262,657<br />16,190,770<br />2,071,888
|15.2<br />13.5<br />1.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Manufacturing industry
:Foodstuff
:Beverage and tobacco
:Textile, clothing and leather
:Wood and furniture
:Cellulose, paper and printing
:Oil refinement
:Chemical, rubber and plastic
:Non-metallic mineral products and basic metals
:Metallic products, machinery, equipment and others
|13,129,927<br />3,123,930<br />1,898,666<br />315,070<br />419,276<br />1,593,821<br />964,591<br />1,963,145<br />858,837<br />1,992,590
|10.9<br />2.6<br />1.6<br />0.3<br />0.3<br />1.3<br />0.8<br />1.6<br />0.7<br />1.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Electricity, gas and water || 2,829,820 || 2.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Construction || 8,916,291 || 7.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Retail || 9,467,766 || 7.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Restaurants and hotels || 1,917,615 || 1.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Transportation || 4,906,137 || 4.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Communications || 2,319,387 || 1.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Financial services || 5,049,548 || 4.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Business services || 15,655,893 || 13.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Real estate services || 6,021,032 || 5.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Personal services (health, education, and other services) || 12,793,180 || 10.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Public administration || 5,207,342 || 4.3
|-
! style="text-align:left;"| GDP at factor cost || 110,229,891 || 91.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| VAT taxes || 9,347,632 || 7.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Import duties || 655,081 || 0.5
|-
! style="text-align:left;"| GDP at market prices || 120,232,603 || 100.0
|}
<small>Note: 2011 data are preliminary. Source: Cuentas Nacionales – Evolución de la actividad económica en el año 2011 (p. 34). Central Bank of Chile. accessed on 22 March 2012.</small>
Imports and exports
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Goods exports<br /><small>(billion US$)</small>
!Goods imports<br /><small>(in</small> b<small>illion US$)</small>
!Net trade<br /><small>(in</small> b<small>illion US$)</small>
|-
|2023
|$94.6
|$79.2
|$15.3
|-
|2020
|$74.0
|$55.1
|$18.9
|-
|2015
|$62.1
|$58.5
|$3.6
|-
|2010
|$71.4
|$55.1
|$16.3
|-
|2000
|$19.2
|$17.0
|$2.2
|-
|1990
|$8.4
|$7.1
|$1.3
|-
|1980
|$4.7
|$5.5
|−$0.8
|}
Top exports
Chile's top exports in 2013.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right;"
|-
! Export !! Millions of<br />US dollars FOB !! %
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Mining || 43,937 || 49.11
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Copper || 40,158 || 44.88
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Cathodes || 18,804 || 21.02
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Concentrates || 16,883 || 18.87
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Gold || 1,384 || 1.55
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Iron || 1,379 || 1.54
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Silver || 379 || 0.42
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Lithium carbonate || 226 || 0.25
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Molybdenum concentrate || 178 || 0.20
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Sea salt and table salt || 120 || 0.13
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Agriculture, silviculture and fishing || 5,749 || 6.43
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Fruit sector || 4,738 || 5.30
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Grape || 1,605 || 1.79
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Apple || 843 || 0.94
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Vaccinium || 461 || 0.52
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Cherry || 391 || 0.44
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Kiwifruit || 245 || 0.27
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Avocado || 185 || 0.21
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Pear || 168 || 0.19
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Plum || 152 || 0.17
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Other agriculture || 830 || 0.93
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Corn kernel || 361 || 0.40
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Vegetable seed || 158 || 0.18
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Extractive fishing || 149 || 0.17
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Silviculture sector || 33 || 0.04
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Industrial || 26,997 || 30.17
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Foodstuff || 8,298 || 9.28
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Salmon || 2,772 || 3.10
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Trout || 766 || 0.86
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Mollusks and crustaceans || 498 || 0.56
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Pork || 454 || 0.51
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Fish meal || 418 || 0.47
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Dried fruit || 383 || 0.43
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Frozen fruit || 337 || 0.38
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Poultry meat || 276 || 0.31
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Fruit juice || 240 || 0.27
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Canned fruit || 156 || 0.17
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Fish oil || 109 || 0.12
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Hake || 107 || 0.12
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Canned fish || 53 || 0.06
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Chemical products || 5,447 || 6.09
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Fertilizers || 860 || 0.96
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Iodine || 839 || 0.94
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Molybdenum oxide || 761 || 0.85
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Tires || 393 || 0.44
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Potassium nitrate || 296 || 0.33
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Methanol || 56 || 0.06
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Cellulose, paper and other || 3,607 || 4.03
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Bleached and semi-bleached eucalyptus pulp || 1,262 || 1.41
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Bleached and semi-bleached coniferous pulp || 1,261 || 1.41
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Cardboard || 329 || 0.37
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Raw coniferous pulp || 281 || 0.31
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Metallic products, machinery and equipment || 2,796 || 3.12
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Machinery and equipment || 1,416 || 1.58
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Transport material || 879 || 0.98
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Metallic manufactures || 500 || 0.56
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Beverage and tobacco || 2,407 || 2.69
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Bottled wine || 1,560 || 1.74
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Bulk wine and others || 417 || 0.47
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Non-alcoholic beverages || 297 || 0.33
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Forestry and wood furniture || 2,272 || 2.54
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Lumber || 814 || 0.91
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Wood fibreboards || 350 || 0.39
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Woodchips || 315 || 0.35
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Profiled timber || 273 || 0.31
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Plywood || 254 || 0.28
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Basic metals industry || 1,106 || 1.24
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Copper wire || 457 || 0.51
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Ferromolybdenum || 223 || 0.25
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Other industrial products || 1,064 || 1.19
|-
! style="text-align:left;"| Goods total !! 76,684 !! 85.71
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Transport || 6,357 || 7.11
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Travel || 2,219 || 2.48
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Others || 4,211 || 4.71
|-
! style="text-align:left;"| Services total !! 12,787 !! 14.29
|-
! style="text-align:left;"| Total exports !! 89,471 !! 100.00
|}
<small>Source: Central Bank of Chile's statistics database.</small>
See also
* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth
* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)
* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)
Bibliography
* Collier, Simon and Sater, William F. A History of Chile, 1808–2002, New York and London, Cambridge University Press, 2004.
* Constable, Pamela and Valenzuela, Arturo. A Nation of Enemies: Chile Under Pinochet. New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 1993.
* Paley, Julia. Marketing Democracy: Power and Social Movements in Post-Dictatorship Chile. University of California Press, 2001
* Winn, Peter (editor), [http://www1.tau.ac.il/eial/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id77&Itemid114 Victims of the Chilean Miracle: Workers and Neoliberalism in the Pinochet Era, 1973–2002]. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.
References
External links
* [http://nicholasvardy.wordpress.com/2010/12/18/latin-americas-chile-a-top-stock-market-performer Chile; A Top Stock market Performer]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090709192439/http://www.hacer.org/chile/ The Economic Transformation of Chile: A Model of Progress – HACER]
* [http://www.chileangovernment.cl/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id65&Itemid41 Invest in Chile]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110725010743/http://www.thisischile.cl/frmCifras.aspx?SEC189&ID1012&eje=Negocios World Reviews on Chile – this is Chile]
* [https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/CHL/Year/LTST/TradeFlow/EXPIMP Chile Export, Import, Trade Balance]
* [https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/CHL Chile Trade]
*[https://www.tradeimex.in/chile-export Chile exports]
* Tariffs applied by Chile as provided by ITC's [http://www.macmap.org/QuickSearch/FindTariff/FindTariff.aspx?subsiteopen_access&country152&source1 ITC Market Access Map], an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements
Chile
Chile
Category:CPTPP | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Chile | 2025-04-05T18:27:15.470786 |
5495 | Telecommunications in Chile | The technical regulator of communications in Chile is the Ministry of Transportation and Telecommunications, through the Undersecretariat of Telecommunications (Subtel).
Telephone
History
Telephone and telegraph services started in Chile in 1879, three years after Alexander Graham Bell, presented his patent for a telephonic system. José Dottin Husbands, an associate of Thomas Edison, arrived into the port of Valparaíso carrying the first set of switching equipment and telephones. By 1880 the first telephone company of the country is born (Compañía Chilena de Teléfonos de Edison), while in 1893, after a rapid expansion in the northern regions of Chile, telephone services started operating in the south, thanks to the founding of Telefónica del Sur (current day Grupo GTD), a company created by a group of German immigrants that had previously settled in the area of Valdivia, Región de los Ríos.
Main lines in use: 2,567,938 (2020 est.)
Mobile cellular: 25,068,249 (2020 est.)
System: privatization began in 1988; advanced telecommunications infrastructure; modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities; fixed-line connections have dropped in recent years as mobile-cellular usage continues to increase, reaching a level of 85 telephones per 100 persons
Television
Broadcast stations: 63 (plus 121 repeaters) (1997)
Pay television: 4,158,874 (2012)
Internet
Internet hosts: 847,215 (2008)
References
Chile | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chile | 2025-04-05T18:27:15.475289 |
5496 | Transport in Chile | thumb|right|Duplicate Highways of Chile, in red
Transport in Chile is mostly by road. The far south of the country is not directly connected to central Chile by road without travelling through Argentina, and water transport also plays a part there. The railways were historically important in Chile, but now play a relatively small part in the country's transport system. Because of the country's geography and long distances between major cities, aviation is also important.
Road transport
Highways
Total: 85,983 km
Paved: 21,289 km
Unpaved: 64,695 km (2020 est.)
Chile Highway 5
Chile Highway 7
Chile Highway 9
Chile Highway 68
Chile Highway 181
Freeways
3,347 km (2020 est.)
Peru – yes – a single gauge connection between the northern Chilean city of Arica and Tacna in Southern Peru.
Cities with Metros
Santiago (Metro de Santiago) website
Valparaíso (Valparaíso Metro) website
Ports and merchant marine
Ports
Antofagasta
Arica
Chañaral
Coquimbo
Corral Iquique
Puerto Montt
Punta Arenas
San Antonio San Vicente
Talcahuano
Tocopilla
Valparaíso
Merchant marine
total: 45 ships ( or over) totaling /
ships by type: (1999 est.)
bulk carriers 11
cargo ships 9
chemical tankers 8
container ships 2
gas carrying tankers 2 Passenger ships 3
petroleum tanker 4
roll-on/roll-off 4
vehicle carrier 2
Aviation
Airports – with paved runways
total: 62
over 3,047 m: 6
2,438 to 3,047 m: 6
1,524 to 2,437 m: 20
914 to 1,523 m: 20
under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.)
Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport, located in Santiago, is Chile's largest aviation facility.
Airports – with unpaved runways
total: 310
over 3,047 m: 1
2,438 to 3,047 m: 4
1,524 to 2,437 m: 12
914 to 1,523 m: 68
under 914 m: 223 (1999 est.)
National airlines
LATAM Chile
Sky Airline
JetSmart
Latin American Wings (defunct)
Bridges
thumb|An enlargeable relief map of Chile with major roads and rail lines depicted
Chacao Channel
Chacao Channel bridge is a planned suspension bridge that was to link the island of Chiloé with mainland Chile crossing the Chacao Channel. It was one of the several projects that were planned to commemorate the Chile's bicentennial in 2010. If completed, it would have been the largest suspension bridge in South America. Construction started in 2017 with completion expected in 2028.
Pipelines
crude oil 755 km
petroleum products 780 km
natural gas 320 km
Mountain passes
Cardenal Antonio Samoré Pass, Los Lagos Region, Route 215-CH
Carirriñe Pass, Los Ríos Region
Chungara–Tambo Quemado, Arica and Parinacota Region
Paso de Jama, Antofagasta Region
Huahum Pass, Los Ríos Region
Icalma International Pass, Araucanía Region
Paso Internacional Los Libertadores, Valparaíso Region
Lilpela Pass, Los Ríos Region
Paso de Los Patos, Valparaíso Region
Mamuil Malal Pass, Araucanía Region
Pino Hachado Pass, Araucanía Region
San Francisco Pass, Atacama Region
Uspallata Pass, Valparaíso Region
See also
Transantiago
Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado (EFE)
Rail transport by country
Notes
References
External links
Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Chile | 2025-04-05T18:27:15.508676 |
5497 | Chilean Armed Forces | <br /><br />
| headquarters = Santiago
| flying_hours | website <!---->
<!-- Leadership -->
| commander-in-chief = border|23px Gabriel Boric
| commander-in-chief_title = Commander-in-chief
| minister = Maya Fernández Allende
| minister_title = Minister of Defense
| chief_of_staff = José Nogueira León
| chief_of_staff_title = Chief of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
| commander | commander_title <!-- Manpower -->
| age = 18
| conscription | manpower_data
| manpower_age | available
| available_f | fit
| fit_f | reaching
| reaching_f | active 80,000<br />
| ranked | reserve 40,000
| deployed =
<!-- Financial -->
| amount billion (2022)
| percent_GDP 1.9% (2021)
<!-- Industrial -->
| domestic_suppliers = FAMAE<br />ENAER<br />ASMAR<br />DTS<br />SISDEF<br />DESA<br />LINKTRONIC<br />Detroit Chile
| foreign_suppliers = <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />
| imports | exports
<!-- Related articles -->
| history | ranks Military ranks and insignia of Chile
}}
The Chilean Armed Forces () is the unified military organization comprising the Chilean Army, Air Force, and Navy. The President of Chile is the commander-in-chief of the military, and formulates policy through the Minister of Defence. In recent years and after several major reequipment programs, the Chilean Armed Forces have become one of the most technologically advanced and professional armed forces in Latin America. The Chilean Army is mostly supplied with equipment from Germany, the United States, Brazil, Israel, France, and Spain.
Structure
Army
The current commander-in-chief of the Chilean Army is General de Ejército Sr. Javier Iturriaga del Campo. The 46,350-person army is organized under six military administrative regions and six divisional headquarters. The forces include one special forces brigade, four armoured brigades, one armoured detachment, three motorized brigades, two motorized detachments, four mountain detachments and one aviation brigade. The army operates German Leopard 1 and 2 tanks as its main battle tanks, including 170+ Leopard 2A4 and 115 Leopard 1. The army has approximately 40,000 reservists.
Navy
Admiral Juan Andrés De La Maza Larraín directs the 19,800-person Chilean Navy, including 3,600 Marines. Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, eight are major combatant ships and they are based in Valparaíso. The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighters or bomber aircraft but they have attack helicopters. The Navy also operates four submarines based in Talcahuano.Air Force
General Hugo Rodríguez González heads 11,050-strong Chilean Air Force. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on King George Island, Antarctica.
See also
* Chilean Army order of battle
Citations
References
*
*
External links
* [http://www.ejercito.cl/ Ejército de Chile (Army)]
* [http://www.armada.cl/ Armada de Chile website (Navy)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070224170438/http://www.fach.cl/ Fuerza Aérea de Chile website (Air Force)] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilean_Armed_Forces | 2025-04-05T18:27:15.513006 |
5498 | Foreign relations of Chile | Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the regional and international arena. Chile assumed a two-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2003 and was re-elected to the council in October 2013. It is also an active member of the UN family of agencies, serving as a member of the Commission on Human Rights and participating in UN peacekeeping activities. Chile hosted the second Summit of the Americas in 1998, was the chair of the Rio Group in 2001, hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002, and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004. In 2005 it hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial conference. It is an associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC. The OECD agreed to invite Chile to be among four countries to open discussions in becoming an official member.
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Chile maintains diplomatic relations with:
frameless|425x425px #CountryDate12367891011121314151617181921—22232425262728293031323334353637383940414243444647484951555657585960—6162656870727374757879899399100102103105106109117118119121122125126134137138139140146148150151152153154157158159160161162163165166171173174175176177178—179180—181—182
Attempts to clear up the dispute were unsuccessful until 1881, when Chile was at war with both Bolivia and Peru. In order to avoid fighting Argentina as well, Chilean President Aníbal Pinto authorized his envoy, Diego Barros Arana to hand over as much territory as was needed to avoid Argentina siding with Bolivia and Peru. Barros succeeded in his mission: Argentina was granted east Patagonia and Chile the Strait of Magellan. the Operation Soberanía over the disputed islands, but the invasion was halted due to:
The newspaper Clarín explained some years later that such caution was based, in part, on military concerns. In order to achieve a victory, certain objectives had to be reached before the seventh day after the attack. Some military leaders considered this not enough time due to the difficulty involved in transportation through the passes over the Andean Mountains.
and in cite 46:
According to Clarín, two consequences were feared. First, those who were dubious feared a possible regionalization of the conflict. Second, as a consequence, the conflict could acquire great power proportions. In the first case decisionmakers speculated that Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Brazil might intervene. Then the great powers could take sides. In this case, the resolution of the conflict would depend not on the combatants, but on the countries that supplied the weapons.
In December that year, moments before Videla signed a declaration of war against Chile, Pope John Paul II agreed to mediate between the two nations. The Pope's envoy, Antonio Samorè, successfully averted war and proposed a new definitive boundary in which the three disputed islands would remain Chilean. Chile immediately accepted this decision, but Argentina still disliked and avoided acceptance until after the lost Falklands War in 1982. Both agreed to Samoré's proposal and signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina, ending that dispute.
In the 1990s, under presidents Frei and Menem both countries solved almost all of the remaining border disputes during bilateral talks. They also agreed to submit Laguna del Desierto to international arbitration in 1994. Almost the entire disputed area was awarded to Argentina.
The last border dispute are . in the Southern Patagonian Ice Field from Mount Fitz Roy to Mount Daudet that is still officially undefined. In August 2006, however, a tourist map was published in Argentina placing the disputed region within the borders of that country. Chile filed an official complaint, sparking renewed efforts to settle the dispute which the Argentine government supports and urged Chile to finish quick as possible the demarcation of the international border.
Since democratization in the 1980s, both countries began a close economic and political integration as Chile became an associated member of Mercosur. Also both countries practice defense cooperation and friendship policy.
Argentina has an embassy in Santiago and several consulates throughout the country.
Chile has an embassy in Buenos Aires and several consulates throughout the country.3 October 1967Barbados is accredited in Chile through its embassy in Caracas, (Venezuela). Chile is accredited to Barbados from its embassy in Port of Spain, (Trinidad and Tobago) and maintains an honorary consulate in Bridgetown. Barbados and Chile formally established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1967. Chile was the first Latin American country with which Barbados formally established formal diplomatic relations. Both countries raised the agenda of rekindling ties in 2005 as a precursor to the attempted Free Trade Area of the Americas trade bloc. At current both blocs have discussed the introduction of a free trade agreement and more specifically Chile and CARICOM have specifically noted the possibility of establishing a free trade agreement.
Chilean President Ricardo Lagos visited Barbados on February 20–21, 2005 The Barbados Prime Minister later reciprocated by official visit to Chile in November 2005. As part of their meeting the Government of Barbados pledged support to Chilean-diplomat José Miguel Insulza for the post of Secretary General to the Organization of American States (OAS). In May 2009, Prime Minister David Thompson outlined his plan to further Barbadian relations in the Americas. As part of his outline he named Chile as one of three countries which he desired his government would further enhance relations with in South America. In August 2017 President Bachelet visited Barbados and met with her Barbadian counterpart to discuss mutual areas of cooperation.
Barbados is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.
Chile is accredited to Barbados from its embassy in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.15 May 1990 Both countries established diplomatic relations on October 11, 1990.
Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.
Belize has an honorary consulate in Santiago.
Chile is accredited to Belize from its embassy in San Salvador, El Salvador.20 April 1873See Bolivia–Chile relations
Relations with Bolivia have been strained ever since the independence wars because of the Atacama border dispute (Bolivia claims a corridor to the Pacific Ocean). The Spaniards never bothered to definitively establish a border between Chile and Bolivia. Chile claimed its limit with Peru ran through the Loa River and that Bolivia was therefore landlocked, while Bolivia claimed it did have a coast and that the limit with Chile ran along the Salado River. The border remained vague throughout the 19th century. Finally, Bolivia and Chile agreed, in 1866, to allow Bolivia access to the Pacific and that the limit of the two countries would run along the 24th parallel. The area between the 25th and 23rd parallel would remain demilitarized and both nations would be allowed to mine there. It was also agreed that taxes on the exportation of saltpeter would not increase.
However, in 1879, Bolivian dictator General Hilarión Daza increased the taxes on the exportation of saltpeter, violating the 1866 treaty. When Chilean-owned saltpeter companies protested, Daza expropriated their companies and sold them in a public auction. Daza then put an end to all commerce with Chile and exiled all Chilean residents in Bolivia (the Bolivian port of Antofagasta had more Chileans than Bolivians). In response, Chile declared war on Bolivia and occupied Bolivia's coast. Peru had, in 1873, signed a secret pact with Bolivia in which the two countries agreed to fight together against any nation that threatened either of them. When Peru refused to be neutral in the conflict between Chile and Bolivia, Chile declared war on Peru. Chile defeated both countries and annexed the coast claimed by Bolivia. This was ratified in a 1904 treaty.
Diplomatic relations with Bolivia continued to be strained because of Bolivia's continuing aspiration to the sea. In 1964, Bolivian President Víctor Paz Estenssoro severed diplomatic relations with Chile. Generals Augusto Pinochet and Hugo Banzer resumed diplomatic relations and attempted to settle territorial disputes. The secret negotiations started in 1973 and in 1975 diplomatic relations between Chile and Bolivia were established. That year, both dictators met in the Bolivian border town of Charaña. Pinochet agreed to give Bolivia a small strip of land running between the Chilean city of Arica and the Peruvian border. However the Treaty of Lima between Peru and Chile specified that Chile must consult Peru before granting any land to a third party in the area of Tarapacá. Peruvian dictator General Francisco Morales Bermúdez did not agree with the Charaña proposal and instead drafted his own proposal, in which the three nations would share administration of the port of Arica and the sea immediately in front of it. Pinochet refused this agreement, and Banzer broke ties with Chile again in 1978. The failure of the Charaña accords was one of the reasons of Banzer's downfall that very year.
Chile and Bolivia maintain consular relations, and appear to have become friendlier. Former Chilean President Ricardo Lagos attended the inauguration of current Bolivian President Evo Morales. Morales has repeatedly announced his intention to establish diplomatic relations with Chile once more, but has still not given up Bolivia's claim to the sea.
Bolivia has consulates-general in Santiago, Antofagasta, Arica, Calama and Iquique.
Chile has consulates-general in La Paz and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.22 April 1836See Brazil–Chile relations
thumb|Michelle Bachelet and Dilma Rousseff, 15 December 2011
Chile and Brazil have acted numerous times as mediators in international conflicts, such as in the 1914 diplomatic impasse between the United States and Mexico, avoiding a possible state of war between those two countries. More recently, since the 2004 Haitian coup d'état, Chile and Brazil have actively participated in the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti, which is led by the Brazilian Army. They are also two of the three most important economies in South America along with Argentina.
Brazil has an embassy in Santiago.
Chile has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Porto Alegre, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.28 August 1941See Canada–Chile relations
Since 1997 Canada and Chile's trade relations have been governed by the Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement, Chile's first full free trade agreement and Canada's first with a Latin American nation.
Canada has an embassy in Santiago.
Chile has an embassy in Ottawa and consulates-general in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver.28 August 1822See Chile-Colombia relations
Both nations are members of the Pacific Alliance.
Chile has an embassy in Bogotá.
Colombia has an embassy in Santiago.19 October 1903See Chile–Cuba relations
Chile has an embassy in Havana.
Cuba has an embassy in Santiago.1938See Chile–Dominican Republic relations
Chile has an embassy in Santo Domingo.
Dominican Republic has an embassy in Santiago.1836See Chile–Ecuador relations
After the War of the Pacific (1879–83) pursued a policy of promoting friendly relationships between countries with disputes with Chile's neighbors. In doing so Chile made attempts to establish friendly relationships between Ecuador and Colombia, both were countries that had serious territorial disputes with Peru in the Amazon. Military cooperation with Ecuador grew considerably after the War of the Pacific with Chile sending instructors to the military academy in Quito and selling superfluous arms and munitions to Ecuador. Despite Chile's over-all good relations with Ecuador both countries had a minor diplomatic crisis resulting from the capture of the Peruvian torpedo boat Alay in Ecuadorian territorial waters during the war.
Chile together with the other ABC Powers and the USA were among the guarantors of the Rio Protocol that followed the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War in 1942.
Chile has an embassy in Quito and a consulate-general in Guayaquil.
Ecuador has an embassy in Santiago.22 July 1971 Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 22 July 1971.
Both countries are full members of Community of Latin American and Caribbean States and the Union of South American Nations.
Chile has an embassy in Georgetown.
Guyana is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.7 June 1943See Chile–Haiti relations
Chile has an embassy in Port-au-Prince.
Haiti has an embassy in Santiago.7 March 1831See Chile–Mexico relations
The two nations have maintained relations since 1831.
On May 20, 1914, Chile and the other ABC Powers met in Niagara Falls, Canada, to mediate diplomatically to avoid a state of war between the United States and Mexico over the Veracruz Incident and the Tampico Affair. In 1974, Mexico severed diplomatic relations over the overthrow of President Salvador Allende. For the next fifteen years, Mexico would accept thousands of Chilean refugees who were escaping the government of General Augusto Pinochet. Diplomatic relations between the two nations were re-established in 1990. Currently both countries have signed a free trade agreement that went into effect in 1999. Both nations are founding members of the Pacific Alliance and are the only two Latin-American nations to be members of the OECD.
Chile has an embassy in Mexico City.
Mexico has an embassy in Santiago.22 July 1843See Chile–Paraguay relations
Chile has an embassy in Asunción.
Paraguay has an embassy in Santiago.8 August 1828See Chile–Peru relations
Chile has an embassy in Lima and a consulate-general in Tacna.
Peru has an embassy in Santiago and consulates-general in Arica, Iquique and Valparaíso.3 February 1964See Chile–Trinidad and Tobago relations
Chile has an embassy in Port of Spain.
Trinidad and Tobago is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.6 July 1822See Chile–United States relations
thumb|Bachelet with U.S. President Barack Obama, 30 June 2014
Chile-United States relations have been better in the period 1988 to the present than any other time in history. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, The United States government applauded the rebirth of democratic practices in Chile, despite having facilitated the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, the build-up to which included destabilizing the country's economy and politics.
Chile has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and consulates-general in Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York and San Francisco.
United States has an embassy in Santiago.9 July 1869See Chile–Uruguay relations
Chile has an embassy in Montevideo.
Uruguay has an embassy in Santiago.14 April 1853See Chile–Venezuela relations
Chile has an embassy in Caracas and a consulate in Puerto Ordaz.
Venezuela has an embassy in Santiago.
Asia
Country Formal Relations BeganNotes15 December 1993See Armenia–Chile relations
Armenia is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina and maintains an honorary consulate in Santiago.
Chile is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia and maintains an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
Chile has recognized the Armenian genocide in 2007.15 December 1970See Chile–China relations
Chile recognized the Republic of China until 1970, when diplomatic recognition was switched to the People's Republic of China under the left-leaning Allende. After the 1973 coup by the Pinochet-led junta, diplomatic relations were cut between Chile and all Communist nations, with the exception of China and Romania.
The strongly anti-Communist military government in Chile maintained friendly ties with the Communist government in China for the remainder of the Cold War, with Pinochet crediting the Chinese for abiding by the principle of non-interference in other nations' internal affairs. China and Chile exchanged military missions and the Soviet Chilean copper exports to China and Chinese loans The friendly relations were cemented by a share distaste for the Soviet Union, the Chinese diplomatic principle of non-interference in other nations' internal affairs, and a willingness to overlook ideological differences in the pursuit of economic ties.
Chile has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general Chengdu, Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Shanghai.
China has an embassy in Santiago and a consulate-general in Iquique.March 1949See Chile-India relations
Chile was the first country in South America to sign a trade agreement with India, in 1956. An ongoing dialogue has nurtured bilateral political understanding. The mechanism of Foreign Office level consultations was initiated in Santiago in August 2000, and was followed up with a second meeting in New Delhi in April, 2003. However, high-level political exchanges have been few and far between. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi visited Chile in 1968, Transport and Communications Minister K.P. Unnikrishnan in 1990, and President Shankar Dayal Sharma in 1995. From the Chilean side, there has not been any HOS/HOG visit to India. As an indication of Chile's interest in an enhanced relationship, the Chilean Ministry of Agriculture visited India in December 2001.
Chile has an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate-general in Mumbai.
India has an embassy in Santiago.29 September 1965See Chile-Indonesia relations
Bilateral relations between Chile and Indonesia were established in 1964. These relations were strengthened by the establishment of the Indonesian embassy in Santiago in March 1991.
Chile has an embassy in Jakarta.
Indonesia has an embassy in Santiago.16 January 1908Iran severed its diplomatic ties with Chile on August 18, 1980, protesting Pinochet regime's repressive internal policies and giving the Chilean Chargé d'affaires in Tehran 15 days to close the embassy and leave the country.
Iran and Chile resumed relations on December 2, 1991, with Iran opening its embassy in Santiago, only to close it again in 1999 citing financial problems. The Iranian embassy in Santiago was finally reopened in 2007 at full ambassador level.
Chile has an embassy in Tehran.
Iran has an embassy in Santiago.16 May 1950See Chile–Israel relations
Chile recognized Israel's independence in February 1949. Both countries established diplomatic relation on 16 May 1950, with Israel sending their first ambassador on that date and Chile sending their first ambassador on 16 June 1952.
Japan has an embassy in Santiago.
Chile and Japan established diplomatic relations on 25 September 1897. Chile severed diplomatic relations with Japan on 20 January 1943 due to World War II. Chile and Japan re-established diplomatic relations on 7 October 1952.28 June 1945See Chile–Lebanon relations
Chile has an embassy in Beirut.
Lebanon has an embassy in Santiago.26 February 1979See Chile–Malaysia relations
The Chile–Malaysia relations is mainly based on trade. In 2009, the total trade between Chile and Malaysia is $336 million with the total Malaysian export to Chile were $16.8 million while the import with $148.7 million.
Chile has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.
Malaysia has an embassy in Santiago.March 1949See Chile-Pakistan relations
Chile–Pakistan relations refers to the current and historical relationship between Chile and Pakistan. Formal diplomatic relations between the two states established in 2008.
Chile is accredited to Pakistan from its embassy in Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Pakistan is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina.See Chile–Palestine relations
Chile has a representative office in Ramallah.
Palestine has an embassy in Santiago.17 July 1962See Chile–Philippines relations
Chile and the Philippines were both former Spanish colonies. Diplomatic relations between Chile and the Philippines began way back in 1854 when Chile opened a consulate in Binondo, Manila. But the formal relations established on July 4, 1946, the day that the Philippines officially gained their official independence from the United States.During the authoritarian regime of Ferdinand Marcos in 1980, he invited Augusto Pinochet to visit the country, but later he refused Pinochet's plane to land in the country, this was because of a US program to isolate Pinochet's regime, in which the US pressured Marcos to cancel Pinochet's visit.Chilean-Philippines relations were strained until 1986, when Corazon Aquino later ousted Marcos in the People Power Revolution.
Chile has an embassy in Manila.
Philippines has an embassy in Santiago.18 April 1962The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and República de Chile began on 18 April 1962.
Chileans and South Koreans maintain always very good relations.
Chile has a Working Holiday Visa Program Agreement with the Republic of Korea It was at the first time with a country of the Asia.
Chilean embassy in Seoul.
South Korean embassy in Santiago.
Chile and South Korea are a member states of the UN, WTO and OECD.
Chilean Ministry of Foreign Affairs about bilateral relations with the Republic of Korea (in Spanish only)
South Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs about bilateral relations with the Republic of Chile (in Korean only)See Chile–Taiwan relations
Chile has a Trade Office in Taipei.
Taiwan has a Trade Office in Santiago.30 January 1926See Chile–Turkey relations
Chile has an embassy in Ankara.
Turkey has an embassy in Santiago.
Both countries are members of OECD and WTO.
Chile-Turkey Free Trade Agreement was signed on July 14, 2009, and is in effect since March 1, 2011. There are between 380,000 and 500,000 people of Croatian descent living in Chile. Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Chile
Chile has an embassy in Zagreb.
Croatia has an embassy in Santiago.4 February 1899See Chile–Denmark relations
Chile has an embassy in Copenhagen.
Denmark has an embassy in Santiago.27 September 1991See Chile–Estonia relations
Chile re-recognized Estonia in 1991 and diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on September 27, 1991.
An agreement on visa-free travel between Estonia and Chile came to force on 2 December 2000. The two countries also have in force a Memorandum on co-operation between the Ministries of Foreign Affairs.
In 2007, trade between Estonia and Chile was valued at 6.3 million EUR. Estonian exports included mainly machinery, mechanical equipment, and mineral fuels; Chile exports included mainly wine, fish, crustaceans and fruit. In 2004, 83% of Chile exports to Estonia, then totaling 2.4 million EUR, consisted of wine. Due to its climate being unsuitable for large-scale grape production, most wine sold in Estonia is imported.
In 2006, Estonia and Chile issued the joint Antarctic themed stamp series, designed by Ülle Marks and Jüri Kass, bearing images of the Emperor penguin and the minke whale. The works of Chilean writers Isabel Allende, Pablo Neruda and José Donoso have been translated into Estonian. The two countries maintain resident ambassadors in both capitals.
Ireland has an embassy in Santiago.28 June 1856See Chile–Italy relations
Chile has an embassy in Rome and a consulate-general in Milan.
Italy has an embassy in Santiago. Chile has an embassy in The Hague and a consulate-general in Amsterdam.
the Netherlands has an embassy in Santiago.9 June 1919See Chile–Norway relations
Chile has an embassy in Oslo.
Norway has an embassy in Santiago.7 December 1920See Chile–Poland relations
Chile has an embassy in Warsaw.
Poland has an embassy in Santiago.28 February 1879See Chile–Portugal relations
Chile has an embassy in Lisbon.
Portugal has an embassy in Santiago. 5 February 1925See Chile–Romania relations
In 1965 diplomatic relations were renewed. Even though most of the Eastern European countries broke their relations with Chile after 1973. Romania retained diplomatic relations with Chile.
Approximately 3,000 Chileans looked for asylum in Romania during Augusto Pinochet's dictatorship.
Chile has an embassy in Bucharest.
Romania has an embassy in Santiago.26 December 1991See Chile–Russia relations
Chile has an embassy in Moscow.
Russia has an embassy in Santiago.1935 Both countries have established diplomatic relations 1935. They were renewed in 1946. Diplomatic relations were broken off on two occasions, in 1947 and 1973, and the last renewal was in March 1990.
A number of bilateral agreements in various fields have been concluded and are in force between both countries.
Chile is accredited to Serbia from its embassy in Athens, Greece.
Serbia is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina.12 June 1883See Chile–Spain relations
Chile has an embassy in Madrid and a consulate-general in Barcelona.
Spain has an embassy in Santiago.14 June 1895See Chile–Sweden relations
Chile has an embassy in Stockholm and a consulate in Gothenburg.
Sweden has an embassy in Santiago.14 September 1823See Chile–United Kingdom relations
Chile established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 14 September 1823.
New Zealand has an embassy in Santiago.
See also
List of diplomatic missions in Chile
List of diplomatic missions of Chile
Visa requirements for Chilean citizens
Maximum neighbor hypothesis
References
Further reading
Rodríguez Elizondo, José: Chile-Perú. El siglo que vivimos en peligro. La Tercera-Mondadori, Santiago, 2004
External links
Ministry of Foreign Relations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Chile | 2025-04-05T18:27:16.244522 |
5499 | National Anthem of Chile | }}
| english_title = National Anthem of Chile
| image = Himno Nacional de Chile en Fa mayor Piano.png
| image_size | alt
| caption = "National Anthem of Chile" sheet music, opening piano
| prefix = National
| country =
| alt_title
| en_alt_title = The National Song
| alt_title_2
| en_alt_title_2 = "How Pure, Chile, Is Your Blue Sky"
| author = Eusebio Lillo
| lyrics_date =
*17 September 1847
}}
| composer = Ramón Carnicer
| music_date =
*23 December 1828
}}
| adopted = 23 December 1828
| predecessor = Canción Nacional Chilena
| until | sound United States Navy Band - National Anthem of Chile.ogg
| sound_title = Instrumental version
}}
The National Anthem of Chile,, }} also referred to as the "National Song", }} or by its incipit as "" ("How Pure, Chile, Is Your Blue Sky"), was adopted in 1828. It has a history of two lyrics and two melodies that made up three different versions. The current version was composed by Ramón Carnicer, with words by Eusebio Lillo, and has six parts plus the chorus.HistoryFirst national anthem
The first Chilean national anthem dates back to 1819, when the government called for, on 13 January, the creation of music and lyrics for this purpose.
The composer Manuel Robles and the poet Bernardo de Vera y Pintado fulfilled this mandate and their "National Song" debuted on 20 August 1820 in the Domingo Arteaga theater, although other historians claim that it was played and sung during the festivities of September 1819.
In the beginning, everyone would stand for the song. The custom of always singing it at the theater slowly disappeared, until it was requested that it only be sung at the anniversary of the country.
The doctor Bernardo Vera, known in the history of the independence, was the author of the verses that were sung to Robles' music.
This first hymn was sung until 1828, when it was replaced with what is currently being sung.
Second national anthem
The second and current Chilean national anthem was composed by the Spanish composer Ramón Carnicer, when he was exiled in England because of his liberal ideas. Mariano Egaña, Chilean Minister in London, acting on the criticism that Robles' song was receiving, asked Carnicer to compose a new hymn with Bernardo de Vera's original text.
The Spanish musician probably wrote the work by 1827, the date he returned to Barcelona, and his hymn debuted in Santiago, in the Arteaga theater on 23 December 1828.
Years later, probably in 1847, the Chilean government entrusted the young poet Eusebio Lillo with a new text that would replace the anti-Spain poem of Vera y Pintado, and after being analyzed by Andrés Bello, retained the original chorus ("Dulce patria, recibe los votos..."). The lyrics were slightly revised in 1909.
During the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, the Verse III was officially incorporated because of his praise of the armed forces and the national police (Carabineros). After the end of Pinochet's regime in 1990, it was only sung at military events. Supporters from the former military junta also sing the anthem with the Verse III in private ceremonies and rallies, with continuous controversies over the following years because of the crescent general consensus of the crimes against humanity committed by the regime.
In the celebrations marking the return of democracy in 1990 at Santiago's Estadio Nacional Julio Martínez Prádanos, the anthem was played in its present melody, raised to F Major, which is the original melody of the second anthem by Carnicer, but using the 1847 lyrics as text, save for the original chorus of the 1819 anthem. This was the version that from 1991 to 2000 was played before broadcasts of Chilean presidential addresses. In 2000, it was replaced by a more stylized version, which was used until 2010. After that, the anthem was scrapped off the addresses. Since the end of the dictatorship, television stations rarely ever used the anthem during their sign-on and sign-off, and the practice fell off definitely during the 1990s. Radio stations in Chile still have a tradition to play the anthem on New Year's Eve, to start the celebrations.
There is also a translation in Mapudungun, the largest and most-commonly spoken indigenous language in Chile, spoken by the Mapuche people. Lyrics Official lyrics
Below are the lyrics of the most played version; it corresponds to verse V of the full version and the chorus.
{| class="wikitable"
!Spanish original
!English translation
|- style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; white-space:nowrap;"
|<poem>
Dulce Patria, recibe los votos
Con que Chile en tus aras juró:
𝄆 Que o la tumba serás de los libres
O el asilo contra la opresión 𝄇
Que o la tumba serás de los libres
O el asilo contra la opresión
O el asilo contra la opresión
O el asilo contra la opresión.
II
Vuestros nombres, valientes soldados,
que habéis sido de Chile el sostén,
nuestros pechos los llevan grabados;
los sabrán nuestros hijos también.
Sean ellos el grito de muerte
𝄆 que lancemos marchando a lidiar, 𝄇
𝄆 y sonando en la boca del fuerte
hagan siempre al tirano temblar. 𝄇
}}}}</poem>
|<poem>I
Pure, Chile, is your bluish sky
Pure breezes cross you as well
And your flower-embroidered fields
Are the happy copy of Eden
Majestic are the white mountains
𝄆 That the Lord gave you as a bastion 𝄇
𝄆 And that sea that tranquilly bathes your shore
Promises you a future splendor. 𝄇
Sweet Fatherland receive the vows
With which Chile swore at your altars
𝄆 Either the tomb of the free you will be
Or the refuge against oppression 𝄇
Either the tomb of the free you will be
Or the refuge against oppression
Or the refuge against oppression
Or the refuge against oppression.
II
Your names, brave soldiers
who have been Chile's mainstay,
they are engraved in our chests;
our children will know them as well.
May they be the death cry
𝄆 that comes out when we march to the fight, 𝄇
and ringing in the mouth of the strong
they always make the tyrant tremble. 𝄇
</poem>
|}
Notes
References
External links
* [http://www.gob.cl/himno-nacional/ Himno Nacional Nueva versión]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130614193813/http://www.bibliotecabicentenaria.bnv.gob.ve/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id140%3Acancion-patriotica-nro-2-ca-1810-&Itemid104 Chile - Canción Patriótica Nro. 2 (ca 1810)]
* [http://nationalanthems.me/chile-himno-nacional-de-chile/ Chile: Himno Nacional de Chile - Audio of the national anthem of Chile, with information and lyrics] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20180209021240/http://nationalanthems.me/chile-himno-nacional-de-chile/ archive link])
* [http://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=11640 Decree 260 national anthem]
* [http://simbolospatrios.cl/ Sobre los verdaderos simbolos patrios de Chile] simbolospatrios.cl
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120324050716/http://www.guerradelpacifico1879.cl/himnosm.html Chile National Anthem, full lyric, MP3 format, vocal and instrumental]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?vdfnKYTiayTE&ppygUXaGltbm8gbmFjaW9uYWwgZGUgY2hpbGU%3D National Anthem of Chile (Full 6 Stanzas) - "Himno Nacional de Chile"] – DeroVolkTV, YouTube
Category:Songs in Spanish
Chile
Category:National symbols of Chile
Category:National anthems
Category:Oceanian anthems
Category:Compositions in C major
Category:1847 in Chile | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Anthem_of_Chile | 2025-04-05T18:27:16.251890 |
5500 | Christmas Island | <br />}}
| settlement_type = Australian Indian Ocean Territory<br />External territory of Australia
| image_skyline | image_caption
| image_seal | seal_size
| seal_type | seal_link
| motto | anthem
| song_type | song
| image_map = Australia on the globe (Christmas Island special) (Southeast Asia centered).svg
| map_alt = Location of Christmas Island (red circle) and the location of Australia mainland (continent in red)
| map_caption = Location of Christmas Island (red circle) and the location of Australia mainland (continent in red)
| subdivision_type = Sovereign state
| subdivision_name =
| established_title = British annexation
| established_date = 6 June 1888
| established_title2 = Transferred from Singapore to Australia
| established_date2 = 1 October 1958
| official_languages = None
| languages_type = Spoken languages
| languages =
| capital = Flying Fish Cove<br />("The Settlement")
| coordinates =
| largest_city = capital
| demonym = Christmas Islander
| ethnic_groups =
}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2021
| government_type = Directly administered dependency
| leader_title1 = Monarch
| leader_name1 = Charles III
| leader_title2 = Governor-General
| leader_name2 = Sam Mostyn
| leader_title3 = Administrator
| leader_name3 = Farzian Zainal
| leader_title4 = Shire President
| leader_name4 = Gordon Thomson
| national_representation = Parliament of Australia
| national_representation_type1 = Senate
| national_representation1 = represented by Northern Territory senators
| national_representation_type2 = House of Representatives
| national_representation2 = included in the Division of Lingiari
| area_km2 = 135
| area_sq_mi = 52
| percent_water = 0
| elevation_max_m = 361
| elevation_max_ft | population_census 1,692
| GDP_nominal_rank | GDP_nominal_year 2010
| GDP_nominal_per_capita | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank
| HDI_year | HDI_change <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI = <!--number only-->
| currency = Australian dollar (AU$)
| currency_code = AUD
| timezone = CXT
| utc_offset = +07:00
| drives_on = left
| calling_code +61 8 91
| postal_code_type = Postcode
| postal_code 6798
| iso_code = CX
| cctld .cx
|named_for = Christmas Day, when it was first sighted by Europeans
}}
| poj = Sèng-tàn-tó
| altname = Territory of Christmas Island
| t2 = 聖誕島領地
| s2 = 圣诞岛领地
| p2 = Shèngdàn Dǎo Lǐngdì
| j2 =
| poj2 = Sèng-tàn-tó Léng-tē
| ms = Wilayah Pulau Krismas
}}
Christmas Island, officially the Territory of Christmas Island,<!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD OR REVERT OFFICIAL LANGUAGES. AN INFOBOX IS ATTACHED ABOVE --> is an Australian external territory in the Indian Ocean comprising the island of the same name. It is located approximately south of Java and Sumatra and about north-west of the closest point on the Australian mainland. With an area of , Christmas Island's geographic isolation and history of minimal human disturbance has led to a high level of endemism among its flora and fauna, which is of interest to scientists and naturalists. The territory derives its name from its discovery on Christmas Day 1643 by Captain William Mynors.
The first European to sight Christmas Island was Richard Rowe of the Thomas in 1615. Captain William Mynors named it on Christmas Day, 25 December 1643. It was first settled in the late 19th century, after abundant phosphate deposits were found, originally deposited as guano, leading Britain to annex the island in 1888, and begin commercial mining in 1899. Christmas Island was invaded by the Japanese in 1942 to secure its phosphate deposits, and transferred from Singapore to Australia, where it remains, in 1958.
Christmas Island had a population of 1,692 residents , Today, around two-thirds of the island's population is estimated to have Straits Chinese origin (though just 22.2% of the population declared a Chinese ancestry in 2021),
The majority (63%) of the island is made up of Christmas Island National Park, which features several areas of primary monsoonal forest.
History
(left) and Charles Swan (right) aboard the latter's ship Cygnet, as illustrated in a work by Jules Verne. Dampier was the first visitor to Christmas Island in 1688.]]
First visits by Europeans, 1643
The first European to sight the island was Richard Rowe of the Thomas in 1615. Captain William Mynors of the East India Company vessel Royal Mary named the island when he sailed past it on Christmas Day in 1643. The island was included on English and Dutch navigation charts early in the 17th century, but it was not until 1666 that a map published by Dutch cartographer Pieter Goos included the island. Goos labelled the island "Mony" or "Moni", the meaning of which is unclear.
English navigator William Dampier, aboard the privateer Charles Swan's ship Cygnet, made the earliest recorded visit to the sea around the island in March 1688. Dampier was trying to reach Cocos from New Holland. His ship was blown off course in an easterly direction, arriving at Christmas Island 28 days later. Dampier landed on the west coast, at "the Dales". Two of his crewmen became the first Europeans to set foot on Christmas Island.
Captain Daniel Beeckman of the Eagle passed the island on 5 April 1714, chronicled in his 1718 book, A Voyage to and from the Island of Borneo, in the East-Indies.Exploration and annexationThe first attempt at exploring the island was made in 1857 by Captain Sidney Grenfell of the frigate . An expedition crew were sent ashore with instructions to reach the summit of the plateau, but they failed to find a route up the inland cliff and were forced to turn back.
In 1886, Captain John Maclear of , having discovered an anchorage in a bay that he named "Flying Fish Cove", landed a party and made a small collection of the flora and fauna.
Phosphate mining began in 1899 using indentured workers from Singapore, British Malaya, and China. John Davis Murray, a mechanical engineer and recent graduate of Purdue University, was sent to supervise the operation on behalf of the Phosphate Mining and Shipping Company. Murray was known as the "King of Christmas Island" until 1910, when he married and settled in London.
The island was administered jointly by the British Phosphate commissioners and district officers from the United Kingdom Colonial Office through the Straits Settlements, and later the Crown Colony of Singapore. Hunt (2011) provides a detailed history of Chinese indentured labour on the island during those years. In 1922, scientists unsuccessfully attempted to view a solar eclipse in late September from the island to test Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
Japanese invasion
From the outbreak of the South-East Asian theatre of World War II in December 1941, Christmas Island was a target for Japanese occupation because of its rich phosphate deposits. The first attack was carried out on 20 January 1942 by the , which torpedoed the Norwegian freighter Eidsvold. The vessel drifted and eventually sank off West White Beach. Most of the European and Asian staff and their families were evacuated to Perth.
In late February and early March 1942, there were two aerial bombing raids. Shelling from a Japanese naval group on 7 March led the district officer to hoist the white flag. meant that only small amounts of phosphate were exported to Japan during the occupation. In November 1943, over 60% of the island's population were evacuated to Surabaya prison camps, leaving a population of just under 500 Chinese and Malays and 15 Japanese to survive as best they could. In October 1945, re-occupied Christmas Island.
After the war, seven mutineers were traced and prosecuted by the Military Court in Singapore. In 1947, five of them were sentenced to death. However, following representations made by the newly independent government of India, their sentences were reduced to penal servitude for life. The United Kingdom's Christmas Island Act was given royal assent on 14 May 1958 by Queen Elizabeth II, enabling Britain to transfer authority over Christmas Island from Singapore to Australia by an order-in-council. Australia's Christmas Island Act was passed in September 1958, and the island was officially placed under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 October 1958. This transfer did not see any process involving the local population, who could remain Singaporean citizens or obtain Australian citizenship. Links between Singapore and Christmas Island have occasionally reemerged in Singaporean politics and in Australia–Singapore relations.
Under Commonwealth Cabinet Decision 1573 of 9 September 1958, D.E. Nickels was appointed the first official representative of the new territory. In a media statement on 5 August 1960, the minister for territories, Paul Hasluck, said, among other things, that, "His extensive knowledge of the Malay language and the customs of the Asian people ... has proved invaluable in the inauguration of Australian administration ... During his two years on the island he had faced unavoidable difficulties ... and constantly sought to advance the island's interests."
John William Stokes succeeded Nickels and served from 1 October 1960, to 12 June 1966. On his departure, he was lauded by all sectors of the island community. In 1968, the official secretary was retitled an administrator and, since 1997, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands together are called the Australian Indian Ocean Territories and share a single administrator resident on Christmas Island.
The village of Silver City was built in the 1970s, with aluminium-clad houses that were supposed to be cyclone-proof. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, centred off the western shore of Sumatra in Indonesia, resulted in no reported casualties, but some swimmers were swept some out to sea for a time before being swept back in.Refugee and immigration detention
From the late 1980s and early 1990s, boats carrying asylum seekers, mainly departing from Indonesia, began landing on the island. In 2001, Christmas Island was the site of the Tampa controversy, in which the Australian government stopped a Norwegian ship, MV Tampa, from disembarking 438 rescued asylum-seekers. The ensuing standoff and the associated political reactions in Australia were a major issue in the 2001 Australian federal election.
The Howard government operated the "Pacific Solution" from 2001 to 2007, excising Christmas Island from Australia's migration zone so that asylum seekers on the island could not apply for refugee status. Asylum seekers were relocated from Christmas Island to Manus Island and Nauru. In 2006, an immigration detention centre, containing approximately 800 beds, was constructed on the island for the Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs. Originally estimated to cost million, the final cost was over $400 million. In 2007, the Rudd government decommissioned Manus Regional Processing Centre and Nauru detention centre; processing would then occur on Christmas Island itself.
In December 2010, 48 asylum-seekers died just off the coast of the island in what became known as the Christmas Island boat disaster when their boat hit the rocks near Flying Fish Cove, and then smashed against nearby cliffs. In the case Plaintiff M61/2010E v Commonwealth of Australia, the High Court of Australia ruled, in a 7–0 joint judgment, that asylum seekers detained on Christmas Island were entitled to the protections of the Migration Act. Accordingly, the Commonwealth was obliged to afford asylum seekers a minimum of procedural fairness when assessing their claims. , after the interception of four boats in six days, carrying 350 people, the Immigration Department stated that there were 2,960 "irregular maritime arrivals" being held in the island's five detention facilities, which exceeded not only the "regular operating capacity" of 1,094 people, but also the "contingency capacity" of 2,724.
The Christmas Island Immigration Reception and Processing Centre closed in September 2018. The Morrison government announced it would re-open the centre in February the following year, after Australia's parliament passed legislation giving sick asylum seekers easier access to mainland hospitals. In the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, the government opened parts of the Immigration Reception and Processing Centre to be used as a quarantine facility to accommodate Australian citizens who had been in Wuhan, the point of origin of the pandemic. The evacuees arrived on 3 February. They left 14 days later to their homes on the mainland.
Geography
The island is about in greatest length and in breadth. The total land area is , with of coastline. Steep cliffs along much of the coast rise abruptly to a central plateau. Elevation ranges from sea level to at Murray Hill. The island is mainly tropical rainforest, 63% of which is national parkland. The narrow fringing reef surrounding the island poses a maritime hazard.
Christmas Island lies northwest of Perth, Western Australia, south of Indonesia, east-northeast of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and west of Darwin, Northern Territory. Its closest point to the Australian mainland is from the town of Exmouth, Western Australia.
Only small parts of the shoreline are easily accessible. The island's perimeter is dominated by sharp cliff faces, making many of the island's beaches difficult to get to. Some of the easily accessible beaches include Flying Fish Cove (main beach), Lily Beach, Ethel Beach, and Isabel Beach, while the more difficult beaches to access include Greta Beach, Dolly Beach, Winifred Beach, Merrial Beach, and West White Beach, which all require a vehicle with four wheel drive and a difficult walk through dense rainforest.
Geology
in golden twilight]]
The volcanic island is the flat summit of an underwater mountain more than high, which rises from about below the sea and only about above it. The mountain was originally a volcano, and some basalt is exposed in places such as The Dales and Dolly Beach, but most of the surface rock is limestone accumulated from coral growth. The karst terrain supports numerous anchialine caves. The summit of this mountain peak is formed by a succession of Tertiary limestones ranging in age from the Eocene or Oligocene up to recent reef deposits, with intercalations of volcanic rock in the older beds.
In the 2021 budget the Australian Government committed A$39.1 million to create two new marine parks off Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. The parks will cover up to of Australian waters. After months of consultation with local people, both parks were approved in March 2022, with a total coverage of . The park will help to protect spawning of bluefin tuna from illegal international fishers, but local people will be allowed to practise fishing sustainably inshore in order to source food.
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Demographics
Religious practices differ by geography across the island and effectively correspond to the island's three primary settlements: the capital (known simply as The Settlement), the Cantonese village Poon Saan, and the Malay water village which is referred to often as the Kampong.
The Capital
Due to the large numbers of English and Australians who make up the bulk of the island's capital, there is a strong Anglo-Celtic influence in The Settlement which has contributed to the strong presence of Catholicism. This has been further reinforced by recent Filipino arrivals.KampongMalays who have settled on the island's edge in their shoreline kampong tend to follow Sunni Islam.Other groupsOther smaller and less geographically concentrated groups include Anglicans who make up 3.6%, Uniting Church adherents who make up 1.2%, other Protestants who make up 1.7%, and other Christian groups with 3.3%. Other religious communities collectively constitute 0.6% of the island's population.Holidays and festivalsAs an external territory of Australia, the two religious festivals which are official holidays are Christmas and Easter. Other non-official festivals include Spring Festival, Chap goh meh, Qingming Festival, Zhong Yuan Festival, and Hari Raya.
Government
Christmas Island is a non-self-governing external territory of Australia , part of the Australian Indian Ocean Territories administered by the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications (from 29 November 2007 until 14 September 2010, administration was carried out by the Attorney-General's Department, and prior to this by the Department of Transport and Regional Services).
The legal system is under the authority of the Governor-General of Australia and Australian law. An administrator appointed by the governor-general represents the monarch and Australia and lives on the island. The territory falls under no formal state jurisdiction, but the Western Australian government provides many services as established by the Christmas Island Act.
The Australian government provides services through the Christmas Island Administration and the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development. Under the federal government's Christmas Island Act 1958, Western Australian laws are applied to Christmas Island; non-application or partial application of such laws is at the discretion of the federal government. The act also gives Western Australian courts judicial power over Christmas Island. Christmas Island remains constitutionally distinct from Western Australia, however; the power of the state to legislate for the territory is delegated by the federal government. The kind of services typically provided by a state government elsewhere in Australia are provided by departments of the Western Australian government, and by contractors, with the costs met by the federal government. A unicameral Shire of Christmas Island with nine seats provides local government services and is elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. Elections are held every two years, with four or five of the members standing for election. women held one of the nine seats in the Christmas Island Shire Council. Its second president was Lillian Oh, from 1993 to 1995.
The most recent local election took place on 21 October 2023 alongside elections in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. Christmas Island residents who are Australian citizens vote in Australian federal elections. Christmas Island residents are represented in the House of Representatives by the Division of Lingiari in the Northern Territory and in the Senate by Northern Territory senators. At the 2019 federal election, the Labor Party received majorities from Christmas Island electors in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.Defence and policeWhile there is no permanent Australian military presence on Christmas Island, the Royal Australian Navy and Australian Border Force deploy and patrol boats to conduct surveillance and counter-migrant smuggling patrols in adjacent waters. As of 2023, the Navy's Armidale-class boats are in the process of being replaced by larger s.
The airfield on Christmas Island has a 2100m long runway while that on Cocos (West Island, to the west) is in length. Both airfields have scheduled jet services, however, the airfield on Cocos is being upgraded by the Australian Defence Force for the purpose of acting as a forward operating base for Australian surveillance and electronic warfare aircraft in the region.
The Australian Federal Police provides community policing services to Christmas Island and also carries out duties related to immigration enforcement, the processing of visiting aircraft and ships, and in coordinating emergency operations.
Residents' views
Residents find the system of administration frustrating, with the island run by bureaucrats in the federal government, but subject to the laws of Western Australia and enforced by federal police. There is a feeling of resignation that any progress on local issues is hampered by the confusing governance system. A number of islanders support self-governance, including shire President Gordon Thompson, who also believes that a lack of news media to cover local affairs had contributed to political apathy among residents.FlagIn early 1986, the Christmas Island Assembly held a design competition for an island flag; the winning design was adopted as the informal flag of the territory for over a decade, and in 2002 it was made the official flag of Christmas Island. At the centre of the flag is a yellow roundel showing an image of the island in green.EconomyPhosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the Australian government closed the mine. In 1991, the mine was reopened by Phosphate Resources Limited, a consortium that included many of the former mine workers as shareholders and is the largest contributor to the Christmas Island economy.
With the support of the government, the $34 million Christmas Island Casino and Resort opened in 1993 but was closed in 1998. , the resort has re-opened without the casino.
The Australian government in 2001 agreed to support the creation of a commercial spaceport on the island; however, this has not yet been constructed and appears that it will not proceed. The Howard government built a temporary immigration detention centre on the island in 2001 and planned to replace it with a larger, modern facility at North West Point until Howard's defeat in the 2007 elections.
Culture
Christmas Island cuisine can best be described as an eclectic combination of traditional Australian cuisine and Asian cuisine.
The main local organisation that promotes and supports the status and interests of female Christmas Islanders is the Christmas Island Women's Association which was established in 1989 and is a member organisation of the Associated Country Women of the World.
Christmas Island is well known for its biological diversity. There are many rare species of animals and plants on the island, making nature-walking a popular activity. Along with the diversity of species, many different types of caves exist, such as plateau caves, coastal caves, raised coastal caves and alcoves, sea caves, fissure caves, collapse caves, and basalt caves; most of these are near the sea and have been formed by the action of water. Altogether, there are approximately 30 caves on the island, with Lost Lake Cave, Daniel Roux Cave, and Full Frontal Cave being the most well-known. The many freshwater springs include Hosnies Spring Ramsar, which also has a mangrove stand.
The Dales is a rainforest in the western part of the island and consists of seven deep valleys, all of which were formed by spring streams. Hugh's Dale waterfall is part of this area and is a popular attraction. The annual breeding migration of the Christmas Island red crabs is a popular event.
Fishing is another common activity. There are many distinct species of fish in the oceans surrounding Christmas Island. Snorkelling and swimming in the ocean are two other activities that are extremely popular. Walking trails are also very popular, for there are many beautiful trails surrounded by extravagant flora and fauna. 63% of the island is covered by the Christmas Island National Park. Sport
Cricket and rugby league are the two main organised sports on the island.
The Christmas Island Cricket Club was founded in 1959, and is now known as the Christmas Island Cricket and Sporting Club. Aussie Rules was popular from 1995 to 2014 and games were played between the visiting Australian Navy and the locals. With one international game representing Australia, which was played in Jakarta, Indonesia in 2006 against the Jakarta Bintangs. Auskick was also presented for the kids and they participated in 2 years as represented in AFL games of half time entertainment between 2006 and 2010. In 2019 the club celebrated its 60-year anniversary. The club entered its first representative team into the WACA Country Week in 2020, where they were runners up in the F-division.
Rugby league is growing in the island: the first game was played in 2016, and a local committee, with the support of NRL Western Australia, is willing to organise matches with nearby Cocos Islands and to create a rugby league competition in the Indian Ocean region.
Unlike Norfolk Island, another external territory of Australia, Christmas Island does not participate in the Commonwealth Games or the Pacific Games, though Pacific Games participation has been discussed.
Flora and fauna
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Christmas Island was uninhabited until the late 19th century, allowing many species to evolve without human interference. Two-thirds of the island has been declared a National Park, which is managed by the Australian Department of Environment and Heritage through Parks Australia. Christmas Island contains unique species, both of flora and fauna, some of which are threatened or have become extinct.
Flora
The dense rainforest has grown in the deep soils of the plateau and on the terraces. The forests are dominated by 25 tree species. Ferns, orchids and vines grow on the branches in the humid atmosphere beneath the canopy. The 135 plant species include at least 18 endemic species. The rainforest is in great condition despite the mining activities over the last 100 years. Areas that have been damaged by mining are now a part of an ongoing rehabilitation project.
Christmas Island's endemic plants include the trees Arenga listeri, Pandanus elatus and Dendrocnide peltata var. murrayana; the shrubs Abutilon listeri, Colubrina pedunculata, Grewia insularis and Pandanus christmatensis; the vines Hoya aldrichii and Zehneria alba; the herbs Asystasia alba, Dicliptera maclearii and Peperomia rossii; the grass Ischaemum nativitatis; the fern Asplenium listeri; and the orchids Brachypeza archytas, Flickingeria nativitatis, Phreatia listeri and Zeuxine exilis.
Fauna
Two species of native rats, the Maclear's and bulldog rats, have become extinct since the island was settled, while the Javan rusa deer has been introduced. The endemic Christmas Island shrew has not been seen since the mid-1980s and may be extinct, while the Christmas Island pipistrelle (a small bat) is presumed to be extinct.
The fruit bat (flying fox) species Pteropus natalis is only found on Christmas Island; its epithet natalis is a reference to that name. The species is probably the last native mammal, and an important pollinator and rainforest seed-disperser; the population is also in decline and under increasing pressure from land clearing and introduced pest species. The flying fox's low rate of reproduction (one pup each year) and high infant mortality rate makes it especially vulnerable, and its conservation status is critically endangered. Flying foxes are an 'umbrella' species helping forests regenerate and other species survive in stressed environments.
The land crabs and seabirds are the most noticeable fauna on the island. Christmas Island has been identified by BirdLife International as both an Endemic Bird Area and an Important Bird Area because it supports five endemic species and five subspecies as well as over 1% the world populations of five other seabirds.
Twenty terrestrial and intertidal species of crab have been described here, of which thirteen are regarded as true land crabs, being dependent on the ocean only for larval development. Robber crabs, known elsewhere as coconut crabs, also exist in large numbers on the island. The annual red crab mass migration to the sea to spawn has been called one of the wonders of the natural world. This takes place each year around November – after the start of the wet season and in synchronisation with the cycle of the moon. Once at the ocean, the mothers release the embryos where they can survive and grow until they are able to live on land.
The island is a focal point for seabirds of various species. Eight species or subspecies of seabirds nest on it. The most numerous is the red-footed booby, which nests in colonies, using trees on many parts of the shore terrace. The widespread brown booby nests on the ground near the edge of the seacliff and inland cliffs. Abbott's booby (listed as endangered) nests on tall emergent trees of the western, northern and southern plateau rainforest, the only remaining nesting habitat for this bird in the world.
Of the ten native land birds and shorebirds, seven are endemic species or subspecies. This includes the Christmas thrush and the Christmas imperial pigeon. Some 86 migrant bird species have been recorded as visitors to the island. The Christmas frigatebird has nesting areas on the northeastern shore terraces. The more widespread great frigatebirds nest in semi-deciduous trees on the shore terrace, with the greatest concentrations being in the North West and South Point areas. The common noddy and two species of bosun or tropicbirds also nest on the island, including the golden bosun (P. l. fulvus), a subspecies of the white-tailed tropicbird that is endemic to the island.
Six species of butterfly are known to occur on Christmas Island. These are the Christmas swallowtail (Papilio memnon), striped albatross (Appias olferna), Christmas emperor (Polyura andrewsi), king cerulean (Jamides bochus), lesser grass-blue (Zizina otis), and Papuan grass-yellow (Eurema blanda).
Insect species include the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes), introduced to the island and since subjected to attempts to destroy the supercolonies that emerged with aerial spraying of the insecticide Fipronil.
Media
Radio broadcasts to Christmas Island from Australia include ABC Radio National, ABC Kimberley, Triple J and Hit WA (Formerly Red FM). All services are provided by satellite links from the mainland. Broadband internet became available to subscribers in urban areas in mid-2005 through the local internet service provider, CIIA (formerly dotCX). Because of its proximity to South East Asia, Christmas Island falls within many of the satellite footprints throughout the region. This results in ideal conditions for receiving various Asian broadcasts, which locals sometimes prefer to those emanating from Western Australia. Additionally, ionospheric conditions are conducive to terrestrial radio transmissions, from HF through VHF and sometimes into UHF. The island plays home to a small array of radio equipment that spans a good chunk of the usable spectrum. A variety of government-owned and operated antenna systems are employed on the island to take advantage of this.
Television
Free-to-air digital television stations from Australia are broadcast in the same time zone as Perth and are broadcast from three separate locations:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Broadcaster
! Drumsite
! Phosphate Hill
! Rocky Point
|-
| ABC
| ABC 6
| ABC 34
| ABC 40
|-
| SBS
| SBS 7
| SBS 35
| SBS 41
|-
| WAW
| WAW 8
| WAW 36
| WAW 42
|-
| WOW
| WOW 10
| WOW 36
| WOW 43
|-
| WDW
| WDW 11
| WDW 38
| WDW 44
|}
Cable television from Australia, Malaysia, Singapore, and the United States commenced in January 2013.
Telecommunications
Telephone services are provided by Telstra and are a part of the Australian network with the same prefix as Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory (08). In 2022, 4,600 kilometre long 60 terabits per second high-capacity backhaul sole submarine cable connection between Australia and Christmas Island was implemented to replace the existing satellite based 2G mobile network with the 4GX technology with enhanced mobile and data services on Christmas Island.
Newspapers
The Shire of Christmas Island publishes a fortnightly newsletter, The Islander. There are no independent newspapers. After the Japanese occupation (1942–1945), postage stamps of the British Military Administration in Malaya were in use, then stamps of Singapore. In 1958, the island received its own postage stamps after being put under Australian custody. It had a large philatelic and postal independence, managed first by the Phosphate Commission (1958–1969) and then by the island's administration (1969–1993). The now-defunct standard gauge Christmas Island Phosphate Co.'s Railway from Flying Fish Cove to the phosphate mine was constructed in 1914. It was closed in December 1987, when the Australian government closed the mine, and since has been recovered as scrap, leaving only earthworks in places.
Virgin Australia provides two weekly flights to Christmas Island from Perth in Western Australia, with the service connecting to Cocos Keeling Islands in both directions. A fortnightly freight flight provides fresh supplies to the island. Rental cars are available from the airport; however, no franchised companies are represented. Road conditions across the island can vary, though inclement weather can cause the roads to become slippery or damaged. Many of the tracks on the island are restricted to four-wheel-drive vehicles.
Education
The island-operated crèche is in the Recreation Centre. Christmas Island District High School, catering to students in grades P-12, is run by the Western Australian Education Department. There are no universities on Christmas Island. The island has one public library.
See also
* .cx, top-level domain country code for Christmas Island
* Index of Christmas Island–related articles
* Outline of Christmas Island
Notes
References
*
*
*
Further reading
* 96 pages, including many b&w photographs.
* 197 pages including many photographs and plates.
*
*
*
* 263 pages including photographs.
* 112 pages including many photographs.
*
* 60 pages including colour photographs.
* 133 pages including many colour photographs.
* 76 pages including colour photographs.
*
*
*
* 207 pages including many b&w photographs.
* 288 pages pictorial illustration of crabs.
* 238 pages.
*
*
External links
*[https://www.christmasislandarchives.com/ Christmas Island Archives] – Featuring historical stories, articles and more.
*[https://christmasislandstories.org.au/ Christmas Island Stories] - Conserving and sharing the authentic stories of the people of Christmas Island.
*[https://www.thecollectingbug.com/civm/explore Christmas Island Virtual Museum] – Presenting historical artifacts, coins and ephemera.
}}
}}
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Category:Island countries of the Indian Ocean
Category:Islands of Australia
Category:Islands of Southeast Asia
Category:Important Bird Areas of Australian External Territories
Category:British rule in Singapore
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Category:English-speaking countries and territories
Category:States and territories of Australia
Category:States and territories established in 1957
Category:1957 establishments in Australia
Category:Important Bird Areas of Indian Ocean islands
Category:Endemic Bird Areas
Category:Prison islands | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Island | 2025-04-05T18:27:16.324601 |
5510 | Clipperton Island | <!--Official anglophile language of France is British English (with Oxford grammar), identical to the European Union-->
|sobriquet <!-- or |nickname -->
|image_name = Ile_de_Clipperton_(carte-en).svg
|image_size |image_caption Clipperton Atoll with lagoon with depths (metres)
|image_alt = Clipperton Atoll with enclosed lagoon with depths (metres)
|image_map = Clipperton Island in its region.svg
|image_map_caption = Location of Clipperton Island
|image_map_alt = A view of the location of Clipperton Island on a map
|label |label_position
|coordinates
|etymology |location Pacific Ocean
|archipelago = Lagoon
|waterbody |total_islands
|major_islands |area_km2 8.9
|area_footnotes
|length_km = 3
|length_footnotes |width_km 4
|width_footnotes |coastline_km 11.1
|coastline_footnotes |elevation_m 29
|elevation_footnotes |highest_mount Clipperton Rock
|Country_heading |country France
|country_admin_divisions_title= State private property
|country_admin_divisions = Île de Clipperton
|country_area_km2 <!-- or |country_area_m2 or |country_area_ha= -->
|demonym |population 0
|population_as_of = 1945
|population_footnotes |timezone1 CIST
|utc_offset1 = -8
|timezone1_DST |utc_offset1_DST
|postal_code 98799
|website = <!-- [http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/polynesie-francaise-lile-de-clipperton L'île de Clipperton] URL is dead -->
|additional_info = }}
}}
Clipperton Island ( ; ), also known as Clipperton Atoll and previously as '''Clipperton's Rock''', is an uninhabited French coral atoll in the eastern Pacific Ocean. The only French territory in the North Pacific, Clipperton is from Paris, France; from Papeete, French Polynesia; and from Acapulco, Mexico.
Clipperton was documented by French merchant-explorers in 1711 and formally claimed as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti in 1858. Despite this, American guano miners began working the island in the early 1890s. As interest in the island grew, Mexico asserted a claim to the island based upon Spanish records from the 1520s that may have identified the island. Mexico established a small military colony on the island in 1905, but during the Mexican Revolution contact with the mainland became infrequent, most of the colonists died, and lighthouse keeper Victoriano Álvarez instituted a short, brutal reign as "king" of the island. Eleven survivors were rescued in 1917 and Clipperton was abandoned.
The dispute between Mexico and France over Clipperton was taken to binding international arbitration in 1909. Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, was chosen as arbitrator and decided in 1931 that the island was French territory. Despite the ruling, Clipperton remained largely uninhabited until 1944 when the U.S. Navy established a weather station on the island to support its war efforts in the Pacific. France protested and, as concerns about Japanese activity in the eastern Pacific waned, the U.S. abandoned the site in late 1945.
Since the end of World War II, Clipperton has primarily been the site for scientific expeditions to study the island's wildlife and marine life, including its significant masked and brown booby colonies. It has also hosted climate scientists and amateur radio DX-peditions. Plans to develop the island for trade and tourism have been considered, but none have been enacted and the island remains mostly uninhabited with periodic visits from the French navy.
Geography
The coral island is located at in the East Pacific, southwest of Mexico, west of Nicaragua, west of Costa Rica and northwest of the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador. The nearest land is Socorro Island, about to the northwest in the Revillagigedo Archipelago. The nearest French-owned island is Hiva Oa in the Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia.
Despite its proximity to North America, Clipperton is often considered one of the eastern-most points of Oceania due to being part the French Indo-Pacific, and to commonalities between its marine fauna and the marine fauna of Hawaii and Kiribati's Line Islands, with the island sitting along the migration path for animals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region. The island is the only emerged part of the East Pacific Rise, as well as the only feature in the Clipperton fracture zone that breaks the ocean's surface, and it is one of the few islands in the Pacific that lacks an underwater archipelagic apron.
The atoll is low-lying and largely barren, with some scattered grasses, and a few clumps of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera). The land ring surrounding the lagoon measures in area with an average elevation of , although a small volcanic outcropping, referred to as Clipperton Rock (), rises to on its southeast side. The surrounding reef hosts an abundance of corals and is partly exposed at low tide. In 2001 a geodetic marker was placed to evaluate if the land is rising or sinking.
Clipperton Rock is the remains of the island's now extinct volcano's rim; because it includes this rocky outcropping, Clipperton is not a true atoll and is sometimes referred to as a 'near-atoll'. The surrounding reef in combination with the weather makes landing on the island difficult and anchoring offshore hazardous for larger ships; in the 1940s American ships reported active problems in this regard.
Environment
The environment of Clipperton Island has been studied extensively with the first recordings and sample collection being done in the 1800s.
The SURPACLIP oceanographic expedition, a joint undertaking by the National Autonomous University of Mexico and the University of New Caledonia Nouméa, made extensive studies of the island in 1997. In 2001, French National Centre for Scientific Research geographer Christian Jost extended the 1997 studies through the French Passion 2001 expedition, which focused on the evolution of Clipperton's ecosystem. In 2003, cinematographer Lance Milbrand stayed on the island for 41 days, recording the adventure for the National Geographic Explorer and plotting a GPS map of Clipperton for the National Geographic Society.
In 2005, a four-month scientific mission organised by Jean-Louis Étienne made a complete inventory of Clipperton's mineral, plant, and animal species; studied algae as deep as below sea level; and examined the effects of pollution. A 2008 expedition from the University of Washington's School of Oceanography collected sediment cores from the lagoon to study climate change over the past millennium.
Lagoon
satellite.|left]]Clipperton is a ring-shaped atoll that completely encloses a stagnant fresh water lagoon and measures in circumference and in area. The island is the only coral island in the eastern Pacific. The lagoon is devoid of fish, and is shallow over large parts except for some deep basins with depths of , The bottom of the shallow parts of the lake contain eroded coral heads from when the lagoon was last connected with the ocean. As a result of this the water columns are stratified and do not mix leaving the lagoon with an oxic and brackish upper water layer and a deep sulfuric anoxic saline layer. At a depth of approximately the water shifts with salinity rising and both pH and oxygen quickly decreasing.
Studies of the water have found that microbial communities on the water's surface are similar to other water samples from around the world with deeper water samples showing a great diversity of both bacteria and archaea. The lagoon also harbours millions of isopods, which are reported to deliver a painful sting.
While some sources have rated the lagoon water as non-potable, testimony from the crew of the tuna clipper M/V Monarch, stranded for 23 days in 1962 after their boat sank, indicates otherwise. Their report reveals that the lagoon water, while "muddy and dirty", was drinkable, despite not tasting very good. Several of the castaways drank it, with no apparent ill effects. Survivors of a Mexican military colony in 1917 (see below) indicated that they were dependent upon rain for their water supply, catching it in old boats. Annual rainfall is , and the humidity level is generally between 85 per cent and 95 per cent with December to March being the drier months. The prevailing winds are the southeast trade winds. In addition, Clipperton has been subjected to multiple tropical storms and depressions, including Tropical Storm Andres in 2003. Surrounding ocean waters are warm, pushed by equatorial and counter-equatorial currents and have seen temperature increases due to global warming.Flora and fauna
(Johngarthia oceanica)]]
When Snodgrass and Heller visited in 1898, they reported that "no land plant is native to the island". Historical accounts from 1711, 1825, and 1839 show a low grassy or suffrutescent (partially woody) flora. During Marie-Hélène Sachet visit in 1958, the vegetation was found to consist of a sparse cover of spiny grass and low thickets, a creeping plant (Ipomoea spp.), and stands of coconut palm. This low-lying herbaceous flora seems to be a pioneer in nature, and most of it is believed to be composed of recently introduced species. Sachet suspected that Heliotropium curassavicum, and possibly Portulaca oleracea, were native. Coconut palms and pigs introduced in the 1890s by guano miners were still present in the 1940s. The largest coconut grove is Bougainville Wood () on the southwestern end of the island. On the northwest side of the atoll, the most abundant plant species are Cenchrus echinatus, Sida rhombifolia, and Corchorus aestuans. These plants compose a shrub cover up to in height, and are intermixed with Eclipta, Phyllanthus, and Solanum, as well as the taller Brassica juncea. The islets in the lagoon are primarily vegetated with Cyperaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Ipomoea pes-caprae. A unique feature of Clipperton is that the vegetation is arranged in parallel rows of species, with dense rows of taller species alternating with lower, more open vegetation. This was assumed to be a result of the trench-digging method of phosphate mining used by guano hunters. bright-orange land crabs known as Clipperton crabs (Johngarthia oceanica, prior to 2019 classified as Johngartia planata), birds, and ship rats. The rats probably arrived when large fishing boats wrecked on the island in 1999 and 2000. The elimination of these pigs in 1958, the result of a personal project by Kenneth E. Stager, caused most of this vegetation to disappear as the population of land crabs recovered. As a result, Clipperton is mostly a sandy desert with only 674 palms counted by Christian Jost during the Passion 2001 French mission and five islets in the lagoon with grass that the terrestrial crabs cannot reach. A 2005 report by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Southwest Fisheries Science Center indicated that after the introduction of rats and their increased presence has led to a decline in both crab and bird populations, causing a corresponding increase in both vegetation and coconut palms. This report urgently recommended eradication of rats, which have been destroying bird nesting sites and the crab population, Morrell also reported fur and elephant seals on the island in 1825, but they too have not been recorded by later expeditions. The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because of the large breeding colony of masked boobies, with 110,000 individual birds recorded. Observed bird species include white terns, masked boobies, sooty terns, brown boobies, brown noddies, black noddies, great frigatebirds, coots, martins (swallows), cuckoos, and yellow warblers. Ducks and moorhens have been reported in the lagoon. Among the Porites spp. stony corals, some bleaching was observed, along with other indications of disease or stress, including parasitic worms and microalgae.
The reefs that surround Clipperton have some of the highest concentration of endemic species found anywhere with more than 115 species identified. Many species are recorded in the area, including five or six endemics, such as Clipperton angelfish (Holacanthus limbaughi), Clipperton grouper (Epinephelus clippertonensis), Clipperton damselfish (Stegastes baldwini) and Robertson's wrasse (Thalassoma robertsoni). Widespread species around the reefs include Pacific creolefish, blue-and-gold snapper, and various species of goatfish. In the water column, trevallies are predominant, including black jacks, bigeye trevally, and bluefin trevally. Also common around Clipperton are black triggerfish;, several species of groupers, including leather bass and starry groupers; Mexican hogfish; whitecheek, convict, and striped-fin surgeonfish; yellow longnose and blacknosed butterflyfish; coral hawkfish; golden pufferfish; Moorish idols; parrotfish; and moray eels, especially speckled moray eels. The waters around the island are an important nursery for sharks, particularly the white tip shark. Galapagos sharks, reef sharks, whale sharks, and hammerhead sharks are also present around Clipperton.
Three expeditions to Clipperton have collected sponge specimens, including U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt's visit in 1938. Of the 190 specimens collected, 20 species were noted, including nine found only at Clipperton. One of the endemic sponges, collected during the 1938 visit, was named Callyspongia roosevelti in honor of Roosevelt.
In April 2009, Steven Robinson, a tropical fish dealer from Hayward, California, traveled to Clipperton to collect Clipperton angelfish. Upon his return to the United States, he described the 52 illegally collected fish to federal wildlife authorities as king angelfish, not the rarer Clipperton angelfish, which he intended to sell for $10,000. On 15 December 2011, Robinson was sentenced to 45 days of incarceration, one year of probation, and a $2,000 fine.
Environmental threats
During the night of 10 February 2010, the Sichem Osprey, a Maltese chemical tanker, ran aground en route from the Panama Canal to South Korea. The ship contained of xylene, of soybean oil, and of tallow. All 19 crew members were reported safe, and the vessel reported no leaks. The vessel was re-floated on 6 March and returned to service.
In mid-March 2012, the crew from the Clipperton Project noted the widespread presence of refuse, particularly on the northeast shore, and around the Clipperton Rock. Debris, including plastic bottles and containers, create a potentially harmful environment for the island's flora and fauna. During a 2015 scientific and amateur radio expedition to Clipperton, the operating team discovered a package that contained of cocaine. It is suspected that the package washed up after being discarded at sea. In April 2023, the Passion 23 mission by France's and the surveillance frigate Germinal collected more than of plastic waste from the island's beaches along with a bale of cocaine.
The Sea Around Us Project estimates the Clipperton EEZ produces a harvest of of fish per year; however, because French naval patrols in the area are infrequent, this includes a significant amount of illegal fishing, along with lobster harvesting and shark finning, resulting in estimated losses for France of €0.42 per kilogram of fish caught.
As deep-sea mining of polymetallic nodules increases in the adjacent Clarion–Clipperton zone, similar mining activity within France's exclusive economic zone surrounding the atoll may have an impact on marine life around Clipperton. Polymetallic nodules were discovered in the Clipperton EEZ during the Passion 2015 expedition. Politics and government The island is an overseas state private property of France under direct authority of the Minister of the Overseas. Although the island is French territory, it has no status within the European Union. Ownership of Clipperton Island was disputed in the 19th and early 20th centuries between France and Mexico, but was finally settled through arbitration in 1931; the Clipperton Island Case remains widely studied in international law textbooks.
In the late 1930s, as flying boats opened the Pacific to air travel, Clipperton Island was noted as a possible waypoint for a trans-Pacific route from the Americas to Asia via the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia, bypassing Hawaii. However, France indicated no interest in developing commercial air traffic in the corridor.
After France ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1996, they reaffirmed the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton island which had been established in 1976. After changes were made to the area nations were allowed to claim under the third convention of UNCLOS France in 2018 expanded the outer limits of the territorial sea to and the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton Island to , encompassing of ocean.
On 21 February 2007, administration of Clipperton was transferred from the High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia to the Minister of Overseas France.
In 2015, French MP Philippe Folliot set foot on Clipperton becoming the first elected official from France to do so. Folliot noted that visiting Clipperton was something he had wanted to do since he was nine years old. Following the visit, Folliot reported to the National Assembly on the pressing need to reaffirm French sovereignty over the atoll and its surrounding maritime claims. He also proposed establishing an international scientific research station on Clipperton and administrative reforms surrounding the oversight of the atoll.
In 2022, France passed legislation officially referring to the island as "La Passion–Clipperton".
History
Discovery and early claims
There are several claims to the first discovery of the island. The earliest recorded possible sighting is 24 January 1521 when Portuguese-born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan discovered an island he named San Pablo after turning westward away from the American mainland during his circumnavigation of the globe. On 15 November 1528, Spaniard Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón discovered an island he called Isla Médanos in the region while on an expedition commissioned by his cousin, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, to find a route to the Philippines.
Although both San Pablo and Isla Médanos are considered to be possible sightings of Clipperton, the island was first charted by French merchant Michel Dubocage, commanding La Découverte, who arrived at the island on Good Friday, 3 April 1711; he was joined the following day by fellow ship captain and La Princesse. The island was given the name ('Passion Island') as the date of rediscovery fell within Passiontide. They drew up the first map of the island and claimed it for France.
In August 1825, American sea captain Benjamin Morrell made the first recorded landing on Clipperton, exploring the island and making a detailed report of its vegetation.
The common name for the island comes from John Clipperton, an English pirate and privateer who fought the Spanish during the early 18th century, and who is said to have passed by the island. Some sources claim that he used it as a base for his raids on shipping.19th centuryMexican claim 1821–1858After its declaration of independence in 1821, Mexico took possession of the lands that had once belonged to Spain. As Spanish records noted the existence of the island as early as 1528, the territory was incorporated into Mexico. The Mexican constitution of 1917 explicitly includes the island, using the Spanish name , as Mexican territory. This would be amended on January 18, 1934, after the sovereignty dispute over the island was settled in favor of France.
were used for mail travelling between Clipperton and San Francisco.]]
French claim (1858)
In April 1858, French minister Eugène Rouher reached an agreement with a Mr. Lockhard of Le Havre to claim oceanic islands in the Pacific for the exploitation of guano deposits. Sailing aboard Lockhart's ship Amiral, Ship-of-the-line Lieutenant Victor Le Coat de Kervéguen published a notice of this annexation in Hawaiian newspapers to further cement France's claim to the island.
Guano mining claims (1892–1905)
In 1892, a claim on the island was filed with the U.S. State Department under the U.S. Guano Islands Act by Frederick W. Permien of San Francisco on behalf of the Stonington Phosphate Company. In 1893, Permien transferred those rights to a new company, the Oceanic Phosphate Company. In response to the application, the State Department rejected the claim, noting France's prior claim on the island and that the claim was not bonded as was required by law. Additionally during this time there were concerns in Mexico that the British or Americans would lay claim to the island.
Despite the lack of U.S. approval of its claim, the Oceanic Phosphate Company began mining guano on the island in 1895. Although the company had plans for as many as 200 workers on the island, at its peak only 25 men were stationed there. In 1897, the Oceanic Phosphate Company began negotiations with the British Pacific Islands Company to transfer its interest in Clipperton; this drew the attention of both French and Mexican officials.
On 24 November 1897, French naval authorities arrived on the Duguay Trouin and found three Americans working on the island. The French ordered the American flag to be lowered. A few weeks later, on 13 December 1897, Mexico sent the gunboat La Demócrata and a group of marines to assert its claim on the island, evicting the Americans, raising the Mexican flag, and drawing a protest from France. From 1898 to 1905, the Pacific Islands Company worked the Clipperton guano deposits under a concession agreement with Mexico. In 1898, Mexico made a US$1.5 million claim against the Oceanic Phosphate Company for the guano shipped from the island from 1895 to 1897. He arrived on Clipperton as governor later that year.
By 1914 around 100 men, women, and children lived on the island, resupplied every two months by a ship from Acapulco. With the escalation of fighting in the Mexican Revolution, regular resupply visits ceased, and the inhabitants were left to their own devices. On 28 February 1914, the schooner Nokomis wrecked on Clipperton; with a still seaworthy lifeboat, four members of the crew volunteered to row to Acapulco for help. The arrived months later to rescue the crew. While there, the captain offered to transport the survivors of the colony back to Acapulco; Arnaud refused as he believed a supply ship would soon arrive.
By 1917, all but one of the male inhabitants had died. Many had perished from scurvy, while others, including Arnaud, died during an attempt to sail after a passing ship to fetch help. Lighthouse keeper Victoriano Álvarez was the last man on the island, together with 15 women and children. Álvarez proclaimed himself 'king', and began a campaign of rape and murder, before being killed by Tirza Rendón, who was his favourite victim. Almost immediately after Álvarez's death, four women and seven children, the last survivors, were picked up by the U.S. Navy gunship on 18 July 1917.
Final arbitration of ownership (1931)
Throughout Mexico's occupation of Clipperton, France insisted on its ownership of the island, and lengthy diplomatic correspondence between the two countries led to a treaty on 2 March 1909, agreeing to seek binding international arbitration by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, with each nation promising to abide by his determination. In 1931, Victor Emmanuel III issued his arbitral decision in the Clipperton Island Case, declaring Clipperton a French possession. Mexican President Pascual Ortiz Rubio, in response to public opinion that considered the Italian king biased towards France, consulted international experts on the validity of the decision, but ultimately Mexico accepted Victor Emmanuel's findings. The Mexican press at the time raised the issue of the Monroe Doctrine with the United States, stating that the French claim had preceded its issuance. France formally took possession of Clipperton on January 26, 1935.
U.S. presidential visit
President Franklin D. Roosevelt made a stop over at Clipperton in July 1938 aboard the as part of a fishing expedition to the Galápagos Islands and other points along the Central and South American coasts. At the island, Roosevelt and his party spent time fishing for sharks, and afterwards Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt of the Smithsonian Institution went ashore with some crew to gather scientific samples and make observations of the island.
Roosevelt had previously tried to visit Clipperton in July 1934 after transiting through the Panama Canal en route to Hawaii on the Houston; he had heard the area was good for fishing, but heavy seas prevented them from lowering a boat when they reached the island. On 19 July 1934, soon after the stop at Clipperton, the rigid airship rendezvoused with the Houston, and one of the Macon Curtiss F9C biplanes delivered mail to the president.American occupation (1944–1945)
Georges Bidault
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In April 1944, the took observations of Clipperton while en route to Hawaii. After an overflight of the island by planes from the and to ensure Clipperton was uninhabited, the departed San Francisco on 4 December 1944 with aerological specialists and personnel and was followed several days later by with provisions, heavy equipment, and equipment for construction of a U.S. Navy weather station on the island. The sailors at the weather station were armed in case of a possible Japanese attack in the region. Landing on the island proved challenging. LST-563 grounded on the reef and the salvage ship was brought in to help refloat the ship but it too was grounded. Finally, in January 1945, the and were able to free the Seize and to offload equipment from LST-563 before it was abandoned.
In April 1943, during a meeting between presidents Roosevelt of the U.S. and Avila Camacho of Mexico, the topic of Mexican ownership of Clipperton was raised. The American government seemed interested in Clipperton being handed over to Mexico due to the importance the island might play in both commercial and military air travel, as well as its proximity to the Panama Canal.
Although these talks were informal, the U.S. backed away from any Mexican claim on Clipperton as Mexico had previously accepted the 1931 arbitration decision. The U.S. government also felt it would be easier to obtain a military base on the island from France. However, after the French government was notified about the weather station, relations on this matter deteriorated rapidly with the French government sending a formal note of protest in defense of French sovereignty. In response, the U.S. extended an offer for the French military to operate the station or to have the Americans agree to leave the weather station under the same framework previously agreed to with other weather stations in France and North Africa. There were additional concern within the newly formed Provisional Government of the French Republic that notification of the installation was made to military and not civilian leadership.
French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault said of the incident: "This is very humiliating to us we are anxious to cooperate with you, but sometimes you do not make it easy". where he visited the installation and that afternoon returned to the United States. As the war in the Pacific progressed, concerns about Japanese incursions into the Eastern Pacific were reduced and in September 1945 the U.S. Navy began removing from Clipperton. During the evacuation, munitions were destroyed, but significant matériel was left on the island. By 21 October 1945, the last U.S. Navy staff at the weather station left Clipperton.
The island was visited by ornithologist Ken Stager of the Los Angeles County Museum in 1958. By 2003, the booby colonies had grown to 25,000 brown boobies and 112,000 masked boobies, making Clipperton home to the world's second-largest brown booby colony, and its largest masked booby colony.
When the independence of Algeria in 1962 threatened French nuclear testing sites in North Africa, the French Ministry of Defence considered Clipperton as a possible replacement site. This was eventually ruled out due to the island's hostile climate and remote location, but the island was used to house a small scientific mission to collect data on nuclear fallout from other nuclear tests. An automatic weather installation was completed on 7 April 1980, with data collected by the station transmitted via the Argos satellite system to the Lannion Space Meteorology Center in Brittany France.
In 1981, the Académie des sciences d'outre-mer recommended the island have its own economic infrastructure, with an airstrip and a fishing port in the lagoon. This would mean opening the lagoon to the ocean by creating a passage in the atoll rim. To oversee this, the French government reassigned Clipperton from the High Commissioner for French Polynesia to the direct authority of the French government, classifying the island as an overseas state private property administered by France's Overseas Minister. In 1986, the Company for the Study, Development and Exploitation of Clipperton Island (French acronym, SEDEIC) and French officials began outlining a plan for the development of Clipperton as a fishing port, but due to economic constraints, the distance from markets, and the small size of the atoll, nothing beyond preliminary studies was undertaken and plans for the development were abandoned. In the mid-1980s, the French government began efforts to enlist citizens of French Polynesia to settle on Clipperton; these plans were ultimately abandoned as well.
In November 1994, the French Space Agency requested the help of NASA to track the first stage breakup of the newly designed Ariane 5 rocket. After spending a month on Clipperton setting up and calibrating radar equipment to monitor Ariane flight V88, the mission ended in disappointment when the rocket disintegrated 37 seconds after launch due to a software bug.
Despite Mexico accepting the 1931 arbitration decision that Clipperton was French territory, the right of Mexican fishing vessels to work Clipperton's territorial waters have remained a point of contention. A 2007 treaty, reaffirmed in 2017, grants Mexican access to Clipperton's fisheries so long as authorization is sought from the French government, conservation measures are followed, and catches are reported; however, the lack of regular monitoring of the fisheries by France makes verifying compliance difficult.
Castaways
In May 1893, Charles Jensen and "Brick" Thurman of the Oceanic Phosphate Company were left on the island by the company's ship Compeer with 90 days worth of supplies in order to prevent other attempts to claim the island and its guano. Before sailing for Clipperton, Jensen wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Coast Seamen's Union, Andrew Furuseth, instructing him that if the Oceanic Phosphate Company had not sent a vessel to Clipperton six weeks after the return of the Compeer to make it known that they had been stranded there. The Oceanic Phosphate Company denied it had left the men without adequate supplies and contracted the schooner Viking to retrieve them in late August. The Viking rescued the men, who had used seabirds' eggs to supplement their supplies, and returned them to San Francisco on 31 October.
In May 1897, the British cargo vessel Kinkora wrecked on Clipperton; the crew was able to salvage food and water from the ship, allowing them to survive on the island in relative comfort. During the crew's time on the island, a passing vessel offered to take the men to the mainland for $1,500, which the crew refused. Instead eight of the men loaded up a lifeboat and rowed to Acapulco for help. After the first mate of the Kinkora, Mr. McMarty, arrived in Acapulco, HMS Comus set sail from British Columbia to rescue the sailors.
In early 1962, the island provided a home to nine crewmen of the sunken tuna clipper MV Monarch, stranded for 23 days from 6 February to 1 March. They reported that the lagoon water was drinkable, although they preferred to drink water from the coconuts they found. Unable to use any of the dilapidated buildings, they constructed a crude shelter from cement bags and tin salvaged from Quonset huts built by the American military 20 years earlier. Wood from the huts was used for firewood, and fish caught off the fringing reef combined with potatoes and onions they had saved from their sinking vessel augmented the island's meager supply of coconuts. The crewmen reported they tried eating bird's eggs, but found them to be rancid, and they decided after trying to cook a 'little black bird' that it did not have enough meat to make the effort worthwhile. Pigs had been eradicated, but the crewmen reported seeing their skeletons around the atoll.
Amateur radio DX-peditions
Clipperton has long been an attractive destination for amateur radio groups due to its remoteness, permit requirements, history, and interesting environment. While some radio operation has been part of other visits to the island, major DX-peditions have included FO0XB (1978), FO0XX (1985), FO0CI (1992), FO0AAA (2000), TX5C (2008),
In March 2014, the Cordell Expedition, organised and led by Robert Schmieder, combined a radio DX-pedition using callsign TX5K with environmental and scientific investigations. The team of 24 radio operators made more than 114,000 contacts, breaking the previous record of 75,000. The activity included extensive operation in the 6-meter band, including Earth–Moon–Earth communication (EME) or 'moonbounce' contacts. A notable accomplishment was the use of DXA, a real-time satellite-based online graphic radio log web page, allowing anyone with a browser to see the radio activity. Scientific work conducted during the expedition included the first collection and identification of foraminifera and extensive aerial imaging of the island using kite-borne cameras. The team included two scientists from the University of Tahiti and a French TV documentary crew from Thalassa.
In April 2015, Alain Duchauchoy, F6BFH, operated from Clipperton using callsign TX5P as part of the Passion 2015 scientific expedition to Clipperton Island. Duchauchoy also researched Mexican use of the island during the early 1900s as part of the expedition.See also
* Uninhabited island
* Lists of islands
Notes
References
External links
*
* [https://www.Navegar-es-preciso.com/news/clipperton-o-los-naufragos-mexicanos-1908-1917/ Isla Clipperton o 'Los náufragos mexicanos − 1914/1917'] ''[Clipperton or 'The Mexican Castaways – 1914/1917']''
Photo galleries
* [http://Diver.net/chris/2007.04.10-25/ The first dive trip to Clipperton Island aboard the Nautilus Explorer] – pictures taken during a 2007 visit
* [https://www.Flickr.com/photos/va7dx/sets/72157604221433086/ Clipperton Island 2008] – Flickr gallery containing 94 large photos from a 2008 visit
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100602074844/http://3D-Photography.com/Clipperton_Island/ 3D photos of Clipperton Island 2010] – 3D anaglyphs
Visits and expeditions
* [http://www.QSL.net/clipperton2000/ 2000 DXpedition to Clipperton Island] – website of a visit by amateur radio enthusiasts in 2000
* [http://www.NautilusExplorer.com/clipperton_de.htm Diving trips to Clipperton atoll] – from NautilusExplorer.com
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Category:States and territories established in 1931
Category:1931 establishments in the French colonial empire
Category:1931 establishments in North America
Category:1931 in Mexico
Category:Islands of Overseas France
Category:Pacific Ocean atolls of France
Category:Uninhabited islands of France
Category:Islands of Central America
Category:Dependent territories in North America
Category:Dependent territories in Oceania
Category:French colonization of the Americas
Category:Former populated places in North America
Category:Former populated places in Oceania
Category:Former disputed islands
Category:Arbitration cases
Category:Territorial disputes of France
Category:Territorial disputes of Mexico
Category:Tropical Eastern Pacific
Category:Uninhabited islands of the Pacific Ocean
Category:Pacific islands claimed under the Guano Islands Act
Category:Coral reefs
Category:Reefs of the Pacific Ocean
Category:Neotropical ecoregions
Category:Ecoregions of Central America
Category:Important Bird Areas of Overseas France
Category:Important Bird Areas of Oceania
Category:Seabird colonies
Category:Island restoration
Category:Victor Emmanuel III | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipperton_Island | 2025-04-05T18:27:16.416475 |
5520 | Cocos (Keeling) Islands | }}<br />}}
| settlement_type = Australian Indian Ocean Territory<br />External territory of Australia
| image_flag = Flag of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.svg
| flag_type = Flag
| flag_size = 130px
| flag_link | motto <br/>()
| anthem "Advance Australia Fair"<br><div style"padding-top:0.5em;" class="center"></div>
| song_type | song
| image_map = Australia on the globe (Cocos (Keeling) Islands special) (Southeast Asia centered).svg
| map_alt = Location of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands
| map_caption = Location of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (circled in red)
| subdivision_type = Sovereign state
| subdivision_name =
| established_title = Annexed by the United Kingdom
| established_date = 1857
| established_title2 = Transferred from Singapore<br />to Australia
| established_date2 = 23 November 1955
| official_languages = None
| languages_type = Spoken languages
| languages = }}
| capital = West Island
| coordinates =
| largest_settlement_type = village
| largest_settlement = Bantam
| demonym | ethnic_groups
| ethnic_groups_year | government_type Directly administered dependency
| leader_title1 = Monarch
| leader_name1 = Charles III
| leader_title2 = Governor-General
| leader_name2 = Sam Mostyn
| leader_title3 = Administrator
| leader_name3 Farzian Zainal
| leader_title4 = Shire President
| leader_name4 = Aindil Minkom
| national_representation = Parliament of Australia
| national_representation_type1 = Senate
| national_representation1 = represented by Northern Territory senators
| national_representation_type2 = House of Representatives
| national_representation2 = included in the Division of Lingiari
| area_km2 = 14
| area_sq_mi = 5.3
| percent_water = 0
| elevation_max_m = 5
| elevation_max_ft | population_census 593
| GDP_nominal_rank = not ranked
| GDP_nominal_year =2010
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $18,570.91
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = not ranked
| HDI_year | HDI_change <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI = <!--number only-->
| currency = Australian dollar (AU$)
| currency_code = AUD
| timezone | utc_offset +06:30
| drives_on Left
| calling_code = +61 891
| postal_code_type = Postcode
| postal_code = WA 6799
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| cctld = .cc
}}
The Cocos (Keeling) Islands (), officially the Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands (; ), are an Australian external territory in the Indian Ocean, comprising a small archipelago approximately midway between Australia and Sri Lanka and relatively close to the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The territory's dual name (official since the islands' incorporation into Australia in 1955) reflects that the islands have historically been known as either the Cocos Islands or the Keeling Islands.
The territory consists of two atolls made up of 27 coral islands, of which only two – West Island and Home Island – are inhabited. The population of around 600 people consists mainly of Cocos Malays, who mostly practise Sunni Islam and speak a dialect of Malay as their first language. The territory is administered by the Australian federal government's Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts as an Australian external territory and together with Christmas Island (which is about to the east) forms the Australian Indian Ocean Territories administrative grouping. However, the islanders do have a degree of self-government through the local shire council. Many public services – including health, education, and policing – are provided by the state of Western Australia, and Western Australian law applies except where the federal government has determined otherwise. The territory also uses Western Australian postcodes.
The islands were discovered in 1609 by the British sea captain William Keeling, but no settlement occurred until the early 19th century. One of the first settlers was John Clunies-Ross, a Scottish merchant; much of the island's current population is descended from the Malay workers he brought in to work his copra plantation. The Clunies-Ross family ruled the islands as a private fiefdom for almost 150 years, with the head of the family usually recognised as resident magistrate. The British annexed the islands in 1857, and for the next century they were administered from either Ceylon or Singapore. The territory was transferred to Australia in 1955, although until 1979 virtually all of the territory's real estate still belonged to the Clunies-Ross family.
Name
The islands have been called the Cocos Islands (from 1622), the Keeling Islands (from 1703), the Cocos–Keeling Islands (since James Horsburgh in 1805) and the Keeling–Cocos Islands (19th century). Cocos refers to the abundant coconut trees, while Keeling refers to William Keeling, who discovered the islands in 1609. who sailed there in the Borneo in 1825, called the group the Borneo Coral Isles, restricting Keeling to North Keeling, and calling South Keeling "the Cocos properly so called". The form Cocos (Keeling) Islands, attested from 1916, was made official by the (3 & 4 Eliz. 2. c. 5).
Geography
The Cocos (Keeling) Islands consist of two flat, low-lying coral atolls with an area of , of coastline, a highest elevation of and thickly covered with coconut palms and other vegetation. The climate is pleasant, moderated by the southeast trade winds for about nine months of the year and with moderate rainfall. Tropical cyclones may occur in the early months of the year.
North Keeling Island is an atoll consisting of just one C-shaped island, a nearly closed atoll ring with a small opening into the lagoon, about wide, on the east side. The island measures in land area and is uninhabited. The lagoon is about . North Keeling Island and the surrounding sea to from shore form the Pulu Keeling National Park, established on 12 December 1995. It is home to the only surviving population of the endemic, and endangered, Cocos Buff-banded Rail.
South Keeling Islands is an atoll consisting of 24 individual islets forming an incomplete atoll ring, with a total land area of . Only Home Island and West Island are populated. The Cocos Malays maintain weekend shacks, referred to as pondoks, on most of the larger islands.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Islets forming the South Keeling Islands atoll (clockwise from north)
!rowspan2| ||rowspan2| Islet<br />(Malay name) ||rowspan2| Translation of Malay name ||rowspan2| English name||colspan=2| Area<br />(approx.)
|-
!align"right"|km<sup>2</sup> !! style"text-align:right;"|mi<sup>2</sup>
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 1 || Pulau Luar || Outer Island || Horsburgh Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 2 || Pulau Tikus || Mouse Island || Direction Island ||align"right"| ||align="right"|
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 3 || Pulau Pasir || Sand Island || Workhouse Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 4 || Pulau Beras || Rice Island || Prison Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 5 || Pulau Gangsa || Copper Island || Closed sandbar, now part of Home Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 6 || Pulau Selma || || Home Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 7 || Pulau Ampang Kechil || Little Ampang Island || Scaevola Islet ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 8 || Pulau Ampang || Ampang Island || Canui Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 9 || Pulau Wa-idas || || Ampang Minor ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 10 || Pulau Blekok || Reef Heron Island || Goldwater Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 11 || Pulau Kembang || Flower Island || Thorn Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 12 || Pulau Cheplok || Cape Gooseberry Island || Gooseberry Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 13 || Pulau Pandan || Pandanus Island || Misery Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 14 || Pulau Siput || Shell Island || Goat Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 15 || Pulau Jambatan || Bridge Island || Middle Mission Isle ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 16 || Pulau Labu || Pumpkin Island || South Goat Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 17 || Pulau Atas || Up Wind Island || South Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 18 || Pulau Kelapa Satu || One Coconut Island || North Goat Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 19 || Pulau Blan || || East Cay ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 20 || Pulau Blan Madar || || Burial Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 21 || Pulau Maria || Maria Island || West Cay ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 22 || Pulau Kambing || Goat Island || Keelingham Horn Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 23 || Pulau Panjang || Long Island || West Island ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"| 24 || Pulau Wak Bangka || || Turtle Island ||
|}
There are no rivers or lakes on either atoll. Fresh water resources are limited to water lenses on the larger islands, underground accumulations of rainwater lying above the seawater. These lenses are accessed through shallow bores or wells.
Flora and fauna
Climate
Cocos (Keeling) Islands experience a tropical rainforest climate (Af) according to the Köppen climate classification; the archipelago lies approximately midway between the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. The archipelago has two distinct seasons, the wet season and the dry season. The wettest month is April with precipitation totaling , and the driest month is October with precipitation totaling . Due to the strong maritime control, temperatures vary little although its location is some distance from the Equator. The hottest month is March with an average high temperature of , while the coolest month is September with an average low temperature of .
DemographicsAccording to the 2021 Australian Census, the population of the Cocos Islands is 593 people. The gender distribution stands at an approximate 51% male and 49% female. As of 2021, there are no people living on the Cocos Islands who identify as Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander). History Discovery and early historyThe archipelago was discovered in 1609 by Captain William Keeling of the East India Company, on a return voyage from the East Indies. North Keeling was sketched by Ekeberg, a Swedish captain, in 1749, showing the presence of coconut palms. It also appears on a 1789 chart produced by British hydrographer Alexander Dalrymple.
In 1825, Scottish merchant seaman Captain John Clunies-Ross stopped briefly at the islands on a trip to India, nailing up a Union Jack and planning to return and settle on the islands with his family in the future. Wealthy Englishman Alexander Hare had similar plans, and hired a captain coincidentally, Clunies-Ross's brotherto bring him and a volunteer harem of 40 Malay women to the islands, where he hoped to establish his private residence. Hare had previously served as resident of Banjarmasin, a town in Borneo, and found that "he could not confine himself to the tame life that civilisation affords". Disheartened, Hare left the island. He died in Bencoolen in 1834. Encouraged by members of the former harem, Clunies-Ross then recruited Malays to come to the island for work and wives.
Clunies-Ross's workers were paid in a currency called the Cocos rupee, a currency John Clunies-Ross minted himself that could only be redeemed at the company store.
On 1 April 1836, under Captain Robert FitzRoy arrived to take soundings to establish the profile of the atoll as part of the survey expedition of the Beagle. To the naturalist Charles Darwin, aboard the ship, the results supported a theory he had developed of how atolls formed, which he later published as The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. He studied the natural history of the islands and collected specimens. Darwin's assistant Syms Covington noted that "an Englishman [he was in fact Scottish] and HIS family, with about sixty or seventy mulattos from the Cape of Good Hope, live on one of the islands. Captain Ross, the governor, is now absent at the Cape."
Annexation by the British Empire
The islands were annexed by the British Empire in 1857. This annexation was carried out by Captain Stephen Grenville Fremantle in command of . Fremantle claimed the islands for the British Empire and appointed Ross II as Superintendent. In 1878, by Letters Patent, the Governor of Ceylon was made Governor of the islands, and, by further Letters Patent in 1886, responsibility for the islands was transferred to the Governor of the Straits Settlement to exercise his functions as "Governor of Cocos Islands". Meanwhile, in 1886 Queen Victoria had, by indenture, granted the islands in perpetuity to John Clunies-Ross. The head of the family enjoyed semi-official status as Resident Magistrate and Government representative.
World War I
cruiser Emden leaves the Cocos (Keeling) Islands via this jetty on Direction Island on 9 November 1914.]]
On the morning of 9 November 1914, the islands became the site of the Battle of Cocos, one of the first naval battles of World War I. A landing party from the German cruiser captured and disabled the wireless and cable communications station on Direction Island, but not before the station was able to transmit a distress call. An Allied troop convoy was passing nearby, and the Australian cruiser was detached from the convoy escort to investigate.
Sydney spotted the island and Emden at 09:15, with both ships preparing for combat. At 11:20, the heavily damaged Emden beached herself on North Keeling Island. The Australian warship broke to pursue Emdens supporting collier, which scuttled herself, then returned to North Keeling Island at 16:00. At this point, Emdens battle ensign was still flying: usually a sign that a ship intends to continue fighting. After no response to instructions to lower the ensign, two salvoes were shot into the beached cruiser, after which the Germans lowered the flag and raised a white sheet. Sydney had orders to ascertain the status of the transmission station, but returned the next day to provide medical assistance to the Germans.
Casualties totaled 134 personnel aboard Emden killed, and 69 wounded, compared to four killed and 16 wounded aboard Sydney. The German survivors were taken aboard the Australian cruiser, which caught up to the troop convoy in Colombo on 15 November, then transported to Malta and handed over the prisoners to the British Army. An additional 50 German personnel from the shore party, unable to be recovered before Sydney arrived, commandeered a schooner and escaped from Direction Island, eventually arriving in Constantinople. Emden was the last active Central Powers warship in the Indian or Pacific Ocean, which meant troopships from Australia and New Zealand could sail without naval escort, and Allied ships could be deployed elsewhere.
World War II
During World War II, the cable station was once again a vital link. The Cocos were valuable for direction finding by the Y service, the worldwide intelligence system used during the war.
Allied planners noted that the islands might be seized as an airfield for German planes and as a base for commerce raiders operating in the Indian Ocean. Following Japan's entry into the war, Japanese forces occupied neighbouring islands. To avoid drawing their attention to the Cocos cable station and its islands' garrison, the seaplane anchorage between Direction and Horsburgh islands was not used. Radio transmitters were also kept silent, except in emergencies.
After the Fall of Singapore in 1942, the islands were administered from Ceylon and West and Direction Islands were placed under Allied military administration. The islands' garrison initially consisted of a platoon from the British Army's King's African Rifles, located on Horsburgh Island, with two guns to cover the anchorage. The local inhabitants all lived on Home Island. Despite the importance of the islands as a communication centre, the Japanese made no attempt either to raid or to occupy them and contented themselves with sending over a reconnaissance aircraft about once a month.
On the night of 8–9 May 1942, 15 members of the garrison, from the Ceylon Defence Force, mutinied under the leadership of Gratien Fernando. The mutineers were said to have been provoked by the attitude of their British officers and were also supposedly inspired by Japanese anti-British propaganda. They attempted to take control of the gun battery on the islands. The Cocos Islands Mutiny was crushed, but the mutineers murdered one non-mutinous soldier and wounded one officer. Seven of the mutineers were sentenced to death at a trial that was later alleged to have been improperly conducted, though the guilt of the accused was admitted. Four of the sentences were commuted, but three men were executed, including Fernando. These were to be the only British Commonwealth soldiers executed for mutiny during the Second World War.
On 25 December 1942, the Japanese submarine I-166 bombarded the islands but caused no damage.
Later in the war, two airstrips were built, and three bomber squadrons were moved to the islands to conduct raids against Japanese targets in South East Asia and to provide support during the planned reinvasion of Malaya and reconquest of Singapore. The first aircraft to arrive were Supermarine Spitfire Mk VIIIs of No. 136 Squadron RAF. They included some Liberator bombers from No. 321 (Netherlands) Squadron RAF (members of exiled Dutch forces serving with the Royal Air Force), which were also stationed on the islands. When in July 1945 No. 99 and No. 356 RAF squadrons arrived on West Island, they brought with them a daily newspaper called Atoll which contained news of what was happening in the outside world. Run by airmen in their off-duty hours, it achieved fame when dropped by Liberator bombers on POW camps over the heads of the Japanese guards.
In 1946, the administration of the islands reverted to Singapore and it became part of the Colony of Singapore.
Transfer to Australia
On 23 November 1955, the islands were transferred from the United Kingdom to the Commonwealth of Australia. Immediately before the transfer the islands were part of the United Kingdom's Colony of Singapore, in accordance with the Straits Settlements (Repeal) Act, 1946 of the United Kingdom and the British Settlements Acts, 1887 and 1945, as applied by the Act of 1946.
*The Commonwealth Parliament and the Government requested and consented to the enactment of a United Kingdom Act for the purpose.
*The Cocos Islands Act, 1955, authorised Her Majesty, by Order in Council, to direct that the islands should cease to form part of the Colony of Singapore and be placed under the authority of the Commonwealth.
*By the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act, 1955, the Parliament of the Commonwealth provided for the acceptance of the islands as a territory under the authority of the Commonwealth and for its government.
*The Cocos Islands Order in Council, 1955, made under the United Kingdom Act of 1955, provided that upon the appointed day (23 November 1955) the islands should cease to form part of the Colony of Singapore and be placed under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia.
The reason for this comparatively complex machinery was due to the terms of the Straits Settlement (Repeal) Act, 1946. According to Sir Kenneth Roberts-Wray "any other procedure would have been of doubtful validity". The separation involved three steps: separation from the Colony of Singapore; transfer by United Kingdom and acceptance by Australia.
H. J. Hull was appointed the first official representative (now administrator) of the new territory. He had been a lieutenant-commander in the Royal Australian Navy and was released for the purpose. Under Commonwealth Cabinet Decision 1573 of 9 September 1958, Hull's appointment was terminated and John William Stokes was appointed on secondment from the Northern Territory police. A media release at the end of October 1958 by the Minister for Territories, Hasluck, commended Hull's three years of service on Cocos.
Stokes served in the position from 31 October 1958 to 30 September 1960. His son's boyhood memories and photos of the Islands have been published. C. I. Buffett MBE from Norfolk Island succeeded him and served from 28 July 1960 to 30 June 1966, and later acted as Administrator back on Cocos and on Norfolk Island. In 1974, Ken Mullen wrote a small book about his time with wife and son from 1964 to 1966 working at the Cable Station on Direction Island.
In the 1970s, the Australian government's dissatisfaction with the Clunies-Ross feudal style of rule of the island increased. In 1978, Australia forced the family to sell the islands for the sum of , using the threat of compulsory acquisition. By agreement, the family retained ownership of Oceania House, their home on the island. In 1983, the Australian government reneged on this agreement and told John Clunies-Ross that he should leave the Cocos. The following year the High Court of Australia ruled that resumption of Oceania House was unlawful, but the Australian government ordered that no government business was to be granted to Clunies-Ross's shipping company, an action that contributed to his bankruptcy. John Clunies-Ross later moved to Perth, Western Australia. However, some members of the Clunies-Ross family still live on the Cocos.
Extensive preparations were undertaken by the government of Australia to prepare the Cocos Malays to vote in their referendum of self-determination. Discussions began in 1982, with an aim of holding the referendum, under United Nations supervision, in mid-1983. Under guidelines developed by the UN Decolonization Committee, residents were to be offered three choices: full independence, free association, or integration with Australia. The last option was preferred by both the islanders and the Australian government. A change in government in Canberra following the March 1983 Australian elections delayed the vote by one year. While the Home Island Council stated a preference for a traditional communal consensus "vote", the UN insisted on a secret ballot. The referendum was held on 6 April 1984, with all 261 eligible islanders participating, including the Clunies-Ross family: 229 voted for integration, 21 for Free Association, nine for independence, and two failed to indicate a preference. In the first decade of the 21st century, a series of disputes have occurred between the Muslim and the non-Muslim population of the islands.
The airstrip on West Island has an airstrip that is more than two kilometres long and is designed to accommodate Boeing 737 passenger flights and smaller military planes. In 2023, the Australian parliament approved plans to extend the airstrip by 150 metres so that it could take Boeing P-8 Poseidon aircraft capable of low-level anti-submarine warfare operations and high-tech military surveillance. Construction was scheduled to start in 2024 and be completed by 2026.Indigenous statusDescendants of the Cocos Malays brought to the islands from the Malay Peninsula, the Indonesian archipelago, Southern Africa and New Guinea by Hare and by Clunies-Ross as indentured workers, slaves or convicts are seeking recognition from the Australian government to be acknowledged as Indigenous Australians.
Government
The capital of the Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands is West Island while the largest settlement is the village of Bantam, on Home Island.
Governance of the islands is based on the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act 1955 and depends heavily on the laws of Australia. The islands are administered from Canberra by the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts through a non-resident Administrator appointed by the Governor-General. They were previously the responsibility of the Department of Transport and Regional Services (before 2007), the Attorney-General's Department (2007–2013), Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2013–2017) and Department of Infrastructure, Regional Development and Cities (2017–2020).
As of November 2023, the Administrator is Farzian Zainal, she is also the Administrator of Christmas Island. These two territories comprise the Australian Indian Ocean Territories. The Australian Government provides Commonwealth-level government services through the Christmas Island Administration and the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts. As per the Federal Government's Territories Law Reform Act 1992, which came into force on 1 July 1992, Western Australian laws are applied to the Cocos Islands, "so far as they are capable of applying in the Territory"; non-application or partial application of such laws is at the discretion of the federal government. The Act also gives Western Australian courts judicial power over the islands. The Cocos Islands remain constitutionally distinct from Western Australia, however; the power of the state to legislate for the territory is power-delegated by the federal government. The kind of services typically provided by a state government elsewhere in Australia are provided by departments of the Western Australian Government, and by contractors, with the costs met by the federal government.
There also exists a unicameral Cocos (Keeling) Islands Shire Council with seven seats. A full term lasts four years, though elections are held every two years; approximately half the members retire each two years. the president of the shire is Aindil Minkom. The most recent local election took place on 21 October 2023 alongside elections on Christmas Island.Federal politics
Defence is the responsibility of the Australian Defence Force. Until 2023, there were no active military installations or defence personnel on the island; the administrator could request the assistance of the Australian Defence Force if required.
In 2016, the Australian Department of Defence announced that the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Airport (West Island) would be upgraded to support the Royal Australian Air Force's P-8 Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft. Work was scheduled to begin in early 2023 and be completed by 2026. The airfield will act as a forward operating base for Australian surveillance and electronic warfare aircraft in the region.
The Royal Australian Navy and Australian Border Force also deploy and patrol boats to conduct surveillance and counter-migrant smuggling patrols in adjacent waters. As of 2023, the Navy's Armidale-class boats are in the process of being replaced by larger s.
Civilian law enforcement and community policing is provided by the Australian Federal Police. The normal deployment to the island is one sergeant and one constable. These are augmented by two locally engaged Special Members who have police powers.
Courts
Since 1992, court services have been provided by the Western Australian Department of the Attorney-General under a service delivery arrangement with the Australian Government. Western Australian Court Services provide Magistrates Court, District Court, Supreme Court, Family Court, Children's Court, Coroner's Court and Registry for births, deaths and marriages and change of name services. Magistrates and judges from Western Australia convene a circuit court as required.
Health care
Home Island and West Island have medical clinics providing basic health services, but serious medical conditions and injuries cannot be treated on the island and patients are sent to Perth for treatment, a distance of .
Economy
The population of the islands is approximately 600. There is a small and growing tourist industry focused on water-based or nature activities. In 2016, a beach on Direction Island was named the best beach in Australia by Brad Farmer, an Aquatic and Coastal Ambassador for Tourism Australia and co-author of 101 Best Beaches 2017.
Small local gardens and fishing contribute to the food supply, but most food and most other necessities must be imported from Australia or elsewhere.
The Cocos Islands Cooperative Society Ltd. employs construction workers, stevedores, and lighterage worker operations. Tourism employs others. The unemployment rate was 6.7% in 2011.
Plastic pollution
A 2019 study led by Jennifer Lavers from the University of Tasmania's Institute of Marine and Antarctic Studies published in the journal Scientific Reports estimated the volume of plastic rubbish on the Islands as around 414 million pieces, weighing 238 tonnes, 93% of which lies buried under the sand. It said that previous surveys which only assessed surface garbage probably "drastically underestimated the scale of debris accumulation". The plastic waste found in the study consisted mostly of single-use items such as bottles, plastic cutlery, bags and drinking straws.
Strategic importance
The Cocos (Keeling) Islands hold significant strategic value due to their location near vital shipping lanes in the Indian Ocean and their proximity to the Malacca, Sunda, and Lombok Straits. Euronews described the plan as Australian support for an increased American presence in Southeast Asia, but expressed concern that it was likely to upset Chinese officials. After plans to construct airbases were reported on by The Washington Post, Australian defence minister Stephen Smith stated that the Australian government views the "Cocos as being potentially a long-term strategic location, but that is down the track." In 2023, Indian aircraft from their Navy and Air Force paid a visit to the islands. Australia hopes to further advance relationships with India in order to grow their monitoring strength in the Indian Ocean. Airfield Upgrades Australia has initiated a project to upgrade the airfield on West Island to accommodate larger military aircraft, including the P-8A Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft. This enhancement aims to bolster maritime surveillance capabilities in the region. US Strategic Interests The U.S. military is considering the Cocos Islands for infrastructure development under the Pacific Deterrence Initiative, reflecting their significance in countering regional threats and ensuring free navigation. India-Australia Cooperation In 2023, Indian Navy and Air Force aircraft visited the Cocos Islands, marking a step forward in defense collaboration between India and Australia. This visit underscored the islands' role in enhancing joint maritime security efforts in the Indian Ocean. Geographic Significance
The islands' location offers several strategic advantages.
* Their proximity to critical maritime chokepoints makes them ideal for deploying surveillance assets to monitor naval activities and secure sea lines of communication.
* The islands can serve as a base for refueling and resupplying naval vessels and aircraft, extending operational reach in the region.
Subsea Cable Projects
In late 2024, Google, in collaboration with partners, announced plans to build a subsea cable connecting Darwin, Australia, to Christmas Island. This project aimed to enhance digital resilience and connectivity, aligning with broader strategic objectives in the region.
Communications and transport
Transport
The islands feature approximately 15 kilometers of roads. The primary airport, Cocos (Keeling) Islands Airport, is located on West Island and has a single 2,441-meter paved runway. Virgin Australia operates scheduled flights from Perth Airport twice a week, with some services also stopping at Christmas Island. Historically, from 1952 until 1967, the airport served as a refueling stop for flights between Australia and South Africa.
Local transportation includes a tourist bus on Home Island and a bus service on West Island operated by the Cocos Islands Cooperative Society, which also manages the inter-island ferry, Cahaya Baru, connecting West, Home, and Direction Islands.
There is a lagoon anchorage between Horsburgh and Direction islands for larger vessels, while yachts have a dedicated anchorage area in the southern lee of Direction Island. There are no major seaports on the islands.
Communications
Telecommunication services are integrated into Australia's system, utilizing the area code +61 8 9162 xxxx. Public telephones are available on both West and Home Islands. Mobile services are provided by Indian Ocean Territories Telecom (IOTT), offering 4G connectivity and various NBN plans, including Sky Muster Plus. SIM and recharge cards can be purchased locally.
Internet services are delivered via satellite, with providers like MultiWave Networks offering NBN Sky Muster Plus premium services. The territory's country code top-level domain (ccTLD) is .cc, administered by VeriSign through its subsidiary eNIC.
The National Broadband Network announced in early 2012 that it would extend service to Cocos in 2015 via high-speed satellite link.
The Oman Australia Cable, completed in 2022, links Australia and Oman with a spur to the Cocos Islands. Media The Cocos (Keeling) Islands have access to a range of modern communication services. Digital television stations are broadcast from Western Australia via satellite. A local radio station, 6CKI – Voice of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, is staffed by community volunteers and provides some local content.NewspapersThe Cocos Islands Community Resource Centre publishes a fortnightly newsletter called The Atoll. It is available in paper and electronic formats.RadioTelevision
; Australian
The Cocos (Keeling) Islands receives a range of digital channels from Western Australia via satellite and is broadcast from the Airport Building on the West Island on the following VHF frequencies: ABC6, SBS7, WAW8, WOW10 and WDW11
; Malaysian
From 2013 onwards, Cocos Island received four Malaysian channels via satellite: TV3, ntv7, 8TV and TV9.
Education
There is a school in the archipelago, Cocos Islands District High School, with campuses located on West Island (Kindergarten to Year 10), and the other on Home Island (Kindergarten to Year 6). CIDHS is part of the Western Australia Department of Education. School instruction is in English on both campuses, with Cocos Malay teacher aides assisting the younger children in Kindergarten, Pre-Preparatory and early Primary with the English curriculum on the Home Island Campus. The Home Language of Cocos Malay is valued whilst students engage in learning English.
Culture
Although it is an Australian territory, the culture of the islands has extensive influences from Malaysia and Indonesia due to its predominantly ethnic Malay population.
Heritage listings
The West Island Mosque on Alexander Street is listed on the Australian Commonwealth Heritage List. Museum The Pulu Cocos Museum on Home Island was established in 1987, in recognition of the fact that the distinct culture of Home Island needed formal preservation. The site includes the displays on local culture and traditions, as well as the early history of the islands and their ownership by the Clunies-Ross family. The museum also includes displays on military and naval history, as well as local botanical and zoological items.
Marine park
Reefs near the islands have healthy coral and are home to several rare species of marine life. The region, along with the Christmas Island reefs, have been described as "Australia's Galapagos Islands". After months of consultation with local people, both parks were approved in March 2022, with a total coverage of . The park will help to protect spawning of bluefin tuna from illegal international fishers, but local people will be allowed to practise fishing sustainably inshore in order to source food.
Sport
Rugby league is a popular sport on the islands. The Cocos Islands Golf Club, located on West Island and established in 1962, is the only golf course in the world that plays across an international airport runway.
Unlike Norfolk Island, another external territory of Australia, the Cocos Islands do not participate in the Commonwealth Games or the Pacific Games.
Image gallery
<gallery widths"154px" heights"200px" caption="Gallery">
Cocos (Keeling) Islands Airport - RWY33.jpg|Aerial view of Cocos (Keeling) Islands Airport (ICAO code: YPCC).
Cocos(Keeling)Islands HomeIsland02.jpg|Home Island
HMAS Sydney 1912 compass-stand Port Macquarie.JPG|Compass stand from the bridge of HMAS Sydney, which destroyed the SMS Emden, installed at Port Macquarie, New South Wales, in 1929.
SMS Emden 1914.jpg|A broadside view of the wrecked Emden after her encounter with HMAS Sydney. Crew huddle on the wreck, awaiting rescue by Sydney.
BRIG DURRANT WRITING CANCELLED.jpg|The last bombing raid of World War II by 99, 356 and 321 Squadrons is cancelled, 15 August 1945.
H.M. Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip at the Cocos Islands, April 1954.jpg|Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip arrive at the Cocos Islands, April 1954.
Prince Philip-Queen Elizabeth-John Clunies Ross@Coco Islands 1954.jpg|Prince Philip waves goodbye as he and Queen Elizabeth, accompanied by John Clunies-Ross, return to their ship from Home Island (1954).
Elizabeth garden part 1954-04.jpg|Queen Elizabeth at a garden party held in her honour at Home Island (1954).
</gallery>
See also
<!-- * Outline of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands -->
<!-- * Bibliography of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands -->
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* Banknotes of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Index of Cocos (Keeling) Islands-related articles
* Pearl Islands (Isla de Cocos, Panama; Cocos Island, Costa Rica).
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
*
* Clunies-Ross, John Cecil; Souter, Gavin. The Clunies-Ross Cocos Chronicle, Self, Perth 2009, .
*
External links
* [http://www.shire.cc/ Shire of Cocos (Keeling) Islands homepage]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090327011339/http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/duffy/arb/497-508/505.pdf Areas of individual islets]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070614165334/http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/duffy/arb/399-414/403.pdf Atoll Research Bulletin vol. 403]
* [http://www.cocoskeelingislands.com.au/ Cocos (Keeling) Islands Tourism website]
*
* [http://www.awm.gov.au/journal/j34/cocosmutiny.htm Noel Crusz, The Cocos Islands mutiny] , reviewed by Peter Stanley (Principal Historian, Australian War Memorial).
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/6730047.stm The man who lost a "coral kingdom"]
* [https://dxnews.com/vk9ec_cocos_keeling/ Amateur Radio DX Pedition to Cocos (Keeling) Islands VK9EC]
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Category:1955 establishments in Asia
Category:1955 establishments in Australia
Category:Archipelagoes of Australia
Category:Archipelagoes of the Indian Ocean
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Category:British rule in Singapore
Category:English-speaking countries and territories
Category:Island countries of the Indian Ocean
Category:Islands of Southeast Asia
Category:States and territories established in 1955
Category:States and territories of Australia
Category:Countries and territories where Malay is an official language | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:16.794582 |
5523 | Demographics of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands | Demographic features of the population of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
CIA World Factbook demographic statistics
The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.
Population
596
Nationality
noun: Cocos Islander(s)
adjective: Cocos Islander
Ethnic groups
Europeans
Cocos Malays
Religions
Sunni Islam 80%
Other 20%
Languages
Malay (Cocos dialect)
English
See also
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Cocos Malays
References
Cocos (Keeling) Islands | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:16.844777 |
5530 | Conspiracy theory | , as seen on the US$1 bill, has been perceived by some to be evidence of a conspiracy linking the Founding Fathers of the United States to the Illuminati.]]
A conspiracy theory is an explanation for an event or situation that asserts the existence of a conspiracy (generally by powerful sinister groups, often political in motivation), when other explanations are more probable. The term generally has a negative connotation, implying that the appeal of a conspiracy theory is based in prejudice, emotional conviction, or insufficient evidence. A conspiracy theory is distinct from a conspiracy; it refers to a hypothesized conspiracy with specific characteristics, including but not limited to opposition to the mainstream consensus among those who are qualified to evaluate its accuracy, such as scientists or historians. they are generally designed to resist falsification either by evidence against them or a lack of evidence for them. They are reinforced by circular reasoning: both evidence against the conspiracy and absence of evidence for it are misinterpreted as evidence of its truth. Stephan Lewandowsky observes "This interpretation relies on the notion that, the stronger the evidence against a conspiracy, the more the conspirators must want people to believe their version of events." As a consequence, the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proven or disproven. Studies have linked belief in conspiracy theories to distrust of authority and political cynicism. Some researchers suggest that conspiracist ideation—belief in conspiracy theories—may be psychologically harmful or pathological. Such belief is correlated with psychological projection, paranoia, and Machiavellianism.
Psychologists usually attribute belief in conspiracy theories to a number of psychopathological conditions such as paranoia, schizotypy, narcissism, and insecure attachment, It has also been linked with the so-called Dark triad personality types, whose common feature is lack of empathy. However, a 2020 review article found that most cognitive scientists view conspiracy theorizing as typically nonpathological, given that unfounded belief in conspiracy is common across both historical and contemporary cultures, and may arise from innate human tendencies towards gossip, group cohesion, and religion.
Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to prejudice, propaganda, witch hunts, wars, and genocides. They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of terrorist attacks, and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh and Anders Breivik, as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, AIDS denialism by the government of South Africa, motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS. and belief in conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods led the government of Zambia to reject food aid during a famine, although it also appeared in print for several decades before.
The earliest known usage was by the American author Charles Astor Bristed, in a letter to the editor published in The New York Times on 11 January 1863. He used it to refer to claims that British aristocrats were intentionally weakening the United States during the American Civil War in order to advance their financial interests.
--> Robert Blaskiewicz comments that examples of the term were used as early as the nineteenth century and states that its usage has always been derogatory. According to a study by Andrew McKenzie-McHarg, in contrast, in the nineteenth century the term conspiracy theory simply "suggests a plausible postulate of a conspiracy" and "did not, at this stage, carry any connotations, either negative or positive", though sometimes a postulate so-labeled was criticized. The author and activist George Monbiot argued that the terms "conspiracy theory" and "conspiracy theorist" are misleading, as conspiracies truly exist and theories are "rational explanations subject to disproof". Instead, he proposed the terms "conspiracy fiction" and "conspiracy fantasist". Alleged CIA origins
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The term "conspiracy theory" is itself the subject of a conspiracy theory, which posits that the term was popularized by the CIA in order to discredit conspiratorial believers, particularly critics of the Warren Commission, by making them a target of ridicule. In his 2013 book Conspiracy Theory in America, the political scientist Lance deHaven-Smith wrote that the term entered everyday language in the United States after 1964, the year in which the Warren Commission published its findings on the assassination of John F. Kennedy, with The New York Times running five stories that year using the term.
Whether the CIA was responsible for popularising the term "conspiracy theory" was analyzed by Michael Butter, a Professor of American Literary and Cultural History at the University of Tübingen. Butter wrote in 2020 that the CIA document Concerning Criticism of the Warren Report, which proponents of the theory use as evidence of CIA motive and intention, does not contain the phrase "conspiracy theory" in the singular, and only uses the term "conspiracy theories" once, in the sentence: "Conspiracy theories have frequently thrown suspicion on our organisation , for example, by falsely alleging that Lee Harvey Oswald worked for us."
Difference from conspiracy
A conspiracy theory is not simply a conspiracy, which refers to any covert plan involving two or more people. Conspiracy theorists see themselves as having privileged access to socially persecuted knowledge or a stigmatized mode of thought that separates them from the masses who believe the official account. Michael Barkun describes a conspiracy theory as a "template imposed upon the world to give the appearance of order to events".
In conspiracy theories, the conspirators are usually claimed to be acting with extreme malice.
Popularity
Conspiracy beliefs are widespread around the world.
Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media, contributing to conspiracism emerging as a cultural phenomenon in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The general predisposition to believe conspiracy theories cuts across partisan and ideological lines. Conspiratorial thinking is correlated with antigovernmental orientations and a low sense of political efficacy, with conspiracy believers perceiving a governmental threat to individual rights and displaying a deep skepticism that who one votes for really matters.
Conspiracy theories are often commonly believed, some even being held by the majority of the population. A broad cross-section of Americans today gives credence to at least some conspiracy theories. For instance, a study conducted in 2016 found that 10% of Americans think the chemtrail conspiracy theory is "completely true" and 20–30% think it is "somewhat true". Belief in conspiracy theories has therefore become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore.
Conspiracy theories are widely present on the Web in the form of blogs and YouTube videos, as well as on social media. Whether the Web has increased the prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is an open research question. The presence and representation of conspiracy theories in search engine results has been monitored and studied, showing significant variation across different topics, and a general absence of reputable, high-quality links in the results.
One conspiracy theory that propagated through former US President Barack Obama's time in office claimed that he was born in Kenya, instead of Hawaii where he was actually born. Former governor of Arkansas and political opponent of Obama Mike Huckabee made headlines in 2011 when he, among other members of Republican leadership, continued to question Obama's citizenship status.
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|+colspan3 aligncenter|Belief in conspiracy theories in the United States, December 2020 – NPR/Ipsos poll, ±3.3%
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| "Several mass shootings in recent years were staged hoaxes" (crisis actor theory)
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| Barack Obama was not born in the United States (birtherism)
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| Moon landing conspiracy theories
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Types
A conspiracy theory can be local or international, focused on single events or covering multiple incidents and entire countries, regions and periods of history.
Walker's five kinds
Jesse Walker (2013) has identified five kinds of conspiracy theories:
* The "Enemy Outside" refers to theories based on figures alleged to be scheming against a community from without.
* The "Enemy Within" finds the conspirators lurking inside the nation, indistinguishable from ordinary citizens.
* The "Enemy Above" involves powerful people manipulating events for their own gain.
* The "Enemy Below" features the lower classes working to overturn the social order.
* The "Benevolent Conspiracies" are angelic forces that work behind the scenes to improve the world and help people.
Barkun's three types
Michael Barkun has identified three classifications of conspiracy theory:
* Event conspiracy theories. This refers to limited and well-defined events. Examples may include such conspiracies theories as those concerning the Kennedy assassination, 9/11, and the spread of AIDS.
* Systemic conspiracy theories. The conspiracy is believed to have broad goals, usually conceived as securing control of a country, a region, or even the entire world. The goals are sweeping, whilst the conspiratorial machinery is generally simple: a single, evil organization implements a plan to infiltrate and subvert existing institutions. This is a common scenario in conspiracy theories that focus on the alleged machinations of Jews, Freemasons, Communism, or the Catholic Church.
* Superconspiracy theories. For Barkun, such theories link multiple alleged conspiracies together hierarchically. At the summit is a distant but all-powerful evil force. His cited examples are the ideas of David Icke and Milton William Cooper.
Rothbard: shallow vs. deep
Murray Rothbard argues in favor of a model that contrasts "deep" conspiracy theories to "shallow" ones. According to Rothbard, a "shallow" theorist observes an event and asks Cui bono? ("Who benefits?"), jumping to the conclusion that a posited beneficiary is responsible for covertly influencing events. On the other hand, the "deep" conspiracy theorist begins with a hunch and then seeks out evidence. Rothbard describes this latter activity as a matter of confirming with certain facts one's initial paranoia.
Lack of evidence
Belief in conspiracy theories is generally based not on evidence, but in the faith of the believer. Noam Chomsky contrasts conspiracy theory to institutional analysis which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behavior of publicly known institutions, as recorded in, for example, scholarly documents or mainstream media reports. Conspiracy theory conversely posits the existence of secretive coalitions of individuals and speculates on their alleged activities. Belief in conspiracy theories is associated with biases in reasoning, such as the conjunction fallacy.
Clare Birchall at King's College London describes conspiracy theory as a "form of popular knowledge or interpretation".}} The use of the word 'knowledge' here suggests ways in which conspiracy theory may be considered in relation to legitimate modes of knowing.
Target audience
Strategies to address conspiracy theories have been divided into two categories based on whether the target audience is the conspiracy theorists or the general public.
General public
People who feel empowered are more resistant to conspiracy theories. Methods to promote empowerment include encouraging people to use analytical thinking, priming people to think of situations where they are in control, and ensuring that decisions by society and government are seen to follow procedural fairness (the use of fair decision-making procedures).
Methods of refutation which have shown effectiveness in various circumstances include: providing facts that demonstrate the conspiracy theory is false, attempting to discredit the source, explaining how the logic is invalid or misleading, and providing links to fact-checking websites.
Conspiracy theorists
It is much more difficult to convince people who already believe in conspiracy theories. In these cases, the solution would be to break the group's informational isolation.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Interventions to counter the spread of conspiracy theories on social media Regarding the challenges of this approach, Pierre has said, "The challenge with acknowledging areas of uncertainty within a public sphere is that doing so can be weaponized to reinforce a post-truth view of the world in which everything is debatable, and any counter-position is just as valid. Although I like to think of myself as a middle of the road kind of individual, it is important to keep in mind that the truth does not always lie in the middle of a debate, whether we are talking about climate change, vaccines, or antipsychotic medications."
Researchers have recommended that public policies should take into account the possibility of conspiracy theories relating to any policy or policy area, and prepare to combat them in advance.
In addition, when the government communicates with citizens to combat conspiracy theories, online methods are more efficient compared to other methods such as print publications. This also promotes transparency, can improve a message's perceived trustworthiness, and is more effective at reaching underrepresented demographics. However, , many governmental websites do not take full advantage of the available information-sharing opportunities. Similarly, social media accounts need to be used effectively in order to achieve meaningful communication with the public, such as by responding to requests that citizens send to those accounts. Other steps include adapting messages to the communication styles used on the social media platform in question, and promoting a culture of openness. Since mixed messaging can support conspiracy theories, it is also important to avoid conflicting accounts, such as by ensuring the accuracy of messages on the social media accounts of individual members of the organization. Counter-narratives can be more engaging and memorable than simple corrections, and can be adapted to the specific values held by individuals and cultures. These narratives may depict personal experiences, or alternatively they can be cultural narratives. In the context of vaccination, examples of cultural narratives include stories about scientific breakthroughs, about the world before vaccinations, or about heroic and altruistic researchers. The themes to be addressed would be those that could be exploited by conspiracy theories to increase vaccine hesitancy, such as perceptions of vaccine risk, lack of patient empowerment, and lack of trust in medical authorities.
There are psychological mechanisms by which backfire effects could potentially occur, but the evidence on this topic is mixed, and backfire effects are very rare in practice. Due to the lack of reproducibility, most researchers believe that backfire effects are either unlikely to occur on the broader population level, or they only occur in very specific circumstances, or they do not exist.
In general, people do reject conspiracy theories when they learn about their contradictions and lack of evidence. Psychology The widespread belief in conspiracy theories has become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists, and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when a number of conspiracy theories arose regarding the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy. Sociologist Türkay Salim Nefes underlines the political nature of conspiracy theories. He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the "real but hidden" power relations in social groups.
Conspiracy theories often make use of complicated and detailed arguments, including ones which appear to be analytical or scientific. However, belief in conspiracy theories is primarily driven by emotion. This even applies when the conspiracy theories directly contradict each other, e.g. believing that Osama bin Laden was already dead before his compound in Pakistan was attacked makes the same person more likely to believe that he is still alive. One conclusion from this finding is that the content of a conspiracist belief is less important than the idea of a coverup by the authorities. Analytical thinking aids in reducing belief in conspiracy theories, in part because it emphasizes rational and critical cognition.
Some psychological scientists assert that explanations related to conspiracy theories can be, and often are "internally consistent" with strong beliefs that had previously been held prior to the event that sparked the conspiracy.
Attractions
Psychological motives for believing in conspiracy theories can be categorized as epistemic, existential, or social. These motives are particularly acute in vulnerable and disadvantaged populations. However, it does not appear that the beliefs help to address these motives; in fact, they may be self-defeating, acting to make the situation worse instead.
The political scientist Michael Barkun, discussing the usage of "conspiracy theory" in contemporary American culture, holds that this term is used for a belief that explains an event as the result of a secret plot by exceptionally powerful and cunning conspirators to achieve a malevolent end. Humanistic psychologists argue that even if a posited cabal behind an alleged conspiracy is almost always perceived as hostile, there often remains an element of reassurance for theorists. This is because it is a consolation to imagine that difficulties in human affairs are created by humans, and remain within human control. If a cabal can be implicated, there may be a hope of breaking its power or of joining it. Belief in the power of a cabal is an implicit assertion of human dignity—an unconscious affirmation that man is responsible for his own destiny.
People formulate conspiracy theories to explain, for example, power relations in social groups and the perceived existence of evil forces.}} Proposed psychological origins of conspiracy theorising include projection; the personal need to explain "a significant event [with] a significant cause;" and the product of various kinds and stages of thought disorder, such as paranoid disposition, ranging in severity to diagnosable mental illnesses. Some people prefer socio-political explanations over the insecurity of encountering random, unpredictable, or otherwise inexplicable events. According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm".Causes
Some psychologists believe that a search for meaning is common in conspiracism. Once cognized, confirmation bias and avoidance of cognitive dissonance may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has become embedded within a social group, communal reinforcement may also play a part.
Inquiry into possible motives behind the accepting of irrational conspiracy theories has linked these beliefs to distress resulting from an event that occurred, such as the events of 9/11. Additional research suggests that "delusional ideation" is the trait most likely to indicate a stronger belief in conspiracy theories. Research also shows an increased attachment to these irrational beliefs leads to a decreased desire for civic engagement.
Professor Quassim Cassam argues that conspiracy theorists hold their beliefs due to flaws in their thinking and more precisely, their intellectual character. He cites philosopher Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski and her book Virtues of the Mind in outlining intellectual virtues (such as humility, caution and carefulness) and intellectual vices (such as gullibility, carelessness and closed-mindedness). Whereas intellectual virtues help in reaching sound examination, intellectual vices "impede effective and responsible inquiry", meaning that those who are prone to believing in conspiracy theories possess certain vices while lacking necessary virtues.
Some researchers have suggested that conspiracy theories could be partially caused by psychological mechanisms the human brain possesses for detecting dangerous coalitions. Such a mechanism could have been useful in the small-scale environment humanity evolved in but are mismatched in a modern, complex society and thus "misfire", perceiving conspiracies where none exist.
Projection
Some historians have argued that psychological projection is prevalent amongst conspiracy theorists. This projection, according to the argument, is manifested in the form of attribution of undesirable characteristics of the self to the conspirators. Historian Richard Hofstadter stated that:
People with strong convictions will have a hard time changing their minds, given how embedded a lie becomes in the mind. In fact, there are scientists and scholars still studying the best tools and tricks to combat lies with some combination of brain training and linguistic awareness.}}
Sociology
In addition to psychological factors such as conspiracist ideation, sociological factors also help account for who believes in which conspiracy theories. Such theories tend to get more traction among election losers in society, for example, and the emphasis of conspiracy theories by elites and leaders tends to increase belief among followers who have higher levels of conspiracy thinking. Christopher Hitchens described conspiracy theories as the "exhaust fumes of democracy": Likewise, Roger Cohen writing for The New York Times has said that, "captive minds; ... resort to conspiracy theory because it is the ultimate refuge of the powerless. If you cannot change your own life, it must be that some greater force controls the world." Justin Fox of Time magazine argues that Wall Street traders are among the most conspiracy-minded group of people, and ascribes this to the reality of some financial market conspiracies, and to the ability of conspiracy theories to provide necessary orientation in the market's day-to-day movements.Fusion paranoiaMichael Kelly, a Washington Post journalist and critic of anti-war movements on both the left and right, coined the term "fusion paranoia" to refer to a political convergence of left-wing and right-wing activists around anti-war issues and civil liberties, which he said were motivated by a shared belief in conspiracism or shared anti-government views.
Barkun has adopted this term to refer to how the synthesis of paranoid conspiracy theories, which were once limited to American fringe audiences, has given them mass appeal and enabled them to become commonplace in mass media, thereby inaugurating an unrivaled period of people actively preparing for apocalyptic or millenarian scenarios in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Barkun notes the occurrence of lone-wolf conflicts with law enforcement acting as proxy for threatening the established political powers.Viability As evidence that undermines an alleged conspiracy grows, the number of alleged conspirators also grows in the minds of conspiracy theorists. This is because of an assumption that the alleged conspirators often have competing interests. For example, if Republican President George W. Bush is allegedly responsible for the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and the Democratic party did not pursue exposing this alleged plot, that must mean that both the Democratic and Republican parties are conspirators in the alleged plot. It also assumes that the alleged conspirators are so competent that they can fool the entire world, but so incompetent that even the unskilled conspiracy theorists can find mistakes they make that prove the fraud. At some point, the number of alleged conspirators, combined with the contradictions within the alleged conspirators' interests and competence, becomes so great that maintaining the theory becomes an obvious exercise in absurdity.
The physicist David Robert Grimes estimated the time it would take for a conspiracy to be exposed based on the number of people involved. His calculations used data from the PRISM surveillance program, the Tuskegee syphilis experiment, and the FBI forensic scandal. Grimes estimated that:
* A Moon landing hoax would require the involvement of 411,000 people and would be exposed within 3.68 years;
* Climate-change fraud would require a minimum of 29,083 people (published climate scientists only) and would be exposed within 26.77 years, or up to 405,000 people, in which case it would be exposed within 3.70 years;
* A vaccination conspiracy would require a minimum of 22,000 people (without drug companies) and would be exposed within at least 3.15 years and at most 34.78 years depending on the number involved;
* A conspiracy to suppress a cure for cancer would require 714,000 people and would be exposed within 3.17 years.
Grimes's study did not consider exposure by sources outside of the alleged conspiracy. It only considered exposure from within the alleged conspiracy through whistleblowers or through incompetence. Subsequent comments on the PubPeer website point out that these calculations must exclude successful conspiracies since, by definition, we don't know about them, and are wrong by an order of magnitude about Bletchley Park, which remained a secret far longer than Grimes' calculations predicted.
Terminology
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The term "truth seeker" is adopted by some conspiracy theorists when describing themselves on social media. Conspiracy theorists are often referred to derogatorily as "cookers" in Australia. The term "cooker" is also loosely associated with the far right.
Politics
found that majorities in only 9 of 17 countries believed that al-Qaeda carried out the 9/11 attacks.]]
The philosopher Karl Popper described the central problem of conspiracy theories as a form of fundamental attribution error, where every event is generally perceived as being intentional and planned, greatly underestimating the effects of randomness and unintended consequences. Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on conspiracy theories which drew on imaginary plots which were driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, chauvinism, or racism. He also noted that conspirators very rarely achieved their goal.
Historically, real conspiracies have usually had little effect on history and have had unforeseen consequences for the conspirators, in contrast to conspiracy theories which often posit grand, sinister organizations, or world-changing events, the evidence for which has been erased or obscured. As described by Bruce Cumings, history is instead "moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities".
Arab world
Conspiracy theories are a prevalent feature of Arab culture and politics. Variants include conspiracies involving colonialism, Zionism, superpowers, oil, and the war on terrorism, which is often referred to in Arab media as a "war against Islam". Roger Cohen has suggested that the popularity of conspiracy theories in the Arab world is "the ultimate refuge of the powerless". Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri used conspiracy theories about the United States to gain support for al-Qaeda in the Arab world, and as rhetoric to distinguish themselves from similar groups, although they may not have believed the conspiratorial claims themselves.
Turkey
Conspiracy theories are a prevalent feature of culture and politics in Turkey. Conspiracism is an important phenomenon in understanding Turkish politics. This is explained by a desire to "make up for our lost Ottoman grandeur", and a "low level of media literacy among the Turkish population."
There are a wide variety of conspiracy theories including the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory, the international Jewish conspiracy theory, and the war against Islam conspiracy theory. For example, Islamists, dissatisfied with the modernist and secularist reforms that took place throughout the history of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic, have put forward many conspiracy theories to defame the Treaty of Lausanne, an important peace treaty for the country, and the republic's founder Kemal Atatürk. Another example is the Sèvres syndrome, a reference to the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920, a popular belief in Turkey that dangerous internal and external enemies, especially the West, are "conspiring to weaken and carve up the Turkish Republic".United States
The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout U.S. history in his 1964 essay "The Paranoid Style in American Politics". Bernard Bailyn's classic The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967) notes that a similar phenomenon could be found in North America during the time preceding the American Revolution. Conspiracism labels people's attitudes as well as the type of conspiracy theories that are more global and historical in proportion.
Harry G. West and others have noted that while conspiracy theorists may often be dismissed as a fringe minority, certain evidence suggests that a wide range of the U.S. maintains a belief in conspiracy theories. West also compares those theories to hypernationalism and religious fundamentalism. Theologian Robert Jewett and philosopher John Shelton Lawrence attribute the enduring popularity of conspiracy theories in the U.S. to the Cold War, McCarthyism, and counterculture rejection of authority. They state that among both the left-wing and right-wing, there remains a willingness to use real events, such as Soviet plots, inconsistencies in the Warren Report, and the 9/11 attacks, to support the existence of unverified and ongoing large-scale conspiracies.
In his studies of "American political demonology", historian Michael Paul Rogin too analyzed this paranoid style of politics that has occurred throughout American history. Conspiracy theories frequently identify an imaginary subversive group that is supposedly attacking the nation and requires the government and allied forces to engage in harsh extra-legal repression of those threatening subversives. Rogin cites examples from the Red Scares of 1919, to McCarthy's anti-communist campaign in the 1950s and more recently fears of immigrant hordes invading the US. Unlike Hofstadter, Rogin saw these "countersubversive" fears as frequently coming from those in power and dominant groups, instead of from the dispossessed. Unlike Robert Jewett, Rogin blamed not the counterculture, but America's dominant culture of liberal individualism and the fears it stimulated to explain the periodic eruption of irrational conspiracy theories. The Watergate scandal has also been used to bestow legitimacy to other conspiracy theories, with Richard Nixon himself commenting that it served as a "Rorschach ink blot" which invited others to fill in the underlying pattern.
Alex Jones referenced numerous conspiracy theories for convincing his supporters to endorse Ron Paul over Mitt Romney in the 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries and Donald Trump over Hillary Clinton in the 2016 United States presidential election. Into the 2020s, the QAnon conspiracy theory alleges that Trump is fighting against a deep-state cabal of child sex-abusing and Satan-worshipping Democrats.See also
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References
Informational notes
Citations
Further reading
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* Burnett, Thom. Conspiracy Encyclopedia: The Encyclopedia of Conspiracy Theories
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* De Graaf, Beatrice and Zwierlein, Cornel (eds.) [https://www.gesis.org/en/hsr/full-text-archive/2013/381-security-and-conspiracy/ "Security and Conspiracy in History, 16th to 21st Century"]. Historical Social Research 38, Special Issue, 2013
* Fleming, Chris and Emma A. Jane. Modern Conspiracy: The Importance of Being Paranoid. New York and London: Bloomsbury, 2014. .
* Goertzel, Ted. "Belief in conspiracy theories". Political Psychology (1994): 731–742. [http://www.crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/CONSPIRE.doc online]
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* Harris, Lee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130114231139/http://american.com/archive/2013/january/the-trouble-with-conspiracy-theories "The Trouble with Conspiracy Theories"]. The American, 12 January 2013.
* Hofstadter, Richard. The Paranoid Style in American Politics (1954). [https://web.archive.org/web/20170116220729/http://www.fuminyang.com/michelle/Paranoid%20Style.pdf online]
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* Oliver, J. Eric, and Thomas J. Wood. "Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style(s) of mass opinion". American Journal of Political Science 58.4 (2014): 952–966.[http://hon3397p.wp.txstate.edu/files/2015/08/OliverWood.pdf online]
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* Slosson, W. [https://archive.org/stream/unpopularreview07newy#page/394/mode/2up "The 'Conspiracy' Superstition"]. The Unpopular Review, Vol. VII, No. 14, 1917.
* Sunstein, Cass R., and Adrian Vermeule. "Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures". Journal of Political Philosophy 17.2 (2009): 202–227. [http://www.ask-force.org/web/Discourse/Sunstein-Conspiracy-Theories-2009.pdf online]
* Uscinski, Joseph E. and Joseph M. Parent, American Conspiracy Theories (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199351813/ excerpt]
* Uscinski, Joseph E. [http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/08/conspiracy-theories-2016-donald-trump-hillary-clinton-214183 "The 5 Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theories of 2016"]. Politico Magazine (22 Aug 2016)
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External links
* [https://iep.utm.edu/conspira/ Conspiracy Theories], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Category:Barriers to critical thinking
Category:Fringe theory
Category:Disinformation
Category:Misinformation
Category:Pejorative terms
Category:Pseudohistory
Category:Pseudoscience | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conspiracy_theory | 2025-04-05T18:27:17.047990 |
5541 | Coral Sea Islands | }}
The Coral Sea Islands Territory is an external territory of Australia which comprises a group of small and mostly uninhabited tropical islands and reefs in the Coral Sea, north-east of Queensland, Australia. The only inhabited island is Willis Island. The territory covers , most of which is ocean, extending east and south from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef and includes Heralds Beacon Island, Osprey Reef, the Willis Group and fifteen other reef/island groups. Cato Island is the highest point in the Territory.
History and status
The Coral Sea Islands were first charted in 1803. In the 1870s and 1880s the islands were mined for guano but the absence of a reliable supply of fresh water prevented long-term habitation. and the Department of Transport and Regional Services. It is the only external territory not created by transfer from the United Kingdom or by the mandate of the United Nations. Defence is the responsibility of Australia, and the territory is visited regularly by the Royal Australian Navy.
Australia maintains automatic weather stations on many of the isles and reefs, and claims a exclusive fishing zone. There is no economic activity (except for a significant but as yet unquantified charter fishing and diving industry), and only a staff of three or four people to run the meteorological station on Willis Island (South Islet), established in 1921. In November 2011, the Australian government announced that a protected area was planned in the Coral Sea.
The Supreme Court of Norfolk Island has jurisdiction over the islands; however, the laws of the Australian Capital Territory apply. The territory's FIPS 10-4 code is CR, whereas ISO 3166 includes it in Australia (AU).
In June 2004, a symbolic political protest run by gay rights activists based in Australia, declared the Coral Sea Islands to be a sovereign micronation. On 17 November 2017 the same group declared the kingdom to be 'dissolved', following the results of the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey. Geography There are about 30 separate reefs and atolls, twelve being wholly submerged or drying only during low tide, and 18 others with a total of about 51 islets and cays (18 alone on the atoll Lihou Reef), some of which are vegetated. <!--The coral Sea is deep--> The atolls exhibit a wide range of size, from a few kilometres in diameter to perhaps the second largest atoll in the world by total area (including lagoon): Lihou Reef, with a lagoon size of and an area of , which compares to a combined land area of the 18 individual islets of only . The islands are all very low.
The Willis Islets are important nesting areas for birds and turtles but contain negligible natural resources. They comprise less than of land. There is no port or harbour, only offshore anchorage.
Most of the atolls fall into two groups, while Mellish Reef to the east, and Middleton Reef and Elizabeth Reef to the south are grouped separately:
Northwestern Group
# Osprey Reef (submerged atoll roughly oval in shape, measuring , covering around , with lagoon up to deep)
# Shark Reef (small elongated submerged reef south of Osprey Reef, with a minimum depth of )
# Bougainville Reef (small submerged atoll, , area with lagoon, dries at half tide)
# East Holmes Reef (submerged atoll, about , area with lagoon)
# West Holmes Reef (submerged atoll east of East Holmes Reef, about , area with lagoon that is open on the West side, two small cays)
# Flora Reef (small submerged atoll, 5 by 4 km, about )
# Diane Bank (sunken atoll, depths of less than 10 m over an area of 65 by 25 km, or , along the northern edge 3 m deep, with Sand Cay in the Northwest, 3 m high)
# North Moore Reef (small submerged atoll, 4 by 3 km, area including lagoon that is open on the Northwest side)
# South Moore Reef (small submerged reef 5 km South of North Moore Reef)
# Willis Islets (sunken atoll, bank 45 by 19 km, bank area more than , 3 islets on the Northwestern side: North Cay, Mid Islet almost 8 m high, South Islet or Willis Island 10 m high)
# Magdelaine Cays & Coringa Islets (one large, partially sunken atoll structure, almost 90 by 30 km, bank area about ), 2 islets of the Magdelaine Cays in the North: North West Islet (area approximately ) and South East Cay (area ); 2 islets of the Coringa Islets 50 to 60 km further Southwest: Southwest Islet or Coringa Islet (area 0.173 km<sup>2</sup>), and Chilcott Islet (area 0.163 km<sup>2</sup>)
# Herald Cays, Northeast Cay (encircled by a reef of 3 by 3 km, total area 6 km<sup>2</sup>, land area 0.34 km<sup>2</sup>)
# Herald Cays, Southwest Cay (4 km Southwest of Northeast Cay, encircled by a reef of 2 by 2 km, total area 3 km<sup>2</sup>, land area 0.188 km<sup>2</sup>)
# Lihou Reef and Cays (largest atoll in the coral sea, with a size of 2500 km<sup>2</sup>, land area 0.91 km<sup>2</sup>)
# Diamond Islets & Tregosse Reefs (large, partially sunken atoll, 100 by 52 km, area of the bank over 3000 km<sup>2</sup>, with 4 islets and 2 small submerged reefs in the Northeast and Southeast: West Diamond Islet, Central Diamond Islet, East Diamond Islet on the Northeastern rim of the former atoll, and South Diamond Islet, East Tregosse Reef and West Tregosse Reef on the Southern rim)
# North Flinders Reef (large atoll, 34 by 23 km, area 600 km<sup>2</sup>, with 2 islets, Flinders Cay being the larger one with a length of 200 m and a height of 3 m)
# South Flinders Reef (atoll, 15 by 5 km, 60 km<sup>2</sup>)
# Herald's Surprise (small submerged reef North of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 2 km)
# Dart Reef (small submerged reef Northwest of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 3 km, area 6 km<sup>2</sup> including small lagoon that is open to the North)
# Malay Reef (small submerged reef, not clearly defined, no breakers, difficult to see)
# Abington Reef (submerged reef, nearly awash, 4 by 2.5 km, area 7 km<sup>2</sup>)
# Marion Reef (Large circular atoll formation that is composed of three main units located on the Eastern side: Marion, Long and Wansfell; and a number of smaller reefs on the west. The formation sits atop a submarine feature known as the Marion Plateau which is separated from the larger Coral Sea Plateau to the north by the Townsville Trough. Three small sand cays are located on the eastern side of Marion Reef: Paget Cay, on Long Reef, Carola Cay, south of Long Reef, and Brodie Cay, on Wansfell Reef.)
The atolls of the Northwestern Group, except Osprey Reef and Shark Reef in the north, and Marion Reef in the south, are located on the Coral Sea Plateau (Queensland Plateau), a contiguous area of depths less than 1000 m.
* Flinders Reefs (North and South), '''Herald's Surprise and Dart Reef form a cluster of reefs of 66 by 26 km.
* Magdelaine Cays, Coringa Islets and Herald Cays are part of the 8856 km<sup>2</sup> Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve, created on 16 August 1982 and located around 400 km east of Cairns and 220 to 320 km from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef. The 6 islets of the nature reserve have areas from 0.16 to 0.37 km<sup>2</sup>, for a total of 1.24 km<sup>2</sup>.
* Lihou Reef was declared a Nature Reserve on 16 August 1982, with an area of 8440 km<sup>2</sup>.
The Nature Reserves were created to protect wildlife in the respective areas of the territory; together they form the Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site.
Mellish Reef
#Mellish Reef, being about 300 km to the east of the Northwestern Group', thus the most distant from the Australian continent of all the reefs and atolls of the Coral Sea Islands Territory, is not considered to be part of any group. It has the outline of a boomerang-shaped platform around 10 km in length and 3 km across, area 25 km<sup>2</sup>. The surrounding reefs, which enclose a narrow lagoon, are completely submerged at high tide. Near the centre of the lagoon is the only permanent land of the reef - Heralds-Beacon Islet. The island is a small cay measuring 600 m by 120 m, area 57,000 m2, only rising a few ms above the high-water mark. The reef was discovered and named by Captain Alexander Bristow in the whaling ship on 5 April 1812. The wrecked on the reef on 16 August 1856. erected the first beacon on the cay, using wreckage from Duroc.
Southeasterly Group
#Frederick Reefs: The reefs form a semi-enclosed lagoon, known as Anchorage Sound, with an opening on the North side. The complex measures about 10 by 4 km, with an area of 30 km<sup>2</sup>. On the southern side of the reef lies Observatory Cay, the only permanently dry land, although there are a few of others cays that can be awash at high tide.
#Kenn Reefs, submerged atoll of about 15 by 8 km, area 40 km<sup>2</sup>, islet Observatory Cay in the Southeast, 2 m high
#Saumarez Reefs, southernmost reefs to be located on the Coral Sea Shelf; three main reefs and numerous smaller reefs that form a large crescent-shaped formation open to the northwest, about 27 by 14 km, area less than 300 km<sup>2</sup>. There are two sand cays: North East Cay and South West Cay.
#Wreck Reefs: atoll 25 by 5 km, area 75 km<sup>2</sup>, open on the North. Islets found on the reefs include Bird Islet, West Islet and Porpoise Cay.
#Cato Reef: Cato bank 21 by 13 km, area 200 km<sup>2</sup> of depths less than 17 m; Cato Reef encircles an area of 3.3 by 1.8 km, area 5 km<sup>2</sup> including lagoon; Cato Island, in the West of the lagoon, 650 by 300 m, area 0.15 km<sup>2</sup>, 6 m high. Close to the Southeast corner of Cato bank is Hutchison Rock, with 1 m depth over. Cato Island is the highest point in the Territory.
Extreme South
Elizabeth and Middleton reefs, together with reefs around Lord Howe Island (New South Wales) 150 km to the south, are regarded as the southernmost coral reefs in the world. Their location, where tropical and temperate ocean currents meet, contributes to an unusually diverse assemblage of marine species. These mostly submerged atolls which dry only during low tide were added to the territory only in 1989. They are located on the Lord Howe Rise. Already on 23 December 1987, they were protected as the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve, which has an area of 1,880 km<sup>2</sup>.
# Elizabeth Reef, atoll about 8.2 km by 5.5 km, area 51 km<sup>2</sup> including lagoon, one islet: Elizabeth Island (Elizabeth Cay), no vegetation, 600 m by 400 m (area 0.2 km<sup>2</sup>), highest point 0.8 m. At low tides, much of the reef flat is exposed.
# Middleton Reef, atoll about 8.9 km by 6.3 km, area 37 km<sup>2</sup> including lagoon, one islet: The Sound, 100 m by 70 m (area 5,000 m<sup>2</sup>), highest point 1.5 m (close to the northern end). At low tides, much of the reef flat is exposed.
Overview of islets and cays
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Complex !! Type !! Islets/cays</tr>
| West Holmes Reef || Atoll ||align="right"| 2</tr>
| Diane Bank || Atoll (mostly sunken) ||align="right"| Diane Bank Cay</tr>
| Willis Group || Atoll (partially sunken) ||align="right"| South Islet (Willis Island), Mid Islet, North Cay</tr>
| Magdelaine Cays and Coringa Islets || Atoll (partially sunken) ||align="right"| Northwest Islet, Southeast Cay, Southwest, Chilcott Islets</tr>
| Herald Cays (North) || Reef ||align="right"| Northwest Cay</tr>
| Herald Cays (South) || Reef ||align="right"| Southeast Cay</tr>
| Lihou Reef and Cays || Atoll ||align="right"| 18</tr>
| Diamond Islands and Tregosse Reefs || Atoll (partially sunken) ||align="right"| West Diamond, Central Diamond, East Diamond, Southwest Diamond Islets</tr>
| Flinders Reefs (North) || Atoll ||align="right"| Flinders, Main, Victoria Cays</tr>
| Marion Reef || Atoll ||align="right"| Paget, Carola, Brodie Cays</tr>
| Mellish Reef || Atoll ||align="right"| Heralds-Beacon Islet</tr>
| Frederick Reefs || Atoll ||align="right"| Observatory Cay</tr>
| Kenn Reef || Atoll ||align="right"| Observatory Cay</tr>
| Saumarez Reef || Atoll ||align="right"| Northeast, Southwest Cays</tr>
| Wreck Reef || Atoll ||align="right"| Bird, West Islets, Porpoise Cay</tr>
| Cato Reef || Atoll ||align="right"| Cato Island</tr>
| Middleton Reef || Atoll ||align="right"| The Sound</tr>
| Elizabeth Reef || Atoll ||align="right"| Elizabeth Island</tr>
|colspan"2"| Total number of islands/cays'' ||align"right"| 51</tr>
|}
Man-made structures
Automatic, unmanned weather stations are located on the following reefs or atolls:
*Bougainville Reef
*Cato Island
*Flinders Reef (Flinders Coral Cay)
*Frederick Reef
*Holmes Reef
*Lihou Reef (Turtle Islet)
*Marion Reef
*Moore Reef
Lighthouses are located on following reefs or islands:
*Bougainville Reef
*East Diamond Islet
*Frederick Reefs
*Lihou Reef
*Saumarez Reef
Willis Island, the only inhabited island, has a number of structures.
See also
* List of islands of Australia
* Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands
References
Notes
External links
* [http://www.ag.gov.au/ Coral Sea Islands History and the list of other Australia territories (Australian Government, Attorney-General's Department)]
Category:Landforms of the Coral Sea
Category:Islands of Australia
Category:Dependent territories in Oceania
Category:States and territories established in 1969
Category:1969 establishments in Oceania
Category:IBRA regions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_Sea_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:17.069181 |
5551 | Costa Rica | | image_flag = Flag of Costa Rica.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Costa Rica.svg
| national_motto | national_anthem <br />"National Anthem of Costa Rica"<div style"padding-top:0.5em"></div>
| image_map = CRI orthographic.svg
| image_map2 | capital San José
| coordinates =
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = Spanish
| languages2 | languages2_type Other spoken languages
| ethnic_groups =
* 72.6% Christianity
** 47.5% Catholicism (official)
** 22.5% Protestantism
** 2.6% other Christian
|27.0% no religion
|0.4% others
}}
| demonym =
| government_type = Unitary presidential republic
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 = Rodrigo Chaves
| leader_title2 = 1st Vice-President
| leader_name2 = Stephan Brunner
| leader_title3 = 2nd Vice-President
| leader_name3 = Mary Munive
| legislature = Legislative Assembly
| sovereignty_type = Independence from
| established_event1 = from Spain
| established_date1 = 15 September 1821
| established_event2 = from First Mexican Empire
| established_date2 = 1 July 1823
| established_event3 =
| established_date3 = 14 November 1838
| established_event4 = Current constitution
| established_date4 7 November 1949
| established_event5 = Recognized by Spain
| established_date5 = 10 May 1850
| area_km2 = 51179.92
| area_rank = 126th <!-- Area rank should match List of countries and dependencies by area -->
| percent_water 1.05 (as of 2015)
| population_census_year = 2022
| population_census 5,044,197
| population_estimate_year | population_estimates
| population_estimate_rank = 124th
| population_density_km2 | population_density_sq_mi 220 <!--Do not remove per WP:MOSNUM-->
| population_density_rank = 107th
| GDP_PPP $167.186 billion
| GDP_PPP_year = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank = 90th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita $31,092
| Gini_rank | HDI 0.806
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref
| HDI_rank = 64th
| currency = Costa Rican colón
| currency_code = CRC
| time_zone = CST
| utc_offset = −6
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = +506
| cctld = .cr<br />.co.cr
| recognized_regional_languages =
| country_code | today |
}}
Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica, is a country in the Central American region of North America. It borders Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the northeast, Panama to the southeast, and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, as well as maritime border with Ecuador to the south of Cocos Island. It has a population of around five million in a land area of nearly . An estimated people live in the capital and largest city, San José, with around two million people in the surrounding metropolitan area.
The sovereign state is a presidential republic. It has a long-standing and stable constitutional democracy and a highly educated workforce. The country spends roughly 6.9% of its budget (2016) on education, compared to a global average of 4.4%.
Costa Rica was inhabited by indigenous peoples before coming under Spanish rule in the 16th century. It remained a peripheral colony of the empire until independence as part of the First Mexican Empire, followed by membership in the Federal Republic of Central America, from which it formally declared independence in 1847. Following the brief Costa Rican Civil War in 1948, it permanently abolished its army in 1949, becoming one of only a few sovereign nations without a standing army.
The country has consistently performed favorably in the Human Development Index (HDI), placing 58th in the world , and fifth in Latin America. It has also been cited by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as having attained much higher human development than other countries at the same income levels, with a better record on human development and inequality than the median of the region. It performs well in comparisons of democratic governance, press freedom, subjective happiness and sustainable wellbeing. It has the 26th freest press according to the 2024 Press Freedom Index, it is the 35th most democratic country according to the 2021 Freedom in the World index, and it is the 23rd happiest country in the 2023 World Happiness Report. It is also a major tourist destination in the continent. History
created by the Diquis culture at the National Museum of Costa Rica. The sphere is the icon of the country's cultural identity.]]
Pre-Columbian period
Historians have classified the Indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also been described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area.
Stone tools, the oldest evidence of human occupation in Costa Rica, are associated with the arrival of various groups of hunter-gatherers about 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE in the Turrialba Valley. The presence of Clovis culture type spearheads and arrows from South America opens the possibility that, in this area, two different cultures coexisted.
Agriculture became evident in the populations that lived in Costa Rica about 5,000 years ago. They mainly grew tubers and roots. For the first and second millennia BCE there were already settled farming communities. These were small and scattered, although the timing of the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the main livelihood in the territory is still unknown.
The earliest use of pottery appears around 2,000 to 3,000 BCE. Shards of pots, cylindrical vases, platters, gourds, and other vases decorated with grooves, prints, and some modeled after animals have been found.
The influence of Indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been relatively small compared to other nations since the country lacked a strong native civilization to begin with. Most of the native population was absorbed into the Spanish-speaking colonial society through inter-marriage, except for some small remnants, the most significant of which are the Bribri and Boruca tribes who still inhabit the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in the southeastern part of Costa Rica, near the frontier with Panama. Spanish colonization The name , meaning "rich coast" in the Spanish language, was in some accounts first applied by Christopher Columbus, who sailed to the eastern shores of Costa Rica during his final voyage in 1502, and reported vast quantities of gold jewelry worn by natives. The name may also have come from conquistador Gil González Dávila, who landed on the west coast in 1522, encountered natives, and obtained some of their gold, sometimes by violent theft and sometimes as gifts from local leaders.
|italic=no}} historical site in the Orosí Valley, Cartago province. The church was built between 1686 and 1693.]]
During most of the colonial period, Costa Rica was the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, nominally part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The captaincy general was a largely autonomous entity within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica's distance from the capital of the captaincy in Guatemala, its legal prohibition under mercantilist Spanish law from trade with its southern neighbor Panama, then part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (i.e. Colombia), and lack of resources such as gold and silver, made Costa Rica into a poor, isolated, and sparsely-inhabited region within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica was described as "the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America" by a Spanish governor in 1719.
Another important factor behind Costa Rica's poverty was the lack of a significant Indigenous population available for (forced labor), which meant most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work on their land, preventing the establishment of large (plantations). For all these reasons, Costa Rica was, by and large, unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. The circumstances during this period are believed to have led to many of the idiosyncrasies for which Costa Rica has become known, while concomitantly setting the stage for Costa Rica's development as a more egalitarian society than the rest of its neighbors. Costa Rica became a "rural democracy" with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil and a milder climate than that of the lowlands.
Independence
Like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain. On 15 September 1821, after the final Spanish defeat in the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821), the authorities in Guatemala declared the independence of all of Central America. That date is still celebrated as Independence Day in Costa Rica even though, technically, under the Spanish Constitution of 1812 that had been readopted in 1820, Nicaragua and Costa Rica had become an autonomous province with its capital in León.
On March 3, 1824, the government of the State of Costa Rica officially proposed to the municipality of Nicoya its voluntary incorporation into the country, through a document in which it invited it "if it was convenient to join its Province without going against its will." On July 4, an open town hall was convened in Nicoya to discuss the matter, but attendees declined the invitation under the argument "that this Party... cannot be dissident."
On July 25, 1824, a second plebiscite was called in the city of Nicoya. After deliberation, the incorporation into Costa Rica was decided in an open town hall meeting, preparing a record in which the main reasons for it were noted, pointing out the advantages in terms of trade, the desire to participate in the advances that are palpable in Costa Rica, the economic, administrative and public service benefits, the creation of schools, security and quiet, referring to the state of war that Nicaragua was experiencing at that time and the fear that it would spread to the Partido populations, in addition to point out the poverty in which its towns find themselves and the geography of the territory as justifications for the union. Three days later, another similar plebiscite was held in Santa Cruz, with the same result. The election was by majority vote, with 77% of the Party's population in favor of incorporation, and 23% against it. The town of Guanacaste was the only one that declined annexation, due to the ties its residents had with the city of Rivas, Nicaragua.
Upon independence, Costa Rican authorities faced the issue of officially deciding the future of the country. Two bands formed: the Imperialists, defended by Cartago and Heredia cities, which were in favor of joining the Mexican Empire, and the Republicans, represented by the cities of San José and Alajuela who defended full independence. Because of the lack of agreement on these two possible outcomes, the first civil war in Costa Rica occurred. The Battle of Ochomogo took place on the Hill of Ochomogo, located in the Central Valley in 1823. The conflict was won by the Republicans and, as a consequence, the city of Cartago lost its status as the capital, which moved to San José.
was featured in the first postal stamp issued in 1862.]]
In 1838, long after the Federal Republic of Central America ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign. The considerable distance and poor communication routes between Guatemala City and the Central Plateau, where most of the Costa Rican population lived then and still lives now, meant the local population had little allegiance to the federal government in Guatemala. Since colonial times, Costa Rica has been reluctant to become economically tied with the rest of Central America. Even today, despite most of its neighbors' efforts to increase regional integration, Costa Rica has remained more independent.
Until 1849, when it became part of Panama, Chiriquí was part of Costa Rica. Costa Rican pride was assuaged for the loss of this eastern (or southern) territory with the acquisition of Guanacaste, in the north.
Economic growth in the 19th century
Coffee was first planted in Costa Rica in 1808, and by the 1820s, it surpassed tobacco, sugar, and cacao as a primary export. Coffee production remained Costa Rica's principal source of wealth well into the 20th century, creating a wealthy class of growers, the so-called Coffee Barons. The revenue helped to modernize the country.
Most of the coffee exported was grown around the main centers of population in the Central Plateau and then transported by oxcart to the Pacific port of Puntarenas after the main road was built in 1846. It soon became a high priority to develop an effective transportation route from the Central Plateau to the Atlantic Ocean. For this purpose, in the 1870s, the Costa Rican government contracted with U.S. businessman Minor C. Keith to build a railroad from San José to the Caribbean port of Limón. Despite enormous difficulties with construction, disease, and financing, the railroad was completed in 1890.
Most Afro-Costa Ricans descend from Jamaican immigrants who worked in the construction of that railway and now make up about 3% of Costa Rica's population. U.S. convicts, Italians, and Chinese immigrants also participated in the construction project. In exchange for completing the railroad, the Costa Rican government granted Keith large tracts of land and a lease on the train route, which he used to produce bananas and export them to the United States. As a result, bananas came to rival coffee as the principal Costa Rican export, while foreign-owned corporations (including the United Fruit Company later) began to hold a major role in the national economy and eventually became a symbol of the exploitative export economy. The major labor dispute between the peasants and the United Fruit Company (The Great Banana Strike) was a major event in the country's history and was an important step that would eventually lead to the formation of effective trade unions in Costa Rica, as the company was required to sign a collective agreement with its workers in 1938. 20th century
Historically, Costa Rica has generally enjoyed greater peace and more consistent political stability than many of its fellow Latin American nations. Since the late 19th century, however, Costa Rica has experienced two significant periods of violence. In 1917–1919, General Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a military dictator until he was overthrown and forced into exile. The unpopularity of Tinoco's regime led, after he was overthrown, to a considerable decline in the size, wealth, and political influence of the Costa Rican military. In 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election between Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia (who had been president between 1940 and 1944) and Otilio Ulate Blanco. With more than 2,000 dead, the resulting 44-day Costa Rican Civil War was the bloodiest event in Costa Rica during the 20th century.
The victorious rebels formed a government junta that abolished the military all together and oversaw the drafting of a new constitution by a democratically elected assembly. The country is facing increasing temperatures (especially at higher elevations), rising sea levels on both coasts, and changing rainfall patterns resulting in increased risk of drought along the Pacific slope and flooding in all regions of the country. Increasing temperatures and extreme heat will have major consequences for human health, agriculture (particularly coffee and banana cultivation), water security, tourism, and the country's distinctive biodiversity and ecosystems.
Flora and fauna
'')]]
Despite its size, Costa Rica is one of the countries with the greatest biodiversity in all of Latin America.
One national park, the Corcovado National Park, is internationally renowned among ecologists for its biodiversity (including big cats and tapirs) and is where visitors can expect to see an abundance of wildlife. Corcovado is the one park in Costa Rica where all four Costa Rican monkey species can be found. These include the white-headed capuchin, the mantled howler, the endangered Geoffroy's spider monkey, and the Central American squirrel monkey, found only on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and a small part of Panama and considered endangered until 2008 when its status was upgraded to vulnerable. Deforestation, illegal pet trading, and hunting are the main reasons for its threatened status. La Amistad and Chirripó present the climate of the páramo, at a height of more than 3000 meters above sea level, providing other types of flora and fauna, such as the white-nosed coati, the sooty thrush and Rogiera amoena. Costa Rica is the first tropical country to have stopped and reversed deforestation; it has successfully restored its forestry and developed an ecosystem service to teach biologists and ecologists about its environmental protection measures. The country had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.65/10, ranking it 118th globally out of 172 countries. Economy
microprocessor facility in Costa Rica that was, at one time, responsible for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 5% of the country's GDP]]
The country has been considered economically stable with moderate inflation, estimated at 2.6% in 2017, and moderately high GDP growth, which increased from US$41.3 billion in 2011 to US$52.6 billion in 2015. The estimated GDP for 2018 is US$59.0 billion and the estimated GDP per capita (purchasing power parity) is Intl$17,559.1. A 2017 study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development warned that reducing the foreign debt must be a very high priority for the government. Other fiscal reforms were also recommended to moderate the budget deficit.
Many foreign companies (manufacturing and services) operate in Costa Rica's Free Trade Zones (FTZ) where they benefit from investment and tax incentives. According to the government, the zones supported over 82,000 direct jobs and 43,000 indirect jobs in 2015. Companies with facilities in the America Free Zone in Heredia, for example, include Intel, Dell, HP, Bayer, Bosch, DHL, IBM and Okay Industries.
Of the 2016 GDP, 5.5% was generated by agriculture, 18.6% by industry, and 75.9% by services. For the region, its unemployment level is moderately high (8.2% in 2016, according to the IMF). Costa Rica has one of the highest standards of living in Central America.
High-quality health care is provided by the government at a low cost to the users. Housing is also very affordable. Costa Rica is recognized in Latin America for the quality of its educational system, a result of which is that the country has one of the highest literacy rates in Latin America, 97%. General Basic Education is mandatory and provided without cost to the user. A US government report confirms that the country has "historically placed a high priority on education and the creation of a skilled workforce" but notes that the high school drop-out rate is increasing. As well, Costa Rica would benefit from more courses in languages such as English, Portuguese, Mandarin, and French and also in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM). Costa Rica would be, according to its leaders, the first country in the world to have launched in 2019 a comprehensive decarbonization plan (net zero carbon emissions by 2050).
Trade and foreign investment
Costa Rica has free trade agreements with many countries, including the US. There are no significant trade barriers that would affect imports and the country has been lowering its tariffs to other Central American countries. The country's Free Trade Zones provide incentives for manufacturing and service industries to operate in Costa Rica. In 2015, the zones supported over 82 thousand direct jobs and 43 thousand indirect jobs 2015, and average wages in the FTZ were 1.8 times greater than the average for private enterprise work in the rest of the country. Total imports in that year were US$15 billion. The most significant products imported in 2015 (in order of dollar value) were refined petroleum, automobiles, packaged medications, broadcasting equipment, and computers. The total exports were US$12.6 billion for a trade deficit of US$2.39 billion in 2015. but also other crops, including coffee. Coffee production played a key role in Costa Rica's history and in 2006, was the third cash crop export.
Costa Rica has developed a system of payments for environmental services. Similarly, Costa Rica has a tax on water pollution to penalize businesses and homeowners that dump sewage, agricultural chemicals, and other pollutants into waterways. In May 2007, the Costa Rican government announced its intentions to become 100% carbon neutral by 2021. By 2015, 93 percent of the country's electricity came from renewable sources. In 2019, the country produced 99.62% of its electricity from renewable sources and ran completely on renewable sources for 300 continuous days.
in Heredia]]
In 1996, the Forest Law was enacted to provide direct financial incentives to landowners for the provision of environmental services. Attempts by China to invest in upgrading such aspects were "stalled by bureaucratic and legal concerns".
* The bureaucracy is "often slow and cumbersome".
Tourism
is one of the country's tourist attractions.]]
]]
Costa Rica had 2.9 million foreign visitors in 2016, up 10% from 2015. In 2015, the tourism sector was responsible for 5.8% of the country's GDP, or $3.4 billion. In 2016, the highest number of tourists came from the United States, with 1,000,000 visitors, followed by Europe with 434,884 arrivals. According to Costa Rica Vacations, once tourists arrive in the country, 22% go to Tamarindo, 18% go to Arenal, 17% pass through Liberia (where the Daniel Oduber Quirós International Airport is located), 16% go to San José, the country's capital (passing through Juan Santamaría International Airport), while 18% choose Manuel Antonio and 7% Monteverde.
By 2004, tourism was generating more revenue and foreign exchange than bananas and coffee combined. In 2016, the World Travel & Tourism Council's estimates indicated a direct contribution to the GDP of 5.1% and 110,000 direct jobs in Costa Rica; the total number of jobs indirectly supported by tourism was 271,000.
A pioneer of ecotourism, Costa Rica draws many tourists to its extensive series of national parks and other protected areas. The trail Camino de Costa Rica supports this by allowing travelers to walk across the country from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. In the 2011 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index, Costa Rica ranked 44th in the world and second among Latin American countries after Mexico in 2011. By the time of the 2017 report, the country had reached 38th place, slightly behind Panama. The Ethical Traveler group's ten countries on their 2017 list of The World's Ten Best Ethical Destinations includes Costa Rica. The country scored highest in environmental protection among the winners. Costa Rica began reversing deforestation in the 1990s, and they are moving towards using only renewable energy, with 93% of all its energy being renewable. Government and politics Administrative divisions
, 2 Cartago, 3 Guanacaste, 4 Heredia, 5 Limón, 6 Puntarenas, 7 San José|163x163px]]
Costa Rica is composed of seven provinces, which in turn are divided into 82 cantons (, plural ), each of which is directed by a mayor. Mayors are chosen democratically every four years by each canton. There are no provincial legislatures. The cantons are further divided into 488 districts (). Foreign relations
and Laura Chinchilla with Costa Rican children in San José|150x150px]]
Costa Rica is an active member of the United Nations and the Organization of American States. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the United Nations University of Peace are based in Costa Rica. It is also a member of many other international organizations related to human rights and democracy, such as the Community of Democracies. The main foreign policy objective of Costa Rica is to foster human rights and sustainable development as a way to secure stability and growth.
in the Pacific]] <!--This image is of doubtful relevance; it is not well described by its caption; it should be replaced or removed. Jan 11 2024-->
Costa Rica is a member of the International Criminal Court, without a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military (as covered under Article 98). Costa Rica is an observer of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.
On 10 September 1961, some months after Fidel Castro declared Cuba a socialist state, Costa Rican President Mario Echandi ended diplomatic relations with Cuba through Executive Decree Number 2. This freeze lasted 47 years until President Óscar Arias Sánchez re-established normal relations on 18 March 2009, saying, "If we have been able to turn the page with regimes as profoundly different to our reality as occurred with the USSR or, more recently, with the Republic of China, how would we not do it with a country that is geographically and culturally much nearer to Costa Rica?" Arias announced that both countries would exchange ambassadors.
Costa Rica has a long-term disagreement with Nicaragua over the San Juan River, which defines the border between the two countries, and Costa Rica's rights of navigation on the river. On 14 July 2009, the International Court of Justice in the Hague upheld Costa Rica's navigation rights for commercial purposes to subsistence fishing on their side of the river. An 1858 treaty extended navigation rights to Costa Rica, but Nicaragua denied passenger travel and fishing were part of the deal; the court ruled Costa Ricans on the river were not required to have Nicaraguan tourist cards or visas as Nicaragua argued, but, in a nod to the Nicaraguans, ruled that Costa Rican boats and passengers must stop at the first and last Nicaraguan port along their route. They must also have an identity document or passport. Nicaragua can also impose timetables on Costa Rican traffic. Nicaragua may require Costa Rican boats to display the flag of Nicaragua but may not charge them for departure clearance from its ports. These were all specific items of contention brought to the court in the 2005 filing.
In 2010, there was also a dispute around Isla Calero, and the effects of Nicaraguan dredging of the river in that area.
On 1 June 2007, Costa Rica broke diplomatic ties with Taiwan, switching recognition to the People's Republic of China. Costa Rica was the first of the Central American nations to do so. President Óscar Arias Sánchez admitted the action was a response to economic exigency. In response, the PRC built a new, $100 million, state-of-the-art football stadium in Parque la Sabana, in the province of San José. Approximately 600 Chinese engineers and laborers took part in this project, and it was inaugurated in March 2011, with a match between the national teams of Costa Rica and China.
Costa Rica finished a term on the United Nations Security Council, having been elected for a nonrenewable, two-year term in the 2007 election. Its term expired on 31 December 2009; this was Costa Rica's third time on the Security Council. Elayne Whyte Gómez is the Permanent Representative of Costa Rica to the UN Office at Geneva (2017) and President of the United Nations Conference to Negotiate a Legally Binding Instrument to Prohibit Nuclear Weapons.
Costa Rica is the 58th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.
Pacifism
On 1 December 1948, Costa Rica abolished its military force. In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican Constitution. The budget previously dedicated to the military is now dedicated to providing health care services and education. According to Deutsche Welle, "Costa Rica is known for its stable democracy, progressive social policies, such as free, compulsory public education, high social well-being, and emphasis on environmental protection." For law enforcement, Costa Rica has the Public Force of Costa Rica police agency.
In 2017, Costa Rica signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
Leadership in World governance initiatives
Costa Rica has been one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, in 1968, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth. Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich, then president of Costa Rica signed the agreement to convene a World Constituent Assembly along with former presidents José Figueres Ferrer and Otilio Ulate Blanco. The BOGA campaign was presented in the COP26 Climate Summit, where Sweden joined as a core member, while New Zealand and Portugal joined as associate members.
Demographics
The 2022 census counted a total population of 5,044,197 people.
In 2011 data for the following groups were: 83.6% whites or mestizos, 6.7% mulattoes, 2.4% Native American, 1.1% black or Afro-Caribbean; the census showed 1.1% as Other, 2.9% (141,304 people) as None, and 2.2% (107,196 people) as unspecified.
In 2011, there were over 104,000 Native American or indigenous inhabitants, representing 2.4% of the population. Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (in the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (northern Alajuela), Bribri (southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Ngäbe (southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (southern Costa Rica) and (southern Costa Rica).
The population includes European Costa Ricans (of European ancestry), primarily of Spanish descent,
The 2011 census classified 83.6% of the population as white or Mestizo; the latter are persons of combined European and Amerindian descent. The Mulatto segment (mix of white and black) represented 6.7% and Indigenous people made up 2.4% of the population. Some Nicaraguans migrate for seasonal work opportunities and then return to their country. Costa Rica took in many refugees from a range of other Latin American countries fleeing civil wars and dictatorships during the 1970s and 1980s, notably from Chile and Argentina, as well as people from El Salvador who fled from guerrillas and government death squads.
According to the World Bank, in 2010 about 489,200 immigrants lived in the country, many from Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize, while 125,306 Costa Ricans live abroad in the United States, Panama, Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, Canada, Germany, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, and Ecuador. The number of migrants declined in later years but in 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica and the number of asylum seekers (mostly from Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua) rose to more than 110,000, a fivefold increase from 2012. In 2016, the country was called a "magnet" for migrants from South and Central America and other countries who were hoping to reach the U.S. Largest cantons
San José
|div_1 = San José ProvinceSan José
|pop_1 = 352 381
|img_1 = 4- Vue San Jose.jpg
|city_2 = Alajuela (canton)Alajuela
|div_2 = Alajuela ProvinceAlajuela
|pop_2 = 322 143
|img_2 = Alajuela_likeluis.jpg
|city_3 = Desamparados, Costa RicaDesamparados
|div_3 = San José ProvinceSan José
|pop_3 = 223 226
|img_3 = IglesiaDesamparados.JPG
|city_4 = San Carlos (canton)San Carlos
|div_4 = Alajuela ProvinceAlajuela
|pop_4 = 198 742
|img_4 = Cathedral_of_St._Charles_Borromeo_in_Ciudad_Quesada.jpg
|city_5 = Cartago (canton)Cartago
|div_5 = Cartago ProvinceCartago
|pop_5 = 165 417
|city_6 = Pérez Zeledón (canton)Pérez Zeledón
|div_6 = San José ProvinceSan José
|pop_6 = 156 917
|city_7 = Pococí Pococí
|div_7 = Limón ProvinceLimón
|pop_7 = 146 320
|city_8 = Puntarenas (canton)Puntarenas
|div_8 = Puntarenas ProvincePuntarenas
|pop_8 = 141 697
|city_9 = Goicoechea (canton)Goicoechea
|div_9 = San José ProvinceSan José
|pop_9 = 132 104
|city_10 = Heredia (canton)Heredia
|div_10 = Heredia ProvinceHeredia
|pop_10 = 131 901
}}
Religion
The primary language spoken in Costa Rica is Spanish, which features characteristics distinct to the country, a form of Central American Spanish. Costa Rica is a linguistically diverse country and home to at least five living local indigenous languages spoken by the descendants of pre-Columbian peoples: Maléku, Cabécar, Bribri, Guaymí, and Buglere.
Of native languages still spoken, primarily in indigenous reservations, the most numerically important are the Bribri, Maléku, Cabécar and Ngäbere languages; some of these have several thousand speakers in Costa Rica while others have a few hundred. Some languages, such as Teribe and Boruca, have fewer than a thousand speakers. The Buglere language and the closely related Guaymí are spoken by some in southeast Puntarenas.
A Creole-English language, Jamaican patois (also known as Mekatelyu), is an English-based Creole language spoken by the Afro-Carib immigrants who have settled primarily in Limón Province along the Caribbean coast. Culture
are a national symbol.]]
Costa Rica was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. The northwest of the country, the Nicoya peninsula, was the southernmost point of Nahuatl cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) came in the 16th century. The central and southern portions of the country had Chibcha influences. The Atlantic coast, meanwhile, was populated with African workers during the 17th and 18th centuries.
As a result of the immigration of Spaniards, their 16th-century Spanish culture and its evolution marked everyday life and culture until today, with the Spanish language and the Catholic religion as primary influences.
The Department of Culture, Youth, and Sports is in charge of the promotion and coordination of cultural life. The work of the department is divided into the Direction of Culture, Visual Arts, Scenic Arts, Music, Patrimony, and the System of Libraries. Permanent programs, such as the National Symphony Orchestra of Costa Rica and the Youth Symphony Orchestra, are conjunctions of two areas of work: Culture and Youth.
Dance-oriented genres, such as soca, salsa, bachata, merengue, cumbia and Costa Rican swing, are enjoyed increasingly by older rather than younger people. The guitar is popular, especially as an accompaniment to folk dances; however, the marimba was made the national instrument.
In November 2017, National Geographic magazine named Costa Rica as the happiest country in the world, and the country routinely ranks high in various happiness metrics. The article included this summary: "Costa Ricans enjoy the pleasure of living daily life to the fullest in a place that mitigates stress and maximizes joy". It is not surprising then that one of the most recognizable phrases among "Ticos" is "Pura Vida", pure life in a literal translation. It reflects the inhabitant's philosophy of life, denoting a simple life, free of stress, a positive, relaxed feeling. The expression is used in various contexts in conversation. Often, people walking down the streets, or buying food at shops say hello by saying Pura Vida. It can be phrased as a question or as an acknowledgment of one's presence. A recommended response to "How are you?" would be "Pura Vida." In that usage, it might be translated as "awesome", indicating that all is very well. however, the country is said to be the happiest in Latin America. Reasons include the high level of social services, the caring nature of its inhabitants, long life expectancy and relatively low corruption.
Cuisine
]]
Costa Rican cuisine is a blend of Native American, Spanish, African, and many other cuisines origins. Dishes such as the very traditional tamale and many others made of corn are the most representative of its indigenous inhabitants, and similar to other neighboring Mesoamerican countries. Spaniards brought many new ingredients to the country from other lands, especially spices and domestic animals. Later in the 19th century, the African flavor lent its presence with influence from other Caribbean mixed flavors. This is how Costa Rican cuisine today is very varied, with every new ethnic group who had recently become part of the country's population influencing the country's cuisine.
Sports
in Brazil]]
Costa Rica entered the Summer Olympics for the first time in 1936. The sisters Silvia and Claudia Poll have won all four of the country's Olympic Medals for swimming; one Gold, one Silver, and two Bronze.
Football is the most popular sport in Costa Rica. The national team has played in five FIFA World Cup tournaments and reached the quarter-finals for the first time in 2014. Its best performance in the regional CONCACAF Gold Cup was runner-up in 2002. Paulo Wanchope, a forward who played for three clubs in England's Premier League in the late 1990s and early 2000s, is credited with enhancing foreign recognition of Costa Rican football. Costa Rica, along with Panama, was granted the hosting rights of 2020 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup, which was postponed until 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 17 November 2020, FIFA announced that the event would be held in Costa Rica in 2022.
As of late 2021, Costa Rica's women's national volleyball team has been the top team in Central America's AFECAVOL (Asociación de Federaciones CentroAmericanas de Voleibol) zone. Costa Rica featured a women's national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 NORCECA Beach Volleyball Continental Cup.
Education
is the largest university in the country and one of the most recognizable across Central America.]]
The literacy rate in Costa Rica is approximately 97 percent and English is widely spoken primarily due to Costa Rica's tourism industry. Universal public education is guaranteed in the constitution; primary education is obligatory, and both preschool and secondary school are free. Students who finish 11th grade receive a Costa Rican Bachillerato Diploma accredited by the Costa Rican Ministry of Education.
There are both state and private universities. The state-funded University of Costa Rica has been awarded the title "Meritorious Institution of Costa Rican Education and Culture" and hosts around 25,000 students who study at numerous campuses established around the country.
A 2016 report by the U.S. government report identifies the current challenges facing the education system, including the high dropout rate among secondary school students. The country needs even more workers who are fluent in English and languages such as Portuguese, Mandarin, and French. It would also benefit from more graduates in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) programs, according to the report.
Health
who instituted universal health care across the country in 1941]]
According to the UNDP, in 2010, the life expectancy at birth for Costa Ricans was 79.3 years. The Nicoya Peninsula is considered one of the Blue Zones in the world, where people commonly live active lives past the age of 100 years. The New Economics Foundation (NEF) ranked Costa Rica first in its 2009 Happy Planet Index, and once again in 2012. The index measures the health and happiness they produce per unit of environmental input. According to NEF, Costa Rica's lead is due to its very high life expectancy which is second highest in the Americas, and higher than the United States. The country also experienced well-being higher than many richer nations and a per capita ecological footprint one-third the size of the United States'.
In 2002, there were 0.58 new general practitioner (medical) consultations 0.33 new specialist consultations per capita, and a hospital admission rate of 8.1%. Preventive health care is also successful. In 2002, 96% of Costa Rican women used some form of contraception, and antenatal care services were provided to 87% of all pregnant women. All children under one have access to well-baby clinics, and the immunization coverage rate in 2020 was above 95% for all antigens. Costa Rica has a very low malaria incidence of 48 per 100,000 in 2000 and no reported cases of measles in 2002. The perinatal mortality rate dropped from 12.0 per 1000 in 1972 to 5.4 per 1000 in 2001.
in Escazú]]
Costa Rica has been cited as Central America's great health success story. Its healthcare system is ranked higher than that of the United States, despite Costa Rica's much lower GDP. Before 1940, government hospitals and charities provided most health care. But since the 1941 creation of the Social Insurance Administration (Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social – CCSS), Costa Rica has provided universal health care to its wage-earning residents, with coverage extended to dependants over time. In 1973, the CCSS took over administration of all 29 of the country's public hospitals and all health care, also launching a Rural Health Program (Programa de Salud Rural) for primary care in rural areas, later extended to primary care services nationwide. In 1993, laws were passed to enable elected health boards that represented health consumers, social insurance representatives, employers, and social organizations. By 2000, social health insurance coverage was available to 82% of the Costa Rican population. Each health committee manages an area equivalent to one of the 83 administrative cantons of Costa Rica. There is limited use of private, for-profit services (around 14.4% of the national total health expenditure). About 7% of GDP is allocated to the health sector, and over 70% is government-funded.
Primary health care facilities in Costa Rica include health clinics, with a general practitioner, nurse, clerk, pharmacist, and a primary health technician<!---, around one per two population--- Clarify?---->. In 2008, there were five specialty national hospitals, three general national hospitals, seven regional hospitals, 13 peripheral hospitals, and 10 major clinics serving as referral centers for primary care clinics, which also deliver biopsychosocial services, family and community medical services, and promotion and prevention programs. Patients can choose private health care to avoid waiting lists.
Costa Rica is among the Latin American countries that have become popular destinations for medical tourism. In 2006, Costa Rica received 150,000 foreigners that came for medical treatment. Costa Rica is particularly attractive to Americans due to geographic proximity, high quality of medical services, and lower medical costs. See also
* Index of Costa Rica-related articles
* Outline of Costa Rica
* Camino de Costa Rica (trail across the country from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast)
Notes
References
Further reading
* Blake, Beatrice. The New Key to Costa Rica (Berkeley: Ulysses Press, 2009).
* Chase, Cida S. "Costa Rican Americans". Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 1, Gale, 2014), pp. 543–551. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3273300053/GPS?uwikipedia&sidGPS&xid=be35522c online]
* Edelman, Marc. Peasants Against Globalization: Rural Social Movements in Costa Rica. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.
*
* Huhn, Sebastian: [https://web.archive.org/web/20110514041457/http://www.giga-hamburg.de/dl/download.php?d=%2Fcontent%2Fpublikationen%2Fpdf%2Fwp101_huhn.pdf Contested Cornerstones of Nonviolent National Self-Perception in Costa Rica: A Historical Approach], 2009.
* Keller, Marius; Niestroy, Ingeborg; García Schmidt, Armando; Esche, Andreas. "[https://www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/en/publications/publication/did/winning-strategies-for-a-sustainable-future-1 Costa Rica: Pioneering Sustainability]". Excerpt (pp. 81–102) from Bertelsmann Stiftung (ed.). Winning Strategies for a Sustainable Future. Gütersloh, Germany: Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2013.
* Lara, Sylvia Lara, Tom Barry, and Peter Simonson. Inside Costa Rica: The Essential Guide to Its Politics, Economy, Society and Environment. London: Latin America Bureau, 1995.
* Lehoucq, Fabrice E. and Ivan Molina. Stuffing the Ballot Box: Fraud, Electoral Reform, and Democratization in Costa Rica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
* Lehoucq, Fabrice E. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110302194925/http://www.iadb.org/res/publications/pubfiles/pubS-306.pdf Policymaking, Parties, and Institutions in Democratic Costa Rica], 2006.
* Longley, Kyle. Sparrow and the Hawk: Costa Rica and the United States during the Rise of José Figueres. (University of Alabama Press, 1997).
* Mount, Graeme S. "Costa Rica and the Cold War, 1948–1990". Canadian Journal of History 50.2 (2015): 290–316.
* Palmer, Steven and Iván Molina. The Costa Rica Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2004.
* Sandoval, Carlos. Threatening Others: Nicaraguans and the Formation of National Identities in Costa Rica. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004.
* Wilson, Bruce M. Costa Rica: Politics, Economics, and Democracy: Politics, Economics, and Democracy. Boulder, London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998.
External links
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/costa-rica/ Costa Rica]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081025074854/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/costarica.htm Costa Rica] at UCB Libraries GovPubs
*
* [http://www.danscape.de/blog//8/street-art-of-san-jose Street Art of San Jose by danscape]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1166587.stm Costa Rica profile] from the BBC News
*
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CR Key Development Forecasts for Costa Rica] from International Futures
; Government and administration
* [https://presidencia.go.cr/ Official website of the government of Costa Rica]
;Trade
* [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/CRI/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Costa Rica]
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Category:Countries in Central America
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5552 | History of Costa Rica | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
indigenous people before the arrival of Columbus.]]
The first indigenous peoples of Costa Rica were hunters and gatherers, and when the Spanish conquerors arrived, Costa Rica was divided in two distinct cultural areas due to its geographical location in the Intermediate Area, between Mesoamerican and the Andean cultures, with influences of both cultures. During this period, Costa Rica remained sparsely developed and impoverished.
Following the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821), Costa Rica became part of the First Mexican Empire in 1821. In 1823, Costa Rica joined the Federal Republic of Central America, but degrading relations with the other states caused it to secede in 1838. But following its independence, its economy struggled due to a lack of connections with European suppliers. In 1856, Costa Rica, along with several other Central American countries, joined the Filibuster War to prevent William Walker from mounting a take-over of the Nicaraguan government.
After 1869, Costa Rica established a democratic government. The central and southern portions of the country belonged to the Isthmo-Colombian cultural area with strong Muisca influences, as these were part of territories occupied predominantly by speakers of the Chibchan languages. The Diquis culture flourished from 700 CE to 1530 CE and were well known for their crafts in metal and stonework.
The indigenous people have influenced modern Costa Rican culture to a relatively small degree. In the years soon after European encounter, many of the people died due to infectious diseases, such as measles and smallpox, which were endemic among the Europeans but to which they had no immunity.Spanish colonization
The colonial period began when Christopher Columbus reached the eastern coast of Costa Rica on his fourth voyage on September 18, 1502. Numerous subsequent Spanish expeditions followed, eventually leading to the first Spanish colony in Costa Rica, , founded in 1524.
During most of the colonial period, Costa Rica was the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which was nominally part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (i.e., Mexico). In practice it operated as a largely autonomous entity within the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica's distance from the capital in Guatemala, its legal prohibition under Spanish law against trading with its southern neighbors in Panama, then part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (i.e., Colombia), and the lack of resources such as gold and silver, resulted in Costa Rica attracting few inhabitants. It was a poor, isolated, and sparsely inhabited region within the Spanish Empire. A Spanish governor in 1719 described Costa Rica as "the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America."
Many historians say that the area suffered a lack of indigenous population available for forced labor, which meant that most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work their own land. This prevented the establishment of large haciendas. For all these reasons Costa Rica was by and large unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. The small landowners' relative poverty, the lack of a large indigenous labor force, the population's ethnic and linguistic homogeneity, and Costa Rica's isolation from the Spanish colonial centers in Mexico and the Andes, all contributed to the development of an autonomous and individualistic agrarian society. Even the Governor had to farm his own crops and tend to his own garden due to his poverty. The failure to build a colonial society based on indigenous and slave labor led to a peasant economy in the 1700s.
During the time of conquest, as many as twenty distinct indigenous societies, numbering in the hundreds of thousands and speaking many different languages, inhabited the area.
After the declaration of independence, the New Spain parliament intended to establish a commonwealth whereby the King of Spain, Ferdinand VII, would also be Emperor of New Spain, but in which both countries were to be governed by separate laws and with their own legislative offices. Should the king refuse the position, the law provided for a member of the House of Bourbon to accede to the New Spain throne. Ferdinand VII did not recognize the colony's independence and said that Spain would not allow any other European prince to take the throne of New Spain.
By request of Parliament, the president of the regency, Agustín de Iturbide, was proclaimed emperor of New Spain, which was renamed Mexico. The Mexican Empire was the official name given to this monarchical regime from 1821 to 1823. The territory of the Mexican Empire included the continental intendancies and provinces of New Spain proper (including those of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala) (See: Central America under Mexican rule).
On 5 April 1823 the Battle of Ochomogo was fought between imperialist forces from Cartago led by Joaquín de Oreamuno who wanted to join the Mexican Empire and republican forces led by Gregorio José Ramírez who preferred to remain independent. The Republicans won and the capital was moved from Cartago to San José.
As early as then, Costa Ricans already had overseas impact since Costa Ricans were one of the Latin American nationalities that had soldiers and officers in the Philippines who supported their Emperor, Andrés Novales in his failed revolt against Spain.
Central America
was featured in the first postal stamp issued in 1862.]]
In 1823, a revolution in Mexico ousted Emperor Agustín de Iturbide. A new Mexican congress voted to allow the Central American Intendancies to decide their own fate. That year, the United Provinces of Central America was formed of the five Central American Intendancies under General Manuel José Arce. The Intendancies took the new name of States. The United Provinces federation, not strongly united to begin with, rapidly disintegrated under the pressures of intra-provincial rivalries.
Following its secession from the Federal Republic of Central America in 1838, Costa Rica had no regular trade routes established to export their coffee to European markets. Lack of infrastructure caused problems in transportation: the coffee-growing areas were mainly in the Central Valley and had access only to the port of Puntarenas on the Pacific coast. Before the Panama Canal opened, ships from Europe had to sail around Cape Horn in order to get to the Pacific Coast. In 1843, the country established a trade route to Europe with the help of William Le Lacheur, a Guernsey merchant and shipowner.
In 1856, William Walker, an American filibuster, began incursions into Central America. After landing in Nicaragua, he proclaimed himself as president of Nicaragua and re-instated slavery, which had been abolished. He intended to expand into Costa Rica and after he entered that territory, the country declared war against his forces. Led by Commander in Chief of the Army of Costa Rica, President Juan Rafael Mora Porras, the filibusters were defeated and forced out of the country. Costa Rican forces followed the filibusters into Rivas, Nicaragua, where in a final battle, William Walker and his forces were finally pushed back. In this final battle, Juan Santamaría, a drummer boy from Alajuela, lost his life torching the filibusters' stronghold. He is today remembered as a national hero.
Republic
formally declared Costa Rica as independent from the Federal Republic of Central America in 1848.]]
An era of peaceful democracy in Costa Rica began in 1869 with elections. Costa Rica has avoided much of the violence that has plagued Central America. Since the late nineteenth century, only two brief periods of violence have marred its republican development. In 1917–19, Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a dictator.
In 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election.
"With more than 2,000 dead, the 44-day Costa Rican Civil War resulting from this uprising was the bloodiest event in twentieth-century Costa Rican history." The victorious junta drafted a constitution guaranteeing free elections with universal suffrage and the abolition of the military. Figueres became a national hero, winning the first election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then Costa Rica has been one of the few democracies to operate without a standing army. The nation has held 17 successive presidential elections, all peaceful, the latest being in 2022. In May 2022, Costa Rica's new president Rodrigo Chaves, right-wing former finance minister, was sworn in for a four-year presidential term. He had won the election runoff against former president Jose María Figueres.
Costa Rica's economy went under a transformation in 1978. The country went from being "an economic development success story" to entering a severe socio-economic crisis. Costa Rica relied on the exportation of bananas and coffee. In 1978, coffee prices dropped, and its revenues declined. In 1979, the price of oil, a main imported item, increased sharply and rapidly, plunging the country into crisis. In order to help improve the economy, President Rodrigo Carazo continued to borrow money internationally. This led the country into further debt.
Once a largely agricultural country, Costa Rica has transformed to relying on technology industry and services, and eco-tourism. Costa Rica's major source of export income is technology-based. Microsoft, Motorola, Intel and other technology-related firms have established operations in Costa Rica. Local companies create and export software as well as other computer-related products. Tourism is growing at an accelerated pace, and many believe that income from this tourism may soon become the major contributor to the nation's GDP. Traditional agriculture, particularly coffee and bananas, continues to be an important part of Costa Rica's exports.
See also
*José Antonio Lacayo de Briones y Palacios
*List of presidents of Costa Rica
*Politics of Costa Rica
General:
*History of Central America
*Spanish colonization of the Americas
References
Further reading
* Booth, John A. Costa Rica: quest for democracy (Routledge, 2018).
* Gudmundson, Lowell. "Black into white in nineteenth century Spanish America: Afro‐American assimilation in Argentina and Costa Rica." Slavery and Abolition 5.1 (1984): 34–49.
* Gudmundson, Lowell. Costa Rica before coffee: Society and economy on the eve of the export boom (LSU Press, 1999).
* Hall, Carolyn, Héctor Pérez Brignoli, and John V. Cotter. Historical Atlas of Central America (U of Oklahoma Press, 2003).
* Johanson, Erik N., Sally P. Horn, and Chad S. Lane. "Pre-Columbian agriculture, fire, and Spanish contact: a 4200-year record from Laguna Los Mangos, Costa Rica." The Holocene 29.11 (2019): 1743–1757.
* Jones, Geoffrey, and Andrew Spadafora. "Creating Ecotourism in Costa Rica, 1970–2000." Enterprise & Society 18.1 (2017): 146–183.
* Longley, Kyle. Sparrow and the Hawk: Costa Rica and the United States during the Rise of José Figueres (University of Alabama Press, 1997).
* Mount, Graeme S. "Costa Rica and the Cold War, 1948–1990." Canadian Journal of History 50.2 (2015): 290–316.
* Olien, Michael D. "Black and part-Black populations in colonial Costa Rica: Ethnohistorical resources and problems." Ethnohistory (1980): 13-29 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/481625 online].
* Palmer, Steven and Iván Molina. The Costa Rica Reader: History, Culture, Politics Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2004.
* Putnam, Lara. The company they kept: migrants and the politics of gender in Caribbean Costa Rica, 1870-1960 (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2002).
* Sandoval, Carlos. Threatening Others: Nicaraguans and the Formation of National Identities in Costa Rica (Ohio University Press, 2004).
* Shin, Gi-Wook, and Gary Hytrek. "Social conflict and regime formation: A comparative study of South Korea and Costa Rica." International sociology 17.4 (2002): 459–480 [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi10.1.1.933.1546&reprep1&type=pdf online].
* Wilson, Bruce M. Costa Rica: Politics, Economics, and Democracy: Politics, Economics and Democracy. (Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998).
Older books
*
External links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/19970527183311/http://www.photo.net/cr/moon/history.html History of the Republic of Costa Rica from "Costa Rica Handbook" by Christopher Baker]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150402150416/http://www.costaricanarchaeology.com/ Costa Rican Archaeology]
*[http://www.isls.com/costarica/destination/history.cfm Brief History of Costa rica.com]
*[http://archaeology.about.com/od/nterms/a/nicoya.htm Early History of Costa Rica]
*[https://archive.today/20130210021228/http://www.yfu.cr/component/option,com_content/task,view/id,534/Itemid,567/MenuItem,555/ Democracy in Costa Rica]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131117055640/http://www.costaricaninsider.com/costa-rican-civil-war.html Costa Rica Civil War]
*[https://www.leonawaterfall.com/blog/costa-rica-history-map-flag-climate-population-facts/ Costa Rica History, Map, Flag, Climate, Population, & Facts] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Costa_Rica | 2025-04-05T18:27:17.271810 |
5553 | Geography of Costa Rica | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
|area ranking = 126th
|km area = 51,100
|percent land = 99.02
|km coastline = 1,290
|borders total:
|highest point = Mount Chirripó <br>
|lowest point = Pacific Ocean <br> 0 m
|longest river Térraba River (fully inland) <br>
|largest lake Lake Arenal <br>
|exclusive economic zone
}}
Costa Rica is located on the Central American Isthmus, surrounding the point 10° north of the equator and 84° west of the prime meridian. It has 212 km of Caribbean Sea coastline and 1,016 on the North Pacific Ocean.
The area is 51,100 km<sup>2</sup> of which 40 km<sup>2</sup> is water. It is slightly smaller than Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Geology
Costa Rica is located on the Caribbean Plate. It borders the Cocos Plate in the Pacific Ocean which is being subducted beneath it. This forms the volcanoes in Costa Rica, also known as the Central America Volcanic Arc.
The Caribbean Plate began its eastward migration during the Late Cretaceous. During the Late Paleocene, a local sea-level low-stand assisted by the continental uplift of the western margin of South America, resulted in a land bridge over which several groups of mammals apparently took part in an interchange.
Many earthquakes in Costa Rica have occurred.
Political and human geography
Costa Rica shares a border with Nicaragua to the north, and a 348-km border with Panama to the south.
Costa Rica claims an exclusive economic zone of with and a territorial sea of .
Land use: Arable land: 4.8%. Permanent crops: 6.66%. Other: 88.54%.
Administrative divisions of Costa Rica include 7 provinces, 82 cantons, and 478 districts. There are also 24 indigenous territories.
Physical geography
Islands
There are about 79 islands of Costa Rica, the most remote being Cocos Island and the largest being Isla Calero.
Mountain ranges
The nation's coastal plain is separated by the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Talamanca, which form the spine of the country and separate the Pacific and Caribbean drainage divides.
The Cordillera de Guanacaste is in the north near the border with Nicaragua and forms part of the Continental Divide of the Americas.
Much of the Cordillera de Talamanca is included in the La Amistad International Park, which is shared between Costa Rica and Panama. It contains the country's highest peaks: the Cerro Chirripó and the Cerro Kamuk. Much of the region is covered by the Talamancan montane forests. It also includes the Cerros de Escazú which borders the Costa Rican Central Valley to the south.
Hydrology
in the Pacific]]
Interrogate land covers 1,031 km<sup>2</sup>.
Rivers of Costa Rica all drain into the Caribbean or the Pacific.
Extreme points
Cocos Island is the southwestern extreme of the country. Otherwise to the north it's Peñas Blancas, to the south and east one of manyPanama border, and to the west the Santa Elena Peninsula.
The lowest point is sea level, and the tallest is Colero Chillido: at 3810 m which is the biggest.
Climate
The climate is tropical. Hot season (December to April); rainy season (May to November); cooler in highlands.
Because Costa Rica is located between 8 and 12 degrees north of the Equator, the climate is tropical year round. However, the country has many microclimates depending on elevation, rainfall, topography, and by the geography of each particular region.
Costa Rica's seasons are defined by how much rain falls during a particular period. The year can be split into two periods, the dry season known to the residents as summer (), and the rainy season, known locally as winter (). The "summer" or dry season goes from December to April, and "winter" or rainy season goes from May to November, which almost coincides with the Atlantic hurricane season, and during this time, it rains constantly in some regions.
The location receiving the most rain is the Caribbean slopes of the Cordillera Central mountains, with an annual rainfall of over . Humidity is also higher on the Caribbean side than on the Pacific side. The mean annual temperature on the coastal lowlands is around , in the main populated areas of the Cordillera Central, and below on the summits of the highest mountains.
Climate change
Costa Rica is highly vulnerable to extreme weather events, which can be exacerbated by climate change. The majority of Costa Rica’s population (78%) and economic activity (80% of GDP) are concentrated in regions highly vulnerable to various natural hazards, such as floods, landslides, cyclones, storm surges, and rising sea levels. Sea levels are rising along both of Costa Rica's coasts, increasing the vulnerability of low-lying areas to storm surges and erosion with consequences for fisheries, port infrastructure and tourism.
The country is facing increasing temperatures (especially at higher elevations), and changing rainfall patterns resulting in increased risk of drought along the Pacific slope and flooding in all regions of the country.
Costa Rica has committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 9.11 MtCO2e by 2030 and net zero by 2050, announced in its National Decarbonisation Plan (NDP). According to Climate Action Tracker, Costa Rica has made good progress toward its climate goals.
Flora and fauna
in Costa Rica]]
Costa Rica is a biodiversity hotspot. While the country has only about 0.03% of the world's landmass, it contains 5% of the world's biodiversity. It is home to about 12,119 species of plants, of which 950 are endemic. There are 117 native trees and more than 1,400 types of orchids; a third of them can be found in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve. Almost a half of the country's land is covered by forests, though only 3.5% is covered by primary forests.
The diversity of wildlife in Costa Rica is very high; there are 441 species of amphibians and reptiles, 838 species of birds, 232 species of mammals and 181 species of fresh water fish. Costa Rica has high levels of endemism; 81 species of amphibians and reptiles, 17 species of birds and 7 species of mammals are endemic to the country. However, many species are endangered. According to the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 209 species of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and plants are endangered. Some of the country's most endangered species are the harpy eagle, the giant anteater, the golden toad and the jaguar. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports the golden toad as extinct.
Over 25% of Costa Rica's national territory is protected by the National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC), which oversees all of the country's protected areas. There 29 national parks of Costa Rica many conservation areas of Costa Rica. Together protected areas comprise over one-fourth of Costa Rican territory. 9.3% of the country is protected under IUCN categories I-V. Around 25% of the country's land area is in protected national parks and protected areas, the largest percentage of protected areas in the world (developing world average 13%, developed world average 8%).
Tortuguero National Park is home to monkeys, sloths, birds, and a variety of reptiles.
The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is home to about 2,000 plant species, including numerous orchids. Over 400 types of birds and more than 100 species of mammals can be found there. The Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance. Costa Rica is a center of biological diversity for reptiles and amphibians, including the world's fastest running lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana (Ctenosaura similis).Natural resources
Hydropower is produced from Lake Arenal, the largest lake in Costa Rica. Total renewable water resources is 112.4 km<sup>3</sup>.
Freshwater withdrawal is 5.77 km<sup>3</sup>/year (15%/9%/77%), or per capita: 1,582 m<sup>3</sup>/year. Agriculture is the largest water user demanding around 53% of total supplies while the sector contributes 6.5% to the Costa Rica GDP. Both total and per capita water usage is very high in comparison to other Central American countries but when measured against available freshwater sources, Costa Rica uses only 5% of its available supply.
Increasing urbanization will put pressure on water resources management in Costa Rica.
Gallery
<gallery>
File:Costa Rica map shaded relief.png|Shaded relief map of Costa Rica
File:Costa Rica map detail.PNG|Map of Costa Rica
File:Costa Rica Topography.png|Topography of Costa Rica
</gallery>
See also
*List of earthquakes in Costa Rica
*List of Faults in Costa Rica
*Costa Rica is party to the following treaties: Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention on Environmental Modification, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Montreal Protocol, Ramsar Convention, International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, Desertification Convention, Endangered Species Convention, Basel Convention, Convention on the Law of the Sea, Convention on Marine Dumping, and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty. It has signed but not ratified the Convention on Marine Life Conservation and the Kyoto Protocol.
References
External links
*[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11319/ Map of the Republic of Costa Rica] from 1891
*[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11321/ Costa Rica] - another historic map | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Costa_Rica | 2025-04-05T18:27:17.308575 |
5554 | Demographics of Costa Rica | <!-- This short description is INTENTIONALLY "none" - please see WP:SDNONE before you consider changing it! -->
| density | growth
| birth = 10.2 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)
| death = 5.6 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)
| life | life_male
| life_female | fertility 1.29 children per woman (2022 est.)
| infant_mortality | net_migration
<!-- age structure -->
| age_0–14_years = 18.71%
| age_15–64_years = 68.44%
| age_65_years = 12.85%
<!-- sex ratio -->
| total_mf_ratio | sr_at_birth
| sr_under_15 | sr_15–64_years
| sr_65_years_over =
<!-- nationality -->
| nation = Costa Rican
| major_ethnic =
* White (65.8%)
** Spanish (N/D)
** Italian (N/D)
** Others (N/D)
}}
| minor_ethnic =
* Multiracial (24.5%)
** Mestizo (17.8%)
** Mulatto (6.7%)
* Indigenous (2.4%)
* African (1.1%)
* East Asian (0.2%)
** Chinese (N/D)
** Others (N/D)
* Others (6.0%)
}}
<!-- language -->
| official = Spanish
| spoken = Spanish, English, Mekatelyu, BriBri, Patois
}}
This is a demographic article about Costa Rica's population, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population.
According to the United Nations, Costa Rica had an estimated population of people as of 2021. White and Mestizos make up 83.4% of the population, 7% are black people (including mixed race), 2.4% Amerindians, 0.2% Chinese and 7% other/none.
In 2010, just under 3% of the population was of African descent. These are called Afro-Costa Ricans or West Indians and are English-speaking descendants of 19th-century black Jamaican immigrant workers. Another 1% is composed of those of Chinese origin, and less than 1% are West Asian, mainly of Lebanese descent but also Palestinians. The 2011 Census provided the following data: whites and mestizos make up 83.4% of the population, 7% are black people (including mixed race), 2.4% Amerindians, 0.2% Chinese, and 7% other/none. Immigration to Costa Rica made up 9% of the population in 2012. This included permanent settlers as well as migrants who were hoping to reach the U.S. In 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica and the number of asylum seekers (mainly from Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua) rose to more than 110,000. An estimated 10% of the Costa Rican population in 2014 was made up of Nicaraguans.
The indigenous population today numbers about 60,000 (just over 1% of the population), with some Miskito and Garifuna (a population of mixed African and Carib Amerindian descent) living in the coastal regions.
Costa Rica's emigration is the smallest in the Caribbean Basin and is among the smallest in the Americas. By 2015 about just 133,185 (2.77%) of the country's people live in another country as immigrants. The main destination countries are the United States (85,924), Nicaragua (10,772), Panama (7,760), Canada (5,039), Spain (3,339), Mexico (2,464), Germany (1,891), Italy (1,508), Guatemala (1,162) and Venezuela (1,127).
Population size and structure
In , Costa Rica had a population of . The population is increasing at a rate of 1.5% per year. According to current trends, the population will increase to 9,158,000 in about 46 years. The population density is 94 people per square km, the third highest in Central America.
Approximately 20% lived in rural areas and 80% in urban areas. The rate of urbanization estimated for the period 2005–2015 is 2.74% per annum, one of the highest among developing countries. About 75% of the population live in the upper lands (above 500 meters), where the temperature is cooler and milder.
The 2011 census counted a population of 4.3 million people distributed among the following groups: 83.6% whites or Mestizos, 6.7% black mixed race, 2.4% Native American, 1.1% Black or Afro-Caribbean; the census showed 1.1% as Other, 2.9% (141,304 people) as None, and 2.2% (107,196 people) as unspecified.
In 2011, there were over 104,000 Native American or indigenous inhabitants, representing 2.4% of the population. Most of them lived in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (in the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (northern Alajuela), Bribri (southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Guaymí (southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (southern Costa Rica) and Térraba (southern Costa Rica).
Costa Ricans of European origin are primarily of Spanish descent, with significant numbers of Italian, German, English, Dutch, French, Irish, Portuguese, and Polish families, as well as a sizable Jewish community. The majority of the Afro-Costa Ricans are Creole English-speaking descendants of 19th century black Jamaican immigrant workers.
The 2011 census classified 83.6% of the population as white or Mestizo; the latter have combined European and Native American descent. The Mulatto segment (mix of white and black) represented 6.7%, and Indigenous people made up 2.4% of the population.
|titlestyle = background:#EEBC35;
}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:80pt;"|Age Group
! style="width:80pt;"|Male
! style="width:80pt;"|Female
! style="width:80pt;"|Total
! style="width:80pt;"|%
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| Total
|| 2 405 636
|| 2 541 064
|| 4 946 700
|| 100
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 0–4
|| 153 647
|| 153 302
|| 306 949
|| 6.20
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 5–9
|| 180 403
|| 179 809
|| 360 212
|| 7.28
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 10–14
|| 200 123
|| 174 821
|| 374 944
|| 7.57
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 15–19
|| 216 776
|| 211 077
|| 427 853
|| 8.64
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 20–24
|| 215 301
|| 205 588
|| 420 889
|| 8.50
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 25–29
|| 188 815
|| 198 789
|| 387 604
|| 7.83
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 30–34
|| 176 356
|| 198 185
|| 373 541
|| 7.55
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 35–39
|| 161 288
|| 174 851
|| 336 139
|| 7.40
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 40–44
|| 145 430
|| 164 672
|| 310 102
|| 6.26
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 45–49
|| 136 591
|| 163 412
|| 300 003
|| 6.06
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 50–54
|| 146 253
|| 168 407
|| 314 660
|| 6.36
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 55–59
|| 133 924
|| 144 718
|| 278 642
|| 5.63
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 60–64
|| 108 422
|| 126 063
|| 234 485
|| 4.74
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 65–69
|| 83 152
|| 92 321
|| 175 473
|| 3.54
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 70–74
|| 55 495
|| 75 098
|| 130 593
|| 2.64
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 75–79
|| 50 799
|| 45 514
|| 96 313
|| 1.94
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 80–84
|| 28 176
|| 31 126
|| 59 302
|| 1.20
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 85–89
|| 16 164
|| 20 771
|| 36 935
|| 0.74
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 90–94
|| 6 159
|| 10 188
|| 16 347
|| 0.33
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 95+
|| 2 362
|| 3 352
|| 5 714
|| 0.11
|-
! style="width:50px;"|Age group
! style="width:80pt;"|Male
! style="width:80px;"|Female
! style="width:80px;"|Total
! style="width:50px;"|Percent
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 0–14
|| 522 072
|| 498 520
|| 1 020 592
|| 21.63
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 15–64
|| 1 580 192
|| 1 676 121
|| 3 256 313
|| 69.02
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| 65+
|| 187 174
|| 248 444
|| 435 618
|| 9.23
|- style="text-align:right;"
|| unknown
|| 3 000
|| 2 158
|| 5 158
|| 0.10
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 2 482 471
| align="right" | 2 680 942
| align="right" | 5 163 413
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 124 613
| align="right" | 133 474
| align="right" | 258 087
| align="right" | 5.00
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 165 238
| align="right" | 165 966
| align="right" | 331 204
| align="right" | 6.41
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 192 664
| align="right" | 184 342
| align="right" | 377 006
| align="right" | 7.30
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 205 825
| align="right" | 193 150
| align="right" | 398 975
| align="right" | 7.73
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 213 937
| align="right" | 206 672
| align="right" | 420 609
| align="right" | 8.15
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 187 872
| align="right" | 181 842
| align="right" | 369 714
| align="right" | 7.16
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 180 627
| align="right" | 186 317
| align="right" | 366 944
| align="right" | 7.11
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 171 681
| align="right" | 199 074
| align="right" | 370 755
| align="right" | 7.18
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 170 025
| align="right" | 192 808
| align="right" | 362 833
| align="right" | 7.03
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 146 946
| align="right" | 167 271
| align="right" | 314 217
| align="right" | 6.09
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 150 529
| align="right" | 178 318
| align="right" | 328 847
| align="right" | 6.37
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 147 298
| align="right" | 173 022
| align="right" | 320 320
| align="right" | 6.20
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 132 034
| align="right" | 148 439
| align="right" | 280 473
| align="right" | 5.43
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 105 615
| align="right" | 133 821
| align="right" | 239 436
| align="right" | 4.64
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 75 845
| align="right" | 90 945
| align="right" | 166 790
| align="right" | 3.23
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 51 931
| align="right" | 63 090
| align="right" | 115 021
| align="right" | 2.23
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 32 001
| align="right" | 43 126
| align="right" | 75 127
| align="right" | 1.45
|-
| align="right" | 85–89
| align="right" | 18 172
| align="right" | 25 283
| align="right" | 43 455
| align="right" | 0.84
|-
| align="right" | 90–94
| align="right" | 7 628
| align="right" | 9 021
| align="right" | 16 649
| align="right" | 0.32
|-
| align="right" | 95+
| align="right" | 1 990
| align="right" | 4 961
| align="right" | 6 951
| align="right" | 0.13
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 482 515
| align="right" | 483 782
| align="right" | 966 297
| align="right" | 18.71
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 1 706 774
| align="right" | 1 826 913
| align="right" | 3 533 687
| align="right" | 68.44
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 293 182
| align="right" | 370 247
| align="right" | 663 429
| align="right" | 12.85
|-
|}
Vital statistics
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right;"
|-
!
! style"width:70pt;"|Average population
! style="width:70pt;"|Live births
! style="width:70pt;"|Deaths
! style="width:70pt;"|Natural change
! style="width:70pt;"|Crude birth rate (per 1000)
! style="width:70pt;"|Crude death rate (per 1000)
! style="width:70pt;"|Natural change (per 1000)
! style="width:70pt;"|Crude migration rate (per 1000)
! style="width:70pt;"|TFR
|-
| 1934
| 558,000
| style="color:red;"|23,858||10,020||13,838
|44.2||18.6||25.6|| ||
|-
| 1935
| 572,000
|24,934||12,630||style="color:red;"|12,304
|45.2||style="color:red;"|22.9||22.3|| 2.8
|-
| 1936
| 585,000
|25,450||11,811||13,639
|45.2||21.0||24.2|| -1.5
|-
| 1937
| 599,000
|25,624||11,032||14,592
|44.5||19.2||25.3|| -1.4
|-
| 1938
| 615,000
|26,839||10,422||16,417
|45.5||17.7||27.8|| -1.1
|-
| 1939
| 631,000
|27,027||11,687||15,340
|44.7||19.3||25.4|| 0.6
|-
| 1940
| 648,000
|28,004||11,211||16,793
|45.3||18.1||27.2|| -0.3
|-
| 1941
| 664,000
|28,823||11,429||17,394
|45.5||18.1||27.4|| -2.7
|-
| 1942
| 680,000
|28,263||13,559||14,704
|43.7||21.0||22.7|| 1.4
|-
| 1943
| 697,000
|30,468||11,734||18,734
|46.1||17.7||28.4|| -3.4
|-
| 1944
| 716,000
|29,935||11,295||18,640
|44.2||16.7||27.5|| -0.2
|-
| 1945
| 736,000
|32,529||10,768||21,761
|style="color:blue;"|46.8||15.5||31.3|| -3.4
|-
| 1946
| 759,000
|32,159||9,971||22,188
|45.0||13.9||31.1|| 0.1
|-
| 1947
| 787,000
|32,600||10,967||21,633
|44.7||14.9||29.8|| 7.1
|-
| 1948
| 808,000
|35,956||10,666||25,290
|44.5||13.2||31.3|| -4.6
|-
| 1949
| 832,000
|36,774||10,566||26,208
|44.2||12.7||31.5|| -1,8
|-
| 1950
| 966,000
|39,943||10,480||29,463
|41.3||10.8||30.5|| 130.6
|-
| 1951
| 994,000
|43,068||10,390||32,678
|43.3||10.5||32.9|| -3.9
|-
| 1952
|1,025,000
|45,816||10,672||35,144
|44.7||10.4||34.3|| -3.1
|-
| 1953
|1,058,000
|45,697||11,353||34,344
|43.2||10.7||32.5|| -0.3
|-
| 1954
|1,093,000
|48,857||10,681||38,176
|44.7||9.8||34.9|| -1.8
|-
| 1955
|1,129,000
|49,800||11,000||39,269
|44.1||9.7||34.8|| -1.9
|-
| 1956
|1,167,000
|51,350||10,476||40,874
|44.0||9.0||35.1|| -1.4
|-
| 1957
|1,206,000
|52,860||11,544||41,316
|43.9||9.6||34.3|| -0.9
|-
| 1958
|1,246,000
|53,919||10,608||43,311
|43.3||8.5||34.8|| --1.6
|-
| 1959
|1,289,000
|57,801||11,160||46,641
|44.8||8.7||36.2|| -1.7
|-
| 1960
|1,334,000
|59,701||11,035||48,666
|44.8||8.3||style="color:blue;"|36.5|| -1.6
|-
| 1961
|1,382,000
|60,641||10,644||49,997
|43.9||7.7||36.2|| -0.2
|-
| 1962
|1,431,000
|60,750||11,953||48,797
|42.5||8.4||34.1|| 1.4
|-
| 1963
|1,482,000
|62,821||12,519||50,302
|42.4||8.5||34.0|| 1.6
|-
| 1964
|1,533,000
|61,870||13,527||48,343
|40.4||8.8||31.6|| 2.8
|-
| 1965
|1,583,000
|62,400||12,814||49,586
|39.4||8.1||31.3|| 1.3
|-
| 1966
|1,633,000
|62,330||11,403||50,927
|38.2||7.0||31.2|| 0.4
|-
| 1967
|1,681,000
|61,229||11,289||49,940
|36.4||6.7||29.7|| -0.3
|-
| 1968
|1,729,000
|60,902||10,653||50,249
|35.2||6.2||29.1|| -0.5
|-
| 1969
|1,776,000
|59,636||11,599||48,037
|33.6||6.5||27.1|| 0.1
|-
| 1970
|1,822,000
|59,557||11,504||48,053
|32.7||6.3||26.4|| -0.5
|-
| 1971
|1,867,000
|58,138||10,575||47,563
|31.2||5.7||25.5|| -0.8
|-
| 1972
|1,911,000
|59,274||10,855||48,419
|31.0||5.7||25.4|| -1.8
|-
| 1973
|1,956,000
|58,177||9,702||48,475
|29.8||5.0||24.8|| -1.3
|-
| 1974
|2,002,000
|57,749||9,512||48,237
|28.9||4.8||24.1|| -0.6
|-
| 1975
|2,052,000
|59,175||9,615||49,560
|28.9||4.7||24.2|| 0.8
|-
| 1976
|2,105,000
|60,668||9,356||51,312
|28.8||4.4||24.4|| 1.4
|-
| 1977
|2,162,000
|64,190||8,907||55,283
|29.7||4.1||25.6|| 1.5
|-
| 1978
|2,222,000
|67,722||style="color:blue;"|8,625||59,097
|30.5||3.9||26.6|| 1.2
|-
| 1979
|2,284,000
|69,318||9,143||60,175
|30.4||4.0||26.4|| 1.5
|-
| 1980
|2,348,000
|70,048||9,268||61,780
|29.8||3.9||26.3||1.7 ||style="color: blue"|3.63
|-
| 1981
|2,415,000
|72,294||8,990||63,304
|30.0||style"color:blue;"|3.7||26.2|| 2.3|| style"color: blue"|3.62
|-
| 1982
|2,483,000
|73,168||9,168||64,000
|29.5||3.7||25.8||2.4||style="color: blue"|3.54
|-
| 1983
|2,554,000
|72,944||9,432||63,536
|28.6||3.7||24.9|| 3.7|| style="color: blue"|3.41
|-
| 1984
|2,626,000
|76,878||9,931||66,217
|29.0||3.8||25.2|| 3.0|| style="color: blue"|3.44
|-
| 1985
|2,699,000
|style"color:blue;"|84,337||10,493||style"color:blue;"|73,841
|31.3||3.9||27.4|| 0.4||style="color: blue"|3.72
|-
| 1986
|2,773,000
|83,194||10,449||72,745
|30.0||3.8||26.3|| 1.1 ||style="color: blue"|3.58
|-
| 1987
|2,848,000
|80,326||10,687||69,639
|28.2||3.8||24.5|| 2.5||style="color: blue"|3.36
|-
| 1988
|2,924,000
|81,376||10,944||70,432
|27.8||3.7||24.1|| 2.6|| style="color: blue"|3.33
|-
| 1989
|3,001,000
|83,460||11,272||72,188
|27.8||3.8||24.1|| 2,2 ||style="color: blue"|3.35
|-
| 1990
|3,079,000
|81,939||11,366||70,573
|26.6||3.7||22.9|| 3.1 ||style="color: blue"|3.20
|-
| 1991
|3,156,000
|81,110||11,792||69,318
|25.7||3.7||22.0|| 3.0 ||style="color: blue"|3.04
|-
| 1992
|3,234,000
|80,164||12,253||67,911
|24.8||3.8||21.0|| 3.7||style="color: blue"|3.02
|-
| 1993
|3,312,000
|79,714||12,544||67,170
|24.1||3.8||20.3|| 3.8 ||style="color: blue"|3.02
|-
| 1994
|3,394,000
|80,391||13,313||67,078
|23.7||3.9||19.8|| 5.0 ||style="color: blue"|2.85
|-
| 1995
|3,478,000
|80,306||14,061||66,245
|23.1||4.0||19.0|| 5.7 ||style="color: blue"|2.78
|-
| 1996
|3,567,000
|79,203||13,993||65,210
|22.2||3.9||18.3|| 7.3 ||style="color: blue"|2.69
|-
| 1997
|3,658,000
|78,018||14,260||63,758
|21.3||3.9||17.4|| 8.1|| style="color: blue"|2.68
|-
| 1998
|3,751,000
|76,982||14,708||62,274
|20.5||3.9||16.6|| 8.8 ||style="color: blue"|2.60
|-
| 1999
|3,842,000
|78,526||15,052||63,474
|20.4||3.9||16.5|| 7.8 ||style="color: blue"|2.60
|-
| 2000
|3,930,000
|78,178||14,944||63,234
|19.9||3.8||16.1|| 6.8 ||style="color: blue"|2.41
|-
| 2001
|4,013,000
|76,401||15,608||60,793
|19.0||3.9||15.1|| 6.0 ||style="color: blue"|2.28
|-
| 2002
|4,094,000
|71,144||15,004||56,140
|17.4||3.7||13.7|| 6.5 ||2.08
|-
| 2003
|4,171,000
|72,938||15,800||57,138
|17.5||3.8||13.7|| 5.1 ||2.08
|-
| 2004
|4,246,000
|72,247||15,949||56,298
|17.0||3.8||13.3|| 4.7 ||2.00
|-
| 2005
|4,320,000
|71,548||16,139||55,409
|16.6||3.7||12.8|| 4.6 ||2.00
|-
| 2006
|4,392,000
|71,291||16,766||54,525
|16.2||3.8||12.4|| 4.3 ||1.90
|-
| 2007
|4,463,000
|73,144||17,071||56,073
|16.4||3.8||12.6|| 3.6 ||1.98
|-
| 2008
|4,533,000
|75,187||18,021||57,166
|16.6||4.0||12.6|| 3.1 ||1.97
|-
| 2009
|4,601,000
|75,000||18,560||56,440
|16.2||4.0||12.2|| 2.8 ||1.95
|-
| 2010
|4,670,000
|70,922||19,077||51,845
|15.5||4.2||11.4|| 3.6 ||1.81
|-
| 2011
|4,738,000
|73,459||18,801||54,658
|15.9||4.1||11.8|| 2.8 ||1.86
|-
| 2012
|4,652,000
|73,326||19,200||54,126
|15.7||4.1||11.6|| -29.8||1.84
|-
|2013
|4,713,000
|70,550||19,647||50,903
|15.0||4.2||10.8|| 2.3 ||1.76
|-
|2014
|4,773,000
|71,793||20,553||51,240
|15.0||4.3||10.7|| 2.0 ||1.77
|-
|2015
|4,832,000
|71,819||21,039||50,780
|14.9||4.3||10.6|| 1.8 ||1.76
|-
|2016
|4,890,000
|70,004||22,603||47,401
|14.3||4.6||9.7|| 2.3 ||1.71
|-
|2017
|4,947,000
|68,816||23,251||45,565
|13.9||4.7||9.2|| 2.5 ||1.67
|-
|2018
|5,003,000
|68,449||23,806||44,643
|13.7||4.8||8.9|| 2.4 ||1.66
|-
|2019
|5,058,000
|64,287||24,237||40,050
|12.7||4.8||7.9|| 3.1 ||1.56
|-
|2020
|5,111,200
|57,848||26,209||31,639
|11.4||5.1||6.3|| 4.2 ||1.41
|-
|2021
|5,173,400
|54,289||style="color:red;"|31,081||23,208
|10.7||6.1||4.6|| 7.7 ||1.32
|-
|2022
|5,044,197 (c)
|53,435||28,931||24,504
|10.5||5.7||4.8||-29.7 ||1.30
|-
|2023
|5,136,000
|50,205||29,189||21,016
|9.7||5.6||4.1|| 14.0 ||1.19
|-
|2024
|style="color:blue;"|5,164,860
|45,825||30,185||15,640
|style"color:red;"|8.9||5.8||style"color:red;"|3.1|| ||style="color: red"|1.12
|}
(c) Census results.Current vital statistics
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+
|-
! Period
! Live births
! Deaths
! Natural increase
|-
| January - November 2023
| 45,978
|
|
|-
| January - November 2024
| 42,110
|
|
|-
| Difference
| -3,868 (-8.41%)
|
|
|}
Life expectancy at birth
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
!Period
!Life expectancy in<br />Years
!Period
!Life expectancy in<br />Years
|-
|1950–1955
|56.0
|1985–1990
|75.1
|-
|1955–1960
|58.8
|1990–1995
|76.1
|-
|1960–1965
|62.4
|1995–2000
|77.0
|-
|1965–1970
|65.2
|2000–2005
|77.8
|-
|1970–1975
|67.7
|2005–2010
|78.4
|-
|1975–1980
|70.5
|2010–2015
|79.2
|-
|1980–1985
|73.4
|
|
|}
Source: UN World Population ProspectsEthnic groups
According to census data the vast majority of the population identifies itself as white or mestizo. The indigenous Amerindian population only constitutes 2.4% of the population in 2011, but has gone up from only 0.3% in 1950. About 7% has African roots.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: right;"
|+ Population of Costa Rica according to ethnic group
|-bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! width"100pt" rowspan"2" | Ethnic<br />group
! colspan"2" | Census 1950|| colspan"2" | Census 2000|| colspan"2" | Census 2011
|-bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! Number ||% || Number ||% || Number || %
|-
|align=left|Amerindian (indigenous)||2 692||0.3||63 876||1.7||104 143||2.4
|-
|align=left|Bribri||||||||||18 198||0.4
|-
|align=left|Brumca/Boruca||||||||||5 555||0.1
|-
|align=left|Cabécar||||||||||16 985||0.4
|-
|align=left|Chorotega||||||||||11 442||0.3
|-
|align=left|Huetar||||||||||3 461||0.1
|-
|align=left|Maleku/Guatuso||||||||||17 80||0.0
|-
|align=left|Ngobe/Guaymi||||||||||9 543||0.2
|-
|align=left|Teribe/Terraba||||||||||2 665||0.1
|-
|align=left|foreign tribe||||||||||8 444||0.2
|-
|align=left|tribe not specified||||||||||26 070||0.6
|-
|align=left|Afrocostarican or black||15 118||1.9||72 784||1.9||45 228||1.1
|-
|align=left|Mulatto||||||||||289 209||6.7
|-
|align=left|Chinese||933||0.1||7 873||0.2||9 170||0.2
|-
|align=left|White/mestizo||782 041||97.6||3 568 471||93.7||3 597 000||83.6
|-
|align=left|Other||91||0.0||||||36 334||0.8
|-
|align=left|Did not state||||||||||124 641||2.9
|-
|align=left|Unknown||||||97 175||2.6||95 140||2.2
|- bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! align="left" | Total
! colspan="2" | 800,872
! colspan="2" | 3,810,179
! colspan="2" | 4,301,712
|}
European Costa Ricans
2,830,000<br /> 65.8% of the Costa Rican population
| popplace | langs Costa Rican Spanish, English
| rels Roman Catholic 76.3%, Evangelical 13.7%, other 4.8%, none 3.2%, Buddhism 2%
| related = White Latin Americans, White Caribbeans
}}
European Costa Ricans are people from Costa Rica whose ancestry lies within the continent of Europe, most notably Spain. According to DNA studies, around 75% of the population have some level of European ancestry. According to CIA Factbook, Costa Rica has a white or mestizo population of 83.6%. Costa Rica was part of the Spanish Empire and colonized by Spaniards mostly Castilians, Basque and Sephardic Jews.
After independence, large migrations of wealthy Americans, Germans, French and British businessmen
Later, smaller migrations of Italians, Spaniards (mostly Catalans) and Arabs (mostly Lebanese and Syrians) took place. These migrants arrived fleeing economic crisis in their home countries, setting in large, more closed colonies.
|label1 = Catholicism
|value1 = 70.5
|color1 = DodgerBlue
|label2 = Protestantism
|value2 = 13.8
|color2 = DarkOrchid
|label3 = Irreligion
|value3 = 11.3
|color3 = Gray
|label4 = Buddhism
|value4 = 2.1
|color4 = Gold
|label5 = Other religions
|value5 = 2.2
|color5 = Red
}}
According to the World Factbook, the main faiths are Roman Catholic (76.3%), Evangelical (13.7%), Jehovah's Witnesses (1.3%), other Protestant (0.7%), other (4.8%), and none (3.2%).
The most recent nationwide survey of religion in Costa Rica, conducted in 2007 by the University of Costa Rica, found that 70.5 percent of the population identify themselves as Roman Catholics (with 44.9 percent practicing, 25.6 percent nonpracticing), 13.8 percent are Evangelical Protestants, 11.3 percent report that they do not have a religion, and 4.3 percent declare that they belong to another religion.
Apart from the dominant Catholic religion, several other religious groups exist in the country.
Although they represent less than 1 percent of the population, Jehovah's Witnesses have a strong presence on the Caribbean coast. That same article provides for freedom of religion. The government respects this right. The vast majority were born in Nicaragua (287,766). Other countries of origin were Colombia (20,514), United States (16,898), Spain (16,482) and Panama (11,250). Outward remittances were $246,000,000 in 2006.MigrantsAccording to the World Bank, about 489,200 migrants lived in the country in 2010; mainly from Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize, while 125,306 Costa Ricans live abroad in the United States, Panama, Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, Canada, Germany, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, and Ecuador. The number of migrants declined in later years but in 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica
See also
*Ethnic groups in Central America
References
External links*[http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/costarica_statistics.html#6 UNICEF Information about Costa Rica's Demographics]
*[http://www.inec.go.cr INEC]. National Institute of Statistics and Census | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Costa_Rica | 2025-04-05T18:27:17.401639 |
5555 | Politics of Costa Rica | The politics of Costa Rica take place in a framework of a presidential, representative democratic republic, with a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and their cabinet, and the President of Costa Rica is both the head of state and head of government. Legislative power is vested in the Legislative Assembly. The president and 57 Legislative Assembly deputies are elected for four-year terms. The judiciary operates independently from the executive and the legislature, but is involved in the political process. Costa Rica has a strong system of constitutional checks and balances. Voting is compulsory de jure, but this is not enforced.
The position of governor in the seven provinces was abolished in 1998. There are no provincial legislatures. In 2009, the state monopolies on insurance and telecommunications were opened to private-sector competition. Certain other state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence and autonomy; they include the electrical power company (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad), the nationalized commercial banks (which are open to competition from private banks), and the social security agency (Caja Costarricense del Seguro Social). Costa Rica has no military but maintains a domestic police force and a Special Forces Unit as part of the Ministry of the President.
According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Costa Rica was in 2023 the most electoral democratic country in Latin America.
Recent history
The 1986 presidential election was won by Óscar Arias of the PLN. During his tenure he experienced some criticism from within his own party for abandoning its traditional social democratic teachings and promoting a neoliberal economic model. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987 for his efforts to end civil wars then raging in several Central American countries.
In the February 1998 national election, PUSC candidate Miguel Ángel Rodríguez won the presidency over PLN nominee José Miguel Corrales Bolaños. President Rodriguez assumed office May 8, 1998. The PUSC also obtained 27 seats in the 57-member Legislative Assembly, for a plurality, while the PLN got 23 and five minor parties won seven. Social Christian in philosophy, the PUSC generally favors neoliberalism, conservative fiscal policies, and government reform. President Rodriguez pledged to reduce the country's large internal debt, privatize state-owned utilities, attract additional foreign investment, eliminate social welfare programs, and promote the creation of jobs with decent salaries.
The reforms he tried to promote found opposition from several parties, including his own, and he asserted several times the country was "ungovernable". In particular, an attempt by the Legislative Assembly to approve a law that opened up the electricity and telecommunication markets (controlled by a monopoly of the Costa Rican Institute of Electricity - ICE) to market competition, known as the "Combo" law, was met with strong social opposition. The Combo law was supported by both major parties at the time (PLN and PUSC) as well as by President Rodriguez, but the first of three required legislative votes to approve it provoked the largest protest demonstrations the country had seen since 1970. The government quickly resolved to shelve the initiative. President Rodríguez's approval would reach an all-time low, and he was indicted by the Attorney General after leaving office on corruption charges.
In September 2000 the Constitutional Court rejected an argument by former president Arias that a 1969 constitutional amendment banning presidential reelection be rescinded. Arias thus remained barred from a second term as president; however, in April 2003–by which time two of the four judges who had voted against the change in 2000 had been replaced–the Court reconsidered the issue and, with the only dissenters being the two anti-reelection judges remaining from 2000, declared the 1969 amendment null and thus opened the way to reelection for former presidents–which in practice meant Arias.
In the 2002 national election, a new party founded by former PLN Congressman and government Minister Ottón Solís captured 26% of the vote, forcing a runoff election for the first time in the country's history. Abel Pacheco was elected president, under a national unity platform, but continuing most of the neoliberal and conservative policies of Miguel Ángel Rodríguez. This election was also important because new parties won several seats in Congress, more than ever. The PUSC obtained 19 seats, PLN 17 seats, PAC 14 seats, PML 6 seats and PRC one seat.
During 2004, several high-profile corruption scandals shattered the foundations of PUSC. Two former presidents from the party, Miguel Ángel Rodríguez and Rafael Ángel Calderón, were arrested on corruption charges and are currently waiting for the investigation to end and trial to begin. Also involved in scandals has been José María Figueres, former president from PLN and former head of the World Economic Forum.
The 2006 national election was expected to be a landslide for former president (1986–1990) and PLN's candidate Óscar Arias, but it turned out to be the closest in modern history. Although polls just a week before the election gave Arias a comfortable lead of at least 12% (and up to 20%), preliminary election results gave him only a 0.4% lead over rival Ottón Solís and prompted a manual recount of all ballots. After a month-long recount and several appeals from different parties, Arias was declared the official winner with 40.9% of the votes against 39.8% for Solís.
When Óscar Arias returned to office, the political debate shifted to the ratification of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). Main supporters of the approval included the President's PLN, which established a coalition with PUSC and ML in Congress to approve the implementation laws in Congress, as well as different business chambers. The main opposition to CAFTA came from PAC, labor unions, environmental organizations and public universities. In April 2007, former PLN Presidential candidate and CAFTA opponent José Miguel Corrales Bolaños won a legal battle at the Supreme Electoral Tribunal, which authorized him to gather over 100,000 signatures to send CAFTA to a referendum and let the people decide the fate of the controversial agreement. As the February 28, 2008 deadline to approve or reject CAFTA loomed, Arias decided to call for the referendum himself, and it took take place on October 7, 2007. CAFTA was approved with 51.5% of voters supporting it, although the election faced criticism due to international, including US, involvement.
The Costa Rican general election, 2010 was won by Laura Chinchilla of centrist National Liberation Party, who had been vice-president in the previous Arias administration. In May 2010, she was sworn in as the first female President of Costa Rica.
In 2014, Luis Guillermo Solís, PAC's presidential candidate campaigning on a platform of economic reform and anti-corruption, surprised political observers by winning 30.95% of votes in the first round, while PLN candidate Johnny Araya gained the second most votes with 29.95%. Broad Front's José María Villalta Florez-Estrada won 17% of the votes. On March 6, 2014, Araya announced that he would abandon his presidential campaign after polls showed him far behind Luis Guillermo Solís. Elections were held on April 6, 2014, as required by election law, and Solís won with 77.81% of the votes. According to the BBC, the success of Solís and Villalta is another example of anti-neoliberal politics in Latin America.
In May 2022, Costa Rica's new president Rodrigo Chaves, right-wing former finance minister, was sworn in for a four-year presidential term. He had won the election runoff against former president Jose María Figueres.
Branches of government
Executive branch
thumb|Luis Guillermo Solís has served as president between 2014 and 2018. He is the first President in 66 years not to come from the two-party system.
Executive responsibilities are vested in a president, who is elected to a term of four years directly by the voters, not by the National Assembly as it would be in a parliamentary system. There also are two vice presidents and the president's cabinet composed of his ministers. A constitutional amendment approved in 1969 limits presidents and deputies to one term, although a deputy may run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term. The prohibition was officially recognized as unconstitutional in April 2004, allowing Óscar Arias to run for president a second time in the 2006 Costa Rican presidential elections, which he won with approximately a 1% margin.
The President of Costa Rica has limited powers, particularly in comparison to other Latin American Presidents. For example, he cannot veto the legislative budget, and thus Congress is sovereign over the year's single most important piece of legislation. On the other hand, he can appoint anyone to his cabinet without approval from Congress. This provides the single most important power versus Congress that any Costa Rican President has.
|President
|Rodrigo Chaves Robles
|Social Democratic Progress Party
|8 May 2022
|-
| 1st Vice President
| Stephan Brunner
| Social Democratic Progress Party
| 8 May 2022
|-
| 2nd Vice Presidents
| Mary Munive
| Social Democratic Progress Party
| 8 May 2022
|}
Ministries
Ministry of the Presidency
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship
Ministry of Finance
Ministry of Public Security
Ministry of Justice and Peace
Ministry of Public Education
Ministry of Public Works and Transports
Ministry of Economy, Industry and Commerce
Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock
Ministry of Health
Ministry of Labour and Social Security
Ministry of Culture and Youth
Ministry of National Planning and Economical Policy
Ministry of Environment and Energy
Ministry of Housing and Human Settlements
Ministry of Foreign Trade
Ministry of Science, Technology and Telecommunications
Ministry of Communication
Legislative branch
thumb|Meeting place of the congress of Costa Rica
Legislative powers are held by the Legislative Assembly. Legislators, called deputies, are elected to non-consecutive four-year terms by popular, direct vote, using proportional representation in each of the country's seven provinces. As a result, there are nine separate political parties serving in the Legislative Assembly, with National Liberation Party holding 18 seats, the Citizens' Action Party holding 13, and Broad Front and the Social Christian Unity Party each holding 8. Other parties hold the remaining seats.
|Legislative Assembly President
|Rodrigo Arias Sánchez
|National Liberation Party
|8 May 2022
|}
Judicial branch
The main arm of the judiciary is the Supreme Court of Justice. Twenty-two magistrates are selected for the CSJ for 8-year terms by the Legislative Assembly, and lower courts. Sala IV, also known as the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court, reviews legislation, executive actions, and certain writs for constitutionality. Courts below the Sala IV deal with issues involving legal and criminal disputes. Additionally, the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE for its Spanish initials) is an independent branch of the CSJ, responsible for democratic elections. While the judiciary is independent of the politically elected executive and legislative branches, it is often responsible for resolving political and legal conflicts. In many areas, voting takes on a festive atmosphere with supporters of each party wearing traditional colors and decorating their cars, houses, and livestock with colored ribbons.
Political parties
Currently, there are nine active political parties with representation in the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica. An additional twelve parties ran, but did not receive enough votes to earn a seat in the assembly, making the total number of active parties in Costa Rica twenty-one. Starting in the 2000s, disagreement about many of the neo-liberal policies promoted by the dominant PLN caused the traditional party system of alliances among a few parties to fracture. Although still a stable country, the shift toward many political parties and away from PUSC and PLN is a recent development. Various elected positions within the country, such as mayors and city council members, are held by many different national and local political parties.
Political parties in the Legislative Assembly, 2014–2018 Party name (English) Party name (Spanish) Legislative seats (2014) Ideology Historic notes National Liberation Party Partido Liberación Nacional (PLN) 18 Centrist, social democracy Founded in 1951. Controlled the legislative assembly since inception and presidency for all but four elections. Citizens' Action Party Partido Acción Ciudadana (PAC) 13 Progressive, social democracy Founded in 2002. Won presidential election of 2014. Broad Front Frente Amplio (FA) 9 Green, progressivism, humanism Founded in 2004. Never controlled presidency. Social Christian Unity Party Partido Unidad Social Cristiana, (PUSC) 8 Conservatism Founded 1983 by four opposition parties. The main historical opposition to PLN. Three presidential victories in 1990, 1998, and 2002. Libertarian Movement Partido Movimiento Libertario (PML) 4 Classical liberalism, conservatism Founded 1994. Never controlled presidency. Costa Rican Renewal Party Partido Renovación Costarricense (PRC) 2 Christian democracy, conservatism, right-wing Founded in 1995. Never controlled presidency. National Restoration Party (Costa Rica) Partido Restauración Nacional (PRN) 1 Social Christianity, conservatism, right-wing Founded in 2005. Never controlled presidency. Accessibility without Exclusion Partido Accessibilidad sin Exclusión (PASE) 1 Single issue, rights for people with disabilities Founded 2001. Never controlled presidency. Christian Democratic Alliance Alianza Demócrata Cristiana (ADC) 1 Conservative, provincial (Cartago) Founded in 2012.
Recent non-represented and defunct political parties Party name (English) Party name (Spanish) Legislative seats (2014) Ideology Historic notes National Union Party Partido Unión Nacional (PUN) 0 Conservatism, Center-right Founded in 1901. Existed in various forms and coalition parties. Won the presidency four times (1902, 1928, 1948, 1958, 1966). 1948 election was unrecognized. Defunct as of 2010. National Rescue Party Partido Rescate Nacional (PRN) 0 Center-left, Moderate socialist Founded in 1996. Held one legislative seat in 2006. Defunct as of 2010. Union for Change Party Partido Unión para el Cambio (PUC) 0 Centrist, social democracy Founded in 2005. Existed for one election cycle as protest from ex-PLN members. Defunct as of 2010. Homeland First Party Partido Patria Primero (PP) 0 Conservative, social democracy, Catholic interest Founded in 2006. Existed for one election cycle as a protest from ex-PAC members. Defunct as of 2010. National Democrat Alliance Party Partido Alianza Democrática Nacionalista 0 Social democracy, nationalist Founded in 2004. Opposed CAFTA. Defunct as of 2010. National Integration Party Partido Integración Nacional (PIN) 0 Conservatism, center Founded in 1998. Active as of 2014 election.
Strength of institutions
Institutional strength is a critical factor in politics since it defines the ability of political institutions to enforce rules, settle conflicts, and sustain stability in society. Weak institutions can lead to instability, violence, and authoritarianism, while solid institutions are associated with more durable and sufficient democracies. This is especially applicable in countries with fragile institutional frameworks, where strengthening institutions is essential for advancing democracy and stability. However, there are also concerns about the efficiency of the justice system and the slow pace of legal proceedings, which can sometimes hinder the effective enforcement of the law.
Democratic institutions
Costa Rica is famous for its stable and well-functioning democracy, with periodic, accessible, and honest elections, a competitive party system, and a robust civil society. The country has a presidential system of government, with a unicameral legislature and a multi-party system. Nevertheless, there are also some obstacles to the country's democratic institutions, such as a lack of transparency and accountability in government and a high concentration of power among a small class of political elites.
Public services
Costa Rica's government provides many public services, including health care, education, and social welfare programs. The "Caja de Seguro Social" in Costa Rica maneuvered through the COVID-19 Pandemic with extreme precaution, providing one of the best responses by public healthcare systems. Their public health care system attests to strong political institutions and its 70% of its citizens entirely depend on the services. These services are generally well-funded and accessible to the general public. However, there are also concerns about the quality and productivity of these services and the sustainability of the country's public spending.
See also
Foreign relations of Costa Rica
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Costa_Rica | 2025-04-05T18:27:17.444109 |
5556 | Economy of Costa Rica | | population 5,213,362 (2022 estimate)
| gdp = $96 billion (nominal, 2024)
* $152 billion (PPP, 2024)
* 5.2% }}
| inflation -0.33% (May 2024)
| poverty = 25.5% (2022)
* 10.4% on less than $6.85/day (2022)}}
| gini 47.2 (2022)
| hdi = 0.806 (2022) (64th)
* 0.656 IHDI (67th) (2022)
* 54.5% employment rate (2022)}}
| unemployment 10.5% (2019) (2022)
| average net salary | industries medical equipment, food processing, textiles and clothing, construction materials, fertilizer, plastic products
| edbr 74th (easy, 2020)
| exports $33.68 billion (2023 est.)
| import-goods = raw materials, consumer goods, capital equipment, petroleum, construction materials
| import-partners = 38.1%
* 13.1%
* 7.3%
*(2017)
| cianame = costa-rica
| spelling = US
}}
The economy of Costa Rica has been very stable for some years now,
with continuing growth in the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and moderate inflation, though with a high unemployment rate: 11.49% in 2019. Costa Rica's economy emerged from recession in 1997 and has shown strong aggregate growth since then. The estimated GDP for 2023 is US$90 billion, up significantly from the US$52.6 billion in 2015 In 2017, Costa Rica had the highest standards of living in Central America in spite of the high poverty level. The poverty level dropped by 1.2% in 2017 to 20.5%, thanks to reducing inflation and benefits offered by the government. Corporate services for foreign companies employ some 3% of the workforce. Of the GDP, 5.5% is generated by agriculture, 18.6% by industry and 75.9% by services (2016). Many foreign companies operate in the various Free-trade zones. In 2015, exports totalled US$12.6 billion while imports totalled US$15 billion for a trade deficit of US$2.39 billion.
The growing debt and budget deficit are the country's primary concerns. By August 2017, Costa Rica was having difficulty paying its obligations and the President promised dramatic changes to handle the "liquidity crisis". Other challenges face Costa Rica in its attempts to increase the economy by foreign investment. They include a poor infrastructure and a need to improve public sector efficiency.
Public debt and deficit
One of the country's major concerns is the level of the public debt, especially as a percentage of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product), increasing from 29.8% in 2011 to 40.8% in 2015 and to 45% in 2016. Costa Rica had a formal line of credit with the World Bank valued at US$947 million in April 2014, of which US$645 million had been accessed and US$600 million remained outstanding.
In a June 2017 report, the International Monetary Fund stated that annual growth was just over 4% with moderate inflation. The report added that "financial system appears sound, and credit growth continues to be consistent with healthy financial deepening and macroeconomic trends. The agency noted that the fiscal deficit remains high and public debt continues to rise rapidly despite the authorities’ deepened consolidation efforts in 2016. Recent advances in fiscal consolidation have been partly reversed and political consensus on a comprehensive fiscal package remains elusive".
The IMF also expressed concern about increasing deficits, public debt and the heavy dollarization of bank assets and liabilities, warning that in tighter-than-expected global financial conditions these aspects would "seriously undermine investor confidence". The group also recommended taking steps to reduce pension benefits and increase the amount of contribution by the public and increasing the cost effectiveness of the education system. In late July 2017, the Central Bank estimated the budget deficit at 6.1 percent of the country's GDP. A 2017 study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development warned that reducing the foreign debt must be a very high priority for the government. Other fiscal reforms were also recommended to moderate the budget deficit. In late July 2017, the Central Bank estimated the budget deficit at 6.1 percent of the country's GDP.Liquidity crisisIn early August 2017, President Luis Guillermo Solís admitted that the country was facing a "liquidity crisis", an inability to pay all of its obligations and to guarantee the essential services. To address this issue, he promised that a higher VAT and higher income tax rates were being considered by his government. Such steps are essential, Solís told the nation.
* The ports, roads, water systems would benefit from major upgrading. Attempts by China to invest in upgrading such aspects were "stalled by bureaucratic and legal concerns".
* The bureaucracy is "often slow and cumbersome".
* The country needs even more workers who are fluent in English and languages such as Portuguese, Mandarin and French. It would also benefit from more graduates in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) programs.
* Some sectors are controlled by a state monopoly which excludes competition but in other respects, "Costa Rican laws, regulations and practices are generally transparent and foster competition".
* The country has been slow in completing environmental impact assessments which have caused delays in projects being completed.
* Product registration is a slow process, although this may improve with digitization.
* In spite of government attempts at improving the enforcement of intellectual property laws, this aspect remains a concern.Natural resources
Costa Rica's rainfall, and its location in the Central American isthmus, which provides easy access to North and South American markets and direct ocean access to the European and Asian Continents. Costa Rica has two seasons, both of which have their own agricultural resources: the tropical wet and dry seasons. One-fourth of Costa Rica's land is dedicated to national forests, often adjoining beaches, which has made the country a popular destination for affluent retirees and ecotourists.
A full 10.27% of the country is protected as national parks while an additional 17% is set aside for reserves, wildlife refuges and protected zones. Costa Rica has over 50 wildlife refuges, 32 major national parks, more than 12 forest reserves and a few biological reserves.
Because of ocean access, 23.7% of Costa Rica's people fish and trade their catches to fish companies; this is viewed as "small scale artisanal coastal" fishing and is most common in the Gulf of Nicoya. Costa Rica also charges licensing fees for commercial fishing fleets that are taking tuna, sardines, banga mary, mahi-mahi, red tilapia, shrimp, red snapper, other snappers, shark, marlin and sailfish. In mid 2017, the country was planning to ban large-scale commercial fishing off the southern Pacific Coast in an area nearly a million acres in size. The bill in congress was intended to "protect the extraordinary marine and coastal resources" from "indiscriminate and unsustainable commercial fishing."
Sport fishing in Costa Rica is an important part of the tourism industry; species include marlin, sailfish, dorado, tarpon, snook, rooster fish, wahoo, tuna, mackerel, snapper and rainbow bass.
In terms of the 2012 Environmental Performance Index ranking, Costa Rica is 5th in the world, and first among the Americas. The World Economic Forum's 2017 Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Costa Rica as third of 136 countries based on natural resources, the number of World Heritage natural sites, protected areas and species as well as eco tourism.Tourism
is key in Costa Rica's tourism industry. Shown Savegre River, Talamanca.]]
With a $1.92-billion-a-year tourism industry, Costa Rica was the most visited nation in the Central American region, with 2.42 million foreign visitors in 2013. By 2016, 2.6 million tourists visited Costa Rica. The Tourism Board estimates that this sector's spending in the country represented over US$3.4 billion, or about 5.8% of the GDP. The World Travel & Tourism Council's estimates indicate a direct contribution to the 2016 GDP of 5.1% and 110,000 direct jobs in Costa Rica; the total number of jobs indirectly supported by tourism was 271,000.
Ecotourism is extremely popular with the many tourists visiting the extensive national parks and protected areas around the country. Costa Rica was a pioneer in this type of tourism and the country is recognized as one of the few with real ecotourism. Other important market segments are adventure, sun and beaches. Most of the tourists come from the U.S. and Canada (46%), and the EU (16%), the prime market travelers in the world, which translates into a relatively high expenditure per tourist of $1000 per trip.
In the 2008 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), Costa Rica reached the 44th place in the world ranking, being the first among Latin American countries, and second if the Caribbean is included. Just considering the subindex measuring human, cultural, and natural resources, Costa Rica ranks in the 24th place at a worldwide level, and 7th when considering just the natural resources criteria. The TTCI report also notes Costa Rica's main weaknesses, ground transport infrastructure (ranked 113th), and safety and security (ranked 128th).
The online travel magazine Travelzoo rated Costa Rica as one of five “Wow Deal Destinations for 2012”. The magazine Travel Weekly named Costa Rica the best destination in Central and South America in 2011. In 2017, the country was nominated in the following categories in the World Travel Awards: Mexico & Central America's Leading Beach Destination, Mexico & Central America's Leading Destination and Mexico & Central America's Leading Tourist Board.Agriculture
Costa Rica's economy was historically based on agriculture, and this has had a large cultural impact through the years. Costa Rica's main cash crop, historically and up to modern times, was Bananas. The coffee crop had been a major export, but decreased in value to the point where it added only 2.5% to the 2013 exports of the country.
Agriculture also plays an important part in the country's gross domestic product (GDP). It makes up about 6.5% of Costa Rica’s GDP, and employs 12.9% of the labor force (2016). By comparison, industry employs 18.57% of the labor force, and the service sector 69.02%. other tropical fruits, coffee (much of it grown in the Valle Central or Meseta Central), sugar, rice, palm oil, vegetables, tropical fruits, ornamental plants, maize, and potatoes.
Livestock activity consists of cattle, pigs and horses, as well as poultry. Meat and dairy produce are leading exports according to one source, but both were not in the top 10 categories of 2013. Well over half of that type of investment has come from the U.S. According to the government, the zones supported over 82 thousand direct jobs and 43 thousand indirect jobs in 2015; direct employment grew 5% over 2014. The average wages in the FTZ increased by 7% and were 1.8 times greater than the average for private enterprise work in the rest of the country.
In 2006 Intel's microprocessor facility alone was responsible for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 4.9% of the country's GDP. In 2014, Intel announced it would end manufacturing in Costa Rica and lay off 1,500 staff but agreed to maintain at least 1,200 employees. The facility continued as a test and design center with approximately 1,600 remaining staff. In 2017, Intel had 2000 employees in the country, and was operating a facility which assembles, tests and distributes processors and a Global Innovation Center, both in Heredia.
The fastest growing aspect of the economy is the provision of corporate services for foreign companies which in 2016 employed approximately 54,000 people in a country with a workforce under 342,000; that was up from 52,400 the previous year. For example, Amazon.com employs some 5,000 people. Many work in the free-trade areas such as Zona Franca America and earn roughly double the national average for service work. This sector generated US$4.6 billion in 2016, nearly as much as tourism.
Tourism is an important part of the economy, with the number of visitors increasing from 780,000 in 1996, to 1 million in 1999, and to 2.089 million foreign visitors in 2008, allowing the country to earn $2.144-billion in that year. By 2016, 2.6 million tourists visited Costa Rica, spending roughly US$3.4 billion. Mild climate and trade winds make neither heating nor cooling necessary, particularly in the highland cities and towns where some 90% of the population lives.
Renewable energy in Costa Rica is the norm. In 2016, 98.1 per cent of the country's electricity came from green sources: hydro generating stations, geothermal plants, wind turbines, solar panels and biomass plants.
Infrastructure
Costa Rica's infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment. The country has an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of it is in disrepair; this also applies to ports, railways and water delivery systems.
Most parts of the country are accessible by road. The main highland cities in the country's Central Valley are connected by paved all-weather roads with the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and by the Pan American Highway with Nicaragua and Panama, the neighboring countries to the North and the South. Costa Rica's ports are struggling to keep pace with growing trade. They have insufficient capacity, and their equipment is in poor condition. The railroad didn't function for several years, until recent government effort to reactivate it for city transportation. An August 2016 OECD report provided this summary: "The road network is extensive but of poor quality, railways are in disrepair and only slowly being reactivated after having been shut down in the 1990s, seaports quality and capacity are deficient. Internal transportation overly relies on private road vehicles as the public transport system, especially railways, is inadequate."
In a June 2017 interview, President Luis Guillermo Solís said that private sector investment would be required to solve the problems. "Of course Costa Rica’s infrastructure deficit is a challenge that outlasts any one government and I hope that we have created the foundations for future administrations to continue building. I have just enacted a law to facilitate Public Private Partnerships, which are the ideal way to develop projects that are too large for the government to undertake. For example the new airport that we are building to serve the capital city will cost $2 billion, so it will need private-sector involvement. There is also the potential for a ‘dry canal’ linking sea ports on our Atlantic and Caribbean Coasts that could need up to $16 billion of investment."
The government hopes to bring foreign investment, technology, and management into the telecommunications and electrical power sectors, which are monopolies of the state. ICE (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad) has the monopoly on telecommunications, internet and electricity services. Some limited competition is allowed. In 2011, two new private companies began offering cellular phone service and others offer voice communication over internet connections (VOIP) for overseas calls.
According to transparency.org, Costa Rica had a reputation as one of the most stable, prosperous, and among the least corrupt in Latin America in 2007. However, in fall 2004, three former Costa Rican presidents, José María Figueres, Miguel Angel Rodríguez, and Rafael Angel Calderon, were investigated on corruption charges related to the issuance of government contracts. After extensive legal proceedings Calderon and Rodriguez were sentenced; however, the inquiry on Figueres was dismissed and he was not charged.
More recently, Costa Rica reached 40th place in 2015, with a score of 55 on the Perception of Corruption scale; this is better than the global average. Countries with the lowest perceived corruption rated 90 on the scale. In late May 2017, the country
Costa Rica applied to become a member of the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention, to be effective in July 2017.
Foreign trade
Costa Rica has sought to widen its economic and trade ties, both within and outside the region. Costa Rica signed a bilateral trade agreement with Mexico in 1994, which was later amended to cover a wider range of products. Costa Rica joined other Central American countries, plus the Dominican Republic, in establishing a Trade and Investment Council with the United States in March 1998, which later became the Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement. Costa Rica has bilateral free trade agreements with the following countries and blocs which took effect on (see date):
* Canada (November 1, 2002)
* Caribbean Community (CARICOM)¨ (November 15, 2002)
* Chile (February 15, 2002)
* China (August 1, 2011).
* Colombia (September 2016)
* Dominican Republic (March 7, 2002)
* El Salvador Customs union, (1963, re-launched on October 29, 1993)
* European Free Trade Association (2013)
* European Union (October 1, 2013)
* Guatemala Customs union, (1963, re-launched on October 29, 1993)
* Honduras Customs union, (1963, re-launched on October 29, 1993)
* Mexico (January 1, 1995)
* Nicaragua Customs union, (1963, re-launched on October 29, 1993)
* Panama (July 31, 1973, renegotiated and expanded for January 1, 2009)
* Peru (June 1, 2013)
* United States (January 1, 2009, CAFTA-DR)
There are no significant trade barriers that would affect imports and the country has been lowering its tariffs in accordance with other Central American countries. Costa Rica also is a member of the Cairns Group, an organization of agricultural exporting countries that are seeking access to more markets to increase the exports of agricultural products. Opponents of free agricultural trade have sometimes attempted to block imports of products already grown in Costa Rica, including rice, potatoes, and onions. By 2015, Costa Rica's agricultural exports totalled US$2.7 billion.
In 2015, the top export destinations for all types of products were the United States (US$4.29 billion), Guatemala ($587 million), the Netherlands ($537 million), Panama ($535 million) and Nicaragua ($496 million). The top import origins were the United States ($6.06 billion), China ($1.92 billion), Mexico ($1.14 billion), Japan ($410 million) and Guatemala ($409 million). The most significant products imported were Refined Petroleum (8.41% of the total imports) and Automobiles (4.68%). Total imports in 2015 were US$15 billion, somewhat higher than the total exports of a US$12.6 billion, for a negative trade balance of US$2.39 billion. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is a form of investment that promotes development in key industries such as manufacturing, medicine, and tourism. FDI’s influence provides a very lucrative opportunity for foreign investors which is what continues to attract such large investments year over year. Over time FDI inflows in Costa Rica have increased, Net FDI inflow averaged forty four million dollars per year from 1970-1979 and just ten years later this value rose to four hundred and sixteen million dollars. Facilitation of FDI growth is seen as an essential role of the Costa Rican government. Throughout 2019 and 2022, the government of Costa Rica was able to court investment for a total of 16 new FDI projects with one of the more notable projects being a luxury hotel named One and Only Papagayo. Statistics The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2019 (with IMF staff stimtates in 2020–2025). Inflation below 5% is in green.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
! Year !! GDP<br /><small>(in Bil. US$PPP)</small> !! GDP per capita<br /><small>(in US$ PPP)</small> !! GDP<br /><small>(in Bil. US$nominal)</small> !! GDP per capita<br /><small>(in US$ nominal)</small> !! GDP growth<br /><small>(real)</small> !! Inflation rate<br /><small>(in Percent)</small> !! Unemployment<br /><small>(in Percent)</small> !! Government debt<br /><small>(in % of GDP)</small>
|-
| 1980 || 8.2 || 3,560.1 || 4.9 || 2,108.8 || 0.8% || 18.1% || 5.9% || n/a
|-
| 1981 || 8.8 || 3,696.2 || 2.6 || 1,111.4 || -2.3% || 36.8% || 8.8% || n/a
|-
| 1982 || 8.6 || 3,532.8 || 2.6 || 1,071.9 || -7.3% || 90.3% || 9.4% || n/a
|-
| 1983 || 9.2 || 3,669.0 || 3.2 || 1,257.4 || 2.9% || 32.5% || 9.2% || n/a
|-
| 1984 || 10.3 || 3,990.2 || 3.7 || 1,421.2 || 8.0% || 12.0% || 5.4% || n/a
|-
| 1985 || 10.7 || 4,024.5 || 3.9 || 1,478.4 || 0.7% || 15.1% || 6.8% || n/a
|-
| 1986 || 11.6 || 4,206.3 || 4.4 || 1,611.3 || 5.5% || 11.8% || 6.2% || n/a
|-
| 1987 || 12.4 || 4,391.3 || 4.6 || 1,612.6 || 4.8% || 16.8% || 5.6% || n/a
|-
| 1988 || 13.3 || 4,577.5 || 4.6 || 1,598.0 || 3.4% || 20.8% || 5.5% || n/a
|-
| 1989 || 14.6 || 4,898.1 || 5.3 || 1,763.5 || 5.7% || 16.5% || 3.8% || n/a
|-
| 1990 || 15.7 || 5,137.4 || 5.7 || 1,880.8 || 3.6% || 19.1% || 4.6% || n/a
|-
| 1991 || 16.6 || 5,307.6 || 7.2 || 2,305.4 || 2.3% || 20.2% || 5.5% || n/a
|-
| 1992 || 18.5 || 5,798.8 || 8.6 || 2,684.1 || 9.2% || 21.8% || 4.1% || n/a
|-
| 1993 || 20.3 || 6,195.0 || 9.6 || 2,926.9 || 7.1% || 9.8% || 4.1% || n/a
|-
| 1994 || 21.7 || 6,421.8 || 10.5 || 3,110.2 || 4.5% || 13.6% || 4.2% || n/a
|-
| 1995 || 23.0 || 6,637.5 || 11.6 || 3,336.7 || 4.2% || 23.2% || 5.2% || n/a
|-
| 1996 || 23.8 || 6,668.1 || 11.7 || 3,277.6 || 1.4% || 17.5% || 6.2% || 33.7%
|-
| 1997 || 25.5 || 6,974.7 || 12.6 || 3,450.9 || 5.5% || 13.3% || 5.7% || 30.6%
|-
| 1998 || 27.6 || 7,375.4 || 13.7 || 3,653.2 || 7.2% || 11.7% || 5.6% || 40.7%
|-
| 1999 || 29.2 || 7,610.4 || 14.3 || 3,715.4 || 4.2% || 10.0% || 6.0% || 39.0%
|-
| 2000 || 31.0 || 8,142.2 || 15.0 || 3,941.1 || 3.9% || 11.0% || 5.2% || 38.9%
|-
| 2001 || 32.8 || 8,304.2 || 16.0 || 4,041.9 || 3.5% || 11.3% || 6.1% || 39.6%
|-
| 2002 || 34.5 || 8,572.1 || 16.6 || 4,122.8 || 3.4% || 9.2% || 6.4% || 41.4%
|-
| 2003 || 36.7 || 8,975.9 || 17.3 || 4,227.8 || 4.3% || 9.4% || 6.7% || 40.6%
|-
| 2004 || 39.3 || 9,473.0 || 18.6 || 4,483.6 || 4.4% || 12.3% || 6.5% || 41.0%
|-
| 2005 || 42.2 || 10,005.8 || 20.0 || 4,756.3 || 4.0% || 13.8% || 6.6% || 37.3%
|-
| 2006 || 46.7 || 10,906.2 || 22.7 || 5,309.3 || 7.3% || 11.5% || 6.0% || 33.0%
|-
| 2007 || 51.9 || 11,948.7 || 26.9 || 6,194.0 || 8.2% || 9.4% || 4.6% || 27.0%
|-
| 2008 || 55.4 || 12,570.4 || 30.8 || 6,993.9 || 4.7% || 13.4% || 4.9% || 24.0%
|-
| 2009 || 55.2 || 12,357.3 || 30.7 || 6,879.3 || -0.9% || 7.8% || 7.8% || 26.0%
|-
| 2010 || 58.9 || 12,931.5 || 37.7 || 8,268.9 || 5.4% || 5.7% || 9.2% || 28.1%
|-
| 2011 || 62.8 || 13,605.9 || 42.8 || 9,270.6 || 4.4% || 4.9% || 10.5% || 29.5%
|-
| 2012 || 67.1 || 14,367.7 || 47.2 || 10,107.5 || 4.9% || 4.5% || 9.8% || 33.7%
|-
| 2013 || 71.2 || 15,034.6 || 50.9 || 10,764.5 || 2.5% || 5.2% || 8.3% || 35.1%
|-
| 2014 || 77.0 || 16,076.6 || 52.0 || 10,853.6 || 3.5% || 4.5% || 9.7% || 37.4%
|-
| 2015 || 82.9 || 17,079.8 || 56.4 || 11,635.2 || 3.7% || 0.8% || 9.6% || 39.8%
|-
| 2016 || 90.8 || 18,503.2 || 58.8 || 11,986.9 || 4.2% || 0.0% || 9.5% || 44.1%
|-
| 2017 || 97.9 || 19,711.7 || 60.5 || 12,185.3 || 4.2% || 1.6% || 9.3% || 47.1%
|-
| 2018 || 102.9 || 20,480.0 || 62.4 || 12,428.9 || 2.6% || 2.2% || 12.0% || 51.8%
|-
| 2019 || 107.1 || 21,093.9 || 64.1 || 12,623.2 || 2.3% || 2.1% || 12.4% || 56.7%
|-
| 2020 || 103.9 || 20,268.7 || 61.8 || 12,057.0 || -4.1% || 0.7% || 20.0% || 67.5%
|-
| 2021 || 111.9 || 21,592.5 || 61.5 || 11,860.2 || 3.9% || 1.3% || 16.3% || 71.2%
|-
| 2022 || 119.0 || 22,725.7 || 64.4 || 12,294.1 || 3.5% || 1.5% || 14.0% || 73.3%
|-
| 2023 || 125.6 || 23,739.7 || 68.2 || 12,883.9 || 3.1% || 1.8% || 12.0% || 73.7%
|-
| 2024 || 132.4 || 24,774.6 || 72.2 || 13,509.2 || 3.1% || 2.1% || 10.5% || 73.1%
|-
| 2025 || 139.7 || 25,852.6 || 76.4 || 14,140.2 || 3.2% || 2.5% || 9.5% || 71.6%
|-
| 2026 || 147.3 || 26,977.3 || 81.1 || 14,853.3 || 3.3% || 2.9% || 9.0% || 69.2%
|}
is one of Costa Rica's main tourist attractions.]]
GDP:
US$61.5 billion (2017 estimate)
GDP real growth rate:
4.3% (2017 estimate)
GDP per capita:
purchasing power parity: $12,382 (2017 estimate)
Labor force by occupation:
agriculture 12.9%, industry 18.57%, services 69.02% (2016)
Fiscal year:
January 1 – December 31
External links
* [https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/CRI/Year/LTST/TradeFlow/EXPIMP Costa Rica Exports, Imports and Trade Balance] World Bank
* Tariffs applied by Costa Rica as provided by ITC's [http://www.macmap.org/QuickSearch/FindTariff/FindTariff.aspx?subsiteopen_access&country188&source1|ITCMarket Access Map], an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements.References
Category:Economy of Costa Rica
Category:OECD member economies | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Costa_Rica | 2025-04-05T18:27:17.495745 |
5558 | Transport in Costa Rica | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is already sufficiently detailed; see WP:SDNONE -->
There are many modes of transport in Costa Rica but the country's infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment. There is an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of it is in disrepair; this also applies to ports, railways and water delivery systems. According to a 2016 U.S. government report, investment from China that attempted to improve the infrastructure found the "projects stalled by bureaucratic and legal concerns".
Most parts of the country are accessible by road. The main highland cities in the country's Central Valley are connected by paved all-weather roads with the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and by the Pan American Highway with Nicaragua and Panama, the neighboring countries to the north and to the south Costa Rica's ports are struggling to keep pace with growing trade. They have insufficient capacity, and their equipment is in poor condition. The railroad didn't function for several years, until recent government effort to reactivate it for city transportation. An August 2016 OECD report provided this summary: "The road network is extensive but of poor quality, railways are in disrepair and only slowly being reactivated after having been shut down in the 1990s. Seaports’ quality and capacity are deficient. Internal transportation overly relies on private road vehicles as the public transport system, especially railways, is inadequate."Railways
*total:
*narrow gauge: of gauge ( electrified)
Road transportation
The road system in Costa Rica is not as developed as it might be expected for such a country. However, there are some two-lane trunk roads with restricted access under development.
*Total:
*Paved:
*Unpaved: National road network
The Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MOPT), along with the National Road Council (Conavi), are the government organizations in charge of national road nomenclature and maintenance.
There are three levels in the national road network:
*Primary roads: These are trunk roads devised to connect important cities, most of the national roads are connected to the capital city, San José. There are 19 national primary roads, numbered between 1 and 39.
*Secondary roads: These are roads that connect different cities, or primary routes, directly. There are 129 national secondary roads, numbered between 100 and 257.
*Tertiary roads: These roads connect main cities to villages or residential areas, there are 175 national tertiary roads, numbered between 301 and 935.
Waterways
, seasonally navigable by small craftPipelines* refined products
Ports and harbors
.]]
In 2016, the government pledged ₡93 million ($166,000) for a new cruise ship terminal for Puerto Limón.Atlantic Ocean
* Port of Moín, operated by JAPDEVA.
* Port of Limón, operated by JAPDEVA.
* Moín Container Terminal, operated by APM Terminals.
Pacific Ocean
* Golfito
* Puerto Quepos
* Puntarenas (cruise ships only)
* Caldera Port
Merchant marine
*total: 2 ships ( or over) /
*ships by type:
** passenger/cargo ships 2
Airports
.]]
Total: 161 Airports - with paved runways * total: 47 <ref name=":0" />
* : 2
* : 2
* : 27
* under : 16
Airports - with unpaved runways
*total: 114 <ref name":0" />
*: 18
*under : 96
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Costa_Rica | 2025-04-05T18:27:17.520345 |
5559 | Public Force of Costa Rica | | commonname | abbreviation
| fictional | patch
| patchcaption | logo Public Force of Costa Rica emblem.svg
| logocaption | badge
| badgecaption | flag
| flagcaption | imagesize
| motto | mottotranslated
| formedmonthday | formedyear
| preceding1 = <!-- (...up to 6...) -->
| dissolved | superseding
| employees | volunteers
| budget | legalpersonality
| country = Costa Rica
| countryabbr | national
| subdivtype | subdivname
| subdivdab | map
| mapcaption | dmap
| sizearea | sizepopulation
| legaljuris | governingbody
| governingbodyscnd | constitution1 <!-- (...up to 6...) -->
| police = yes
| gendarmerie = yes
| speciality1 = border
| speciality2 = paramilitary
| overviewtype | overviewbody
| headquarters | sworntype
| sworn | unsworntype
| unsworn | electeetype
| minister1name | minister1pfo <!-- (...up to 6...) -->
| chief1name | chief1position <!-- (...up to 6...) -->
| parentagency = Ministry of Public Security
| child1agency = Air Vigilance Service
<!-- (...up to 8...) -->| unittype | unitname <!--NNN or -->
| officetype | officename <!--NNN or -->
| provideragency | uniformedas
| stationtype | anniversary1 1 December (Army Abolition Day)
<!-- (...up to 6...) -->| award1 = <!-- (...up to 6...) -->
| website =
| footnotes | reference
}}
The Public Force of Costa Rica () is the national law enforcement agency of Costa Rica, whose duties include internal security and border control.HistoryOn 1 December 1948, the President of Costa Rica, José Figueres Ferrer, abolished the Costa Rican military after his victory in the Costa Rican Civil War.
In a ceremony at the national capital of San José, Figueres symbolically broke a wall with a mallet, symbolizing an end to the military's existence. In 1949, the abolition of the Costa Rican military was introduced in Article 12 of the Constitution of Costa Rica. The budget previously dedicated to the military is now dedicated to security, education and culture. Costa Rica maintains Police Guard forces. The museum was placed in the as a symbol of commitment to culture. In 1986, President Oscar Arias Sánchez declared December 1 as the (Military abolition day) with Law #8115. Unlike its neighbors, Costa Rica has not endured a civil war since 1948. Costa Rica maintains small forces capable of law enforcement, but has no permanent standing army.
Public Force of the Ministry of Public Security (1996)
In 1996, the Ministry of Public Security established the or Public Force, a gendarmerie which reorganised and eliminated the Civil Guard, Rural Assistance Guard, and Frontier Guards as separate entities. They are now under the Ministry and operate on a geographic command basis performing ground security, law enforcement, counter-narcotics, border patrol, and tourism security functions. The Costa Rica Coast Guard also operates directly under the Ministry but is not a part of the Public Force proper.
Outside the Fuerza Pública, there is a small Special Forces Unit, the Unidad Especial de Intervencion (UEI) or Special Intervention Unit, an elite commando force which trains with special forces from around the world, but is not part of the main police forces. Instead, it is part of the Intelligence and Security Directorate (DIS) which reports directly to the Minister of the Presidency. About 70-member strong, it is organized along military lines, although officially it is a civilian police unit.
The motto of the Public Force is "God, Fatherland, and Honour." Commissioner of Police Juan José Andrade Morales serves as its current Commissioner General.
Ranks
*Comisario de Policía/ Director general de la Fuerza Pública
*Comisionado de Policía
*Comandante de Policía
*Capitán de Policía
*Intendente
*Sub Intendente
*Sargento de Policía
*Inspector
*Agente 2
*Agente 1
Equipment
Small arms
{| class"wikitable" style"width:90%;"
|-
! width=16%| Name
! width=10%| Image
! width=15%| Caliber
! width=12%| Type
! width=10%| Origin
! width=28%| Notes
|-
! colspan="6"| Pistols
|-
| IWI Jericho 941
|
| rowspan="4" | 9×19mm
| rowspan="5" | Semi-automatic pistol
|
|
|-
| Beretta 92
|
|
|
|-
| Beretta M9
|
| <hr>
|
|-
| SIG Sauer P226
|
|
|
|-
| M1911
|
| .45 ACP
| rowspan="2" |
|
|-
| Smith & Wesson Model 10
|
| .38 Special
| Revolver
|
|-
! colspan="6"| Sub-machine guns
|-
| Heckler & Koch MP5
|
| rowspan="4" | 9×19mm
| rowspan="4" | Submachine gun
|
|
|-
| Uzi
|
|
|
|-
| MAB-38
|
|
|
|-
| SIG SG 556
|
| rowspan="7" | 5.56×45mm
| Assault rifle
|
|
|-
| IMI Galil
|
| Assault rifle
|
|
|-
| M16
|
| |.303 British
| Light machine gun
| rowspan="3" |
|
|-
| Browning M1919
|
| 7.62×51mm
| Light machine gun
|
|
|-
! colspan="6"| Grenade launchers
|-
| M79
|
| 40×46mm
| Grenade launcher
|
|
|}
See also
* List of countries without armed forces
* Special Intervention Unit (Costa Rica)
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180828024027/http://www.fuerzapublica.go.cr/ Fuerza Pública de Costa Rica.]
* [http://www.seguridadpublica.go.cr// Ministerio de Seguridad Pública.]
* [http://www.elespiritudel48.org/docu/h013.htm El Espíritu del 48: Abolición del Ejército] A brief history of the abolition of the military in Costa Rica.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20151031082529/https://fas.org/asmp/campaigns/smallarms/lainven.html Latin American Light Weapons National Inventories]
Category:Law enforcement in Costa Rica
Category:Law of Costa Rica | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Force_of_Costa_Rica | 2025-04-05T18:27:17.562923 |
5560 | Foreign relations of Costa Rica | Costa Rica is an active member of the international community and, in 1983, claimed it was for neutrality. Due to certain powerful constituencies favoring its methods, it has a weight in world affairs far beyond its size. The country lobbied aggressively for the establishment of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and became the first nation to recognize the jurisdiction of the Inter-American Human Rights Court, based in San José.
The foreign affairs of the Republic of Costa Rica are a function of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship.
History
Costa Rica gained election as president of the Group of 77 in the United Nations in 1995. That term ended in 1997 with the South-South Conference held in San Jose.
Costa Rica occupied a nonpermanent seat in the Security Council from 1997 to 1999 and exercised a leadership role in confronting crises in the Middle East and Africa, as well as in the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It is currently a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. On 1 January 2008 Costa Rica started its third year term on the Security Council.
Costa Rica strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement UN Security Council Resolution 940, which led to the restoration of the democratically elected Government of Haiti in October 1994. Costa Rica was among the first to call for a postponement of the 22 May elections in Peru when international observer missions found electoral machinery not prepared for the vote count.
Costa Rica is also a member of the International Criminal Court, without a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98).
Relations to Central America
In 1987, then President Óscar Arias authored a regional plan that served as the basis for the Esquipulas Peace Agreement and Arias was awarded the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize for his work. Arias also promoted change in the USSR-backed Nicaraguan government of the era. Costa Rica also hosted several rounds of negotiations between the Salvadoran Government and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, aiding El Salvador's efforts to emerge from civil war and culminating in that country's 1994 free and fair elections. Costa Rica has been a strong proponent of regional arms-limitation agreements. Former President Miguel Ángel Rodríguez recently proposed the abolition of all Central American militaries and the creation of a regional counternarcotics police force in their stead.
With the establishment of democratically elected governments in all Central American nations by the 1990s, Costa Rica turned its focus from regional conflicts to the pursuit of neoliberal policies on the isthmus. The influence of these policies, along with the US invasion of Panama, was instrumental in drawing Panama into the Central American model of neoliberalism. Costa Rica also participated in the multinational Partnership for Democracy and Development in Central America.
Regional political integration has not proven attractive to Costa Rica. The country debated its role in the Central American integration process under former President Calderon. Costa Rica has sought concrete economic ties with its Central American neighbors rather than the establishment of regional political institutions, and it chose not to join the Central American Parliament.
Costa Rica in the UN
Costa Rica has been an active member of the United Nations since its inception at the San Francisco Conference in 1945. Its first ambassador to the United Nations was Fernando Soto Harrison, the secretary of governance under President Picado.
Costa Rican Christiana Figueres was nominated for the post of UN secretary-general in July 2016.
Diplomatic relations
List of countries with which Costa Rica maintains diplomatic relations:
frameless|425x425px#CountryDate12346781113141516171819202122—23242627283031323334353637383941—4243444546474849505152535455565758596061626364656667686970717273747576777879808182838485868788899091929496979899100101102107108109114115116120Before 1999124140153157158160162
Bilateral relations
Country Formal Relations BeganNotes15 January 1997 The diplomatic relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Costa Rica were established on 15 January 1997.1981Both countries established diplomatic relations in September 1981.
Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.
Belize has an honorary consulate in San José.
Costa Rica has an embassy in Belmopan. See China–Costa Rica relations
Costa Rica maintained official relations with the Republic of China (commonly known as Taiwan) instead of the People's Republic of China (commonly known as China) until 1 June 2007, when it opened relations with China. Taiwan then broke relations on 7 June.
China has an embassy in San José.
Costa Rica has an embassy in Beijing.Soon after Fidel Castro declared Cuba a socialist state, Costa Rican President Mario Echandi Jiménez ended diplomatic relations on 10 September 1961 with the island through Executive Decree Number 2, in compliance with sanctions placed on Cuba by the Organization of American States. In 1995, Costa Rica established a consular office in Havana. Cuba opened a consular office in Costa Rica in 2001. Forty-seven years after the initial freeze, Costa Rican President Óscar Arias Sánchez announced on 18 March 2009 that normal relations were to be re-established, saying, "If we have been able to turn the page with regimes as profoundly different to our reality as occurred with the USSR or, more recently, with the Republic of China, how would we not do it with a country that is geographically and culturally much nearer to Costa Rica?" Arias also announced that both countries would exchange ambassadors. The next day, Cuba's government announced that it agreed to re-establishing relations.
Costa Rica has an embassy in Havana.
Cuba has an embassy in San José.17 April 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 April 1974.
Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States. India has honorary consulate in San José.
Costa Rica maintains an embassy in New Delhi.Costa Rica recognized Israel on 19 June 1948. The Embassy of Costa Rica was located in Tel Aviv until it moved to Jerusalem in 1982. As of 1984, Costa Rica and El Salvador were the only two countries that recognized Israel and also maintained an embassy in Jerusalem. In 2006, the Embassy of Costa Rica relocated to Tel Aviv; Costa Rican President Óscar Arias said the decision was intended to "rectify a historic error".
In December 2011, Rodrigo Carreras became the Costa Rican ambassador to Israel for the second time, after his posting there in the 1980s. Carreras' father, Benjamin Nunez, also served as the Costa Rican ambassador to Israel.
Costa Rica has an embassy in Tel Aviv.
Israel has an embassy in San José. See Costa Rica–Italy relations
Costa Rica has an embassy in Rome.
Italy has an embassy in San José.23 September 2013Costa Rica officially recognised the independence of the Republic of Kosovo on 17 February 2008. Costa Rica and Kosovo established diplomatic relations on 23 September 2013. 1838See Costa Rica–Mexico relations
Diplomatic relations between Mexico and Costa Rica began in 1838.
Costa Rica has an embassy in Mexico City.
Mexico has an embassy in San José.See Costa Rica–Russia relations
Holders of a Russian passport need a visa authorized by Costa Rica, or alternatively Costa Rican authorities will accept Russian nationals with a visa stamp for the European Union, Canada, US, South Korea, or Japan valid for 90 days after arrival; with a tourist visa, Russians can stay in Costa Rica for a maximum of 90 days. In order to get a tourist visa, the person needs to apply for it in the closest Costa Rican embassy to where the person is living. They must have a valid passport and either have an invitation letter or a bank statement with enough money to survive the length of the stay in Costa Rica, plus proof of onward travel (ticket to exit Costa Rica & legal ability to travel to the destination stated on the ticket). Holders of a Costa Rican passport also need a visa from Russian authorities.
Costa Rica has an embassy in Moscow.
Russia has an embassy in San José.1952Both countries have established diplomatic relations in 1952.
A number of bilateral agreements have been concluded and are in force between both countries.15 August 1962 1850See Costa Rica–Spain relations
Costa Rica has an embassy in Madrid.
Spain has an embassy in San José.15 January 1898See Costa Rica–Turkey relations
Costa Rica has an embassy in Ankara.
Turkey has an embassy in San José.
United States has an embassy in San José.See Costa Rica–Uruguay relations
Costa Rica has an embassy in Montevideo.
Uruguay has an embassy in San José.28 May 2014Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 2014 when first Ambassador of Zambia to Costa Rica (resident in Washington) Mr. Palan Mulonda presented his credentials to President Luis Guillermo Solís.
See also
List of diplomatic missions in Costa Rica
List of diplomatic missions of Costa Rica
Visa requirements for Costa Rican citizens
Sources | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Costa_Rica | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.003193 |
5561 | Computational linguistics | Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the computational modelling of natural language, as well as the study of appropriate computational approaches to linguistic questions. In general, computational linguistics draws upon linguistics, computer science, artificial intelligence, mathematics, logic, philosophy, cognitive science, cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, anthropology and neuroscience, among others.
Origins
The field overlapped with artificial intelligence since the efforts in the United States in the 1950s to use computers to automatically translate texts from foreign languages, particularly Russian scientific journals, into English. Since rule-based approaches were able to make arithmetic (systematic) calculations much faster and more accurately than humans, it was expected that lexicon, morphology, syntax and semantics can be learned using explicit rules, as well. After the failure of rule-based approaches, David Hays coined the term in order to distinguish the field from AI and co-founded both the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and the International Committee on Computational Linguistics (ICCL) in the 1970s and 1980s. What started as an effort to translate between languages evolved into a much wider field of natural language processing.
Annotated corpora
In order to be able to meticulously study the English language, an annotated text corpus was much needed. The Penn Treebank was one of the most used corpora. It consisted of IBM computer manuals, transcribed telephone conversations, and other texts, together containing over 4.5 million words of American English, annotated using both part-of-speech tagging and syntactic bracketing.
Japanese sentence corpora were analyzed and a pattern of log-normality was found in relation to sentence length.
Modeling language acquisition
The fact that during language acquisition, children are largely only exposed to positive evidence, meaning that the only evidence for what is a correct form is provided, and no evidence for what is not correct, was a limitation for the models at the time because the now available deep learning models were not available in late 1980s.
It has been shown that languages can be learned with a combination of simple input presented incrementally as the child develops better memory and longer attention span, which explained the long period of language acquisition in human infants and children. Enabled to learn as children might, models were created based on an affordance model in which mappings between actions, perceptions, and effects were created and linked to spoken words. Crucially, these robots were able to acquire functioning word-to-meaning mappings without needing grammatical structure.
Using the Price equation and Pólya urn dynamics, researchers have created a system which not only predicts future linguistic evolution but also gives insight into the evolutionary history of modern-day languages.
Chomsky's theories
Noam Chomsky's theories have influenced computational linguistics, particularly in understanding how infants learn complex grammatical structures, such as those described in Chomsky normal form. Attempts have been made to determine how an infant learns a "non-normal grammar" as theorized by Chomsky normal form.
See also
Artificial intelligence in fiction
Collostructional analysis
Computational lexicology
Computational Linguistics (journal)
Computational models of language acquisition
Computational semantics
Computational semiotics
Computer-assisted reviewing
Dialog systems
Glottochronology
Grammar induction
Human speechome project
Internet linguistics
Lexicostatistics
Mathematical linguistics
Natural language processing
Natural language user interface
Quantitative linguistics
Semantic relatedness
Semantometrics
Systemic functional linguistics
Translation memory
Universal Networking Language
References
Further reading
Steven Bird, Ewan Klein, and Edward Loper (2009). Natural Language Processing with Python. O'Reilly Media. .
Daniel Jurafsky and James H. Martin (2008). Speech and Language Processing, 2nd edition. Pearson Prentice Hall. .
Mohamed Zakaria KURDI (2016). Natural Language Processing and Computational Linguistics: speech, morphology, and syntax, Volume 1. ISTE-Wiley. .
Mohamed Zakaria KURDI (2017). Natural Language Processing and Computational Linguistics: semantics, discourse, and applications, Volume 2. ISTE-Wiley. .
External links
Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)
ACL Anthology of research papers
ACL Wiki for Computational Linguistics
CICLing annual conferences on Computational Linguistics
Computational Linguistics – Applications workshop
Language Technology World
Resources for Text, Speech and Language Processing
The Research Group in Computational Linguistics
Category:Formal sciences
Category:Cognitive science
Category:Computational fields of study
* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.019942 |
5565 | Geography of Ivory Coast | <br />Liberia: <br />Ghana: <br />Guinea: <br />Burkina Faso: <br />Mali:
| highest point Mont Nimba<br />
| lowest point = Gulf of Guinea<br />0 m/ft (sea level)
| longest river = Bandama River
| largest lake = Lake Kossou}}
(June)]]
Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire) is a sub-Saharan nation in southern West Africa located at 8° N, 5° W. The country is approximately square in shape.
Area and borders
;Area
* Total:
**Country rank in the world: 68th
* Land:
* Water:
;Area comparatives
* Australia comparative: approximately larger than Victoria
* Canada comparative: approximately half the size of Manitoba
* United Kingdom comparative: approximately larger than the United Kingdom
* United States comparative: slightly larger than New Mexico
* EU comparative: slightly larger than Poland
;Land borders
*Bordering countries:
** Liberia to the southwest for
** Guinea to the northwest for
** Mali to the north-northwest for
** Burkina Faso to the north-northeast for
** Ghana to the east for
*Total:
; Coastline
* on Gulf of Guinea Maritime claims Ivory Coast makes maritime claims of as an exclusive economic zone, of territorial sea, and a continental shelf.
Terrain and topography
Ivory Coast's terrain can generally be described as a large plateau rising gradually from sea level in the south to almost elevation in the north. The nation's natural resources have made it a comparatively prosperous nation in the African economy.
The southeastern region of Ivory Coast is marked by coastal inland lagoons that start at the Ghanaian border and stretch along the eastern half of the coast. The southern region, especially the southwest, is covered with dense tropical moist forest. The Eastern Guinean forests extend from the Sassandra River across the south-central and southeast portion of Ivory Coast and east into Ghana, while the Western Guinean lowland forests extend west from the Sassandra River into Liberia and southeastern Guinea. The mountains of Dix-Huit Montagnes region, in the west of the country near the border with Guinea and Liberia, are home to the Guinean montane forests.
The Guinean forest-savanna mosaic belt extends across the middle of the country from east to west, and is the transition zone between the coastal forests and the interior savannas. The forest-savanna mosaic interlaces forest, savanna and grassland habitats. Northern Ivory Coast is part of the West Sudanian Savanna ecoregion of the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. It is a zone of lateritic or sandy soils, with vegetation decreasing from south to north.
The terrain is mostly flat to undulating plain, with mountains in the northwest. The lowest elevation is at sea level on the coast. The highest elevation is Mount Nimba, at in the far west of the country along the border with Guinea and Liberia.
Rivers
The Cavalla River drains the western border area of the Ivory Coast and eastern Liberia. It forms the southern two-thirds of the border between Liberia and Ivory Coast.
The Sassandra River forms in the Guinea highlands and drains much of the western part of the Ivory Coast east of the Cavalla River.
The Bandama River is the longest river in the Ivory Coast, with a length of some , draining the east central part of the country. In 1973 the Kossou Dam was constructed at Kossou on the Bandama, creating Lake Kossou. The capital, Yamoussoukro, is located near the river south of the lake.
The Komoé River originates on the Sikasso Plateau of Burkina Faso, and briefly forms the border between Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast before entering Ivory Coast. It drains the northeastern and easternmost portions of the country before emptying into the eastern end of the Ébrié Lagoon and ultimately the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. Its waters contribute to the Comoé National Park.Climate
The climate of Ivory Coast is generally hot and humid. Most of the country has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw), although the Upper Guinean forest region bordering Liberia has a tropical monsoon climate (Am). In the north, there are three seasons: warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), and hot and wet (June to October), whilst in the south there are two rainy seasons between April and July, and between October and November, a longer dry season from December to February, and a shorter dry season in August. Temperatures average between and range from .
Crops and natural resources
Ivory Coast has a large timber industry due to its large forest coverage. The nation's hardwood exports match those of Brazil. In recent years there has been much concern about the rapid rate of deforestation. Rainforests are being destroyed at a rate sometimes cited as the highest in the world. The only forest left completely untouched in Ivory Coast is Taï National Park (Parc National de Taï), a area in the country's far southwest that is home to over 150 endemic species and many other endangered species such as the Pygmy hippopotamus and 11 species of monkeys.
Nine percent of the country is arable land. Ivory Coast is the world's largest producer of cocoa, a major national cash crop. Other chief crops include coffee, bananas, and oil palms, which produce palm oil and kernels. Mineral resources include petroleum, natural gas, diamonds, manganese, iron, cobalt, bauxite, copper, gold, nickel, tantalum, silica sand, clay, palm oil. Hydropower is also generated.
Natural hazards
thumb|
A woman carries water from the Dou River, mountain Dent de Man
Natural hazards include the heavy surf and the lack of natural harbors on the coast; during the rainy season torrential flooding is a danger.
Extreme points
Extreme points are the geographic points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location in the country.
* Northernmost point — the point at which the border with Mali enters the Bagoé River, Savanes District
*Southernmost point — Boubré, Bas-Sassandra District
* Easternmost point — unnamed location on the border with Ghana south-west of the town of Tambi, Zanzan District
* Westernmost point — unnamed location on the border with Liberia in the Nuon River west of Klobli, Montagnes District
See also
*Subdivisions of Ivory Coast
References
*
*This article uses information published in the World Almanac and Book of Facts (2006) as a reference. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Ivory_Coast | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.048720 |
5566 | Demographics of Ivory Coast | |1990|11,925,000|2000|16,455,000|2010|21,530,000|2020|26,812,000}}
Demographic features of the population of Ivory Coast include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
Population
<gallery>
Cote d Ivoire demography.png|Demographics of Ivory Coast, Data of Our World in Data, year 2022; Number of inhabitants in thousands.
Côte d'Ivoire Population 1950-2021 Forecast 2022-2032 UN World Population Prospects 2022.svg|Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimates
</gallery>
According to the total population was in , compared to only 2 630 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 40.9%, 55.3% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.8% was 65 years or older
.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: right;"
|-
!
! width="80pt"|Total population
! width="80pt"|Population aged 0–14 (%)
! width="80pt"|Population aged 15–64 (%)
! width="80pt"|Population aged 65+ (%)
|-
| 1950
|2 630 000||43.1||54.6||2.3
|-
| 1955
|3 072 000||43.0||54.6||2.4
|-
| 1960
|3 638 000||43.8||53.8||2.4
|-
| 1965
|4 424 000||44.6||52.9||2.4
|-
| 1970
|5 416 000||45.0||52.6||2.4
|-
| 1975
|6 768 000||45.4||52.2||2.4
|-
| 1980
|8 501 000||45.9||51.7||2.5
|-
| 1985
|10 495 000||45.9||51.5||2.5
|-
| 1990
|12 518 000||45.1||52.2||2.6
|-
| 1995
|14 677 000||43.2||54.0||2.8
|-
| 2000
|16 582 000||41.8||55.1||3.1
|-
| 2005
|18 021 000||41.8||54.8||3.5
|-
| 2010
|19 738 000||40.9||55.3||3.8
|}
Vital statistics
Registration of vital events in the Ivory Coast is not complete. The website Our World in Data prepared the following estimates based on statistics from the Population Department of the United Nations.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:right"
|-
!
! style="width:80pt;"|Mid-year population (thousands)
! style="width:80pt;"|Live births (thousands)
! style="width:80pt;"|Deaths (thousands)
! style="width:80pt;"|Natural change (thousands)
! style="width:80pt;"|Crude birth rate (per 1000)
! style="width:80pt;"|Crude death rate (per 1000)
! style="width:80pt;"|Natural change (per 1000)
! style="width:80pt;"|Total fertility rate (TFR)
! style="width:80pt;"|Infant mortality (per 1000 live births)
! style="width:80pt;"|Life expectancy (in years)
|-
|1950
|2 737
| 150
| 89
| 60
|54.8
|32.7
|22.1
|7.61
|238.7
|32.11
|-
|1951
| 2 814
| 154
| 91
| 63
|55.0
|32.5
|22.5
|7.61
|236.9
|32.41
|-
|1952
| 2 894
| 159
| 92
| 67
|style="color:blue"|55.1
|31.9
|23.1
|7.61
|233.1
|32.93
|-
|1953
| 2 976
| 164
| 93
| 71
|55.1
|31.4
|23.7
|7.60
|229.1
|33.51
|-
|1954
| 3 063
| 168
| 94
| 74
|55.1
|30.8
|24.3
|7.60
|224.9
|34.09
|-
|1955
| 3 154
| 173
| 95
| 78
|55.0
|30.2
|24.8
|7.60
|220.5
|34.69
|-
|1956
| 3 251
| 178
| 96
| 82
|54.9
|29.5
|25.4
|7.60
|215.8
|35.42
|-
|1957
| 3 354
| 183
| 97
| 87
|54.8
|28.9
|25.9
|7.60
|211.2
|36.06
|-
|1958
| 3 463
| 189
| 97
| 91
|54.6
|28.2
|26.5
|7.61
|206.7
|36.77
|-
|1959
| 3 581
| 194
| 98
| 96
|54.4
|27.5
|26.9
|7.61
|202.2
|37.44
|-
|1960
| 3 709
| 202
| 99
| 103
|54.8
|26.9
|27.9
|7.69
|197.8
|38.11
|-
|1961
| 3 848
| 210
| 101
| 109
|54.7
|26.3
|28.4
|7.72
|193.5
|38.74
|-
|1962
| 3 998
| 218
| 102
| 115
|54.7
|25.7
|28.9
|7.75
|189.1
|39.40
|-
|1963
| 4 156
| 226
| 104
| 121
|54.6
|25.2
|29.3
|7.78
|185.0
|39.96
|-
|1964
| 4 321
| 234
| 106
| 128
|54.4
|24.6
|29.8
|7.81
|181.0
|40.61
|-
|1965
| 4 493
| 242
| 108
| 135
|54.2
|24.1
|30.1
|7.84
|177.0
|41.18
|-
|1966
| 4 671
| 251
| 109
| 142
|53.9
|23.5
|30.5
|7.87
|173.1
|41.82
|-
|1967
| 4 857
| 260
| 111
| 149
|53.7
|22.9
|30.8
|7.89
|169.2
|42.42
|-
|1968
| 5 050
| 269
| 113
| 157
|53.5
|22.4
|31.1
|7.91
|165.3
|43.02
|-
|1969
| 5 255
| 278
| 114
| 164
|53.2
|21.8
|31.4
|7.93
|161.5
|43.64
|-
|1970
| 5 477
| 288
| 115
| 173
|52.8
|21.2
|31.7
|style="color:blue"|7.94
|157.6
|44.33
|-
|1971
| 5 719
| 299
| 117
| 182
|52.6
|20.6
|32.1
|7.94
|153.4
|44.99
|-
|1972
| 5 980
| 311
| 118
| 193
|52.4
|19.9
|32.5
|7.94
|148.9
|45.72
|-
|1973
| 6 257
| 325
| 120
| 206
|52.3
|19.3
|33.1
|7.94
|144.3
|46.56
|-
|1974
| 6 549
| 340
| 121
| 219
|52.2
|18.5
|33.6
|7.93
|139.4
|47.51
|-
|1975
| 6 854
| 354
| 122
| 232
|51.9
|17.9
|34.0
|7.91
|134.6
|48.35
|-
|1976
| 7 143
| 368
| 122
| 246
|51.6
|17.1
|34.4
|7.88
|129.8
|49.29
|-
|1977
| 7 416
| 389
| 123
| 266
|52.5
|16.6
|35.9
|7.83
|125.4
|50.18
|-
|1978
| 7 701
| 404
| 124
| 280
|52.5
|16.2
|36.3
|7.67
|121.3
|50.93
|-
|1979
| 7 996
| 423
| 126
| 297
|52.8
|15.7
|37.1
|7.63
|117.8
|51.68
|-
|1980
| 8 304
| 438
| 127
| 311
|52.8
|15.3
|style="color:blue"|37.5
|7.59
|114.8
|52.27
|-
|1981
| 8 622
| 452
| 129
| 323
|52.4
|14.9
|37.4
|7.54
|112.3
|52.73
|-
|1982
| 8 948
| 463
| 131
| 332
|51.7
|14.7
|37.1
|7.49
|110.2
|52.92
|-
|1983
| 9 282
| 473
| 133
| 340
|51.0
|14.4
|36.6
|7.42
|108.5
|53.17
|-
|1984
| 9 621
| 481
| 137
| 344
|50.0
|14.2
|35.8
|7.35
|107.1
|53.04
|-
|1985
| 9 964
| 487
| 139
| 348
|48.9
|14.0
|34.9
|7.27
|106.1
|53.17
|-
|1986
| 10 309
| 493
| 142
| 351
|47.8
|13.8
|34.1
|7.18
|105.3
|53.20
|-
|1987
| 10 663
| 498
| 145
| 353
|46.7
|13.6
|33.1
|7.08
|104.9
|53.19
|-
|1988
| 11 043
| 507
| 149
| 358
|46.0
|13.5
|32.5
|6.96
|104.7
|53.02
|-
|1989
| 11 463
| 539
| 157
| 382
|47.1
|13.7
|33.4
|6.84
|104.8
|52.88
|-
|1990
| 11 911
| 556
| 165
| 391
|46.8
|13.9
|32.9
|6.73
|105.0
|52.60
|-
|1991
| 12 369
| 573
| 173
| 400
|46.4
|14.0
|32.4
|6.61
|105.3
|52.32
|-
|1992
| 12 838
| 589
| 181
| 409
|46.0
|14.1
|31.9
|6.46
|105.5
|52.14
|-
|1993
| 13 316
| 604
| 188
| 415
|45.4
|14.2
|31.3
|6.31
|105.6
|51.93
|-
|1994
| 13 802
| 618
| 196
| 423
|44.9
|14.2
|30.7
|6.16
|105.6
|51.74
|-
|1995
| 14 300
| 642
| 203
| 439
|45.0
|14.2
|30.8
|6.09
|105.4
|51.61
|-
|1996
| 14 811
| 663
| 211
| 452
|44.8
|14.3
|30.6
|6.01
|104.7
|51.52
|-
|1997
| 15 335
| 689
| 218
| 470
|45.0
|14.3
|30.7
|5.95
|103.7
|51.45
|-
|1998
| 15 859
| 716
| 228
| 488
|45.2
|14.4
|30.8
|5.90
|102.5
|51.11
|-
|1999
| 16 346
| 737
| 235
| 501
|45.0
|14.4
|30.6
|5.85
|101.0
|50.96
|-
|2000
| 16 800
| 753
| 241
| 513
|44.8
|14.3
|30.5
|5.81
|99.3
|50.84
|-
|2001
| 17 245
| 764
| 245
| 519
|44.2
|14.1
|30.0
|5.76
|97.4
|50.81
|-
|2002
| 17 684
| 772
| 247
| 525
|43.5
|13.9
|29.6
|5.71
|95.4
|50.89
|-
|2003
| 18 116
| 782
|style="color:red"| 251
| 531
|43.0
|13.8
|29.2
|5.64
|93.3
|50.95
|-
|2004
| 18 545
| 785
| 250
| 535
|42.2
|13.5
|28.8
|5.55
|91.0
|51.36
|-
|2005
| 18 970
| 792
| 250
| 542
|41.6
|13.1
|28.5
|5.46
|88.6
|51.82
|-
|2006
| 19 394
| 796
| 248
| 548
|40.9
|12.8
|28.2
|5.38
|86.4
|52.36
|-
|2007
| 19 818
| 800
| 246
| 554
|40.2
|12.4
|27.9
|5.30
|84.1
|52.97
|-
|2008
| 20 244
| 806
| 243
| 563
|39.7
|12.0
|27.7
|5.22
|81.6
|53.65
|-
|2009
| 20 678
| 813
| 239
| 574
|39.2
|11.5
|27.7
|5.15
|78.9
|54.39
|-
|2010
| 21 120
| 823
| 237
| 585
|38.8
|11.2
|27.6
|5.09
|76.6
|55.02
|-
|2011
| 21 563
| 832
| 236
| 595
|38.4
|10.9
|27.5
|5.03
|74.6
|55.52
|-
|2012
| 22 011
| 833
| 232
| 601
|37.7
|10.5
|27.2
|4.97
|72.6
|56.16
|-
|2013
| 22 469
| 837
| 229
| 609
|37.1
|10.1
|27.0
|4.92
|70.6
|56.75
|-
|2014
| 22 996
| 842
| 227
| 616
|36.6
|9.8
|26.8
|4.87
|68.5
|57.21
|-
|2015
| 23 597
| 857
| 225
| 631
|36.3
|9.5
|26.7
|4.81
|66.6
|57.76
|-
|2016
| 24 214
| 871
| 227
| 644
|36.0
|9.4
|26.6
|4.76
|65.1
|58.06
|-
|2017
| 24 848
| 892
| 228
| 664
|35.9
|9.2
|26.7
|4.74
|63.5
|58.48
|-
|2018
| 25 494
| 893
| 229
| 664
|35.0
|9.0
|26.0
|4.61
|61.7
|58.85
|-
|2019
| 27 828
| 967
| 239
| 728
|34.3
|8.5
|25.8
|4.52
|57.8
|60.3
|-
|2020
| 28 558
| 973
| 246
| 727
|33.7
|8.5
|25.2
|4.46
|56.2
|60.1
|-
|2021
| 29 273
| 981
| 248
| 732
| 33.1
| 8.4
|24.7
|4.41
|54.6
|60.3
|-
|2022
| 30 006
| 988
| 238
| 750
| 32.5
| 7.8
|24.7
|4.35
|53.1
|61.6
|-
|2023
| 30 784
| 997
| 239
| 758
|style="color:red"|32.9
| 7.7
|24.3
|style="color:red"|4.28
|51.7
|61.9
|-
|}
Age distribution
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 11 708 244
| align="right" | 10 963 087
| align="right" | 22 671 331
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 1 902 052
| align="right" | 1 784 695
| align="right" | 3 686 747
| align="right" | 16.26
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 1 635 039
| align="right" | 1 530 608
| align="right" | 3 165 647
| align="right" | 13.96
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 1 391 732
| align="right" | 1 237 225
| align="right" | 2 628 957
| align="right" | 11.60
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 1 075 555
| align="right" | 1 039 026
| align="right" | 2 114 581
| align="right" | 9.33
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 1 022 190
| align="right" | 1 083 404
| align="right" | 2 105 594
| align="right" | 9.29
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 997 460
| align="right" | 1 052 924
| align="right" | 2 050 384
| align="right" | 9.04
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 908 792
| align="right" | 861 990
| align="right" | 1 770 782
| align="right" | 7.81
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 744 301
| align="right" | 615 168
| align="right" | 1 359 469
| align="right" | 6.00
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 555 990
| align="right" | 446 595
| align="right" | 1 002 585
| align="right" | 4.42
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 419 350
| align="right" | 361 691
| align="right" | 781 041
| align="right" | 3.45
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 337 817
| align="right" | 304 158
| align="right" | 641 975
| align="right" | 2.83
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 240 117
| align="right" | 205 324
| align="right" | 445 441
| align="right" | 1.96
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 183 494
| align="right" | 154 187
| align="right" | 337 681
| align="right" | 1.49
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 118 203
| align="right" | 109 006
| align="right" | 227 209
| align="right" | 1.00
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 78 643
| align="right" | 76 904
| align="right" | 155 547
| align="right" | 0.69
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 44 041
| align="right" | 44 520
| align="right" | 88 561
| align="right" | 0.39
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 25 866
| align="right" | 28 818
| align="right" | 54 684
| align="right" | 0.24
|-
| align="right" | 85–89
| align="right" | 9 206
| align="right" | 9 561
| align="right" | 18 767
| align="right" | 0.08
|-
| align="right" | 90–94
| align="right" | 4 183
| align="right" | 5 187
| align="right" | 9 370
| align="right" | 0.04
|-
| align="right" | 95–99
| align="right" | 8 982
| align="right" | 8 573
| align="right" | 17 555
| align="right" | 0.08
|-
| align="right" | 100+
| align="right" | 1 842
| align="right" | 2 452
| align="right" | 4 294
| align="right" | 0.02
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 4 928 823
| align="right" | 4 552 528
| align="right" | 9 481 351
| align="right" | 41.82
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 6 485 066
| align="right" | 6 124 467
| align="right" | 12 609 533
| align="right" | 55.62
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 290 966
| align="right" | 285 021
| align="right" | 575 987
| align="right" | 2.54
|-
| align="right" | Unknown
| align="right" | 3 389
| align="right" | 1 071
| align="right" | 4 460
| align="right" | 0.02
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 13 645 276
| align="right" | 12 808 266
| align="right" | 26 453 542
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 2 215 581
| align="right" | 2 078 290
| align="right" | 4 293 871
| align="right" | 16.23
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 1 904 038
| align="right" | 1 738 782
| align="right" | 3 687 820
| align="right" | 13.94
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 1 619 573
| align="right" | 1 444 494
| align="right" | 3 064 067
| align="right" | 11.58
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 1 250 259
| align="right" | 1 215 196
| align="right" | 2 465 455
| align="right" | 9.32
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 1 193 895
| align="right" | 1 268 338
| align="right" | 2 462 233
| align="right" | 9.31
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 1 166 522
| align="right" | 1 233 446
| align="right" | 2 399 968
| align="right" | 9.07
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 1 062 194
| align="right" | 1 008 346
| align="right" | 2 070 540
| align="right" | 7.83
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 869 320
| align="right" | 719 869
| align="right" | 1 589 189
| align="right" | 6.01
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 649 418
| align="right" | 522 577
| align="right" | 1 171 995
| align="right" | 4.43
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 489 000
| align="right" | 423 104
| align="right" | 912 104
| align="right" | 3.45
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 393 651
| align="right" | 356 058
| align="right" | 749 709
| align="right" | 2.83
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 280 097
| align="right" | 241 108
| align="right" | 521 205
| align="right" | 1.97
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 214 207
| align="right" | 181 241
| align="right" | 395 448
| align="right" | 1.49
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 137 997
| align="right" | 128 232
| align="right" | 266 229
| align="right" | 1.01
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 92 168
| align="right" | 90 147
| align="right" | 182 315
| align="right" | 0.69
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 51 684
| align="right" | 52 248
| align="right" | 103 932
| align="right" | 0.39
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 30 133
| align="right" | 33 822
| align="right" | 63 955
| align="right" | 0.24
|-
| align="right" | 85–89
| align="right" | 10 708
| align="right" | 11 076
| align="right" | 21 784
| align="right" | 0.08
|-
| align="right" | 90–94
| align="right" | 4 816
| align="right" | 5 966
| align="right" | 10 782
| align="right" | 0.04
|-
| align="right" | 95+
| align="right" | 10 015
| align="right" | 10 926
| align="right" | 20 941
| align="right" | 0.08
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 5 739 192
| align="right" | 5 261 566
| align="right" | 11 000 758
| align="right" | 41.59
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 7 568 563
| align="right" | 7 214 283
| align="right" | 14 782 846
| align="right" | 55.88
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 337 521
| align="right" | 332 417
| align="right" | 669 938
| align="right" | 2.53
|-
|}
{{Hidden begin
|titlePopulation by Sex and Age Group (Census 08.XI.2021):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=2| Year
! colspan=2| Total
! colspan=2| Urban
! colspan=2| Rural
|-
! CBR !! TFR
! CBR !! TFR
! CBR !! TFR
|-
| 1994
| style="text-align:right;"| 41.3
| style="text-align:right;"| 5.7 (4.7)
| style="text-align:right;"| 38.8
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.7 (3.7)
| style="text-align:right;"| 42.5
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.4 (5.4)
|-
| 1998–99
| style="text-align:right;"| 39.3
| style="text-align:right;"| 5.2 (4.5)
| style="text-align:right;"| 36.5
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.0 (3.4)
| style="text-align:right;"| 40.7
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.0 (5.2)
|-
| 2005
| style="text-align:right;"| 38.4
| style="text-align:right;"| 4.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 35.1
| style="text-align:right;"| 3.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 40.8
| style="text-align:right;"| 5.5
|-
| 2011–12
| style="text-align:right;"| 36.8
| style="text-align:right;"| 5.0 (4.1)
| style="text-align:right;"| 31.9
| style="text-align:right;"| 3.7 (3.2)
| style="text-align:right;"| 40.3
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.3 (5.0)
|-
|2021
| style="text-align:right;"|32.4
| style="text-align:right;"|4.3 (3.9)
| style="text-align:right;"|29.9
| style="text-align:right;"|3.6 (3.3)
| style="text-align:right;"|35.4
| style="text-align:right;"|5.3 (4.9)
|-
|}
Fertility data as of 2011-2012 (DHS Program):
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="width:100pt;"| Region
! style="width:100pt;"| Total fertility rate
! style="width:100pt;"| Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant
! style="width:100pt;"| Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49
|-
| Centre || 6.1 || 10.6 || 6.9
|-
| Centre-Est || 4.6 || 7.7 || 5.4
|-
| Centre-Nord || 5.4 || 9.6 || 6.1
|-
| Centre-Ouest || 5.4 || 11.0 || 5.7
|-
| Nord || 6.1 || 9.7 || 6.9
|-
| Nord-Est || 6.0 || 11.5 || 6.6
|-
| Nord-Ouest || 6.8 || 12.4 || 7.1
|-
| Ouest || 6.1 || 12.4 || 6.2
|-
| Sud || 4.8 || 10.6 || 6.0
|-
| Sud-Ouest || 5.0 || 15.5 || 5.9
|-
|Ville d'Abidjan|| 3.1 || 6.9 || 4.2
|}
Ethnic groups
}}
Ivory Coast has more than 60 ethnic groups, usually classified into five principal divisions: Akan (east and center, including Lagoon peoples of the southeast), Krou (southwest), Southern Mandé (west), Northern Mandé (northwest), Sénoufo/Lobi (north center and northeast). The Baoulés, in the Akan division, probably comprise the largest single subgroup with 15%-20% of the population. They are based in the central region around Bouaké and Yamoussoukro. The Bétés in the Krou division, the Sénoufos in the north, and the Malinkés in the northwest and the cities are the next largest groups, with 10%-15% of the national population. Most of the principal divisions have a significant presence in neighboring countries.
Migration
Immigration
Of the more than 5 million non-Ivorian Africans living in Ivory Coast, one-third to one-half are from Burkina Faso; the rest are from Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Benin, Senegal, Liberia, and Mauritania.
Non-Africans in the country include French people, Lebanese people, Vietnamese people, Spaniards, Americans and Canadians.
Emigration
The table below shows the number of people born in Ivory Coast who have migrated to OECD countries only (the table only includes communities consisting of at least 1,000 members).
{| class"wikitable" border"1"
|-
! Country
! Ivorian-born population
! See also
|-
|
| 63,441
| Ivorians in France
|-
|
| 22,625
|
|-
|
| 7,595
| Ivorian Americans
|-
|
| 28,385
|
|-
|
| 2,794
| Ivorians in the United Kingdom
|-
|
| 1,363
|
|-
|
| 1,100
|
|}
Languages
French is the official language, while there are 60 living indigenous languages spoken in Ivory Coast. The Dioula dialect of Bambara is the most widely spoken one. Other language groups include the Gur languages, the Kru languages (including the Bété languages, Dida, Nyabwa, Wè, and Western Krahn), the Kwa languages (including Akan, Anyin, and Baoulé), and the Senufo languages.
Religion
Category:Society of Ivory Coast | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Ivory_Coast | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.146870 |
5567 | Politics of Ivory Coast | The politics of Ivory Coast takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Ivory Coast is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the President and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.
The capital since 1983 is Yamoussoukro; however, Abidjan remains the commercial center. Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan. A civil war was fought in Ivory Coast between 2002–2004 and a second civil war broke out in March 2011 following contested elections that saw president-elect Alassane Ouattara come into power in 2011 and reelected in 2015.
It is located in Africa.
Civil war
Troops, mostly hailing from the north of the country, mutinied in the early hours of 19 September 2002. They soon after launched attacks in many cities, including Abidjan. By lunchtime, they had control of the north of the country. Their principal claim relates to the definition of who is a citizen of Ivory Coast (and so who can stand for election as president), voting rights and their representation in government in Abidjan. The events in Abidjan shows that it is not a tribal issue, but a crisis of transition from a dictatorship to a democracy, with the clashes inherent in the definition of citizenship.
Forces involved in the conflict include:
Government forces, the National Army (FANCI), also called loyalists, formed and equipped essentially since 2003
The Young Patriots: nationalist groups aligned with President Laurent Gbagbo
Mercenaries recruited by President Gbagbo:
allegedly, Belarusians
some former combatants of Liberia, including under-17 youths, forming the so-called "Lima militia"
New Forces (Forces Nouvelles, FN), ex-northern rebels, who hold 60% of the country; their political expression is the Mouvement patriotique de Côte d'Ivoire, or MPCI
French forces: troops sent within the framework of Opération Licorne and under UN mandate (United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire), 3000 men in February 2003 and 4600 in November 2004;
Soldiers of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), White helmets, also under the UN.
Executive branch
|President
|Alassane Ouattara
|Rally of the Republicans
|4 December 2011
|-
|Vice-President
|Tiémoko Meyliet Koné
|Independent
|19 April 2022
|-
|Prime Minister
|position vacant
|}
Ivory Coast's 1959 constitution provides for strong presidency within the framework of a separation of powers. The executive is personified in the president, elected for a five-year term. The president is commander in chief of the armed forces, may negotiate and ratify certain treaties, and may submit a bill to a national referendum or to the National Assembly. According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly assumes the presidency in the event of a vacancy, and he completes the remainder of the deceased president's term. The cabinet is selected by and is responsible to the president. Changes are being proposed to some of these provisions, to extend term of office to 7 years, establish a senate, and make president of the senate interim successor to the president.
Laurent Gbagbo took power following a popular overthrow of the interim leader Gen. Robert Guéï who had claimed a dubious victory in presidential elections; Gen. Guéï himself had assumed power on 25 December 1999, following a military coup against the government of former President Henri Konan Bédié. Gbagbo was elected president in 2000 in an election boycotted by many oppositional forces. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The prime minister is appointed by the president. Alassane Ouattara is currently the president of Ivory Coast. He was reelected in the 2015 Ivorian presidential election.
After a new constitution was approved by referendum, it is expected President Alassane Ouattara would appoint a Vice-President before 2020.
The President and Vice-President will run on a joint ticket from 2020. They will be both elected for a five-year term, with only one possible reelection. The Vice-President will replace the President in case of death, resignation and any other vacancy.
In November 2020, Alassane Ouattara won third term in office in elections boycotted by the opposition. His opponents argued it was illegal for president Ouattara to run for a third term.
Legislative branch
thumb|National Assembly of Ivory Coast.
Parliament of Ivory Coast is a bicameral body composed by the National Assembly and the Senate of Ivory Coast. Prior to November 2016 and the future creation of the Senate, the Parliament of Ivory Coast was only composed of the National Assembly.
The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 255 members, elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies. It passes on legislation typically introduced by the president although it also can introduce legislation.
The Senate of Ivory Coast (Sénat) will have two-thirds of the senators indirectly elected and one-third appointed by the president-elect, elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies.
Ivory Coast is a one party dominant state with the Rally of the Republicans in power.
Judicial branch
The judicial system culminates in the Supreme Court of Ivory Coast. The High Court of Justice is competent to try government officials for major offenses. The Supreme Court or Court Supreme consists of four chambers: Judicial Chamber for criminal cases, Audit Chamber for financial cases, Constitutional Chamber for judicial review cases, and Administrative Chamber for civil cases; there is no legal limit to the number of members.
Political parties and elections
Presidential elections
Parliamentary elections
Administrative divisions
For administrative purposes, Ivory Coast is divided into 58 departments, each headed by a prefect appointed by the central government. There are 196 communes, each headed by an elected mayor, plus the city of Abidjan with ten mayors.
The 58 departments (départements, singular - département) are listed in the article Departments of Ivory Coast.
International organization participation
ACP, AfDB, AU, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, MONUC, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
References
External links and references
CIA World Factbook 2003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Ivory_Coast | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.174129 |
5570 | Transport in Ivory Coast | Ivory Coast invested remarkably in its transport system. Transport Infrastructures are much more developed than they are other West African countries despite a crisis that restrained their maintenance and development. Since its independence in 1960, Ivory Coast put an emphasis on increasing and modernizing the transport network for human as well as for goods. Major infrastructures of diverse nature were built including railways, roads, waterways, and airports. In spite of the crisis, neighbor countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Guinea) still strongly depend on the Ivorian transport network for importing, exporting, and transiting their immigrants to Ivory Coast.
Rail transport
The nation's railway system is part of a 1 260 km long route that links the country to Burkina Faso and Niger. 1 156 km of railroad links Abidjan to Ouagadougou, capital of Burkina Faso. Built during colonial era by the firm Abidjan-Niger (RAN), this railroad freed several landlocked countries among which were ex-Upper-Volta (Burkina Faso), Niger, and Mali. This railroad, operated by Sitarail, plays a key role as regards to the carriage of the goods (livestock) and the transport of people between Ivory Coast and border countries: 1 million tons of goods have transited in 2006. In 2005, despite the negative impact the crisis had on the sector, benefits engendered by transporting the goods and people via RAN, are estimated respectively at 16 309 et3 837billionCFA.
As of 2004, the railway network consisted of a state-controlled 660 km section of a 1,146 km narrow gauge railroad that ran north from Abidjan through Bouaké and Ferkéssédougou to Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
{| class"wikitable" style"width:100%"
!Railway links with adjacent countries
!Towns served by rail
!Maps
|-
| Burkina Faso - yes -
Ghana - no - break of gauge /
Mali - no - same gauge
Guinea - no - same gauge
Liberia - no - break of gauge / and
|Abidjan
Agboville
Bouaké
Katiola
Tafire
Ouangolodougou
Ferkessédougou
|[https://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/cotedivoire.pdf UN Map]
|}
Road transport
]]
Ivory Coast road network spreads over 85 000 km consisting of 75 000 unpaved, 65 000 km, and 224 km highways. It provides national and international traffic with neighbor countries.
The Trans–West African Coastal Highway provides a paved link to Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, with paved highways to landlocked Mali and Burkina Faso feeding into the coastal highway. When construction of roads and bridges in Liberia and Sierra Leone is complete, the highway will link to another seven Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) nations to the west and north-west. At the national level, vehicles are estimated at 600 000, which includes 75% of used cars (second hand) due to the low purchasing power since the beginning of the economic crisis. 20 000 new cars are registered every year. Although maintenance and renovations works are being carried out since middle-2011, over 80% of the Ivorian network is older than 20 years and therefore damaged.
In addition, a significant traffic exists throughout Abidjan. This traffic is mainly composed of taxi, buses and mini-buses locally referred to as Gbaka.
The country counts with two 4-laned motorways, the first one running from Abidjan to Yamoussoukro for a length of 224 km., and the second joining Abidjan to Grand-Bassam, with a length of 30 km. Both are built with modern technologies and under international standards of security.
Maritime transport
Landscape view of the Autonomous Port of Abidjan
Ivory Coast greatly contributed to developing maritime transport by building two ports on its seaside namely, autonomous port of Abidjan, sometimes referred to as "lung of Ivorian economy", and the San-Pedro port. The total traffic in 2005, by adding importation to exportation, was 18 661 784 tons for autonomous port of Abidjan and 1 001 991 tons for San-Pedro. The autonomous port of Abidjan cover a 770 hectares area and shelters 60% of the country industries. It is the first tuna fishing port in Africa. It contains 36 conventional berths spread over six kilometers of quays providing a capacity of sixty commercial ships with multiple special docks, a container terminal as well as several specialized and industrial berths. The other major port, the San-Pedro port, operates since 1971 and has two quays covering 18,727 m<sup>2</sup> area. Apart from those two major ports, there are also small ports at Sassandra, Aboisso, and Dabou.
Air transport
Ivory Coast has three international airports located in Abidjan, Yamoussoukro, and Bouaké. Fourteen smaller cities also possess regional airports, the most important of which are Daloa, Korhogo, Man, Odiénné and San-pédro. Twenty-seven aerodromes exists and are operated by a public establishment, the Anam (National agency for civil aviation and meteorology), except the activities carried out by the Asecna (Agency for security of air freight in Africa and Madagascar).
Since the outbreak of the crisis, only five of these airports are available. These are Abidjan, San-Pédro, Yamoussoukro, Daloa, and Touba. Regarding the International Airport of Abidjan, official statistics from 2005, showed 14 257 commercial movements (departures and arrivals); 745 180 commercial passengers (arrivals, departures, and transit) and 12 552 tons of commercial fret. The Airport of Abidjan covers 90% of the air traffic of Côte d'Ivoire and generate 95% of the overall profits of the sector.
The airport of Abidjan is operated by a private company, Aeria, created in association with the Commerce Chamber of Marseilles. Its traffic mainly encompasses European aeronautical companies (Air France, Brussels Airlines) and some African firms (South African Airways, Kenya Airways, Air Sénégal International). References
<references /> | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Ivory_Coast | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.183456 |
5571 | Armed Forces of the Republic of Ivory Coast | |image|caption Republic of Ivory Coast Coat of arms
|branches=
|commander-in-chief= President Alassane Ouattara
|minister= Téné Birahima Ouattara
|minister_title= Minister of Defense
|commander = Army corps general
|commander_title = Chief of the Defence Staff
|age|manpower_age15–49
|manpower_data|active 22,000 (estimate as of 2017)
|amount= million (fiscal year 1996)|> million (fiscal year 2009)}}
|percent_GDP=1.5% (fiscal year 2009)
|history=
|ranks=Military ranks of Ivory Coast
}}
The '''Armed Forces of Côte d'Ivoire''' (; "FACI")
are the armed forces of Ivory Coast, first formed after the country's independence in 1960.
History
The Ivorian military has its roots in the colonial armed forces of French West Africa, which were headquartered in Dakar, Senegal but possessed bases in several distinct military regions. Most Ivorian recruits who joined the colonial army were assigned to Senegalese units during this period, such as the Senegalese Tirailleurs. They served with distinction during both world wars, with 20,000 Ivorian soldiers fighting for the French during World War I and another 30,000 during World War II. By the end of 1962, the fledgling Ivorian armed forces had expanded rapidly into 5,000 soldiers attached to four battalions. Most of the initial recruits were drawn from the defunct colonial military establishment and had served in various French units, particularly the marine regiments. Conscription was instituted, although the large number of volunteers and low manpower requirements ensured it was only applied selectively. Two years later, an army mutiny led by disgruntled recruits and junior officers escalated into a major coup d'état which ousted Bédié and installed Guéï in his place. This triggered a civil revolt in Abidjan and two days of street battles between Gbagbo supporters and soldiers loyal to Guéï. The mutineers later took control of most of the northern administrative regions, carrying out a brutal campaign of ethnic cleansing and plunging the country into civil war. For a number of years, troops dispatched by France, ECOWAS, and a United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (ONUCI) effort enforced a buffer zone between the south and the rebel-held north. France maintained it would not take sides in the civil war, but allowed Ivorian military aircraft to cross the buffer zone and attack rebel positions. The Ivorian army was quickly overwhelmed, and Gbagbo deposed by the rebels. In 2014, some army units launched an abortive mutiny over wage disputes. The crisis ended when the Ivorian political leadership agreed to a new financial settlement with the FRCI. The effective strength of the army was about 3,000 troops for the first ten years of Ivorian independence, increasing to over 8,000 in the mid-1980s before declining steadily to about 5,500.
In 1987, the army was responsible for the country's five military regions, each of which was supervised by a colonel.
As of October 2011, previously active units around Abidjan reportedly included the:
*1st Infantry Battalion – (1er Bataillon d'infanterie des forces armées terrestres ivoiriennes), at Akouédo (new camp)
*Armoured Battalion – (Battaillon Blinde), at Akouédo (new camp). The new camp at Akouedo had reportedly been almost completely destroyed. appears to be at 5' 21'' 7 N, 3' 26'' 30 W.
*1st Parachute Commando Battalion – 1er Bataillon des Commandos Parachutistes (1er BCP), old camp at Akouedo, on the route to the village Ébrié.
The 2nd Infantry Battalion appears to have been based at Daloa for some time. A 2003 change of command ushered in the 16th commander of the unit, and there are also reports from 2009 and 2011.
Reported special forces units include:
*Group des Forces Speciales (GFS)
*Fusiliers Commandos d Air (FUSCOA)
*Détachement d' Intervention Rapide
*Fusiliers Marins Commandos (FUMACO/ naval commandos)
Current army equipment
The Ivorian army has traditionally been equipped with French weapons, most of which were delivered in the 1980s under military grants from French government. French training and operating techniques have been used since the establishment of the air force. The first aircraft were supplied in 1961 and included three Douglas C-47s and seven MH.1521 Broussard STOL utility aircraft. The first jet aircraft entered service in October 1980 which were six Alpha Jet CI light attack and advanced training aircraft; six more were ordered, but this was subsequently cancelled. However, another was purchased in 1983.
The 1979 air force had only transport and liaison aircraft. In 1987, the Library of Congress Country Study said that the Air Force's official name, Ivoirian Air Transport and Liaison Group (Groupement Aérien de Transport et de Liaison—GATL), "reflects an original mission focused more on logistics and transport rather than a combat force."
In 2004, following an air strikes on French peacekeepers by Ivorian forces, the French military destroyed all aircraft of the Air Force of Ivory Coast. President Gbagbo had previously ordered air strikes on Ivorian rebels as part of the civil war. On 6 November 2004, at least one Ivorian Sukhoi Su-25 bomber attacked a French peacekeeping position in the rebel town of Bouaké at 1 pm, killing nine French soldiers and wounding 31. An American development worker, reported to have been a missionary, was also killed. The Ivorian government claimed the attack on the French was unintentional, but the French insisted that the attack had been deliberate.
Several hours after the attack, French President Jacques Chirac ordered the destruction of the Ivorian air force and the seizure of Yamoussoukro airport. The French military performed an overland attack on the airport, destroying two Sukhoi Su-25 ground attack aircraft and three Mi-24 helicopter gunships. Two more military helicopters were destroyed during combat in the skies over Abidjan. France then flew in 300 troops and three Dassault Mirage F1 jet fighters based in nearby Gabon on standby. It is unknown whether any of these aircraft were truly operational. In addition, Deagel.com reported two Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 attack aircraft.Aircraft{| class"wikitable"
! style="text-align:center; background:#acc;"|Aircraft
! style="text-align: center; background:#acc;"|Origin
! style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;"|Type
! style="text-align:left; background:#acc;"| Variant
! style="text-align:center; background:#acc;"|In service
! style="text-align: center; background:#acc;"|Notes
|-
! style"align: center; background: lavender;" colspan"7" | Attack
|-
|Sukhoi Su-25
|Soviet Union
|Attack / Trainer
|
|2
|Utilised as trainers
|-
! style"align: center; background: lavender;" colspan"7" | Reconnaissance
|-
| King Air 90
| United States
| Reconnaissance
| 90
| 1
|
|-
! style"align: center; background: lavender;" colspan"7" | Transport
|-
|Antonov An-26
|Soviet Union
|Transport
|
|2
|
|}
Navy
Ivory Coast has a brown-water navy whose mission is coastal surveillance and security for the nation's 340-mile coastline.
{| class="wikitable"
! style="text-align:center; background:#aabccc;"|Vessel name
! style="text-align:center; background:#aabccc;"|Origin
! style="text-align:center; background:#aabccc;"|Builder
! style="text-align:center; background:#aabccc;"|Type
! style="text-align:center; background:#aabccc;"|In service
! style="text-align:center; background:#aabccc;"|Notes
|-
| L'intrepide
| France
|
| Patra Large patrol craft
| 1978
|
|-
| L'élephant
| France
| DCN Brest
| Batral-E Type LSM landing craft
| 1977
|
|}
Retired
Early vessels were a second hand submarine chaser (SC 1337) from the United States, and three former French Navy boats (one patrol craft, with two fast attack boats).International forcesA mutual defence accord signed with France in April 1961 provided for the stationing of French Armed Forces troops in Ivory Coast. The 43rd Marine Infantry Battalion of the French Army's Troupes de Marine () was based in Port Bouet adjacent to the Abidjan Airport from 1979 and had more than 500 troops assigned until 2011, when it appears to have been disbanded. The French military also maintained a force as part of Opération Licorne.
From summer 2011, Operation Licorne, the French force, previously over 5,000 strong, was roughly 700, and consists of Licorne headquarters, Battalion Licorne (BATLIC), seemingly made up of elements of the 2nd Marine Infantry Regiment and the Régiment d'infanterie-chars de marine, and a helicopter detachment.
The French military left the country at the Ivorian's request in 2025.
The United Nations has maintained the peacekeeping mission ONUCI in the country since 2004. On 28 February 2011 ONUCI consisted of 7,568 troops, 177 military observers, and numerous international civilians and Police; the mission had received helicopter and infantry reinforcement from UNMIL during the stand-off since the late 2010 elections which had been won by Alassane Ouattara.
National Gendarmerie
Since independence, the Ivory Coast has maintained a paramilitary gendarmerie force with a mandate to assist the police with law enforcement duties in the country's rural districts.
References
Works cited
* |authorInternational Institute for Strategic Studies |author-linkInternational Institute for Strategic Studies}}
Further reading
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080407113927/http://www.iss.co.za/AF/profiles/IvoryCoast/SecInfo.html Cote d'Ivoire - Security Information]
*'Old Rivalries stall Côte d'Ivoire army merger,' Jane's Defence Weekly, 12 November 2008, p. 23
*Arthur Boutellis, The Security Sector in Côte d'Ivoire: A Source of Conflict and a Key to Peace, International Peace Institute, Policy Papers – 26 May 2011
*
*
*Aline Leboeuf, "La réforme du secteur de sécurité à l'ivoirienne", March 2016 (French), accessible at [https://www.academia.edu/23694854/La_r%C3%A9forme_du_secteur_de_s%C3%A9curit%C3%A9_%C3%A0_livoirienne La réforme du secteur de sécurité à l'ivoirienne]
*Raphaël Outtara, 'Côte d'Ivoire,' in Alan Bryden, Boubacar N'Diaye and 'Funmi Olonisakin (Eds.), Challenges of Security Sector Governance in West Africa, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces/Lit Verlag, June 2008, pp 75–92
*Raphaël Outtara, 'Côte d'Ivoire,' in Alan Bryden, Boubacar N'Diaye, 'Security Sector Governance in Francophone West Africa: Realities and Opportunities,' DCAF/Lit Verlag, 2011.
*Savannah de Tessieres, 'Reforming the Ranks: Public Security in a Divided Côte d'Ivoire,' in Small Arms Survey 2011: States of Security, Small Arms Survey/Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies Geneva, Cambridge University Press, 2011
* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Republic_of_Ivory_Coast | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.229422 |
5573 | Croatia | :*
:*
:*
:*
:*
:*
:*
:*
:*
}}
| image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
| coa_size = 70
| anthem "Lijepa naša domovino"<br />("Our Beautiful Homeland")<br /><div style"display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div>
| image_map
| map_caption
| capital = Zagreb
| coordinates =
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = Croatian
| languages_type = Writing system
| languages = Latin
| ethnic_groups =
| ethnic_groups_year = 2021
| religion
*87.4% Christianity
**79.0% Catholicism
**3.3% Orthodoxy
**5.1% other Christian
|6.4% no religion |2.3% other |3.9% undeclared}}
| religion_year = 2021
| demonym =
| government_type = Unitary parliamentary republic
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 = Zoran Milanović
| leader_title2 = Prime Minister
| leader_name2 = Andrej Plenković
| leader_title3 = Speaker of the Parliament
| leader_name3 = Gordan Jandroković
| legislature = Sabor
| sovereignty_type = Establishment history
| established_event1 = Duchy
| established_date1 = 7th century
| established_event2 = Kingdom
| established_date2 = 925
| established_event3 = Croatia in personal union with Hungary
| established_date3 = 1102
| established_event4 = Joined Habsburg Monarchy
| established_date4 = 1 January 1527
| established_event5 = Secession from<br />Austria-Hungary
| established_date5 = 29 October 1918
| established_event6 = Creation of Yugoslavia
| established_date6 = 4 December 1918
| established_event7 = Socialist Republic of Croatia of Yugoslavia
| established_date7 = 9 May 1944
| established_event8 = Declaration of independence
| established_date8 = 25 June 1991
| area_km2 56,561
| area_rank = 124th
| area_sq_mi = 21,851
| percent_water = 1.09
| population_estimate 3,861,967
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank = 128th
| population_census 3,871,833
| population_census_year = 2021
| population_census_rank = 128th
| population_density_km2 = 68.4
| population_density_sq_mi | population_density_rank 152nd
| GDP_PPP $196.12 billion
| GDP_PPP_year = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank = 79th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita $51,223
| Gini_rank | HDI_year 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI = 0.878 <!--number only-->
| HDI_ref
| HDI_rank = 39th
| currency = Euro (€)
| currency_code = EUR
| time_zone = CET
| utc_offset = +1
| utc_offset_DST = +2
| time_zone_DST = CEST
| calling_code = +385
| patron_saint St. Joseph
| cctld =
}}
Croatia,, ; , }} officially the Republic of Croatia, , IPA transcription of "Republika Hrvatska", .}} is a country in Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Italy to the west. Its capital and largest city, Zagreb, forms one of the country's primary subdivisions, with twenty counties. Other major urban centers include Split, Rijeka and Osijek. The country spans , and has a population of nearly 3.9 million.
The Croats arrived in modern-day Croatia, then part of Roman Illyria, in the late 6th century. By the 7th century, they had organized the territory into two duchies. Croatia was first internationally recognized as independent on 7 June 879 during the reign of Duke Branimir. Tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. During the succession crisis after the Trpimirović dynasty ended, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of Austria to the Croatian throne. In October 1918, the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, independent from the Habsburg Empire, was proclaimed in Zagreb, and in December 1918, it merged into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, most of Croatia was incorporated into a Nazi-installed puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia. A resistance movement led to the creation of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, which after the war became a founding member and constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991, Croatia declared independence, and the War of Independence was successfully fought over the next four years.
Croatia is a republic and has a parliamentary system. It is a member of the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen Area, NATO, the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the OSCE, the World Trade Organization, a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean, and is currently in the process of joining the OECD. An active participant in United Nations peacekeeping, Croatia contributed troops to the International Security Assistance Force and was elected to fill a non-permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time.
Croatia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy. Service, industrial sectors, and agriculture dominate the economy. Tourism is a significant source of revenue for the country, with nearly 20 million tourist arrivals as of 2019. Since the 2000s, the Croatian government has heavily invested in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Croatia has also positioned itself as a regional energy leader in the early 2020s and is contributing to the diversification of Europe's energy supply via its floating liquefied natural gas import terminal off Krk island, LNG Hrvatska. Croatia provides social security, universal health care, and tuition-free primary and secondary education while supporting culture through public institutions and corporate investments in media and publishing.
Etymology
Croatia's non-native name derives from Medieval Latin , itself a derivation of North-West Slavic , by liquid metathesis from Common Slavic period *Xorvat, from proposed Proto-Slavic *Xъrvátъ which possibly comes from the 3rd-century Scytho-Sarmatian form attested in the Tanais Tablets as (, alternate forms comprise and ). The origin of the ethnonym is uncertain, but most probably is from Proto-Ossetian / Alanian *xurvæt- or *xurvāt-, in the meaning of "one who guards" ("guardian, protector").
The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym's native variation *xъrvatъ is of the variable stem, attested in the Baška tablet in style zvъnъmirъ kralъ xrъvatъskъ ("Zvonimir, Croatian king"), while the Latin variation Croatorum is archaeologically confirmed on a church inscription found in Bijaći near Trogir dated to the end of the 8th or early 9th century. The presumably oldest stone inscription with fully preserved ethnonym is the 9th-century Branimir inscription found near Benkovac, where Duke Branimir is styled Dux Cruatorvm, likely dated between 879 and 892, during his rule. The Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir I of Croatia, dated to 852 in a 1568 copy of a lost original, but it is not certain if the original was indeed older than the Branimir inscription. History Prehistory and antiquity
The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period. Neanderthal fossils dating to the middle Palaeolithic period were unearthed in northern Croatia, best presented at the Krapina site. Remnants of Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures were found in all regions. The largest proportion of sites is in the valleys of northern Croatia. The most significant are Baden, Starčevo, and Vučedol cultures. Iron Age hosted the early Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture.
The region of modern-day Croatia was settled by Illyrians and Liburnians, while the first Greek colonies were established on the islands of Hvar, Korčula, and Vis. In 9 AD, the territory of today's Croatia became part of the Roman Empire. Emperor Diocletian was native to the region. He had a large palace built in Split, to which he retired after abdicating in AD 305.
During the 5th century, the last de jure Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos ruled a small realm from the palace after fleeing Italy in 475.
Middle Ages
c. 925, during the reign of King Tomislav]]
The Roman period ends with Avar and Croat invasions in the late 6th and first half of the 7th century and the destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast, islands, and mountains. The city of Dubrovnik was founded by such survivors from Epidaurum.
There's some uncertainty about the ethnogenesis of Croats. The most accepted theory, the Slavic theory, proposes migration of White Croats from White Croatia during the Migration Period. Conversely, the Iranian theory proposes Sarmatian-Alanic origin of Proto-Croats, based on Tanais Tablets containing Ancient Greek inscriptions of given names Χορούαθος, Χοροάθος, and Χορόαθος (Khoroúathos, Khoroáthos, and Khoróathos) and their interpretation as anthroponyms related to the Croatian ethnonym.
According to the work De Administrando Imperio written by 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, Croats settled in the Roman province of Dalmatia in the first half of the 7th century after they defeated the Avars. Although there exist some scholarly disputes about the account's reliability and interpretation, recent archaeological data has established that the migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats was in the late 6th and early 7th century. Eventually, a dukedom was formed, Duchy of Croatia, ruled by Borna, as attested by chronicles of Einhard starting in 818. The record represents the first document of Croatian realms, vassal states of Francia at the time. Its neighbor to the North was Principality of Lower Pannonia, at the time ruled by duke Ljudevit who ruled the territories between the Drava and Sava rivers, centred from his fort at Sisak. This population and territory throughout history was tightly related and connected to Croats and Croatia.
Christianisation of Croats began in the 7th century at the time of archon Porga of Croatia, initially probably encompassed only the elite and related people, but mostly finished by the 9th century. The Frankish overlordship ended during the reign of Mislav, or his successor Trpimir I. The native Croatian royal dynasty was founded by duke Trpimir I in the mid 9th century, who defeated the Byzantine and Bulgarian forces. The first native Croatian ruler recognised by the Pope was duke Branimir, who received papal recognition from Pope John VIII on 7 June 879. Tomislav was the first king of Croatia, noted as such in a letter of Pope John X in 925. Tomislav defeated Hungarian and Bulgarian invasions. The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns of Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Dmitar Zvonimir (1075–1089). When Stjepan II died in 1091, ending the Trpimirović dynasty, Dmitar Zvonimir's brother-in-law Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed the Croatian crown. This led to a war and personal union with Hungary in 1102 under Coloman.
Union with Hungary and Austria
at the opening of the first modern Croatian Parliament (Sabor), June 5, 1848. The Croatian tricolour flag can be seen in the background.]]
For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by the Sabor (parliament) and a Ban (viceroy) appointed by the king. This period saw the rise of influential nobility such as the Frankopan and Šubić families to prominence, and ultimately numerous Bans from the two families. An increasing threat of Ottoman conquest and a struggle against the Republic of Venice for control of coastal areas ensued. The Venetians controlled most of Dalmatia by 1428, except the city-state of Dubrovnik, which became independent. Ottoman conquests led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava field and the 1526 Battle of Mohács, both ending in decisive Ottoman victories. King Louis II died at Mohács, and in 1527, the Croatian Parliament met in Cetin and chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia, under the condition that he protects Croatia against the Ottoman Empire while respecting its political rights. To replace the fleeing population, the Habsburgs encouraged Bosnians to provide military service in the Military Frontier.
The Croatian Parliament supported King Charles III's Pragmatic Sanction and signed their own Pragmatic Sanction in 1712. Subsequently, the emperor pledged to respect all privileges and political rights of the Kingdom of Croatia, and Queen Maria Theresa made significant contributions to Croatian affairs, such as introducing compulsory education.
was an autonomous kingdom within Austria-Hungary created in 1868 following the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement.]]
Between 1797 and 1809, the First French Empire increasingly occupied the eastern Adriatic coastline and its hinterland, ending the Venetian and the Ragusan republics, establishing the Illyrian Provinces. In response, the Royal Navy blockaded the Adriatic Sea, leading to the Battle of Vis in 1811. The Illyrian provinces were captured by the Austrians in 1813 and absorbed by the Austrian Empire following the Congress of Vienna in 1815. This led to the formation of the Kingdom of Dalmatia and the restoration of the Croatian Littoral to the Kingdom of Croatia under one crown. The 1830s and 1840s featured romantic nationalism that inspired the Croatian National Revival, a political and cultural campaign advocating the unity of South Slavs within the empire. Its primary focus was establishing a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian while promoting Croatian literature and culture. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Croatia sided with Austria. Ban Josip Jelačić helped defeat the Hungarians in 1849 and ushered in a Germanisation policy.
By the 1860s, the failure of the policy became apparent, leading to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The creation of a personal union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary followed. The treaty left Croatia's status to Hungary, which was resolved by the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868 when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united. The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control, while Rijeka retained the status of corpus separatum previously introduced in 1779. Renewed efforts to reform Austria-Hungary, entailing federalisation with Croatia as a federal unit, were stopped by World War I.
The World Wars and Yugoslavia
with the Kingdom of Serbia in 1918]]
On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Parliament (Sabor) declared independence and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, The Croatian Parliament never ratified the union with Serbia and Montenegro.
The political situation deteriorated further as Radić was assassinated in the National Assembly by NRS member, Serbian nationalist politician Puniša Račić in 1928, culminating in King Alexander I's establishment of the 6 January Dictatorship in 1929. The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitary constitution. The HSS, now led by Vladko Maček, continued to advocate federalisation, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia. The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban.
on 12 May 1945 by Croatian Partisans]]
In April 1941, Yugoslavia was occupied by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Following the invasion, a German-Italian installed puppet state named the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established. Most of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the region of Syrmia were incorporated into this state. Parts of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy, Hungary annexed the northern Croatian regions of Baranja and Međimurje. The NDH regime was led by Ante Pavelić and ultranationalist Ustaše, a fringe movement in pre-war Croatia. With German and Italian military and political support, the regime introduced racial laws and launched a genocide campaign against Serbs, Jews, and Roma. Many were imprisoned in concentration camps; the largest was the Jasenovac complex. Anti-fascist Croats were targeted by the regime as well. Several concentration camps (most notably the Rab, Gonars and Molat camps) were established in Italian-occupied territories, mostly for Slovenes and Croats. aided by Italy. Nazi German forces committed crimes and reprisals against civilians in retaliation for Partisan actions, such as in the villages of Kamešnica and Lipa in 1944.
A resistance movement emerged. On 22 June 1941, the 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment was formed near Sisak, the first military unit formed by a resistance movement in occupied Europe. That sparked the beginning of the Yugoslav Partisan movement, a communist, multi-ethnic anti-fascist resistance group led by Josip Broz Tito. In ethnic terms, Croats were the second-largest contributors to the Partisan movement after Serbs. By May 1944 (according to Tito), Croats made up 30% of the Partisan's ethnic composition, despite making up 22% of the population. The movement grew fast, and at the Tehran Conference in December 1943, the Partisans gained recognition from the Allies.
With Allied support in logistics, equipment, training and airpower, and with the assistance of Soviet troops taking part in the 1944 Belgrade Offensive, the Partisans gained control of Yugoslavia and the border regions of Italy and Austria by May 1945. Members of the NDH armed forces and other Axis troops, as well as civilians, were in retreat towards Austria. Following their surrender, many were killed in the Yugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators. In the following years, ethnic Germans faced persecution in Yugoslavia, and many were interned.
The political aspirations of the Partisan movement were reflected in the State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia, which developed in 1943 as the bearer of Croatian statehood and later transformed into the Parliament in 1945, and AVNOJ—its counterpart at the Yugoslav level.
with the Croatian communist leader Vladimir Bakarić at the celebration of May Day, shortly before Stepinac was arrested and convicted by the communists]]
Based on the studies on wartime and post-war casualties by demographer Vladimir Žerjavić and statistician Bogoljub Kočović, a total of 295,000 people from the territory (not including territories ceded from Italy after the war) died, which amounted to 7.3% of the population, among whom were 125–137,000 Serbs, 118–124,000 Croats, 16–17,000 Jews, and 15,000 Roma. In addition, from areas joined to Croatia after the war, a total of 32,000 people died, among whom 16,000 were Italians and 15,000 were Croats. Approximately 200,000 Croats from the entirety of Yugoslavia (including Croatia) and abroad were killed in total throughout the war and its immediate aftermath, approximately 5.4% of the population.
led Yugoslavia from 1944 to 1980; Pictured: Tito with the US president Richard Nixon in the White House, 1971]]
After World War II, Croatia became a single-party socialist federal unit of the SFR Yugoslavia, ruled by the Communists, but having a degree of autonomy within the federation. In 1967, Croatian authors and linguists published a Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language demanding equal treatment for their language.
The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and redistribution of the Yugoslav economy, culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971, which was suppressed by Yugoslav leadership. Still, the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units, basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents.
Following Tito's death in 1980, the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated. National tension was fanned by the 1986 SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo, and Montenegro. In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation. In the same year, the first multi-party elections were held in Croatia, while Franjo Tuđman's win exacerbated nationalist tensions. Some of the Serbs in Croatia left Sabor and declared autonomy of the unrecognised Republic of Serbian Krajina, intent on achieving independence from Croatia. Independence
As tensions rose, Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991. However, the full implementation of the declaration only came into effect after a three-month moratorium on the decision on 8 October 1991. In the meantime, tensions escalated into overt war when the Serbian-controlled Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and various Serb paramilitary groups attacked Croatia.
, the central place of holding the National Remembrance Day, public holiday on November 18, for all the victims of the war in Croatia and the Vukovar massacre, one of the symbolic and crucial events in the Croatian War of Independence 1991]]
By the end of 1991, a high-intensity conflict fought along a wide front reduced Croatia's control to about two-thirds of its territory. Serb paramilitary groups then began a campaign of killing, terror, and expulsion of the Croats in the occupied territories, killing thousands of Croat civilians and expelling or displacing as many as 400,000-500,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from their homes. Serbs living in Croatian towns, especially those near the front lines, were subjected to various forms of discrimination. Croatian Serbs in Eastern and Western Slavonia and parts of the Krajina were forced to flee or were expelled by Croatian forces, though on a restricted scale and in lesser numbers. The Croatian Government publicly deplored these practices and sought to stop them, indicating that they were not a part of the Government's policy.
raising the flag on the Knin fortress at a commemoration of the Operation Storm, the Croatian military action which liberated occupied Croatian territories in 1995]]
On 15 January 1992, Croatia gained diplomatic recognition by the European Economic Community, followed by the United Nations. The war effectively ended in August 1995 with a decisive victory by Croatia; the event is commemorated each year on 5 August as Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders. Following the Croatian victory, about 200,000 Serbs from the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina fled the region The remaining occupied areas were restored to Croatia following the Erdut Agreement of November 1995, concluding with the UNTAES mission in January 1998. Most sources number the war deaths at around 20,000.
After the end of the war, Croatia faced the challenges of post-war reconstruction, the return of refugees, establishing democracy, protecting human rights, and general social and economic development.
The 2000s were characterized by democratization, economic growth, structural and social reforms, and problems such as unemployment, corruption, and the inefficiency of public administration. In November 2000 and March 2001, the Parliament amended the Constitution, first adopted on 22 December 1990, changing its bicameral structure back into its historic unicameral form and reducing presidential powers.
Croatia joined the Partnership for Peace on 25 May 2000 and became a member of the World Trade Organization on 30 November 2000. On 29 October 2001, Croatia signed a Stabilisation and Association Agreement with the European Union, submitted a formal application for the EU membership in 2003, was given the status of a candidate country in 2004, and began accession negotiations in 2005. Although the Croatian economy had enjoyed a significant boom in the early 2000s, the financial crisis in 2008 forced the government to cut spending, thus provoking a public outcry.
Croatia served on the United Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time, assuming the non-permanent seat in December 2008. On 1 April 2009, Croatia joined NATO.
A wave of anti-government protests in 2011 reflected a general dissatisfaction with the current political and economic situation. The protests brought together diverse political persuasions in response to recent government corruption scandals and called for early elections. On 28 October 2011 MPs voted to dissolve Parliament and the protests gradually subsided. President Ivo Josipović agreed to a dissolution of Sabor on Monday, 31 October and scheduled new elections for Sunday 4 December 2011.
On 30 June 2011, Croatia successfully completed EU accession negotiations. The country signed the Accession Treaty on 9 December 2011 and held a referendum on 22 January 2012, where Croatian citizens voted in favor of an EU membership. Croatia joined the European Union on 1 July 2013.
Croatia was affected by the 2015 European migrant crisis when Hungary's closure of borders with Serbia pushed over 700,000 refugees and migrants to pass through Croatia on their way to other EU countries.
On 19 October 2016, Andrej Plenković began serving as the current Croatian Prime Minister. The most recent presidential elections, held on 5 January 2020, elected Zoran Milanović as president.
On 25 January 2022, the OECD Council decided to open accession negotiations with Croatia. Throughout the accession process, Croatia was to implement numerous reforms that will advance all spheres of activity – from public services and the justice system to education, transport, finance, health, and trade. In line with the OECD Accession Roadmap from June 2022, Croatia will undergo technical reviews by 25 OECD committees and is so far progressing at a faster pace than expected. Full membership is expected in 2025 and is the last big foreign policy goal Croatia still has to achieve.
On 1 January 2023, Croatia adopted the euro as its official currency, replacing the kuna, and became the 20th Eurozone member. On the same day, Croatia became the 27th member of the border-free Schengen Area, thus marking its full EU integration.
Geography
]]
Croatia is situated in Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Hungary is to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast and Slovenia to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E. Part of the territory in the extreme south surrounding Dubrovnik is a practical exclave connected to the rest of the mainland by territorial waters, but separated on land by a short coastline strip belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum. The Pelješac Bridge connects the exclave with mainland Croatia.
The territory covers , consisting of of land and of water. It is the world's 127th largest country. Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Dinaric Alps with the highest point of the Dinara peak at near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina in the south Croatia hosts deep caves, 49 of which are deeper than , 14 deeper than and three deeper than . Croatia's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes, a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades. The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colours, ranging from turquoise to mint green, grey or blue.
Climate
map of Croatia]]
Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification. Mean monthly temperature ranges between in January and in July. The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar featuring a snowy, forested climate at elevations above . The warmest areas are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterised by Mediterranean climate, as the sea moderates temperature highs. Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in continental areas.
The lowest temperature of was recorded on 3 February 1919 in Čakovec, and the highest temperature of was recorded on 4 August 1981 in Ploče.
Mean annual precipitation ranges between and depending on geographic region and climate type. The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands (Biševo, Lastovo, Svetac, Vis) and the eastern parts of Slavonia. However, in the latter case, rain occurs mostly during the growing season. The maximum precipitation levels are observed in the Dinaric Alps, in the Gorski Kotar peaks of Risnjak and Snježnik.
Prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest, and in the coastal area, prevailing winds are determined by local features. Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast, generally as the cool northeasterly bura or less frequently as the warm southerly jugo. The sunniest parts are the outer islands, Hvar and Korčula, where more than 2700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year, followed by the middle and southern Adriatic Sea area in general, and northern Adriatic coast, all with more than 2000 hours of sunshine per year. Biodiversity
]]
in Istrian peninsula]]
Croatia can be subdivided into ecoregions based on climate and geomorphology. The country is one of the richest in Europe in terms of biodiversity. Croatia has four types of biogeographical regions—the Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland, Alpine in most of Lika and Gorski Kotar, Pannonian along Drava and Danube, and Continental in the remaining areas. The most significant are karst habitats which include submerged karst, such as Zrmanja and Krka canyons and tufa barriers, as well as underground habitats. The country contains three ecoregions: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, and Illyrian deciduous forests.
The karst geology harbours approximately 7,000 caves and pits, some of which are the habitat of the only known aquatic cave vertebrate—the olm. Forests are abundant, covering or 44% of Croatian land area. Other habitat types include wetlands, grasslands, bogs, fens, scrub habitats, coastal and marine habitats.
In terms of phytogeography, Croatia is a part of the Boreal Kingdom and is a part of Illyrian and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region. The World Wide Fund for Nature divides Croatia between three ecoregions—Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.
Croatia hosts 37,000 known plant and animal species, but their actual number is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000.
The president of the republic () is the head of state, directly elected to a five-year term and is limited by the Constitution to two terms. In addition to serving as commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the parliament and has some influence on foreign policy. As the executive branch, it is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, enforcing the laws, and guiding foreign and internal policies. The Government is seated at Banski dvori in Zagreb. The two largest political parties in Croatia are the Croatian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Croatia.
Croatia has a civil law legal system in which law arises primarily from written statutes, with judges serving as implementers and not creators of law. Its development was largely influenced by German and Austrian legal systems. Croatian law is divided into two principal areas—private and public law. Before EU accession negotiations were completed, Croatian legislation had been fully harmonised with the Community acquis.
The main national courts are the Constitutional Court, which oversees violations of the Constitution, and the Supreme Court, which is the highest court of appeal. Administrative, Commercial, County, Misdemeanor, and Municipal courts handle cases in their respective domains. Cases falling within judicial jurisdiction are in the first instance decided by a single professional judge, while appeals are deliberated in mixed tribunals of professional judges. Lay magistrates also participate in trials. The State's Attorney Office is the judicial body constituted of public prosecutors empowered to instigate prosecution of perpetrators of offences.
Law enforcement agencies are organised under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior which consist primarily of the national police force. Croatia's security service is the Security and Intelligence Agency (SOA).
Foreign relations
Croatia has established diplomatic relations with 194 countries. supporting 57 embassies, 30 consulates and eight permanent diplomatic missions. 56 foreign embassies and 67 consulates operate in the country in addition to offices of international organisations such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), International Organization for Migration (IOM), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), World Bank, World Health Organization (WHO), International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and UNICEF.
Zoran Milanović during an official arrival ceremony with NATO leaders on July 10, 2024 at the White House, Washington, D.C.]]
As of 2019, the Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration employed 1,381 personnel and expended 765.295 million kunas (€101.17 million). Stated aims of Croatian foreign policy include enhancing relations with neighbouring countries, developing international co-operation and promotion of the Croatian economy and Croatia itself.
Croatia is a member of the European Union. As of 2021, Croatia had unsolved border issues with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. Croatia is a member of NATO. On 1 January 2023, Croatia simultaneously joined both the Schengen Area and the Eurozone, having previously joined the ERM II on 10 July 2020.Croatian diaspora
The Croatian diaspora consists of communities of ethnic Croats and Croatian citizens living outside Croatia. Croatia maintains intensive contacts with Croatian communities abroad (e.g., administrative and financial support of cultural, sports activities, and economic initiatives). Croatia actively maintain foreign relations to strengthen and guarantee the rights of the Croatian minority in various host countries. Military
The Croatian Armed Forces (CAF) consist of the Air Force, Army, and Navy branches in addition to the Education and Training Command and Support Command. The CAF is headed by the General Staff, which reports to the defence minister, who in turn reports to the president. According to the constitution, the president is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. In case of immediate threat during wartime, he issues orders directly to the General Staff.
Following the 1991–95 war, defence spending and CAF size began a constant decline. , military spending was an estimated 1.68% of the country's GDP, 67th globally. In 2005 the budget fell below the NATO-required 2% of GDP, down from the record high of 11.1% in 1994. Traditionally relying on conscripts, the CAF went through a period of reforms focused on downsizing, restructuring and professionalisation in the years before accession to NATO in April 2009. According to a presidential decree issued in 2006, the CAF employed around 18,100 active duty military personnel, 3,000 civilians and 2,000 voluntary conscripts between 18 and 30 years old in peacetime. Compulsory conscription was abolished in January 2008,
, the Croatian military had 72 members stationed in foreign countries as part of United Nations-led international peacekeeping forces. , 323 troops served the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan. Another 156 served with KFOR in Kosovo.
Croatia has a military-industrial sector that exported around 493 million kunas (€65,176 million) worth of military equipment in 2020. Croatian-made weapons and vehicles used by CAF include the standard sidearm HS2000 manufactured by HS Produkt and the M-84D battle tank designed by the Đuro Đaković factory. Uniforms and helmets worn by CAF soldiers are locally produced and marketed to other countries.
According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Croatia is the 15th most peaceful country in the world.
Administrative divisions
Croatia was first divided into counties in the Middle Ages. The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and subsequent liberation of the same territory, changes of the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik, and Istria. The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively.
Communist-ruled Croatia, as a constituent part of post-World War II Yugoslavia, abolished earlier divisions and introduced municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities. Counties were reintroduced in 1992 legislation, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions. In 1918, the Transleithanian part was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar, Gospić, Ogulin, Osijek, Požega, Varaždin, Vukovar, and Zagreb.
, capital of Croatia between 1767 and 1776, is the seat of Varaždin county; Pictured: Old Town fortress, one of 15 Croatia's sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage tentative list]]
As of 1992, Croatia is divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb, the latter having the dual authority and legal status of a county and a city. County borders changed in some instances, last revised in 2006. The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities. Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) division is performed in several tiers. NUTS 1 level considers the entire country in a single unit; three NUTS 2 regions come below that. Those are Northwest Croatia, Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia, and Adriatic Croatia. The latter encompasses the counties along the Adriatic coast. Northwest Croatia includes Koprivnica-Križevci, Krapina-Zagorje, Međimurje, Varaždin, the city of Zagreb, and Zagreb counties and the Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia includes the remaining areas—Bjelovar-Bilogora, Brod-Posavina, Karlovac, Osijek-Baranja, Požega-Slavonia, Sisak-Moslavina, Virovitica-Podravina, and Vukovar-Syrmia counties. Individual counties and the city of Zagreb also represent NUTS 3 level subdivision units in Croatia. The NUTS local administrative unit (LAU) divisions are two-tiered. LAU 1 divisions match the counties and the city of Zagreb in effect making those the same as NUTS 3 units, while LAU 2 subdivisions correspond to cities and municipalities.
Economy
were designed and made in Croatia]]
Croatia's economy qualifies as high-income and developed. International Monetary Fund data projects that Croatian nominal GDP will reach $88.08 Billion in 2024, or $22,966 per capita. According to Eurostat, Croatian GDP per capita in PPS stood at 76% of the EU average in 2023, with real GDP growth for the year being 2.8%. The average net salary of a Croatian worker in April 2024 was €1,326 per month, the average gross salary roughly €1,834 per month. The unemployment rate dropped to 5.6% in that month, down from 7.2% in July 2019 and 9.6% in December 2018. In 2017, economic output was dominated by the service sector — accounting for 70.1% of GDP — followed by the industrial sector with 26.2% and agriculture accounting for 3.7%.
According to 2017 data, 1.9% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, 27.3% by industry and 70.8% in services. According to Eurostat, Croatia has the highest quantity of water resources per capita in the EU (30,000 m<sup>3</sup>).
As a result of the war, economic infrastructure sustained massive damage, particularly the tourism industry. From 1989 to 1993, the GDP fell 40.5%. The Croatian state still controls significant economic sectors, with government expenditures accounting for 40% of GDP. A particular concern is a backlogged judiciary system, with inefficient public administration and corruption, upending land ownership. In the 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index, published by Transparency International, the country ranked 57th. At the end of June 2020, the national debt stood at 85.3% of GDP.
Tourism
is Croatia's most visited and most popular destination.]]
beach on the Island of Brač is one of the foremost spots of tourism in Croatia.]]
Tourism dominates the Croatian service sector and accounts for up to 20% of GDP. Tourism income for 2019 was estimated to be €10.5 billion. Its positive effects are felt throughout the economy, increasing retail business, and increasing seasonal employment. The industry is counted as an export business because foreign visitor spending significantly reduces the country's trade imbalance.
The tourist industry has rapidly grown, recording a sharp rise in tourist numbers since independence, attracting more than 17 million visitors each year (). Germany, Slovenia, Austria, Italy, United Kingdom, Czechia, Poland, Hungary, France, Netherlands, Slovakia and Croatia itself provide the most visitors. Tourist stays averaged 4.7 days in 2019.
Much of the tourist industry is concentrated along the coast. Opatija was the first holiday resort. It first became popular in the middle of the 19th century. By the 1890s, it had become one of the largest European health resorts. Resorts sprang up along the coast and islands, offering services catering to mass tourism and various niche markets. The most significant are nautical tourism, supported by marinas with more than 16 thousand berths, cultural tourism relying on the appeal of medieval coastal cities and cultural events taking place during the summer. Inland areas offer agrotourism, mountain resorts, and spas. Zagreb is a significant destination, rivalling major coastal cities and resorts.
Croatia has unpolluted marine areas with nature reserves and 116 Blue Flag beaches. Croatia was ranked first in Europe for swimming water quality in 2022 by European Environmental Agency.
Croatia ranked as the 23rd-most popular tourist destination in the world according to the World Tourism Organization in 2019. About 15% of these visitors, or over one million per year, participate in naturism, for which Croatia is famous. It was the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts. In 2023, luggage storage company Bounce gave Croatia the highest solo travel index in the world (7.58), while a joint Pinterest and Zola wedding trends report from 2023 put Croatia among the most popular honeymoon destinations.
Infrastructure
Transport
The motorway network was largely built in the late 1990s and the 2000s. As of December 2020, Croatia had completed of motorways, connecting Zagreb to other regions and following various European routes and four Pan-European corridors. The busiest motorways are the A1, connecting Zagreb to Split and the A3, passing east to west through northwest Croatia and Slavonia.
A widespread network of state roads in Croatia acts as motorway feeder roads while connecting major settlements. The high quality and safety levels of the Croatian motorway network were tested and confirmed by EuroTAP and EuroTest programmes.
Croatia has an extensive rail network spanning , including of electrified railways and of double track railways (). The most significant railways in Croatia are within the Pan-European transport corridors Vb and X connecting Rijeka to Budapest and Ljubljana to Belgrade, both via Zagreb.
connects the peninsula of Pelješac and through it the southernmost part, including Dubrovnik, with the Croatian mainland.]]
The construction of 2.4-kilometre-long Pelješac Bridge, the biggest infrastructure project in Croatia connects the two halves of Dubrovnik-Neretva County and shortens the route from the West to the Pelješac peninsula and the islands of Korčula and Lastovo by more than 32 km. The construction of the Pelješac Bridge started in July 2018 after Croatian road operator Hrvatske ceste (HC) signed a 2.08 billion kuna deal for the works with a Chinese consortium led by China Road and Bridge Corporation (CRBC). The project is co-financed by the European Union with 357 million euro. The construction was completed in July 2022.
There are international airports in Dubrovnik, Osijek, Pula, Rijeka, Split, Zadar, and Zagreb. The largest and busiest is Franjo Tuđman Airport in Zagreb. , Croatia complies with International Civil Aviation Organization aviation safety standards and the Federal Aviation Administration upgraded it to Category 1 rating. Ports The busiest cargo seaport is the Port of Rijeka. The busiest passenger ports are Split and Zadar. Many minor ports serve ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities with ferry lines to several cities in Italy. The largest river port is Vukovar, located on the Danube, representing the nation's outlet to the Pan-European transport corridor VII. Energy
, Zadar County.]]
of crude oil pipelines serve Croatia, connecting the Rijeka oil terminal with refineries in Rijeka and Sisak, and several transhipment terminals.
The system has a capacity of 20 million tonnes per year. The natural gas transportation system comprises of trunk and regional pipelines, and more than 300 associated structures, connecting production rigs, the Okoli natural gas storage facility, 27 end-users and 37 distribution systems. Croatia also plays an important role in regional energy security. The floating liquefied natural gas import terminal off Krk island LNG Hrvatska commenced operations on January 1, 2021, positioning Croatia as a regional energy leader and contributing to diversification of Europe's energy supply.
Demographics
Ethnic map of Croatia by municipalities (2021)
|caption 2021 Croatian Census Croatia ranks 127th by population in the world. Its 2018 population density was 72.9 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Croatia one of the more sparsely populated European countries. The overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 76.3 years in 2018. Croatia's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate since 1998. Croatia subsequently has one of the world's oldest populations, with an average age of 43.3 years. The population rose steadily from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million, with the exceptions of censuses taken in 1921 and 1948, i.e., following the world wars. The natural growth rate is negative In recent years, the Croatian government has been pressured to increase permit quotas for foreign workers, reaching an all-time high of 68.100 in 2019. In accordance with its immigration policy, Croatia is trying to entice emigrants to return. From 2008 to 2018, Croatia's population dropped by 10%.
The population decrease was greater a result of war for independence. The war displaced large numbers of the population and emigration increased. In 1991, in predominantly occupied areas, more than 400,000 Croats were either removed from their homes by Serb forces or fled the violence. During the war's final days, about 150–200,000 Serbs fled before the arrival of Croatian forces during Operation Storm. After the war, the number of displaced persons fell to about 250,000. The Croatian government cared for displaced persons via the social security system and the Office of Displaced Persons and Refugees. Most of the territories abandoned during the war were settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly from north-western Bosnia, while some displaced people returned to their homes.
According to the 2013 United Nations report, 17.6% of Croatia's population were immigrants. According to the 2021 census, the majority of inhabitants are Croats (91.6%), followed by Serbs (3.2%), Bosniaks (0.62%), Roma (0.46%), Albanians (0.36%), Italians (0.36%), Hungarians (0.27%), Czechs (0.20%), Slovenes (0.20%), Slovaks (0.10%), Macedonians (0.09%), Germans (0.09%), Montenegrins (0.08%), and others (1.56%).
Religion
Croatia has no official religion. Freedom of religion is a Constitutional right that protects all religious communities as equal before the law and considers them separated from the state.
thumb|Šibenik Cathedral, since 2000 on the UNESCO World Heritage List
According to the 2011 census, 91.36% of Croatians identify as Christian; of these, Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 86.28% of the population, after which follows Eastern Orthodoxy (4.44%), Protestantism (0.34%), and other Christians (0.30%). The largest religion after Christianity is Islam (1.47%). 4.57% of the population describe itself as non-religious. In the Eurostat Eurobarometer Poll of 2010, 69% of the population responded that "they believe there is a God". In a 2009 Gallup poll, 70% answered yes to the question "Is religion an important part of your daily life?" Yet, only 24% of the population attends religious services regularly. Languages
Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia. Minority languages are in official use in local government units where more than a third of the population consists of national minorities or where local enabling legislation applies. Those languages are Czech, Hungarian, Italian, Serbian, and Slovak.
According to the 2011 Census, 95.6% of citizens declared Croatian as their native language, 1.2% declared Serbian as their native language, while no other language reaches more than 0.5%. Croatian is a member of the South Slavic languages and is written using the Latin alphabet. There are three major dialects spoken on the territory of Croatia, with standard Croatian based on the Shtokavian dialect. The Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects are distinguished from Shtokavian by their lexicon, phonology and syntax.
A 2011 survey revealed that 78% of Croats claim knowledge of at least one foreign language. According to a 2005 EC survey, 49% of Croats speak English as the second language, 34% speak German, 14% speak Italian, 10% speak French, 4% speak Russian and 2% speak Spanish. However several large municipalities support minority languages. A majority of Slovenes (59%) have some knowledge of Croatian. The country is a part of various language-based international associations, most notably the European Union Language Association.
Education
Literacy in Croatia stands at 99.2 per cent. Primary education in Croatia starts at the age of six or seven and consists of eight grades. In 2007 a law was passed to increase free, noncompulsory education until 18 years of age. Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school.
Secondary education is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools. As of 2019, there are 2,103 elementary schools and 738 schools providing various forms of secondary education. Primary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Croatia, where classes are held in Czech, Hungarian, Italian, Serbian, German and Slovak languages.
There are 133 elementary and secondary level music and art schools, as well as 83 elementary and 44 secondary schools for disabled children and youth and 11 elementary and 52 secondary schools for adults. Nationwide leaving exams () were introduced for secondary education students in the school year 2009–2010. It comprises three compulsory subjects (Croatian language, mathematics, and a foreign language) and optional subjects and is a prerequisite for university education.
Croatia has eight public universities and two private universities. The University of Zadar, the first university in Croatia, was founded in 1396 and remained active until 1807, when other institutions of higher education took over until the foundation of the renewed University of Zadar in 2002. The University of Zagreb, founded in 1669, is the oldest continuously operating university in Southeast Europe. There are also 15 polytechnics, of which two are private, and 30 higher education institutions, of which 27 are private. The Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb is a learned society promoting language, culture, arts and science from its inception in 1866. Croatia was ranked 43rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.
The European Investment Bank provided digital infrastructure and equipment to around 150 primary and secondary schools in Croatia. Twenty of these schools got specialised assistance in the form of gear, software, and services to help them integrate the teaching and administrative operations. Healthcare
is the largest hospital in Croatia and the teaching hospital of the University of Zagreb.]]
Croatia has a universal health care system, whose roots can be traced back to the Hungarian-Croatian Parliament Act of 1891, providing a form of mandatory insurance of all factory workers and craftsmen. The population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by statute and optional insurance. In 2017, annual healthcare related expenditures reached 22.2 billion kuna (around €3.0 billion). Healthcare expenditures comprise only 0.6% of private health insurance and public spending. In 2017, Croatia spent around 6.6% of its GDP on healthcare.
In 2020, Croatia ranked 41st in the world in life expectancy with 76.0 years for men and 82.0 years for women, and it had a low infant mortality rate of 3.4 per 1,000 live births.
There are hundreds of healthcare institutions in Croatia, including 75 hospitals, and 13 clinics with 23,049 beds. The hospitals and clinics care for more than 700 thousand patients per year and employ 6,642 medical doctors, including 4,773 specialists. There is a total of 69,841 health workers. There are 119 emergency units in health centres, responding to more than a million calls. The principal cause of death in 2016 was cardiovascular disease at 39.7% for men and 50.1% for women, followed by tumours, at 32.5% for men and 23.4% for women. In 2016 it was estimated that 37.0% of Croatians are smokers. According to 2016 data, 24.40% of the Croatian adult population is obese.
Language
Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia, and has been an official language of the European Union since Croatia's accession in 2013. Croatian replaced Latin as the official language of the Croatian government in the 19th century. Following the Vienna Literary Agreement in 1850, the language and its Latin alphabet underwent reforms to create an unified "Croatian or Serbian" or "Serbo-Croatian" standard, which under various names became the official language of Yugoslavia. In SFR Yugoslavia, from 1972 to 1989, the language was constitutionally designated as the "Croatian literary language" and the "Croatian or Serbian language". It was the result of a resistance to and secession from "Serbo-Croatian" in the form of the Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language as part of the Croatian Spring. Since gaining independence in the early 1990s, the Republic of Croatia constitutionally designates the language as "Croatian language" and regulates it through linguistic prescription. The long-standing aspiration for development of its own expressions and thus enrichment of the language, as opposed to the adoption of foreign solutions in the form of loanwords, has been described by linguists as Croatian linguistic purism. Culture
has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Site since 1997.]]
, Roman amphitheatre located in Pula, constructed between 27 BC and AD 68.]]
Because of its geographical position, Croatia represents a blend of four different cultural spheres. It has been a crossroads of influences from western culture and the east since the schism between the Western Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, and also from Central Europe and Mediterranean culture. The Illyrian movement was the most significant period of national cultural history, as the 19th century proved crucial to the emancipation of Croatians and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of art and culture, giving rise to many historical figures. The UNESCO's World Heritage List includes ten sites in Croatia and a list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Croatia. The country is also rich with intangible culture and holds 15 of UNESCO's World's intangible culture masterpieces, ranking fourth in the world. A global cultural contribution from Croatia is the necktie, derived from the cravat originally worn by the 17th-century Croatian mercenaries in France.
In 2019, Croatia had 95 professional theatres, 30 professional children's theatres, and 51 amateur theatres visited by more than 2.27 million viewers per year. Professional theatres employ 1,195 artists. There are 42 professional orchestras, ensembles, and choirs, attracting an annual attendance of 297 thousand. There are 75 cinemas with 166 screens and attendance of 5.026 million.
Croatia has 222 museums, visited by more than 2.71 million people in 2016. Furthermore, there are 1,768 libraries, containing 26.8 million volumes, and 19 state archives. The book publishing market is dominated by several major publishers and the industry's centrepiece event—Interliber exhibition held annually at Zagreb Fair.
Arts, literature, and music
Architecture in Croatia reflects influences of bordering nations. Austrian and Hungarian influence is visible in public spaces and buildings in the north and the central regions, architecture found along coasts of Dalmatia and Istria exhibits Venetian influence. Squares named after culture heroes, parks, and pedestrian-only zones, are features of Croatian towns and cities, especially where large scale Baroque urban planning took place, for instance in Osijek (Tvrđa), Varaždin, and Karlovac. The subsequent influence of the Art Nouveau was reflected in contemporary architecture. The architecture is the Mediterranean with a Venetian and Renaissance influence in major coastal urban areas exemplified in works of Giorgio da Sebenico and Nicolas of Florence such as the Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik. The oldest preserved examples of Croatian architecture are the 9th-century churches, with the largest and the most representative among them being Church of St. Donatus in Zadar.
(18 August 1450 – 5 January 1524), Croatian poet, lawyer, judge, and Renaissance humanist who coined the term "psychology". He is the national poet of Croatia.]]
Besides the architecture encompassing the oldest artworks, there is a history of artists in Croatia reaching the Middle Ages. In that period the stone portal of the Trogir Cathedral was made by Radovan, representing the most important monument of Romanesque sculpture from Medieval Croatia. The Renaissance had the greatest impact on the Adriatic Sea coast since the remainder was embroiled in the Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War. With the waning of the Ottoman Empire, art flourished during the Baroque and Rococo. The 19th and 20th centuries brought affirmation of numerous Croatian artisans, helped by several patrons of the arts such as bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer. Croatian artists of the period achieving renown were Vlaho Bukovac, Ivan Meštrović, and Ivan Generalić.
The Baška tablet, a stone inscribed with the glagolitic alphabet found on the Krk island and dated to , is considered to be the oldest surviving prose in Croatian. The beginning of more vigorous development of Croatian literature is marked by the Renaissance and Marko Marulić. Besides Marulić, Renaissance playwright Marin Držić, Baroque poet Ivan Gundulić, Croatian national revival poet Ivan Mažuranić, novelist, playwright, and poet August Šenoa, children's writer Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić, writer and journalist Marija Jurić Zagorka, poet and writer Antun Gustav Matoš, poet Antun Branko Šimić, expressionist and realist writer Miroslav Krleža, poet Tin Ujević and novelist, and short story writer Ivo Andrić are often cited as the greatest figures in Croatian literature.
Croatian music varies from classical operas to modern-day rock. Vatroslav Lisinski created the country's first opera, Love and Malice, in 1846. Ivan Zajc composed more than a thousand pieces of music, including masses and oratorios. Pianist Ivo Pogorelić has performed across the world. Croatia ranked 64th in the 2019 Press Freedom Index report compiled by Reporters Without Borders which noted that journalists who investigate corruption, organised crime or war crimes face challenges and that the Government was trying to influence the public broadcaster HRT's editorial policies. In its 2019 Freedom in the World report, the Freedom House classified freedoms of press and speech in Croatia as generally free from political interference and manipulation, noting that journalists still face threats and occasional attacks. The state-owned news agency HINA runs a wire service in Croatian and English on politics, economics, society, and culture.
, now a part of Croatian national public broadcasting company, Croatian Radiotelevision, was the first public radio station in Southeast Europe.]]
, there are thirteen nationwide free-to-air DVB-T television channels, with Croatian Radiotelevision (HRT) operating four, RTL Televizija three, and Nova TV operating two channels, and the Croatian Olympic Committee, Kapital Net d.o.o., and Author d.o.o. companies operate the remaining three. Also, there are 21 regional or local DVB-T television channels. The HRT is also broadcasting a satellite TV channel. In 2020, there were 147 radio stations and 27 TV stations in Croatia. Cable television and IPTV networks are gaining ground. Cable television already serves 450 thousand people, around 10% of the total population of the country.
In 2010, 267 newspapers and 2,676 magazines were published in Croatia. The print media market is dominated by the Croatian-owned Hanza Media and Austrian-owned Styria Media Group who publish their flagship dailies , and . Other influential newspapers are Novi list and Slobodna Dalmacija. In 2020, 24sata was the most widely circulated daily newspaper, followed by Večernji list and Jutarnji list.
Croatia competed in the Eurovision Song Contest as part of Yugoslavia since 1961. The first and only victory Yugoslavia achieved in the competition was accomplished by the Croatian pop band Riva in 1989. Since its debut at the 1993 contest, Croatia won two fourth places at the 1996 and 1999 contests, and one second place at the 2024 contest, marking the country's best result to date as an independent nation.
Film Industry
Croatia's film industry is small and heavily subsidised by the government, mainly through grants approved by the Ministry of Culture with films often being co-produced by HRT. Croatian cinema produces between five and ten feature films per year. Pula Film Festival, the national film awards event held annually in Pula, is the most prestigious film event featuring national and international productions. Animafest Zagreb, founded in 1972, is the prestigious annual film festival dedicated to the animated film. The first greatest accomplishment by Croatian filmmakers was achieved by Dušan Vukotić when he won the 1961 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film for Ersatz (). Croatian film producer Branko Lustig won the Academy Awards for Best Picture for ''Schindler's List and Gladiator. In addition to that, Croatian filmmaker Nebojša Slijepčević got nominated for 97th Academy Awards in category for Best Live Action Short Film for his 2024 movie The Man Who Could Not Remain Silent (Croatian: ), making it first Croatian nomination in that category, and first since its independence.
Before and since its independence, Croatia has become a popular filming destination amongs international filming productions, and a lot of blockbuster films and TV series have been filmed in Croatia including: Game of Thrones, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, Robin Hood in Dubrovnik, Speak No Evil and Season of the Witch in Istria, Infinity Pool in Šibenik, Canary Black, Hitman's Wife's Bodyguard, Sophie's Choice, Armour of God and Fiddler on the roof in Zagreb, Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again on island of Vis, Succession on the island of Korčula, Hercules, The Weekend Away, Bliss in Split, The Peacemaker'' and many others. Croatia became international filming location due to its biodiversity, landscape that can accommodate every visual requirements and cheaper filming costs. In last 11 years there has been 122 projects for international films in Croatia, and €263 million spent as part of the Filming in Croatia which increased in last years due to high demand for its location. Cuisine
]]
Croatian traditional cuisine varies from one region to another. Dalmatia and Istria have culinary influences of Italian and other Mediterranean cuisines which prominently feature various seafood, cooked vegetables and pasta, and condiments such as olive oil and garlic. Austrian, Hungarian, Turkish, and Balkan culinary styles influenced continental cuisine. In that area, meats, freshwater fish, and vegetable dishes are predominant.
There are two distinct wine-producing regions in Croatia. The continental in the northeast of the country, especially Slavonia, produces premium wines, particularly whites. Along the north coast, Istrian and Krk wines are similar to those in neighbouring Italy, while further south in Dalmatia, Mediterranean-style red wines are the norm.
There are 11 restaurants in Croatia with a Michelin star and 89 restaurants bearing some of the Michelin's marks. Sports
in World Cup 2018 in Russia]]
Croatia has a long tradition of sports dating back to Roman times, followed by popular medieval knights' tournaments. Modern organized sports began in the late 19th century with the founding of sports associations like Hrvatski Sokol in 1874. Croatian sports' development has been closely related to the Olympic movement, with Franjo Bučar playing a key role in promoting sports for Croatian independence. To support sports development, Croatia enacted the National Sport Programme in 2019. Funding for sports comes from the state budget, sponsorship, and membership fees. The Croatian Olympic Committee, established in 1991, oversees over 80 national sports associations.
The most popular sports in Croatia are football, basketball, handball, and water polo. The national tennis team has won two Davis Cup titles and won a gold medal at the 2020 Summer Olympics in men's doubles. The national handball and water polo teams are also been successful, each achieving multiple championships and medals. Rowing has seen success as well, winning multiple Olympic and World Championship medals. In gymnastics, athletes have also made their mark, winning medals in European and World Championships.
Croatia hosted several major sports competitions, including the 2009 World Men's Handball Championship, the 2007 World Table Tennis Championships, the 2000 World Rowing Championships, the 1987 Summer Universiade, the 1979 Mediterranean Games, and several European Championships, including the 2000, 2018 and 2025 World Men's Handball Championship, 2024 Men's European Water Polo Championship.
Technology
In November 1992, the first international connection linking Zagreb and Vienna became operational, making it the first internet in Croatia.
70% of the Croatia's population regularly uses the internet and 55% have been reported to have basic technological skills.
See also
* Outline of Croatia
* Index of Croatia-related articles
Explanatory notes
Citations General and cited references
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* |year1990|publisherCroatian State Electoral Committee|locationZagreb, Croatia|languagehr|urlhttp://www.izbori.hr/arhiva/pdf/1990/1990_2_1_Sabor_Statistika_Stat_podaci.pdf|titleStatistički pokazatelji o provedenim izborima za zastupnike u Sabor Socijalističke Republike Hrvatske – Prilog|trans-titleStatistical Indicators on Performed Elections of Representatives in the Parliament of the Socialist Republic of Croatia – Annex|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150514021334/http://www.izbori.hr/arhiva/pdf/1990/1990_2_1_Sabor_Statistika_Stat_podaci.pdf|archive-date=14 May 2015}}
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External links
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* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=HR Key Development Forecasts for Croatia] from International Futures
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Category:Balkan countries
Category:Countries in Europe
Category:Countries and territories where Croatian is an official language
Category:Member states of the European Union
Category:Member states of NATO
Category:Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean
Category:Member states of the United Nations
Category:Member states of the Three Seas Initiative
Category:Republics
Category:States and territories established in 1991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.379930 |
5574 | History of Croatia | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
At the time of the Roman Empire, the area of modern Croatia comprised two Roman provinces, Pannonia and Dalmatia. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, the area was subjugated by the Ostrogoths for 50 years, before being incorporated into the Byzantine Empire.
Croatia, as a polity, first appeared as a duchy in the 7th century, the Duchy of Croatia. With the nearby Principality of Lower Pannonia, it was united and elevated into the Kingdom of Croatia which lasted from 925 until 1102. From the 12th century, the Kingdom of Croatia entered a personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary. It remained a distinct state with its ruler (Ban) and Sabor, but it elected royal dynasties from neighboring powers, primarily Hungary, Naples, and the Habsburg monarchy.
from the 15th to the 17th centuries was marked by intense struggles between the Ottoman Empire to the south and the Habsburg Empire to the north.
Following the First World War and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918, Croatian lands were incorporated into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Following the German invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, the puppet state Independent State of Croatia the Axis powers satellite state, was established. It was defeated in May 1945, after the Bleiburg repatriations. The Socialist Republic of Croatia was formed as a constituent republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In 1991, Croatia's leadership severed ties with Yugoslavia and proclaimed independence amidst the dissolution of Yugoslavia.
Prehistoric period
The area known today as Croatia was inhabited by hominids throughout the prehistoric period. Fossils of Neanderthals dating to the middle Palaeolithic period have been unearthed in northern Croatia, with the most famous and best-presented site in Krapina. Remnants of several Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures have been found throughout the country. Most of the sites are in the northern Croatian river valleys, and the most significant cultures whose presence was discovered include the Starčevo, Vučedol and Baden cultures. The Iron Age left traces of the early Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture. Protohistoric period
headwear and other material culture from Gacka valley, Croatia.]]
Greek author Hecataeus of Miletus mentions that around 500 BC, the Eastern Adriatic region was inhabited by local tribes such as Histrians, Liburnians, and Illyrians. Greek colonization saw settlers establish communities on of Issa (Vis), Korkyra Melaina (Korčula) and Pharos (Starigrad on Hvar) islands as well as trading outposts of Tragurion (Trogir) and Epetion (Stobreč). Somewhere in 3rd century by, Greek colony of Issa formed an alliance with then emerging Roman Republic. As Isseian maritime trade became affected by Illyrian pirating activities, they asked for Roman intervention against the Illyrian kingdom, leading to the First Illyrian War in 229. BC and beginning of Roman expansion on the Eastern Adriatic. of the Illyrian kingdom from the 4th century BC to the Illyrian Wars in the 220s BC. In 168 BC, the Roman Republic established its protectorate south of the Neretva river. The area north of the Neretva was slowly incorporated into Roman possession until the province of Illyricum was formally established 32–27 BC.
These lands then became part of the Roman province of Illyricum. Between 6 and 9 AD, tribes including the Dalmatae, who gave name to these lands, rose up against the Romans in the Great Illyrian revolt, but the uprising was crushed, and in 10 AD Illyricum was split into two provinces—Pannonia and Dalmatia. The province of Dalmatia spread inland to cover all of the Dinaric Alps and most of the eastern Adriatic coast. Dalmatia was the birthplace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian, who, when he retired as Emperor in 305 AD, built a large palace near Salona, from which the city of Split later developed.
, made sometime in the 4th century]]
Historians such as Theodore Mommsen and Bernard Bavant argue that all of Dalmatia was fully Romanized and Latin-speaking by the 4th century. Others, such as Aleksandar Stipčević, argue that the process of Romanization was selective and involved mostly the urban centers but not the countryside, where previous Illyrian socio-political structures were adapted to Roman administration and political structure only where necessary. has argued that the Vlachs, or Morlachs, were Latin-speaking, pastoral peoples who lived in the Balkan mountains since pre-Roman times. They are mentioned in the oldest Croatian chronicles.
After the Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476, with the beginning of the Migration Period, Julius Nepos briefly ruled his diminished domain from Diocletian's Palace after his 476 flight from Italy. The region was then ruled by the Ostrogoths until 535 when Justinian I added the territory to the Byzantine Empire. Later, the Byzantines formed the Theme of Dalmatia in the same territory. Migration period
The Roman period ended with the Avar and Croat invasions in the 6th and 7th centuries and the destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to more favorable sites on the coast, islands, and mountains. The city of Ragusa was founded by survivors from Epidaurum. According to the work De Administrando Imperio, written by the 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, the Croats arrived in what is today Croatia from southern Poland and Western Ukraine in the early 7th century. However, that claim is disputed and competing hypotheses date the event between late the 6th-early 7th (mainstream) or the late 8th-early 9th (fringe) centuries. Recent archaeological data established that the migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats occurred in the late 6th and early 7th centuries.
Duchy of Croatia (800–925)
(879–892), a Latin language reference to Duke Branimir as Dux Cruatorum.]]
with a Carolingian westwork, built at the time of duke Branimir of Croatia. ]]
From the middle of the seventh century until the unification in 925, there were two duchies on the territory of today's Croatia, Duchy of Croatia and Principality of Lower Pannonia. Eventually, a dukedom was formed, the Duchy of Croatia, ruled by Borna, as attested by chronicles of Einhard starting in the year 818. The record represents the first documented Croatian realms, vassal states of Francia at the time. The most important ruler of Lower Pannonia was Ljudevit Posavski, who fought against the Franks between 819 and 823. He ruled Pannonian Croatia from 810 to 823.
The Frankish overlordship ended during the reign of Mislav two decades later. Duke Mislav was succeeded by Duke Trpimir, the founder of the Trpimirović dynasty. Trpimir successfully fought against Byzantium, Venice and Bulgaria. Duke Trpimir was succeeded by Duke Domagoj, who repeatedly led wars against the Venetians and the Byzantines, and the Venetians called this Croatian ruler "the worst Croatian prince" (dux pessimus Croatorum) According to Constantine VII, the Christianization of Croats began in the 7th century, but the claim is disputed and generally, Christianization is associated with the 9th century. In 879, under Branimir, the duke of Croatia, Dalmatian Croatia received papal recognition as a state from Pope John VIII.
Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)
Croatian Kingdom}}
), as they were mentioned in De Administrando Imperio. The counties marked in blue represent the territories governed by the Croatian Ban.]]
The first king of Croatia is generally considered to have been Tomislav in the first half of the 10th century, who is mentioned as such in notes from Church Councils of Split and the letter of Pope John X.
Other important Croatian rulers from that period are:
* Mihajlo Krešimir II, 949–969, who conquered Bosnia and restored the power of the Croatian kingdom. Two Croatian queens are also known from 10th century. The first one is Domaslava and the second one is Helen of Zadar, whose epitaph was found in the Solin area at the end of the 19th century during archeological excavations conducted by Frane Bulić. The latter was also a mother of King Stjepan Držislav, 969–997. He sided with Byzantium in a war against Bulgarian emperor Samuil, so Bulgarians, in response, raided Croatia and ravaged it as far as Zadar before retreating back to Ohrid.
* Stjepan, 1030–1058, restored the Croatian kingdom and founded the diocese in Knin.
The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns of Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Demetrius Zvonimir (1075–1089). From the time of Petar Krešimir IV kingdom was officially called "Kingdom of Croatia and Dalmatia". He used The Great Schism of 1054 which weakened the Byzantine rule over Dalmatian cities to assert his own control over them. He left the cities a certain amount of self-rule, but also collected a certain amount of tribute and demanded their ships in the case of war. pluteus with the figure of a king, dating from the 11th century. It is hypothesized to depict a Croatian king, probably Petar Krešimir IV or Zvonimir. It was originally situated in Hollow Church.]]Krešimir IV was succeeded by Demetrius Zvonimir who married Hungarian princess Helen and ruled from Knin as his capital. Zvonimir's rule was marked by stability. He was a papal vassal and enjoyed a papal protection as seen when his kingdom was threatened by an invasion of knight Wezelin, who was deterred after pope threatened to excommunicate him. He had a son named Radovan who died at young age, so Zvonimir left no male heir when he died in 1089.
Meanwhile, in 1096, a group of crusaders led by Raymond of Toulouse going on first crusade passed through mountainous parts of Croatia. The crusaders were met with hostile locals who attacked crusader columns, while Raymond of Toulouse brutally retailated by mutilating those attackers whom they managed to capture. Historian Krešimir Kužić explains these hostilities by the "state of anarchy" which was then in Croatia.
Interregnum
King Zvonimir was succeeded by Stjepan II who died in 1091, ending the Trpimirović dynasty. As Kingdom of Croatia descended in another feudal power struggle, Zvonimir's widow Jelena (Helen), who was the daughter of Hungarian king Béla I, invited her brother Ladislaus I of Hungary to come to Croatia and claim Croatian royal crown. Meanwhile, in Croatia, Petar Snačić, another pretender to the royal throne arose, but his army was defeated by Hungarians in Battle of Gvozd Mountain where Snačić was killed. Hungarian king Coloman continued to lay claims on throne of Croatia and eventually a personal union between Croatia and Hungary was created in 1102 with Hungarian king as its ruler. This meant that Croatia and Hungary still remained separate kingdoms which are connected only by a common king, therefore from the reign of Coloman onwards, Hungarian kings bore official title of "king of Hungary, Dalmatia and Croatia". Another example was a coronation process as new kings of Hungary continued to be separately crowned kings of Croatia from the times of Coloman, until Andrew II. There was also an institution of ban (viceroy) of Croatia representing a royal deputy, separate tax system, money and army.Personal union with Hungary (1102–1527) and the Republic of Venice Croatia under the Árpád dynasty
from 1288, written in Glagolitic script, is the earliest legal text written in the Croatian language. This code regulated relations between inhabitants of the town of Vinodol and their overlords, the counts of Krk.]]
One consequence of entering a personal union with Hungary under the Hungarian king was the introduction of a feudal system. Later kings sought to restore some of their influence by giving certain privileges to the towns. Somewhere between Second and Third Crusade, Knights Templars and Hospitallers appeared in Croatian lands for the first time.
After proclamation of Fourth crusade in 1202, the crusader army could not afford to pay the agreed amount of money to the Venetians who were supposed to provide the maritime transport to the Holy Land. Venetians in turn requested that crusaders compensate this difference by capturing town of Zadar (Zara) which was then supposed to be handed over to Venice. The pope issued sharp warnings against this kind of attack and some crusaders refused to participate. When Venetian-crusader army arrived before Zadar, its citizens posted signs of cross on their town walls to demonstrate their catholic faith. Despite everything, in November 1202 crusader-Venetian army launched an attack on Zadar, captured it and then looted it. In response, pope excommunicated entire crusader army. As Andrew lacked needed naval fleet to take his army to the Holy Land, he decided to arrange transport with Venetians. In return, Andrew II decided to completely give up the Hungarian kings' rights on Zadar, whom Venetians had captured during the Fourth crusade. After staying in Split for three weeks for logistical reasons and realising that Croatians will not be joining his crusade, king and his army sailed off to the Holy Land. Historian Krešimir Kužić attributes this low desire of Croatians to join king Andrew's crusade to earlier bad memories related to destruction and looting of Zadar in 1202. When king Andrew II returned from the crusade, he brought back a number of relics, some of which remain stored in the treasury of Zagreb Cathedral.
Andrew's son King Béla IV was forced to deal with troubles brought by the first Mongol invasion of Hungary. Following the Hungarian defeat in the Battle of the Sajó River in 1241, the king withdrew to Dalmatia, hoping to take refuge there, with the Mongols in pursuit. The Mongol army followed the king to Split hinterland, which they ravaged. The king took refuge in nearby town of Trogir, hoping to make use of its island-like fort which offered some protection from Mongol onslaught.
This period, therefore, saw the rise of the Frankopans and the Šubićs, native nobility, to prominence. Numerous future Bans of Croatia originated from these two noble families. The princes of Bribir from the Šubić family became particularly influential, as they asserted their control over large parts of Dalmatia, Slavonia, and even Bosnia.
Croatia under the Anjou dynasty
, in Bribir. Paul held the hereditary titles of the Ban of Croatia and Lord of Bosnia. Croatian historians sometimes refer to Paul as "the uncrowned king of Croatia".]]
By the early 14th century lord Paul Šubić accumulated so much power, that he ruled as a de facto independent ruler. He coined his own money and held the hereditary title of Ban of Croatia. Following the death of king Ladislaus IV of Hungary, who had no male heir, a succession crisis emerged, and in 1300, Paul invited Charles Robert of Anjou to come to the Kingdom of Hungary and take over its royal seat. A civil war ensued, in which Charles' party prevailed after winning a decisive victory in the Battle of Rozgony in 1312.
Coronations of the kings of Croatia gradually fell into abeyance as a custom. Charles Robert was the last to be separately crowned as King of Croatia in 1301, after which Croatia had a separate constitution. Lord Paul Šubić died in 1312, and his son Mladen inherited the title of Ban of Croatia. Mladen's power was diminished due to the new king's policy of centralization, after he and his forces were defeated by the royal army and its allies in the Battle of Bliska in 1322. The power vacuum caused by the downfall of Mladen Šubić was used by Venice to reassert control over Dalmatian cities. Following downfall of Croatian magnates and restoration of royal authority over Croatia, around 1350, first instance of Croatian-Dalmatian Assembly (hrvatski Sabor), attested by historical sources, took place near Benkovac. The assembly was summoned by ban of Croatia in August and it gathered members of twelve Croatian noble families. In subsequent period, the Croatian-Dalmatian assembly most often took place in Knin.
The ensuing reign of King Louis the Great (1342–1382) is considered the golden age of medieval Croatian history. Louis launched a campaign against Venice, with aim of retaking Dalmatian cities, and eventually succeeded, forcing Venice to sign the Treaty of Zadar in 1358. The same peace treaty caused the Republic of Ragusa to gain independence from Venice. Anti-Court struggles period
, seat of John of Palisna.]]
After king Louis The Great died in 1382, the Kingdom of Hungary and Croatia descended into a period of destructive dynastic struggles called The Anti-Court movement. The struggle was waged between two factions, one of which was centered around late king's daughter Mary, her mother queen Elizabeth, and her fiancé Sigismund of Luxemburg. The faction which opposed them was a coalition of Croatian nobility which supported Charles of Durazzo to become a new king of Hungary and Croatia. This faction consisted of powerful John of Palisna, and Horvat brothers, who opposed the idea of being ruled by a female and, secondly, of being ruled by Sigismund of Luxemburg whom they considered alien. As alternative, they arranged for Charles of Durazzo to come to Croatia and crowned him as new king of Hungary-Croatia in Szekezfehervar in December 1385. Charles' opponents - queen Elizabeth and princess Mary, responded by organizing Charles' assassination in Buda in February 1386. Enraged anti-court supporters then retaliated by making an ambush for two queens near Gorjani in July 1386, where their escort was eliminated and both queens were taken to captivity in Novigrad Castle near Zadar. Once in Novigrad, queen Elizabeth was strangled to death, but her daughter Mary was eventually rescued by her fiancé Sigismund., near Zadar was a place where anti-court supporters held queens Mary and Elizabeth in captivity. Velebit mountain can be seen in castle's background. ]]
In 1387, Sigismund of Luxemburg crowned himself a new king of Hungary-Croatia. In following period he too became engaged in power struggle against opposing Croatian and Bosnian nobility in order to assert his rule over the realm. In 1396, Sigismund organized a crusade against the expanding Ottomans which culminated in Battle of Nicopolis. When the battle ended, it was unclear whether Sigismund got out alive or not, so Stephen II Lackfi proclaimed Ladislaus of Naples a new king of Hungary-Croatia. When Sigismund, nonetheless did returned to Croatia, he summoned diet in Križevci in 1397, where he confronted his adversaries and eliminated them. Sigismund was again forced fight for the control, but by 1403 entire southern Croatia and Dalmatian cities defected to Ladislaus of Naples. The Venetians asserted their control over most of Dalmatia by 1428. The rule of Venice over most of Dalmatia continued on for nearly four centuries ( 1420–1797) until the end of The Republic by Treaty of Campo Formio. Another long term consequence of Anti-Court struggles was arrival of Ottomans to neighbouring Kingdom of Bosnia at the invite of powerful Bosnian duke Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić to help him fight against forces of king Sigismund. The Ottomans gradually strengthened their influence in Bosnia until finally completely conquering the kingdom in 1463.
Ottoman invasions
, from 1515, depicts the Battle of Krbava Field between the Army of Croatian nobility and Ottoman akinjis.]]
Serious Ottoman attacks on Croatian lands began after the fall of Bosnia to the Ottomans in 1463. At this point main Ottoman attacks were not yet directed towards Central Europe, with Vienna as its main objective, but towards renaissance Italy with Croatia standing on their way between. As the Ottomans launched expansion further into Europe, Croatian lands became a place of permanent warfare. This period of history is considered to be one of the direst for the people living in Croatia. Baroque poet Pavao Ritter Vitezović subsequently described this period of Croatian history as "two centuries of weeping Croatia".
Armies of Croatian nobility fought numerous battles to counter the Ottoman akinji and martolos raids. The Ottoman forces frequently raided the Croatian countryside, plundering towns and villages and captured the local inhabitants as slaves. These "scorched earth" tactics, also called "The Small War", were usually conducted once a year with intention to soften up the region's defenses, but didn't result in actual conquest of territory.
Frequent Ottoman raids eventually led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava field which ended in Croatian defeat.
Meanwhile, after king Mathias Corvinus died in 1490, a succession war ensued, where supporters of Vladislaus Jagiellon prevailed over those of Maximilian Habsburg, another contester to the throne of Kingdom of Hungary-Croatia. Maximilian gained many supporters among Croatian nobility and a favourable peace treaty he concluded with Vladislaus enabled Croatians to increasingly turn towards Habsburgs when seeking protections from the Ottoman attacks, as their lawful king Vladislaus turned out unable to protect his subjects in Croatia. On same year, the estates of Croatia also declined to recognize Vladislaus II as a ruler until he had taken an oath to respect their liberties and insisted that he strike from the constitution certain phrases which seemed to reduce Croatia to the rank of a mere province. The dispute was resolved in 1492 when according to Lujo Margetić, king Vladislaus recognised the authonomy of both Croatia and Slavonia, whose nobility gave a separate confirmation to the succession agreement between Vladislaus and the house of Habsburg, enabling Croatians and Slavonians to have their say in future interregnum periods.
Croatia in the Habsburg monarchy (1527–1918)
A decisive battle between Hungarian army and the Ottomans occurred on Mohács in 1526, where Hungarian king Louis II was killed and his army was destroyed. As a consequence, in November of the same year, the Hungarian parliament elected János Szapolyai as the new king of Hungary. In December 1526, another Hungarian parliament elected Ferdinand Habsburg as King of Hungary. 1527 Cetingrad Assembly
contains seals of most distinguished Croatian nobles such as: Ivan Karlović, Nikola III Zrinski as well as seal with Croatian checkerboard. ]]
According to historian , the crucial decision determining next four centuries of Croatian history happened when Croatian nobles assembled in Cetingrad in 1527 and chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia. Albeit Habsburg delegation composed of Pavao Oberstein, Nikola Jurišić and Ivan Puchler arrived in Cetingrad, Croatia, as early s Christmas Eve 1526, they had to wait, as Croat high dignitaries spent Christmas holidays at home. After finally assemblying on New Year's Eve 1526, Croats publicly proclaimed their decision on a mass held next day in Francisian Monastery in Cetin. In turn, the present Habsburg delegation confirmed that new Habsburg rulers will contribute to the defense of Croatia against the Ottomans, and respect its political rights.
As Assembly of neighbouring Slavonia, on the other hand, elected Szapolyai - a civil war between the two rival kings ensued, but later both crowns united as the Habsburgs prevailed over Szapolyai. The Ottoman Empire used these instabilities to expand in the 16th century to include most of Slavonia, western Bosnia (then called Turkish Croatia), and Lika. Those territories initially made up part of Rumelia Eyalet, and subsequently parts of Budin Eyalet, Bosnia Eyalet, and Kanije Eyalet. Remnants of the remnants at the height of the Ottoman advance]]
Croats and Slavonians fought an increasing number of battles, but lost increasing swathes of territory to the Ottoman Empire, until being reduced to what is commonly called in Croatian historiography the "Remains of the Remains of Once Glorious Croatian Kingdom" (Reliquiae reliquiarum olim inclyti regni Croatiae), or simply the "Remains of the Remains".
Amalgamation of medieval Croatia and medieval Slavonia
shown in relation to medieval Slavonia (green) centered around Diocese of Zagreb.|left]]
The area spanning between rivers Sava and Drava on north-south axis and river Sutla and Požega valley on west-east axis, during medieval period came to be known as Slavonia. Albeit Slavonia shared certain ties with medieval Croatia, it was more tightly connected to Hungary than Croatia Proper was. In 15th century, during the rule of Vladislaus Jagiellon, Slavonia was granted the status of Kingdom. On assembly session held on 7 March 1577, Zagreb was for the first time called the capital city of Croatia-Slavonia. Formation of Military Frontier Later in 16th century, Croatia was so weak that its parliament authorized Ferdinand Habsburg to carve out large areas of Croatia and Slavonia adjacent to the Ottoman Empire for the creation of the Military Frontier (Vojna Krajina, German: Militaergrenze) - a buffer zone for the Ottoman Empire managed directly by the Imperial War Council in Austria. This buffer area became devastated and depopulated due to constant warfare and was subsequently settled by Serbs, Vlachs, Croats, and Germans. As a result of their compulsory military service to the Habsburg Empire during the conflict with the Ottoman Empire, the population in the Military Frontier was free of serfdom and enjoyed much political autonomy, unlike the population living in the parts managed by the Croatian Ban and Sabor. They were considered free peasant-soldiers who were granted land without the usual feudal obligations, except for the military service. This was officially confirmed by an Imperial decree of 1630 called Statuta Valachorum (Vlach Statutes).
The territory of Military Frontier was initially subdivided into Slavonian Frontier (subsequently known as Varaždin Generalate), Croatian Frontier (subsequently known as Karlovac Generalate) and Žumberak District. The area between villages of Bović and Brkiševina was called Banska Krajina (or subsequently Banovina, Banija). The difference between latter and remaining Military Frontier was that Banska krajina (Ban's Frontier) was under command and financing of ban of Croatia so its defense was basically the responsibility of Croatia. Unlike remaining Military Frontier which was under direct command of Imperial Military Authorities, Banska Krajina was not taken away from Croatia. The Long War: Hasan Pasha's Great Offensive
on 22 June 1593. The battle is depicted here by Johann Weikhard von Valvasor.]]
As Ottomans concluded their War against Safavid Persia in 1590, the belligerent Teli Hasan Pasha was appointed new governor of Ottoman Bosnian Eyalet. He launched his great offensive on Croatia, aimed at completely conquering Croatian "Remnants of the Remnants". In order to do that, he mobilized all available troops from his Bosnian Eyalet. Although his offensive did achieve substantial success against Croatians and their allies, such as victories in Siege of Bihać (which Croatians never managed to retake again) or in Battle of Brest, his campaign was ultimately stopped in June 1593 Battle of Sisak. Not only the Ottomans lost this battle, but Hasan Pasha got killed in the fray. News of Bosnian Pasha's defeat near Sisak caused outrage in Constantinople. Now, the Ottomans officially decided to declare war to Habsburg Monarchy, triggering the start of Long Turkish War. In strategic sense, the Ottoman defeat near Sisak led to stabilization of border between Croatia and the Ottoman Empire. Historian claims that this stability of Croatian-Ottoman border was a general characteristic of the 17th century, as Ottoman Empire's might started declining. and a center of Ozalj literary-linguistic circle which produced Croatian baroque literature such as: Putni tovaruš, Gazophylacium or Gartlic za čas kratiti.]]
During the 17th century, distinguished Croatian noble Nikola Zrinski became one of the most prominent Croatian generals in the fight against the Ottomans. In 1663/1664 he led a successful incursion into Ottoman-controlled territory. The campaign ended in the destruction of the vital Osijek bridge, which served as a connection between the Pannonian plain and the Balkan territories. As a reward for his victory against the Ottomans, Zrinski was commended by French king Louis XIV, thereby establishing contact with the French court. Croatian nobility also constructed Novi Zrin castle which sought to protect Croatia and Hungary from further Ottoman advances. At the same time, emperor Leopold of Habsburg sought to impose absolute rule on the entire Habsburg territory, which meant a loss of authority for the Croatian parliament and Ban and caused dissatisfaction with Habsburg rule among Croats.
In July 1664, a large Ottoman army besieged and destroyed Novi Zrin. As this army marched on Austrian lands, its campaign ended at the Battle of St. Gotthard, where it was destroyed by the Habsburg imperial army. Given this victory, Croatians expected a decisive Habsburg counter-offensive to push the Ottomans back and relieve pressure on Croatian lands, but Leopold decided to conclude the unfavorable Vasvar peace treaty with the Ottomans because it solved problems he had on the Rhine with the French at the time. In Croatia, his decision caused outrage among leading nobles and sparked a conspiracy to replace the Habsburgs with different rulers. After Nikola Zrinski died under unusual circumstances while hunting, his relatives Fran Krsto Frankopan and Petar Zrinski supported the conspiracy. An attempt to retake Bihać was also made in 1697 but was eventually called off due to lack a of cannons. In the same year, general Eugene of Savoy led a 6500-strong army from Osijek into Bosnia, where he raided the seat of Bosnia Eyalet, Sarajevo, burning it to the ground. After this raid, large groups of Christian refugees from Bosnia settled in what was then an almost empty Slavonia. After the decisive Ottoman defeat in the Battle of Zenta in 1697 by the forces of Eugene of Savoy, the Peace of Karlowitz was signed in 1699, confirming the liberation of all of Slavonia from the Ottomans. For Croatia, nonetheless, large chunks of its late medieval territories between the rivers Una and Vrbas were lost, as they remained part of the Ottoman Bosnia Eyalet. In the following years, the use of the German language spread in the new military borderland and proliferated over the next two centuries as German-speaking colonists settled in the borderlands.
Enlightened despotism
road|left]]
By the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire had been driven out of Hungary, and Austria brought the empire under central control. Since the emperor Charles VI had no male heirs, he wanted to leave the imperial throne to his daughter Maria Theresa of Austria, which eventually led to the War of Austrian Succession of 1741–1748. The Croatian Parliament decided to accept Maria Theresa as a legitimate ruler by drafting the Pragmatic Sanction of 1712, asking in return that whoever inherited the throne recognize and respect Croatian autonomy from Hungary. The king unwillingly granted this. The rule of Maria Theresa brought limited modernization in education and health care. Croatian Royal Council (Consilium Regni Croatiae), which served as the de facto Croatian government, was founded in Varaždin in 1767, but it was abolished in 1779 and its authority was passed to Hungary. The foundation of the Croatian Royal Council in Varaždin made this town the administrative capital of Croatia, however, a large fire in 1776 caused significant damage to the city, so these major Croatian administrative institutions moved to Zagreb.
Maria Theresa's heir, Joseph II of Austria, also ruled in an enlightened absolutist manner, but his reforms were marked by attempts at centralization and Germanization. In this period, roads were built connecting Karlovac with Rijeka, and Jozefina connecting Karlovac with Senj. With the Treaty of Sistova, which ended the Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791), the Ottoman-held areas of Donji Lapac and Cetingrad, along with the villages of Drežnik Grad and Jasenovac, were ceded to the Habsburg monarchy and incorporated into the Croatian Military Frontier. 19th century in Croatia Napoleonic Wars
.]]
As Napoleon's armies started to dominate Europe, Croatian lands came into contact with the French as well. When Napoleon abolished the Republic of Venice in 1797, former Venetian possessions in Dalmatia came under Habsburg rule. In 1809, as Napoleon defeated the Austrians in the Battle of Wagram, French-controlled territory eventually expanded to the Sava river. The French founded the "Illyrian Provinces" centered in Ljubljana and appointed Marshal Auguste de Marmont as their governor-general. The French presence brought the liberal ideas of the French Revolution to the Croats. The French founded Masonic lodges, built infrastructure, and printed the first newspapers in the local language in Dalmatia. Called Kraglski Datmatin/Il Regio Dalmata, it was printed in both Italian and Croatian. Croatian soldiers accompanied Napoleon in his conquests as far as Russia. In 1808, Napoleon abolished the Republic of Ragusa. Ottomans from Bosnia raided French Croatia and occupied the area of Cetingrad in 1809. Auguste de Marmont reacted by occupying Bihać on 5 May 1810. After the Ottomans promised to stop raiding French territories and withdraw from the Cetingrad, he withdrew from Bihać.
With the fall of Napoleon, the French-controlled Croatian lands came back under Austrian rule.
Croatian national revival and the Illyrian Movement
" ("Our Beautiful Homeland").|left]]
Under the influence of German romanticism, French political thought, and pan-Slavism, Croatian romantic nationalism emerged in the mid-19th century to counteract the Germanization and Magyarization of Croatia. Ljudevit Gaj emerged as a leader of the Croatian national movement. One of the important issues to be resolved was the question of language, where regional Croatian dialects had to be standardized. Since the Shtokavian dialect, widespread among Croats, was also common with Serbs, this movement likewise had a South-Slavic characteristic. At the time, "Croatian" only referred to the population in southwestern parts of what is today Croatia, while "Illyrian" was used throughout the south-Slavic world; wider masses of people were attempted to attract by using the Illyrian name.
According to Croatian historian Nenad Moačanin, appearance of Romanticism also affected portion of Vlachs settled in Croatian depopulated areas who declared themselves as Serbs.
Croats in revolutions of 1848
In the Revolutions of 1848, the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, driven by fear of Magyar nationalism, supported the Habsburg court against Hungarian revolutionary forces.
at the opening of the first Croatian civic Parliament (Sabor) whose deputies were elected on 5 June 1848. In earlier Sabors, members represented feudal estates rather than citizens. The Croatian tricolor flag can also be seen in the background. Dragutin Weingärtner, 1885.]]
During a session of the Croatian Sabor held on 25 March 1848, colonel Josip Jelačić was elected as Ban of Croatia, and a petition called "Demands of The People" (Zahtjevanja naroda) was drafted to be handed over to the Austrian Emperor. These liberal demands asked for independence, unification of Croatian lands, a Croatian government responsible to the Croatian parliament and independent from Hungary, financial independence from Hungary, the introduction of the Croatian language in offices and schools, freedom of the press, religious freedom, abolishment of serfdom, abolishment of nobility privileges, the foundation of a people's army, and equality before the law.
As the Hungarian government denied the existence of the Croatian name and nationhood and treated Croatian institutions like provincial authorities, Jelačić severed ties between Croatia and Hungary. In May 1848, Ban's Council was formed which had all the executive powers of the Croatian government. The Croatian parliament abolished feudalism, Jelačić was also appointed the governor of Rijeka and Dalmatia as well as the "Imperial Commander of Military Frontier", thus having most of the Croatian lands under his rule. The breakdown of negotiations between Croats and the Hungarians eventually led to war. Jelačić declared war on Hungary on 7 September 1848. On 11 September 1848, the Croatian army crossed the Drava river and annexed Međimurje. Upon crossing Drava, Jelačić ordered his army to switch Croatian national flags with Habsburg Imperial flags.
Despite the contributions of its Ban Josip Jelačić in quenching the Hungarian war of independence, in the aftermath, Croatia was not treated any more favorably by Vienna than the Hungarians and therefore lost its domestic autonomy.
Croatia in Dual Monarchy
in 1895, where he officially opened the Croatian National Theatre building. ]]
The dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary was created in 1867 through the Austro-Hungarian Compromise. Croatian autonomy was restored in 1868 with the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement, which was comparatively favorable for the Croatians, but still problematic because of issues such as the unresolved status of Rijeka. In 1873, the territory of Military Frontier was demilitarized and in July 1871 a decision was made to incorporate it into Croatia with Croatian ban Ladislav Pejačević taking over the authority. Pejačević's successor Károly Khuen-Héderváry caused further problems by violating the Croatian-Hungarian Settlement through his hardline Magyarization policies in period from 1883 to 1903. Héderváry's Magyarization of Croatia led to massive riots in 1903, when Croatian protesters burnt Hungarian flags and clashed with the gendarmes and the military, resulting in the death of several protesters. As a consequence of these riots, Héderváry left his position as Ban of Croatia, but was appointed prime minister of Hungary.
A year earlier, in 1902, Srbobran, the newspaper of Zagreb Serbs, published an article titled "Do istrage naše ili vaše" (Until us, or you get exterminated). The article was filled with Greater Serbian ideology; its text denied the existence of the Croatian nation and the Croatian language and announced Serbian victory over "servile Croats", who would, the article proclaimed, be exterminated.
The article sparked major anti-Serb riots in Zagreb, in which barricades were raised and Serb-owned properties were attacked. Serbs of Zagreb eventually distanced themselves from the opinions published in the article. and election-rigging to keep the opposition, mainly the Croatian Peasant Party and its allies, in the minority in the Yugoslav parliament. Pašić believed that Yugoslavia should be as centralized as possible, creating a Greater Serbian national concept of concentrated power in the hands of Belgrade in place of distinct regional governments and identities.
Murders of 1928 and royal dictatorship
During a Parliament session in 1928, Puniša Račić, a deputy of the Serbian Radical People's Party, shot at Croatian deputies, resulting in the killing of Pavle Radić and Đuro Basariček and the wounding of Ivan Pernar and Ivan Granđa. Stjepan Radić, a Croatian political champion at the time, was wounded and later succumbed to his wounds. These multiple murders caused the outrage of the Croatian population and ignited violent demonstrations, strikes, and armed conflicts throughout Croatian parts of the country. The Greater Serbian-influenced Royal Yugoslav Court even considered "amputation" of Croatian parts of the country, while leaving Yugoslavia only inside Greater Serbian borders, however, Croatian Peasant Party leadership rejected this idea. While Račić was subsequently tried for multiple murders, he served his sentence in a luxurious villa in Požarevac, where he had several servants at his disposal and was allowed to leave and return at any time.
In response to the shooting at the National Assembly, King Alexander abolished the parliamentary system and proclaimed a royal dictatorship. He imposed a new constitution aimed at removing all existing national identities and imposing "integral Yugoslavism". He also renamed the country from the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The territory of Croatia was largely divided among the Sava Banovina and the Littoral Banovina. Political parties were banned and the royal dictatorship took on an increasingly harsh character. Vladko Maček, who had succeeded Radić as leader of the Croatian Peasant Party, the largest political party in Croatia, was imprisoned. Ante Pavelić was exiled from Yugoslavia and created the ultranationalist Ustaše Movement, with the ultimate goal of destroying Yugoslavia and making Croatia an independent country. According to the British historian Misha Glenny, the murder in March 1929 of Toni Schlegel, editor of the pro-Yugoslavian newspaper Novosti, brought a "furious response" from the regime. In Lika and west Herzegovina in particular, described as "hotbeds of Croatian separatism", Glenny wrote that the majority-Serb police acted "with no restraining authority whatsoever". In the words of a prominent Croatian writer, Schlegel's death became the pretext for terror in all forms. Politics was soon "indistinguishable from gangsterism". In 1931, the royal regime organized the assassination of Croatian scientist and intellectual Milan Šufflay on the streets of Zagreb. The assassination was condemned by globally renowned intellectuals such as Albert Einstein and Heinrich Mann. In 1932, the Ustaše Movement unsuccessfully planned the Velebit uprising in Lika. Despite the oppressive climate, few rallied to the Ustaša cause and the movement was never able to gain serious support among the Croatian population. Banovina of Croatia In 1934, King Aleksandar was assassinated during a state visit to Marseille by a coalition of the Ustaše and the Bulgarian Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), thus ending the Royal dictatorship. The government of Serbian Radical Milan Stojadinović, which took power in 1935, distanced Yugoslavia from its former allies of France and the United Kingdom and moved the country closer to Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. In 1937 Yugoslav gendarmes led by Radical Party member Jovo Koprivica killed dozens of youth members of the Croatian Peasant Party in Senj because they sang Croatian patriotic songs. With the rise of Nazis in Germany and the looming possibility of another European war, Serbian political elites decided that it was time to fix relations with the Croats, the second largest ethnic group in the country, so that in the event of a new war the country would be united and without ethnic divisions. Negotiations started, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement and the creation of Banovina of Croatia, an autonomous Croatian province inside Yugoslavia. Banovina of Croatia was created in 1939 out of the two Banates, as well as parts of the Zeta, Vrbas, Drina, and Danube Banates. It had a reconstructed Croatian Parliament which would choose a Croatian Ban and Viceban. This Croatia included a part of Bosnia, most of Herzegovina, and Dubrovnik and its surroundings.
World War II and the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945)
]]
, shakes hands with Adolf Hitler in 1941.]]
The Axis occupation of Yugoslavia in 1941 allowed the Croatian radical right Ustaše to come into power, forming the "Independent State of Croatia" (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, NDH), led by Ante Pavelić, who assumed the role of Poglavnik. Following the pattern of other fascist regimes in Europe, the Ustaše enacted racial laws and formed eight concentration camps targeting minority Serbs, Romas, and Jewish populations, as well as Croatian and Bosnian Muslim opponents of the regime. The biggest concentration camp was Jasenovac in Croatia. The NDH had a program, formulated by Mile Budak, to purge Croatia of Serbs, by "killing one third, expelling the other third and assimilating the remaining third". The main targets for persecution were the Serbs, of whom approximately 330,000 were killed.
Various Serbian nationalist Chetnik groups also committed atrocities against Croats across many areas of Lika and parts of northern Dalmatia. During World War II in Yugoslavia, the Chetniks killed an estimated 18,000-32,000 Croats.
The anti-fascist communist-led Partisan movement, based on a pan-Yugoslav ideology, emerged in early 1941 under the command of Croatian-born Josip Broz Tito, and spread quickly into many parts of Yugoslavia. The 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment, often hailed as the first armed anti-fascist resistance unit in occupied Europe, was formed in Croatia, in the Brezovica Forest near the town of Sisak. As the movement began to gain popularity, the Partisans gained strength from Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, Slovenes, and Macedonians who believed in a unified, but federal, Yugoslav state.
By 1943, the Partisan resistance movement had gained the upper hand and in 1945, with help from the Soviet Red Army (passing only through small parts such as Vojvodina), expelled the Axis forces and local supporters. The State Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia (ZAVNOH) functioned since 1942 and formed an interim civil government by 1943. NDH's ministers of War and Internal Security Mladen Lorković and Ante Vokić tried to switch to the Allied side. Pavelić was, in the beginning, supporting them but when he found that he would need to leave his position he imprisoned them in Lepoglava prison where they were executed.
Following the defeat of the Independent State of Croatia at the end of the war, a large number of Ustaše, civilians supporting them (ranging from sympathizers, young conscripts or anti-communists), Chetniks and anti-Communists attempted to flee in the direction of Austria, hoping to surrender to British forces and to be given refuge. Following the Bleiburg repatriations, they were instead interned by British forces, and returned to the Partisans where they were subject to mass executions.
Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1991)
]]
Tito's leadership of the LCY (1945–1980)
Croatia was one of six constituent socialist republics of the Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia. Under the new communist system, privately owned factories and estates were nationalized, and the economy was based on a type of planned market socialism. The country underwent a rebuilding process, recovered from World War II, went through industrialization, and started developing tourism.
The country's socialist system also provided free apartments from large companies, which with the workers' self-management investments paid for the living spaces. From 1963, the citizens of Yugoslavia were allowed to travel to almost any country because of the neutral politics. No visas were required to travel to eastern or western countries or capitalist or communist nations. Such free travel was unheard of at the time in the Eastern Bloc countries, and in some western countries as well (e.g., Spain or Portugal, both dictatorships at the time). This proved to be helpful for Croatia's inhabitants who found working in foreign countries more financially rewarding. Upon retirement, a popular plan was to return to live in Croatia (then Yugoslavia) to buy more expensive property.
In Yugoslavia, the people of Croatia were guaranteed free healthcare, free dental care, and secure pensions. The older generation found this very comforting as pensions would sometimes exceed their former paychecks. Free trade and travel within the country also helped Croatian industries that imported and exported throughout all the former republics.
Students and military personnel were encouraged to visit other republics to learn more about the country, and all levels of education, including secondary education and higher education, were free. In reality, the housing was inferior with poor heat and plumbing, the medical care often lacking even in the availability of antibiotics, schools were propaganda machines and travel was a necessity to provide the country with hard currency. The propagandists, who want people to believe "neutral policies" equalized Serbs and Croats, severely restricted free speech and did not protect citizens from ethnic attacks.
]]
Membership in the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was as much a prerequisite for admission to colleges and government jobs as in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin or Nikita Khrushchev. Private sector businesses did not grow as the taxes on private enterprise were often prohibitive. Inexperienced management sometimes ruled policy and controlled decisions by brute force. Strikes were forbidden, and owners/managers were not permitted to make changes or decisions which would impact their productivity or profit.
The economy developed into a type of socialism called samoupravljanje (self-management), in which workers controlled socially-owned enterprises. This kind of market socialism created significantly better economic conditions than in the Eastern Bloc countries. Croatia went through intensive industrialization in the 1960s and 1970s with industrial output increasing several-fold and with Zagreb surpassing Belgrade in industry. Factories and other organizations were often named after Partisans who were declared national heroes. This practice also spread to street names, as well as the names of parks and buildings.
Before World War II, Croatia's industry was not developed, with the vast majority of the people employed in agriculture. By 1991, the country was completely transformed into a modern industrialized state. At the same time, the Croatian Adriatic coast had become a popular tourist destination, and the coastal republics (but mostly SR Croatia) profited greatly from this, as tourist numbers reached levels still unsurpassed in modern Croatia. The government brought unprecedented economic and industrial growth, high levels of social security, and a very low crime rate. The country completely recovered from WWII and achieved a very high GDP and economic growth rate, significantly higher than those of the present-day republic.
, Croatian Spring participant; Europe's first female prime minister]]
The constitution of 1963 balanced power in the country between the Croats and the Serbs and alleviated the imbalance coming from the fact that the Croats were again in a minority position. Trends after 1965 (like the fall of OZNA and UDBA chief Aleksandar Ranković from power in 1966), however, led to the Croatian Spring of 1970–71, when students in Zagreb organized demonstrations to achieve greater civil liberties and greater Croatian autonomy. The regime stifled public protest and incarcerated the leaders, but this led to the ratification of a new constitution in 1974, giving more rights to the individual republics.
Radical Ustaše cells of Croatian émigrés based in Australia and Western Europe planned and attempted to carry out acts of sabotage within Yugoslavia, including an incursion from Austria of 19 armed men in June 1971, who unsuccessfully aimed to incite a popular Croatian uprising against what they called the "Serbo-communist" regime in Belgrade.
Until the breakup of Yugoslavia (1980–1991)
In 1980, after Tito's death, economic, political, and religious difficulties started to mount and the federal government began to crumble. The crisis in Kosovo and, in 1986, the emergence of Slobodan Milošević in Serbia provoked a very negative reaction in Croatia and Slovenia; politicians from both republics feared that his motives would threaten their republics' autonomy. With the climate of change throughout Eastern Europe during the 1980s, the communist hegemony was challenged (at the same time, the Milošević government began to gradually concentrate Yugoslav power in Serbia, and calls for free multi-party elections were becoming louder).
In June 1989, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) was founded by Croatian nationalist dissidents led by Franjo Tuđman, a former fighter in Tito's Partisan movement and a JNA General. At this time, Yugoslavia was still a one-party state and open manifestations of Croatian nationalism were considered dangerous, so a new party was founded in an almost conspiratorial manner. It was only on 13 December 1989 that the governing League of Communists of Croatia agreed to legalize opposition political parties and hold free elections in the spring of 1990.
Republic of Croatia (1991–present)
Introduction of multi-party political system
, the 1st president of the modern independent Republic of Croatia]]
On 22 April and 7 May 1990, the first free multi-party elections were held in Croatia. Franjo Tuđman's Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) won by a 42% margin against Ivica Račan's reformed communist Party of Democratic Change (SDP) who won 26%. Croatia's first-past-the-post election system enabled Tuđman to form the government relatively independently, as the win translated into 205 mandates (out of 351 total). The HDZ intended to secure independence for Croatia, contrary to the wishes of some ethnic Serbs in the republic and federal politicians in Belgrade. The excessively polarized climate soon escalated into complete estrangement between the two nations and spiraled into sectarian violence.
On 25 July 1990, a Serbian Assembly was established in Srb, north of Knin, as the political representation of the Serbian people in Croatia. The Serbian Assembly declared "sovereignty and autonomy of the Serb people in Croatia". Their position was that if Croatia could secede from Yugoslavia, then the Serbs could secede from Croatia. Milan Babić, a dentist from the southern town of Knin, was elected president. The rebel Croatian Serbs established some paramilitary militias under the leadership of Milan Martić, the police chief in Knin.
On 17 August 1990, the Serbs of Croatia began what became known as the Log Revolution, where barricades of logs were placed across roads throughout the South as an expression of their secession from Croatia. This effectively cut Croatia in two, separating the coastal region of Dalmatia from the rest of the country. The Croatian government responded to the road blockades by sending special police teams in helicopters to the scene, but they were intercepted by SFR Yugoslav Air Force fighter jets and forced to turn back to Zagreb.
The Croatian constitution was passed in December 1990, categorizing Serbs as a minority group along with other ethnic groups. On 21 December 1990, Babić's administration announced the creation of a Serbian Autonomous Oblast of Krajina (or SAO Krajina). Other Serb-dominated communities in eastern Croatia announced that they would also join SAO Krajina and ceased paying taxes to the Zagreb government.
On Easter Sunday, 31 March 1991, the first fatal clashes occurred when police from the Croatian Ministry of the Interior (MUP) entered the Plitvice Lakes National Park to expel rebel Serb forces. Serb paramilitaries ambushed a bus carrying Croatian police into the national park on the road north of Korenica, sparking a day-long gun battle between the two sides. During the fighting, one Croat and one Serb policeman were killed. Twenty other people were injured and twenty-nine Krajina Serb paramilitaries and policemen were taken prisoner by Croatian forces. Among the prisoners was Goran Hadžić, who would later become the President of the Republic of Serbian Krajina.
On 2 May 1991, the Croatian parliament voted to hold an independence referendum. On 19 May 1991, with a turnout of almost 80%, 93.24% voted for independence. Krajina boycotted the referendum. They had held their referendum a week earlier on 12 May 1991 in the territories they controlled and voted to remain in Yugoslavia. The Croatian government did not recognize their referendum as valid.
On 25 June 1991, the Croatian Parliament declared independence from Yugoslavia. Slovenia declared independence from Yugoslavia on the same day.
War of Independence (1991–1995)
, the Stradun, in ruins during the Siege of Dubrovnik; the damaged Vukovar water tower, a symbol of the early conflict, flying the Croatian tricolor; soldiers of the Croatian Army getting ready to destroy a Serbian tank; the Vukovar Memorial Cemetery; a Serbian T-55 tank destroyed on the road to Drniš]]
During the Croatian War of Independence, the civilian population fled the areas of armed conflict en masse, with hundreds of thousands of Croats moving away from the Bosnian and Serbian border areas. In many places, masses of civilians were forced out by the Yugoslav National Army (JNA), which consisted mostly of conscripts from Serbia and Montenegro, and irregulars from Serbia, participating in what became known as ethnic cleansing.
The border city of Vukovar underwent a three-month siege during the Battle of Vukovar. It left most of the city destroyed and a majority of the population was forced to flee. The city was taken over by the Serbian forces on 18 November 1991 and the Vukovar massacre occurred.
Subsequent United Nations-sponsored cease fires followed, and the warring parties were mostly entrenched. The Yugoslav People's Army retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina where a new cycle of tensions was escalating—the Bosnian War was about to start. During 1992 and 1993, Croatia also handled an estimated 700,000 refugees from Bosnia, mainly Bosnian Muslims.
Armed conflict in Croatia remained intermittent and mostly small-scale until 1995. In early August, Croatia embarked on Operation Storm, an attack that quickly reconquered most of the territories from the Republic of Serbian Krajina authorities, leading to a mass exodus of the Serbian population. Estimates of the number of Serbs who fled before, during and after the operation range from 90,000 to 200,000.
As a result of this operation, a few months later the Bosnian War ended with the negotiation of the Dayton Agreement. A peaceful integration of the remaining Serbian-controlled territories in eastern Slavonia was completed in 1998 under UN supervision. The majority of the Serbs who fled from former Krajina did not return due to fears of ethnic violence, discrimination, and property repossession problems; and the Croatian government has yet to achieve the conditions for full reintegration. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, around 125,000 ethnic Serbs who fled the 1991–1995 conflict are registered as having returned to Croatia, of whom around 55,000 remain permanently.
Transition period
Croatia became a member of the Council of Europe in 1996. Between 1995 and 1997 Franjo Tuđman became increasingly more authoritiarian and refused to formally acknowledge local election results in City of Zagreb, leading to the Zagreb crisis. In 1996 his government attempted to shut down Radio 101, a popular radio station which was critical towards HDZ and often made fun of HDZ and Tuđman himself. When Radio 101's broadcasting rights were revoked in 1996, some 120,000 Croatian citizens protested in Ban Jelačić Square against the decision. Tuđman gave the order to suppress the protest with a riot police, but then-minister of the internal affairs Ivan Jarnjak disobeyed his order for which he was subsequently dismissed from his position.
Sanader tried to come back into HDZ in 2010 but was then ejected, and USKOK soon had him arrested on several corruption charges.
In November 2012, a court in Croatia sentenced former Prime Minister Ivo Sanader, in office from 2003 to 2009, to 10 years in prison for taking bribes. Sanader tried to argue that the case against him was politically motivated.
In 2011, the accession agreement was concluded, giving Croatia the all-clear to join.
The 2011 Croatian parliamentary election was held on 4 December 2011, and the Kukuriku coalition won. After the election, the center-left government was formed led by new prime minister Zoran Milanović. the European Union membership (2013–present)
in June 2022. ]]
Following the ratification of the Treaty of Accession 2011 and the successful 2012 Croatian European Union membership referendum, Croatia joined the EU on 1 July 2013.
In the 2014–15 Croatian presidential election, Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović became the first Croatian female President.
The 2015 Croatian parliamentary election resulted in the victory of the Patriotic Coalition which formed a new government with the Bridge of Independent Lists. However, a vote of no confidence brought down the Cabinet of Tihomir Orešković. After the 2016 Croatian parliamentary election, the Cabinet of Andrej Plenković was formed.
In January 2020, the former prime minister Zoran Milanović of the Social Democrats (SDP) won the presidential election. He defeated center-right incumbent Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović of the ruling Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ). In March 2020, the Croatian capital Zagreb experienced a 5.3 magnitude earthquake which caused significant damage to the city. In July 2020, the ruling center-right party HDZ won the parliamentary election. On 12 October 2020 right-wing extremist Danijel Bezuk attempted an attack on the building of the Croatian government, wounded a police officer in the process, and then killed himself. In December 2020. Banovina, one of the less developed regions of Croatia was shaken by a 6.4 M earthquake which killed several people and destroyed the town of Petrinja. Throughout two and half years of the global COVID-19 pandemic, 16,103 Croatian citizens died from the disease. In March 2022, a Soviet-made Tu-141 drone crashed in Zagreb, most likely due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. On 26 July 2022, Croatian authorities opened Pelješac Bridge, thus connecting the southernmost part of Croatia with the rest of the country. On 1 January 2023 Croatia became a member of both the Eurozone and Schengen Area.See also
* Bans of Croatia
* Croatian art
* Croatian History Museum
* Croatian Military Frontier
* Croatian nobility
* Culture of Croatia
* History of Dalmatia
* History of Hungary
* History of Istria
* Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War
* Kingdom of Dalmatia
* Kingdom of Slavonia
* Kings of Croatia
* List of noble families of Croatia
* List of rulers of Croatia
* Military history of Croatia
* Timeline of Croatian history
* Turkish Croatia
* Twelve noble tribes of Croatia
References
Bibliography
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* Patterson, Patrick Hyder. "The futile crescent? Judging the legacies of Ottoman rule in Croatian history". Austrian History Yearbook, vol. 40, 2009, p. 125+. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A199912458/GPS?uwikipedia&sidGPS&xid=015ae8f3 online].
*
External links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091005195007/http://www.isp.hr/index.php?lang=en Croatian Institute of History]
*[http://www.mdc.hr/ Museum Documentation Center]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090203102549/http://hismus.hr/english/main.htm The Croatian History Museum]
*[https://www.pdcnet.org/jcroatstud Journal of Croatian Studies]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101212010304/http://croatia.aventin.hr/croatia/history.htm Short History of Croatia]
*[http://www.croatianhistory.net/ Overview of History, Culture, and Science]
*[http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Croatia:_Primary_Documents History of Croatia: Primary Documents]
*[http://www.hr/darko/etf/etfss.html Overview of History, Culture and Science of Croatia]
*[http://vlib.iue.it/history/europe/croatia.html WWW-VL History:Croatia]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040216002953/http://mirror.veus.hr/myth/ Dr. Michael McAdams: Croatia – Myth and Reality]
*[http://www.felbar.com/siteindex/create.php?langen&rtype1&mnavmaps&exthtm Historical Maps of Croatia]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091027044912/http://geocities.com/hrvatskapovijest/img/09.gif Croatia under Tomislav -from Nada Klaic book]
*The History Files: [http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/EasternCroatia.htm Croatia]
*[http://www.metodios.org/brief.history.croatia A brief history of Croatia]
*[http://www.tourcroatia.co.uk/early-history-croatia/ The Early History of Croatia]
*[http://croatia.org/crown/content_images/2018/Croatia_1990-2018.pdf Croatia since Independence 1990-2018] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Croatia | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.480685 |
5575 | Geography of Croatia | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
|
area ranking = 127th|
km area =56594 |
percent land= 99 |
km coastline =5835.1 |
borders |
highest pointDinara<br>|
lowest point= Adriatic Sea<br>(sea level)|
longest riverSava<br>|
largest lakeLake Vrana<br>|
}}
The geography of Croatia is defined by its location—it is described as located at the crossroads of Central Europe and Southeast Europe, or within the wider region of Southern Europe. Croatia's territory covers , making it the 127th largest country in the world. Bordered by Slovenia in the northwest, Hungary in the northeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia in the east, Montenegro in the southeast and the Adriatic Sea in the south, it lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E. Croatia's territorial waters encompass in a wide zone, and its internal waters located within the baseline cover an additional .
The Pannonian Plain and the Dinaric Alps, along with the Adriatic Basin, represent major geomorphological parts of Croatia. Lowlands make up the bulk of Croatia, with elevations of less than above sea level recorded in 53.42% of the country. Most of the lowlands are found in the northern regions, especially in Slavonia, itself a part of the Pannonian Basin plain. The plains are interspersed with horst and graben structures, believed to have broken the Pliocene Pannonian Sea's surface as islands. The greatest concentration of ground at relatively high elevations is found in the Lika and Gorski Kotar areas in the Dinaric Alps, but high areas are found in all regions of Croatia to some extent. The Dinaric Alps contain the highest mountain in Croatia— Dinara—as well as all other mountains in Croatia higher than . Croatia's Adriatic Sea mainland coast is long, while its 1,246 islands and islets encompass a further of coastline—the most indented coastline in the Mediterranean. Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps, as well as throughout the coastal areas and the islands.
62% of Croatia's territory is encompassed by the Adriatic Sea. The area includes the largest rivers flowing in the country: the Danube, Sava, Drava, Mur and Kupa. The remainder belongs to the Adriatic Sea drainage basin, where the largest river by far is the Neretva. Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification. The mean monthly temperature ranges between and . Croatia has a number of ecoregions because of its climate and geomorphology, and the country is consequently among the most biodiverse in Europe. There are four types of biogeographical regions in Croatia: Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland; Alpine in the elevated Lika and Gorski Kotar; Pannonian along the Drava and Danube; and Continental in the remaining areas. There are 444 protected natural areas in Croatia, encompassing 8.5% of the country; there are about 37,000 known species in Croatia, and the total number of species is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000.
The permanent population of Croatia by the 2011 census reached 4.29 million. The population density was 75.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, and the overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 75.7 years. The country is inhabited mostly by Croats (89.6%), while minorities include Serbs (4.5%), and 21 other ethnicities (less than 1% each) recognised by the constitution. Since the counties were re-established in 1992, Croatia is divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb. The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities. The average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56%, with a growing urban population and shrinking rural population. The largest city and the nation's capital is Zagreb, with an urban population of 797,952 in the city itself and a metropolitan area population of 978,161. The populations of Split and Rijeka exceed 100,000, and five more cities in Croatia have populations over 50,000.
Area and borders
Croatia's territory covers , making it the 127th largest country in the world. The physical geography of Croatia is defined by its location—it is described as a part of Southeast Europe. Croatia borders Bosnia–Herzegovina (for 1,009.1 km), Slovenia for 667.8 km in the northwest, in the east, Hungary for 355.5 km in the north, Serbia (for 317.6 km) in the east, Montenegro (for 22.6 km) in the southeast and the Adriatic Sea in the west, south and southwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E. Part of the extreme south of Croatia is separated from the rest of the mainland by a short coastline strip around Neum belonging to Bosnia–Herzegovina. The country's shape is described as a 'horseshoe' (), and it arose as a result of medieval geopolitics.
Croatia's border with Hungary was inherited from Yugoslavia. Much of the border with Hungary follows the Drava River or its former river bed; that part of the border dates from the Middle Ages. The border in Međimurje and Baranya was defined as a border between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, pursuant to the Treaty of Trianon of 1920. The present outline of the border with Bosnia–Herzegovina and border with Montenegro is largely the result of the Ottoman conquest and subsequent recapture of territories in the Great Turkish War of 1667–1698 formally ending with the Treaty of Karlowitz, as well as the Fifth and Seventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars. This border had minor modifications in 1947 when all borders of the former Yugoslav constituent republics were defined by demarcation commissions implementing the AVNOJ decisions of 1943 and 1945 regarding the federal organisation of Yugoslavia. The commissions also defined Baranya and Međimurje as Croatian territories, and moreover set up the present-day border between Serbia and Croatia in Syrmia and along the Danube River between Ilok and the Drava river's mouth and further north to the Hungarian border; the Ilok/Drava section matched the border between the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and Bács-Bodrog County that existed until 1918 (the end of World War I). Most of the border with Slovenia was also defined by the commissions, matching the northwestern border of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, and establishing a new section of Croatian border north of the Istrian peninsula according to the ethnic composition of the territory previously belonging to the Kingdom of Italy.
Pursuant to the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy the islands of Cres, Lastovo and Palagruža and the cities of Zadar and Rijeka and most of Istria went to communist Yugoslavia and Croatia, while carving out the Free Territory of Trieste (FTT) as a city-state. The FTT was partitioned in 1954 as Trieste itself and the area to the north of it were placed under Italian control, and the rest under Yugoslav control. The arrangement was made permanent by the Treaty of Osimo in 1975. The former FTT's Yugoslav part was partitioned between Croatia and Slovenia, largely conforming to the area population's ethnic composition.
In the late 19th century, Austria-Hungary established a geodetic network, for which the elevation benchmark was determined by the Adriatic Sea's average level at the Sartorio pier in Trieste. This benchmark was subsequently retained by Austria, adopted by Yugoslavia, and kept by the states that emerged after its dissolution, including Croatia.
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan5|Length of land borders of Croatia (including rivers)Border disputesMaritime border disputesCroatia and Slovenia started negotiations to define maritime borders in the Gulf of Piran in 1992 but failed to agree, resulting in a dispute. Both countries also declared their economic zones, which partially overlap. Croatia's application to become an EU member state was initially suspended pending resolution of its border disputes with Slovenia. These were eventually settled with an agreement to accept the decision of an international arbitration commission set up via the UN, enabling Croatia to progress towards EU membership. These claims are likewise in the process of being settled by binding arbitration.
There are also land border disputes between Croatia and Serbia. The two countries presently control one bank of the present-day river each, but Croatia claims that the border line should follow the cadastral borders between the former municipalities of SR Croatia and SR Serbia along the Danube, as defined by a Yugoslav commission in 1947 (effectively following a former river bed); borders claimed by Croatia also include the Vukovar and Šarengrad islands in the Danube as its territory. There is also a border dispute with Bosnia–Herzegovina, specifically Croatia claims Unčica channel on the right bank of Una as the border at Hrvatska Kostajnica, while Bosnia and Herzegovina claims Una River course as the border there.Physical geographyGeology
The geology of Croatia has some Precambrian rocks mostly covered by younger sedimentary rocks and deformed or superimposed by tectonic activity. The country is split into two main onshore provinces, a smaller part of the Pannonian Basin and the Karst Region in the Dinarides. The carbonate platform karst landscape of Croatia helped to create the weathering conditions to form bauxite, gypsum, clay, amphibolite, granite, spilite, gabbro, diabase and limestone.
Topography
Most of Croatia is lowlands, with elevations of less than above sea level recorded in 53.42% of the country. Most of the lowlands are found in the country's northern regions, especially in Slavonia, representing a part of the Pannonian Basin. Areas with elevations of above sea level encompass 25.61% of Croatia's territory, and the areas between above sea level cover 17.11% of the country. A further 3.71% of the land is above sea level, and only 0.15% of Croatia's territory is elevated greater than above sea level.
Adriatic Basin
national park|alt=Coastline with rocky shore]]
Croatia's Adriatic Sea mainland coast is long, while its 1,246 islands and islets have a further of coastline. The distance between the extreme points of Croatia's coastline is . The number of islands includes all islands, islets, and rocks of all sizes, including ones emerging only at low tide. The largest islands in the Adriatic are Cres and Krk, each covering ; the tallest is Brač, reaching above sea level. The islands include 47 permanently inhabited ones, the most populous among them being Krk and Korčula.
The shore is the most indented coastline in the Mediterranean. The majority of the coast is characterised by a karst topography, developed from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform. Karstification there largely began after the final raising of the Dinarides in the Oligocene and Miocene epochs, when carbonate rock was exposed to atmospheric effects such as rain; this extended to below the present sea level, exposed during the Last Glacial Maximum's sea level drop. It is estimated that some karst formations are related to earlier drops of sea level, most notably the Messinian salinity crisis. The eastern coast's largest part consists of carbonate rocks, while flysch rock is significantly represented in the Gulf of Trieste coast, on the Kvarner Gulf coast opposite Krk, and in Dalmatia north of Split. There are comparably small alluvial areas of the Adriatic coast in Croatia—most notably the Neretva river delta. Western Istria is gradually subsiding, having sunk about in the past 2,000 years.
In the Middle Adriatic Basin, there is evidence of Permian volcanism in the area of Komiža on the island of Vis, in addition to the volcanic islands of Jabuka and Brusnik. Earthquakes are frequent in the area around the Adriatic Sea, although most are too faint to be felt; an earthquake doing significant damage happens every few decades, with major earthquakes every few centuries.
Dinaric Alps
The Dinaric Alps are linked to a Late Jurassic to recent times fold and thrust belt, itself part of the Alpine orogeny, extending southeast from the southern Alps. The Dinaric Alps in Croatia encompass the entire Gorski Kotar and Lika regions, as well as considerable parts of Dalmatia, with their northeastern edge running from Žumberak to the Banovina region, along the Sava River, and their westernmost landforms being Ćićarija and Učka mountains in Istria. The Dinaric Alps contain the highest mountain in Croatia— Dinara—as well as all other mountains in Croatia higher than : Biokovo, Velebit, Plješivica, Velika Kapela, Risnjak, Svilaja and Snježnik. There are numerous caves in Croatia, 49 of which are deeper than , 14 deeper than and 3 deeper than . The longest cave in Croatia, Kita Gaćešina, is at the same time the longest cave in the Dinaric Alps at .
seen from Knin|alt=Picture of large mountain with about 30-degree sloped sides]]
{|class="wikitable"
! colspan4|Highest mountain peaks of Croatia Ultimately, up to of sediment was deposited in the basin, and the sea eventually drained through the Iron Gate gorge.
The results are large plains in the area bound by the rivers of Danube, Sava, Drava, and Kupa (including Slavonia, Baranya, and Syrmia). The plains are interspersed by isolated mountains. The tallest among such landforms are Ivanšćica and Medvednica north of Zagreb—both are also at least partially in Hrvatsko Zagorje—as well as Psunj and Papuk that are the tallest among the Slavonian mountains surrounding Požega. The two, as well as the Moslavačka gora mountains, are possibly remnants of a volcanic arc from the same tectonic plate collision that caused the Dinaric Alps. The longest rivers in Croatia are the Sava, Drava, Kupa and a section of the Danube. The longest rivers emptying into the Adriatic Sea are the Cetina and an only section of the Neretva.
, a UNESCO World Heritage Site|altTwo greenish-blue lakes in a forest]]ClimateMost of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy subtropical highland climate (Cfb) as defined by the Köppen climate classification. The northern Adriatic coast and islands, as well as the Dalmatian coast's hinterland are characterised by the warm temperate climate (Cfa) climate and most of the central and southern Adriatic coast and islands have the Mediterranean climate (mostly Csb) climate. The highest elevations are characterised by the Df climate.
Mean monthly temperatures range between and in the coldest month (January) except in the coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar at elevations above where that metric is lower. Temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas: the lowest temperature of was recorded on 3 February 1919 in Čakovec, and the highest temperature of was recorded on 5 July 1950 in Karlovac.
The mean annual precipitation is depending on the geographic region and prevailing climate type. The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands (Vis, Lastovo, Biševo, and Svetac) and in the eastern parts of Slavonia; however, in the latter case the precipitation mostly occurs during the growing season. The prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest. Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast, generally as cool northeasterly bora (sometimes exceeding and southerly sirocco. The sunniest parts of the country are the outer islands, Hvar and Korčula, where more than 2,700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year, followed by the southern Adriatic Sea area in general, northern Adriatic coast, and Slavonia, all with more than 2,000 hours of sunshine per year.
|-
|}
Climate change
Biodiversity
nature park, one of the largest wetlands in Europe|alt=Trees over water]]
Croatia can be subdivided between a number of ecoregions because of its climate and geomorphology, and the country is consequently one of the richest in Europe in terms of biodiversity. There are four types of biogeographical regions in Croatia: Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland, Alpine in most of Lika and Gorski Kotar, Pannonian along the Drava and Danube, and continental in the remaining areas. Among the most significant are karst habitats; these include submerged karst, such as Zrmanja and Krka canyons and tufa barriers, as well as underground habitats. The karst geology has produced approximately 7,000 caves and pits, many of which are inhabited by troglobitic (exclusively cave-dwelling) animals such as the olm, a cave salamander and the only European troglobitic vertebrate. Forests are also significant in the country, as they cover representing 46.8% of Croatia's land surface. In terms of phytogeography, Croatia is part of the Boreal Kingdom; specifically, it is part of the Illyrian and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region. The World Wide Fund for Nature divides land in Croatia into three ecoregions—Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests. Biomes in Croatia include temperate broadleaf/mixed forest and Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub; all are in the Palearctic realm.
|alt=Vertically cracked grey rock]]
Croatia has 38,226 known taxa, 2.8% of which are endemic; the actual number (including undiscovered species) is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000.
Ecology
landfill, used for Zagreb's solid waste disposal]]
The ecological footprint of Croatia's population and industry varies significantly between the country's regions since 50% of the population resides in 26.8% of the nation's territory, with a particularly high impact made by the city of Zagreb and Zagreb County areas—their combined area comprises 6.6% of Croatia's territory while encompassing 25% of the population. The ecological footprint is most notably from the increased development of settlements and the sea coast leading to habitat fragmentation. Between 1998 and 2008, the greatest changes of land use pertained to artificially developed areas, but the scale of development is negligible compared to EU member states.
The Croatian Environment Agency (CEA), a public institution established by the Government of Croatia to collect and analyse information on the environment, has identified further ecological problems as well as various degrees of progress in terms of curbing their environmental impact. These problems include inadequate legal landfills as well as the presence of illegal landfills; between 2005 and 2008, 62 authorised and 423 illegal landfills were rehabilitated. In the same period, the number of issued waste management licences doubled, while the annual municipal solid waste volume increased by 23%, reaching per capita. The processes of soil acidification and organic matter degradation are present throughout Croatia, with increasing soil salinity levels in the Neretva river plain and spreading areas of alkali soil in Slavonia. of land remain suspected of containing land mines in 2025.Regions
Croatia is traditionally divided into numerous, often overlapping geographic regions, whose borders are not always clearly defined. The largest and most readily recognisable ones throughout the country are Central Croatia (also described as the Zagreb macro-region), Eastern Croatia (largely corresponding with Slavonia), and Mountainous Croatia (Lika and Gorski Kotar; to the west of Central Croatia). These three comprise the inland or continental part of Croatia. Coastal Croatia consists of a further two regions: Dalmatia or the southern littoral, between the general area of the city of Zadar and the southernmost tip of the country; and the northern littoral located north of Dalmatia, encompassing the Croatian Littoral and Istria. The geographical regions generally do not conform to county boundaries or other administrative divisions, and all of them encompass further, more specific, geographic regions.Human geographyDemographics
by county in persons per km<sup>2</sup>:<br /> |alt=Map with red spot in upper center reflecting Zagreb's population density of over 1200 people per square kilometre]]
The demographic features of the Croatian population are known through censuses, normally conducted in ten-year intervals and analysed by various statistical bureaus since the 1850s. The Croatian Bureau of Statistics has performed this task since the 1990s. The latest census in Croatia was performed in April 2011. The permanent population of Croatia at the 2011 census had reached 4.29 million. The population density was 75.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, and the overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth is 75.7 years. The population rose steadily (with the exception of censuses taken following the two world wars) from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million. Since 1991, Croatia's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate; the natural growth rate of the population is thus currently negative. Croatia is currently in the demographic transition's fourth or fifth stage. In terms of age structure, the population is dominated by the 15‑ to 64‑year‑old segment. The median age of the population is 41.4, and the gender ratio of the total population is 0.93 males per 1 female.
Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats (89.6%), while minorities include Serbs (4.5%) and 21 other ethnicities (less than 1% each) recognised by the Constitution of Croatia. The demographic history of Croatia is marked by significant migrations, including: the Croats' arrival in the area; the growth of the Hungarian and German speaking population after the personal union of Croatia and Hungary; joining of the Habsburg Empire; migrations set off by the Ottoman conquests; and the growth of the Italian-speaking population in Istria and Dalmatia during the Venetian rule there. while the German-speaking population was forced out or fled during the last part of and after World War II, and a similar fate was suffered by the Italian population. The late 19th century and the 20th century were marked by large scale economic migrations abroad. The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by internal migrations in Yugoslavia, as well as by urbanisation. The most recent significant migrations came as a result of the Croatian War of Independence when hundreds of thousands were displaced.
The Croatian language is Croatia's official language, but the languages of constitutionally-recognised minorities are officially used in some local government units. Croatian is the native language identified by 96% of the population. A 2009 survey revealed that 78% of Croatians claim knowledge of at least one foreign language—most often English. The largest religions of Croatia are Roman Catholicism (86.3%), Orthodox Christianity (4.4%) and Islam (1.5%). Literacy in Croatia stands at 98.1%. An estimated 4.5% of GDP is spent for education. The net monthly income in September 2011 averaged 5,397 kuna ( ). The most significant sources of employment in 2008 were wholesale and retail trade, the manufacturing industry and construction. In October 2011, the unemployment rate was 17.4%. Croatia's median equivalent household income tops the average Purchasing Power Standard of the ten countries which joined the EU in 2004, while trailing the EU average. The 2011 census recorded a total of 1.5 million private households; most owned their own housing. The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and subsequent liberation of the same territory, in addition to changes in the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik and Istria. The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively. <!-- name"frucht429-429" --> Communist-ruled Croatia, as a constituent part of post-WWII Yugoslavia, abolished earlier divisions and introduced (mostly rural) municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities. Counties were reintroduced in 1992 by legislation, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions—for instance, in 1918 the Transleithanian part of Croatia was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar, Gospić, Ogulin, Požega, Vukovar, Varaždin, Osijek and Zagreb, while the 1992 legislation established 14 counties in the same territory. Međimurje County was established in the eponymous region acquired through the 1920 Treaty of Trianon. (The 1990 Croatian Constitution provided for a Chamber of the Counties as part of the government, and for counties themselves without specifying their names or number. However, the counties were not actually re-established until 1992, and the first Chamber of the Counties was elected in 1993.)
Since the counties were re-established in 1992, Croatia has been divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb, the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time (Zagreb County outside the city is administratively separate as of 1997). The county borders have changed in some instances since (for reasons such as historical ties and requests by cities), with the latest revision taking place in 2006. The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities.
The EU Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) division of Croatia is performed in several tiers. NUTS 1 level places the entire country in a single unit, while there are three NUTS 2 regions; these are Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia, Northwest Croatia and Adriatic Croatia. The last encompasses all counties along the Adriatic coast. Northwest Croatia includes the city of Zagreb and Krapina-Zagorje, Varaždin, Koprivnica-Križevci, Međimurje and Zagreb counties, and the Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia includes the remaining areas—Bjelovar-Bilogora, Virovitica-Podravina, Požega-Slavonia, Brod-Posavina, Osijek-Baranja, Vukovar-Syrmia, Karlovac and Sisak-Moslavina counties. Individual counties and the city of Zagreb represent NUTS 3 level subdivision units in Croatia. The NUTS Local administrative unit divisions are two-tiered. The LAU 1 divisions match the counties and the city of Zagreb—in effect making these the same as NUTS 3 units—while the LAU 2 subdivisions correspond to the cities and municipalities of Croatia.
{| class"sortable wikitable" style"margin-top:7px; margin-right:0px; text-align:left; font-size:90%;"
|- style="font-size:100%; text-align:right;"
! <!--style="width:120/75/75/85px"--> County !! Seat !! Area (km<sup>2</sup>)!! Population
|-
| Bjelovar-Bilogora || Bjelovar || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|2,652|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|119,743
|-
| Brod-Posavina || Slavonski Brod || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|2,043|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|158,559
|-
| Dubrovnik-Neretva || Dubrovnik || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|1,783|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|122,783
|-
| Istria || Pazin || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|2,820|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|208,440
|-
| Karlovac || Karlovac || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|3,622|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|128,749
|-
| Koprivnica-Križevci || Koprivnica ||style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|1,746|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|115,582
|-
| Krapina-Zagorje || Krapina || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|1,224|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|133,064
|-
| Lika-Senj || Gospić || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|5,350|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|51,022
|-
| Međimurje || Čakovec || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|730|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|114,414
|-
| Osijek-Baranja || Osijek || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|4,152|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|304,899
|-
| Požega-Slavonia || Požega || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|1,845|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|78,031
|-
| Primorje-Gorski Kotar || Rijeka || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|3,582|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|296,123
|-
| Šibenik-Knin || Šibenik || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|2,939|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|109,320
|-
| Sisak-Moslavina || Sisak ||style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|4,463|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|172,977
|-
| Split-Dalmatia || Split || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|4,534|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|455,242
|-
| Varaždin || Varaždin || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|1,261|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|176,046
|-
| Virovitica-Podravina || Virovitica || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|2,068|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|84,586
|-
| Vukovar-Srijem || Vukovar || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|2,448|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|180,117
|-
| Zadar || Zadar || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|3,642|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|170,398
|-
| Zagreb County || Zagreb || style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|3,078|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|317,642
|-
| City of Zagreb || Zagreb ||style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|641|| style"text-align:right;padding-right:2px"|792,875
|}
Urbanisation
The average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56%, with a growing urban population and shrinking rural population. The largest city and the nation's capital is Zagreb, with an urban population of 686,568 in the city itself. Zagreb's metropolitan area encompasses 341 additional settlements and, by the year 2001, the population of the area had reached 978,161; approximately 60% of Zagreb County's residents live in Zagreb's metropolitan area, as does about 41% of Croatia's urban population. The cities of Split and Rijeka are the largest settlements on the Croatian Adriatic coast, with each city's population being over 100,000. There are four other Croatian cities exceeding 50,000 people: Osijek, Zadar, Pula and Slavonski Brod; the Zagreb district of Sesvete, which has the status of a standalone settlement but not a city, also has such a large population. A further eleven cities are populated by more than 20,000.<ref name="cbs-2011-settle"/>
See also
* Geography of Europe
References
Works cited
*
*
* External links
*
* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Croatia | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.576430 |
5576 | Demographics of Croatia | <!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see WP:SDNONE -->
3,861,967 (2023 est.)
|growth = 0.6 per 1,000 pop. (2023)
|birth = 8.3 per 1,000 pop. (2023)
|death = 13.3 per 1,000 pop. (2023)
|life = 78.6 years (2023)
|life_male = 75.4 years (2023)
|life_female = 81.8 years (2023)
|infant_mortality 3.9 deaths/1,000 infants (2023)
|fertility = 1.53 children born/woman (2022)
|net_migration = 7.8 migrant(s)/1,000 pop. (2023)
|age_0-14_years= 14.1% (2023)
|age_15-64_years= 63% (2023)
|age_65_years= 22.9% (2023)
|sr_total_mf_ratio=0.84 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
|sr_at_birth=1.06 male(s)/female
|sr_under_15=1.06 male(s)/female
|sr_15-64_years=0.99 male(s)/female
|sr_65_years_over=0.64 male(s)/female
|nation=noun: Croatian(s) adjective: Croatian
|major_ethnic= Croats (91.63%) (2021)
|minor_ethnic= Serbs (3.2%) (2021) and<br /> others <2% individually (2021)
|official=Croatian at national level;<br /> Italian, Czech, Hungarian, Ruthenian, Serbian and Slovak are in official use in some local government areas
|spoken=Croatian, languages of the minorities
}}
The demographic characteristics of the population of Croatia are known through censuses, normally conducted in ten-year intervals and analysed by various statistical bureaus since the 1850s. The Croatian Bureau of Statistics has performed this task since the 1990s. The latest census in Croatia was performed in autumn of 2021. According to final results published on 22 September 2022 the permanent population of Croatia at the 2021 census (31st Aug) had reached 3.87 million. The population density is 68.7 inhabitants per square kilometre, and the overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 78,2 years in 2018. The population rose steadily (with the exception of censuses taken following the two world wars) from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million. Since 1991, Croatia's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate; the natural growth rate of the population is negative. Croatia is in the fourth (or fifth) stage of the demographic transition. In terms of age structure, the population is dominated by the 15 to 64 year‑old segment. The median age of the population is 43.4, and the gender ratio of the total population is 0.93 males per 1 female.
Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats (91.63%), while minorities include Serbs (3.2%), and 21 other ethnicities (less than 1% each). The demographic history of Croatia is marked by significant migrations, including the arrival of the Croats in the area growth of Hungarian and German-speaking population since the union of Croatia and Hungary, and joining of the Habsburg Empire, migrations set off by Ottoman conquests and growth of Italian speaking population in Istria and in Dalmatia during Venetian rule there. After the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Hungarian population declined, while the German-speaking population was forced or compelled to leave after World War II and similar fate was suffered by the Italian population. Late 19th century and the 20th century were marked by large scale economic migrations abroad. The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by internal migrations in Yugoslavia, as well as by urbanisation. Recently, significant migrations came as a result of the Croatian War of Independence when hundreds of thousands were displaced, while the 2010s brought a new wave of emigration which strengthened after Croatia's accession to the EU in 2013.
Croatian is the official language, but minority languages are officially used in some local government units. Croatian is declared as the native language by 95.60% of the population. A 2009 survey revealed that 78% of Croatians claim knowledge of at least one foreign language—most often English. The main religions of Croatia are Roman Catholic (86.28%), Eastern Orthodoxy (4.44%) and Islam (1.47%). Literacy in Croatia stands at 98.1%. The proportion of the population aged 15 and over attaining academic degrees grew rapidly since 2001, doubling and reaching 16.7% by 2008. An estimated 4.5% of the GDP is spent for education. Primary and secondary education are available in Croatian and in languages of recognised minorities. Croatia has a universal health care system and in 2010, the nation spent 6.9% of its GDP on healthcare. Net monthly income in August 2023 averaged 1,163 euro. The most significant sources of employment in 2023 were manufacturing industry, wholesale and retail trade and construction. In August 2023, the unemployment rate was 6.9%. Croatia's median equivalent household income tops average Purchasing Power Standard of the ten countries which joined the EU in 2004, while trailing the EU average. 2011 census recorded a total of 1.5 million private households, which predominantly owned their own housing. The average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56%, with an augmentation of the urban population and a reduction of the rural population.
Population
by county in persons per km<sup>2</sup>.]]
]]
With a population of 3,871,833 in 2021, Croatia ranks 128th in the world by population. Its population density is 75.8 inhabitants per square kilometre. The overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth is 78 years. The population of Croatia rose steadily from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million, with the exception of censuses taken in 1921 and 1948, i.e. following two world wars. Croatia is in the fourth or fifth stage of the demographic transition.
An explanation for the population decrease in the 1990s is the Croatian War of Independence. During the war, large sections of the population were displaced and emigration increased. In 1991, in predominantly Serb areas, more than 400,000 Croats and other non-Serbs were either removed from their homes by the Croatian Serb forces or fled the violence. In 1995, during the final days of the war, more than 120,000 and perhaps as many as 200,000 Serbs fled the country before the arrival of Croatian forces during Operation Storm. Within a decade following the end of the war, only 117,000 Serb refugees returned out of the 300,000 displaced during the entire war. According to 2001 Croatian census there were 201,631 Serbs in Croatia, compared to the census from 1991 when the number was 581,663. Most of Croatia's remaining Serbs never lived in areas occupied in the Croatian War of Independence. Serbs have been only partially re-settled in the regions they previously inhabited, while some of the settlements previously inhabited by Serbs were settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly from Republika Srpska.
In 2014, there were 39,566 live births in Croatia, comprising 20,374 male and 19,192 female children. Virtually all of those were performed in medical facilities; only 19 births occurred elsewhere. Out of the total number, 32,677 children were born in wedlock or within 300 days after the end of the marriage, and the average age of mothers at the birth of their first child was 28.4 years. General fertility rate, i.e. number of births per 1,000 women aged 15–49 is 42.9, with the age specific rate peaking at 101.0 per million for women aged 25–29. In 2009, 52,414 persons died in Croatia, 48.5% of whom died in medical facilities and 90.0% of whom were receiving medical treatment at the time. Cardiovascular disease and cancer were the primary causes of death in the country, with 26,235 and 13,280 deaths respectively. In the same year, there were 2,986 violent deaths, including 2,121 due to accidents. The latter figure includes 616 deaths in traffic accidents. In accordance with its immigration policy, Croatia is also trying to entice emigrants to return. Croatian citizenship is acquired in a multitude of ways, based on origin, place of birth, naturalization and international treaties. In recent years, the Croatian government has been pressured each year to add 40% to work permit quotas for foreign workers.
There were 8,468 immigrants to Croatia in 2009, more than half of them (57.5%) coming from Bosnia and Herzegovina, a sharp decline from the previous year's 14,541. In the same year, there were 9,940 emigrants from the country, 44.8% of them leaving to Serbia. The number of emigrants represents a substantial increase compared to the figure of 7,488 recorded in 2008. In 2009, the net migration to and from abroad peaked in the Sisak-Moslavina County (−1,093 persons) and the city of Zagreb (+830 persons).
In 2009, a total of 22,382 marriages were performed in Croatia as well as 5,076 divorces. The 2001 census recorded 1.47 million households in the country. The first institution set up in the country specifically for the purposes of maintaining population statistics was the State Statistical Office, founded in 1875. Since its founding, the office changed its name and structure several times and was alternately subordinated to other institutions and independent, until the most recent changes in 1992, when the institution became the Croatian Bureau of Statistics. The 2011 census was performed on 1–28 April 2011, recording situation as of 31 March 2011. The first census results, containing the number of the population by settlement, were published on 29 June 2011, and the final comprehensive set of data was published in December 2012. The 2011 census and processing of the data gathered by the census was expected to cost 171.9 million kuna (23.3 million euro).
{| class"wikitable " style"text-align:right"
|-
! Years !! 1880!!1881!!1882!!1883!!1884!!1885!!1886!!1887!!1888!!1889!!1890
|}
Births and deaths after WWII
Source: Croatian Bureau of Statistics
{| class"wikitable sortable"style"text-align: right;"
|-
! style="width:40pt;" |
! style="width:60pt;" |Average population (end of year)
! style="width:60pt;" |Live births
! style="width:60pt;" |Deaths
! style="width:60pt;" |Natural change
! style="width:60pt;" |Crude birth rate (per 1000)
! style="width:60pt;" |Crude death rate (per 1000)
! style="width:60pt;" |Natural change (per 1000)
! style="width:60pt;" |Crude migration rate (per 1000)
! style="width:60pt;" |Total fertility rate
! style="width:60pt;" |Female fertile population (15–49 years)
|-
|1950
| style="text-align:right;" |3,850,991
| style="color:blue" |95,174
| style="text-align:right;" |47,292
| style=" color:green" |47,882
| 24.7
| 12.3
| style=" color:green" |12.4
|
| style="color:blue" |2.94
| style="text-align:right;" |1,091,313
|-
|1951
| style="text-align:right;" |3,881,986
| style="text-align:right;" |87,181
| style="text-align:right;" |49,804
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |37,377
| style="text-align:right;" |22.5
| style="text-align:right;" |12.8
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |9.6
| −1.6
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.66
| style="text-align:right;" |1,091,156
|-
|1952
| style="text-align:right;" |3,912,983
| style="text-align:right;" |91,225
| style="text-align:right;" |43,512
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |47,713
| style="text-align:right;" |23.3
| style="text-align:right;" |11.1
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |12.2
| −4.3
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.77
| style="text-align:right;" |1,090,994
|-
|1953
| style="text-align:right;" |3,945,997
| style="text-align:right;" |90,200
| style="text-align:right;" |46,662
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |43,538
| style="text-align:right;" |22.9
| style="text-align:right;" |11.8
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |11.0
| −2.7
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.68
| style="text-align:right;" |1,090,834
|-
|1954
| style="text-align:right;" |3,978,125
| style="text-align:right;" |89,309
| style="text-align:right;" |41,071
| style=" color:green" |48,238
| style="text-align:right;" |22.5
| style="text-align:right;" |10.3
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |12.1
| −4.0
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.61
| style="text-align:right;" |1,097,788
|-
|1955
| style="text-align:right;" |4,013,015
| style="text-align:right;" |88,657
| style="text-align:right;" |42,035
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |46,622
| style="text-align:right;" |22.1
| style="text-align:right;" |10.5
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |11.6
| −2.9
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.56
| style="text-align:right;" |1,104,740
|-
|1956
| style="text-align:right;" |4,039,992
| style="text-align:right;" |86,171
| style="text-align:right;" |43,772
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |42,399
| style="text-align:right;" |21.3
| style="text-align:right;" |10.8
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |10.5
| −3.8
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.47
| style="text-align:right;" |1,111,693
|-
|1957
| style="text-align:right;" |4,067,005
| style="text-align:right;" |81,414
| style="text-align:right;" |40,261
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |41,153
| style="text-align:right;" |20.0
| style="text-align:right;" |9.9
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |10.1
| −3.5
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.30
| style="text-align:right;" |1,113,448
|-
|1958
| style="text-align:right;" |4,088,987
| style="text-align:right;" |77,771
| style="text-align:right;" |37,980
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |39,791
| style="text-align:right;" |19.0
| style="text-align:right;" |9.3
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |9.7
| −4.4
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.19
| style="text-align:right;" |1,115,826
|-
|1959
| style="text-align:right;" |4,114,979
| style="text-align:right;" |78,233
| style="text-align:right;" |40,688
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |37,545
| style="text-align:right;" |19.0
| style="text-align:right;" |9.9
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |9.1
| −2.8
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.24
| style="text-align:right;" |1,093,146
|-
|1960
| style="text-align:right;" |4,140,181
| style="text-align:right;" |76,156
| style="text-align:right;" |41,361
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |34,795
| style="text-align:right;" |18.4
| style="text-align:right;" |10.0
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |8.4
| −2.3
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.23
| style="text-align:right;" |1,079,109
|-
|1961
| style="text-align:right;" |4,167,292
| style="text-align:right;" |74,190
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |37,796
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |36,394
| style="text-align:right;" |17.8
| style="text-align:right;" |9.1
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |8.7
| −2.2
| style="text-align:right; color:blue; " |2.23
| style="text-align:right;" |1,065,072
|-
|1962
| style="text-align:right;" |4,196,712
| style="text-align:right;" |72,267
| style="text-align:right;" |42,134
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |30,133
| style="text-align:right;" |17.2
| style="text-align:right;" |10.0
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |7.2
| −0.2
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.11
| style="text-align:right;" |1,083,743
|-
|1963
| style="text-align:right;" |4,225,675
| style="text-align:right;" |69,878
| style="text-align:right;" |38,597
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |31,281
| style="text-align:right;" |16.5
| style="text-align:right;" |9.1
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |7.4
| −0.5
| style="text-align:right;" |2.05
| style="text-align:right;" |1,088,767
|-
|1964
| style="text-align:right;" |4,252,876
| style="text-align:right;" |68,873
| style="text-align:right;" |43,013
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |25,860
| style="text-align:right;" |16.2
| style="text-align:right;" |10.1
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |6.1
| 0.3
| style="text-align:right; " |2.04
| style="text-align:right;" |1,095,023
|-
|1965
| style="text-align:right;" |4,280,923
| style="text-align:right;" |71,186
| style="text-align:right;" |39,936
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |31,250
| style="text-align:right;" |16.6
| style="text-align:right;" |9.3
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |7.3
| −0.7
| style="text-align:right; color:blue;" |2.19
| style="text-align:right;" |1,096,232
|-
|1966
| style="text-align:right;" |4,310,701
| style="text-align:right;" |71,325
| style="text-align:right;" |37,941
| style="color:green" |33,384
| style="text-align:right;" |16.5
| 8.8
| style="color:green" |7.7
| −0.8
| style="color:blue" |2.20
| style="text-align:right;" |1,113,169
|-
|1967
| style="text-align:right;" |4,338,683
| style="text-align:right;" |67,103
| style="text-align:right;" |41,381
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |25,722
| style="text-align:right;" |15.5
| style="text-align:right;" |9.5
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |6.0
| 0.5
| style="text-align:right; " |2.06
| style="text-align:right;" |1,138,279
|-
|1968
| style="text-align:right;" |4,365,628
| style="text-align:right;" |65,431
| style="text-align:right;" |43,720
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |21,711
| style="text-align:right;" |15.0
| style="text-align:right;" |10.0
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |5.0
| 1.2
| style="text-align:right; " |1.99
| style="text-align:right;" |1,141,548
|-
|1969
| style="text-align:right;" |4,391,490
| style="text-align:right;" |63,635
| style="text-align:right;" |46,844
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |16,791
| style="text-align:right;" |14.5
| style="text-align:right;" |10.7
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |3.8
| 2.1
| style="text-align:right; " |1.91
| style="text-align:right;" |1,170,146
|-
|1970
| style="text-align:right;" |4,412,252
| style="text-align:right;" |61,103
| style="text-align:right;" |44,148
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |16,955
| style="text-align:right;" |13.8
| style="text-align:right;" |10.0
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |3.8
| 0.9
| style="text-align:right; " |1.81
| style="text-align:right;" |1,173,533
|-
|1971
| style="text-align:right;" |4,431,275
| style="text-align:right;" |64,890
| style="text-align:right;" |44,878
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |20,012
| style="text-align:right;" |14.6
| style="text-align:right;" |10.1
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |4.5
| −0.2
| style="text-align:right; " |1.97
| style="text-align:right;" |1,174,488
|-
|1972
| style="text-align:right;" |4,450,564
| style="text-align:right;" |66,035
| style="text-align:right;" |47,881
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |18,154
| style="text-align:right;" |14.8
| style="text-align:right;" |10.8
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |4.1
| 0.3
| style="text-align:right; " |1.96
| style="text-align:right;" |1,176,673
|-
|1973
| style="text-align:right;" |4,470,161
| style="text-align:right;" |67,389
| style="text-align:right;" |45,680
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |21,709
| style="text-align:right;" |15.1
| style="text-align:right;" |10.2
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |4.9
| −0.5
| style="text-align:right; " |1.97
| style="text-align:right;" |1,170,468
|-
|1974
| style="text-align:right;" |4,490,660
| style="text-align:right;" |67,251
| style="text-align:right;" |44,950
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |22,301
| style="text-align:right;" |15.0
| style="text-align:right;" |10.0
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |5.0
| −0.4
| style="text-align:right; " |1.93
| style="text-align:right;" |1,164,291
|-
|1975
| style="text-align:right;" |4,512,082
| style="text-align:right;" |67,016
| style="text-align:right;" |45,640
| style="color:green" |21,376
| style="text-align:right;" |14.9
| style="text-align:right;" |10.1
| style="color:green" |4.7
| 0
| style="text-align:right;" |1.90
| style="color:blue" |1,177,334
|-
|1976
| style="text-align:right;" |4,535,934
| style="text-align:right;" |67,054
| style="text-align:right;" |45,074
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |21,980
| style="text-align:right;" |14.8
| style="text-align:right;" |9.9
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |4.8
| 0.4
| style="text-align:right; " |1.88
| style="text-align:right;" |1,177,247
|-
|1977
| style="text-align:right;" |4,559,571
| style="text-align:right;" |68,035
| style="text-align:right;" |45,156
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |22,879
| style="text-align:right;" |14.9
| style="text-align:right;" |9.9
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |5.0
| 0.2
| style="text-align:right; " |1.90
| style="text-align:right;" |1,165,123
|-
|1978
| style="text-align:right;" |4,581,085
| style="text-align:right;" |68,704
| style="text-align:right;" |48,715
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |19,989
| style="text-align:right;" |15.0
| style="text-align:right;" |10.6
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |4.4
| 0.3
| style="text-align:right; " |1.92
| style="text-align:right;" |1,170,862
|-
|1979
| style="text-align:right;" |4,594,778
| style="text-align:right;" |69,229
| style="text-align:right;" |48,426
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |20,803
| style="text-align:right;" |15.1
| style="text-align:right;" |10.5
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |4.5
| −1.5
| style="text-align:right;" |1.95
| style="text-align:right;" |1,166,817
|-
|1980
| style="text-align:right;" |4,599,782
| style="text-align:right;" |68,220
| style="text-align:right;" |50,100
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |18,120
| style="text-align:right;" |14.8
| style="text-align:right;" |10.9
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |3.9
| −2.9
| style="text-align:right; " |1.92
| style="text-align:right;" |1,162,773
|-
|1981
| style="text-align:right;" |4,611,509
| style="text-align:right;" |67,455
| style="text-align:right;" |51,420
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |16,035
| style="text-align:right;" |14.6
| style="text-align:right;" |11.2
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |3.5
| −0.9
| style="text-align:right; " |1.93
| style="text-align:right;" |1,152,704
|-
|1982
| style="text-align:right;" |4,634,234
| style="text-align:right;" |66,737
| style="text-align:right;" |50,770
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |15,967
| style="text-align:right;" |14.4
| style="text-align:right;" |11.0
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |3.4
| 1.5
| style="text-align:right;" |1.90
| style="text-align:right;" |1,130,858
|-
|1983
| style="text-align:right;" |4,658,254
| style="text-align:right;" |65,599
| style="text-align:right;" |55,147
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |10,452
| style="text-align:right;" |14.1
| style="text-align:right;" |11.8
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |2.2
| 2.9
| style="text-align:right; " |1.88
| style="text-align:right;" |1,139,362
|-
|1984
| style="text-align:right;" |4,680,285
| style="text-align:right;" |64,888
| style="text-align:right;" |54,169
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |10,719
| style="text-align:right;" |13.9
| style="text-align:right;" |11.6
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |2.3
| 2.4
| style="text-align:right; " |1.87
| style="text-align:right;" |1,131,152
|-
|1985
| style="text-align:right;" |4,701,417
| style="text-align:right;" |62,665
| style="text-align:right;" |52,067
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |10,598
| style="text-align:right;" |13.3
| style="text-align:right;" |11.1
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |2.3
| 2.2
| style="text-align:right; " |1.82
| style="text-align:right;" |1,117,142
|-
|1986
| style="text-align:right;" |4,721,446
| style="text-align:right;" |60,226
| style="text-align:right;" |51,740
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |8,486
| style="text-align:right;" |12.8
| style="text-align:right;" |11.0
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |1.8
| 2.4
| style="text-align:right; " |1.76
| style="text-align:right;" |1,161,753
|-
|1987
| style="text-align:right;" |4,739,745
| style="text-align:right;" |59,209
| style="text-align:right;" |53,080
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |6,129
| style="text-align:right;" |12.5
| style="text-align:right;" |11.2
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |1.3
| 2.6
| style="text-align:right; " |1.74
| style="text-align:right;" |1,102,815
|-
|1988
| style="text-align:right;" |4,755,207
| style="text-align:right;" |58,525
| style="text-align:right;" |52,686
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |5,839
| style="text-align:right;" |12.3
| style="text-align:right;" |11.1
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |1.2
| 2.0
| style="text-align:right; " |1.74
| style="text-align:right;" |1,125,627
|-
|1989
| style="text-align:right;" |4,767,260
| style="text-align:right;" |55,651
| style="text-align:right;" |52,569
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |3,082
| style="text-align:right;" |11.7
| style="text-align:right;" |11.0
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |0.6
| 1.9
| style="text-align:right;" |1.67
| style="text-align:right;" |1,169,437
|-
|1990
| style="text-align:right;color:blue;" |4,777,368
| style="text-align:right;" |55,409
| style="text-align:right;" |52,192
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |3,217
| style="text-align:right;" |11.6
| style="text-align:right;" |10.9
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |0.7
| 1.4
| style="text-align:right;" |1.68
| style="text-align:right;" |1,134,934
|-
|1991
| style="text-align:right;" |4,733,938
| style="text-align:right;" |51,829
| style="text-align:right;" |54,832
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -3,003
| style="text-align:right;" |10.9
| style="text-align:right;" |11.6
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -0.6
| −8.5
| style="text-align:right;" |1.59
| style="text-align:right;" |1,125,917
|-
|1992
| style="text-align:right;" |4,690,509
| style="text-align:right;" |46,970
| style="text-align:right;" |51,800
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -4,830
| style="text-align:right;" |10.0
| style="text-align:right;" |11.0
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -1.0
| −9.2
| style="text-align:right;" |1.46
| style="text-align:right;" |1,116,900
|-
|1993
| style="text-align:right;" |4,647,079
| style="text-align:right;" |48,535
| style="text-align:right;" |50,846
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2,311
| style="text-align:right;" |10.4
| style="text-align:right;" |10.9
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -0.5
| −8.8
| style="text-align:right;" |1.52
| style="text-align:right;" |1,107,883
|-
|1994
| style="text-align:right;" |4,603,649
| style="text-align:right;" |48,584
| style="text-align:right;" |49,482
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -898
| style="text-align:right;" |10.6
| style="text-align:right;" |10.7
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -0.2
| −9.2
| style="text-align:right;" |1.54
| style="text-align:right;" |1,098,867
|-
|1995
| style="text-align:right;" |4,560,220
| style="text-align:right;" |50,182
| style="text-align:right;" |50,536
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -354
| style="text-align:right;" |11.0
| style="text-align:right;" |11.1
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -0.1
| −9.4
| style="text-align:right;" |1.62
| style="text-align:right;" |1,089,849
|-
|1996
| style="text-align:right;" |4,516,790
| style="text-align:right;" |53,811
| style="text-align:right;" |50,636
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |3,175
| style="text-align:right;" |11.9
| style="text-align:right;" |11.2
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |0.7
| −10.3
| style="text-align:right;" |1.76
| style="text-align:right;" |1,080,833
|-
|1997
| style="text-align:right;" |4,473,361
| style="text-align:right;" |55,501
| style="text-align:right;" |51,964
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |3,537
| style="text-align:right;" |12.4
| style="text-align:right;" |11.6
| style="text-align:right; color:green;" |0.8
| −10.5
| style="text-align:right;" |1.84
| style="text-align:right;" |1,071,815
|-
|1998
| style="text-align:right;" |4,429,931
| style="text-align:right;" |47,068
| style="text-align:right;" |52,311
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -5,243
| style="text-align:right;" |10.6
| style="text-align:right;" |11.8
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -1.2
| −8.6
| style="text-align:right;" |1.59
| style="text-align:right;" |1,062,799
|-
|1999
| style="text-align:right;" |4,386,501
| style="text-align:right;" |45,179
| style="text-align:right;" |51,953
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -6,774
| style="text-align:right;" |10.3
| style="text-align:right;" |11.8
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -1.5
| −8.4
| style="text-align:right;" |1.55
| style="text-align:right;" |1,053,782
|-
|2000
| style="text-align:right;" |4,343,072
| style="text-align:right;" |43,746
| style="text-align:right;" |50,246
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -6,500
| style="text-align:right;" |10.1
| style="text-align:right;" |11.6
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -1.5
| −8.5
| style="text-align:right;" |1.52
| style="text-align:right;" |1,044,765
|-
|2001
| style="text-align:right;" |4,299,642
| style="text-align:right;" |40,993
| style="text-align:right;" |49,552
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -8,559
| style="text-align:right;" |9.5
| style="text-align:right;" |11.5
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.0
| −8.1
| style="text-align:right;" |1.45
| style="text-align:right;" |1,035,748
|-
|2002
| style="text-align:right;" |4,302,174
| style="text-align:right;" |40,094
| style="text-align:right;" |50,569
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -10,475
| style="text-align:right;" |9.3
| style="text-align:right;" |11.8
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.4
| 3.0
| style="text-align:right;" |1.43
| style="text-align:right;" |1,033,822
|-
|2003
| style="text-align:right;" |4,303,399
| style="text-align:right;" |39,668
| style="text-align:right;" |52,575
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -12,907
| style="text-align:right;" |9.2
| style="text-align:right;" |12.2
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -3.0
| 3.3
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" |1.41
| style="text-align:right;" |1,029,271
|-
|2004
| style="text-align:right;" |4,304,600
| style="text-align:right;" |40,307
| style="text-align:right;" |49,756
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -9,449
| style="text-align:right;" |9.4
| style="text-align:right;" |11.6
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.2
| 2.5
| style="text-align:right;" |1.43
| style="text-align:right;" |1,025,538
|-
|2005
| style="text-align:right;" |4,310,145
| style="text-align:right;" |42,492
| style="text-align:right;" |51,790
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -9,298
| style="text-align:right;" |9.9
| style="text-align:right;" |12.0
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.2
| 3.4
| style="text-align:right;" |1.50
| style="text-align:right;" |1,019,358
|-
|2006
| style="text-align:right;" |4,311,159
| style="text-align:right;" |41,446
| style="text-align:right;" |50,378
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -8,932
| style="text-align:right;" |9.6
| style="text-align:right;" |11.7
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.1
| 2.3
| style="text-align:right;" |1.47
| style="text-align:right;" |1,012,512
|-
|2007
| style="text-align:right;" |4,310,217
| style="text-align:right;" |41,910
| style="text-align:right;" |52,367
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -10,457
| style="text-align:right;" |9.7
| style="text-align:right;" |12.1
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.4
| 2.2
| style="text-align:right;" |1.49
| style="text-align:right;" |1,005,073
|-
|2008
| style="text-align:right;" |4,309,705
| style="text-align:right;" |43,753
| style="text-align:right;" |52,151
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -8,398
| style="text-align:right;" |10.2
| style="text-align:right;" |12.1
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -1.9
| 1.8
| style="text-align:right;" |1.56
| style="text-align:right;" |998,329
|-
|2009
| style="text-align:right;" |4,305,181
| style="text-align:right;" |44,577
| style="text-align:right;" |52,414
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -7,837
| style="text-align:right;" |10.4
| style="text-align:right;" |12.2
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -1.8
| 0.8
| style="text-align:right;" |1.59
| style="text-align:right;" |989,751
|-
|2010
| style="text-align:right;" |4,295,427
| style="text-align:right;" |43,361
| style="text-align:right;" |52,096
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -8,735
| style="text-align:right;" |10.1
| style="text-align:right;" |12.1
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.0
| −0.2
| style="text-align:right;" |1.55
| style="text-align:right;" |979,563
|-
|2011
| style="text-align:right;" |4,280,622
| style="text-align:right;" |41,197
| style="text-align:right;" |51,019
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -9,822
| style="text-align:right;" |9.6
| style="text-align:right;" |11.9
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.3
| −1.2
| style="text-align:right;" |1.48
| style="text-align:right;" |970,458
|-
|2012
| style="text-align:right;" |4,260,368
| style="text-align:right;" |41,771
| style="text-align:right;" |51,710
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -9,939
| style="text-align:right;" |9.8
| style="text-align:right;" |12.1
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.3
| −0.7
| style="text-align:right;" |1.52
| style="text-align:right;" |960,549
|-
|2013
| style="text-align:right;" |4,233,922
| style="text-align:right;" |39,939
| style="text-align:right;" |50,386
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -10,447
| style="text-align:right;" |9.4
| style="text-align:right;" |11.9
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.5
| −0.3
| style="text-align:right;" |1.47
| style="text-align:right;" |949,241
|-
|2014
| style="text-align:right;" |4,201,598
| style="text-align:right;" |39,566
| style="text-align:right;" |50,839
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -11,273
| style="text-align:right;" |9.4
| style="text-align:right;" |12.1
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -2.7
| −1.4
| style="text-align:right;" |1.48
| style="text-align:right;" |936,294
|-
|2015
| style="text-align:right;" |4,151,725
| style="text-align:right;" |37,503
| style="text-align:right;" |54,205
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -16,702
| 9.0
| style="text-align:right;" |13.1
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -4.0
| −4.3
| style="text-align:right;" |1.43
| style="text-align:right;" |917,853
|-
|2016
| style="text-align:right;" |4,106,867
| style="text-align:right;" |37,537
| style="text-align:right;" |51,542
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -14,005
| style="text-align:right;" |9.1
| style="text-align:right;" |12.6
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -3.4
| −3.7
| style="text-align:right;" |1.46
| style="text-align:right;" |898,385
|-
|2017
| style="text-align:right;" |4,041,407
| style="text-align:right;" |36,556
| style="text-align:right;" |53,477
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -16,921
| style="text-align:right;" |9.0
| style="text-align:right;" |13.2
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -4.2
| −8.0
| style="text-align:right;" |1.47
| style="text-align:right;" |872,669
|-
|2018
| style="text-align:right;" |3,988,775
| style="text-align:right;" |36,945
| style="text-align:right;" |52,706
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -15,761
| style="text-align:right;" |9.3
| style="text-align:right;" |13.2
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -4.0
| −5.1
| style="text-align:right;" |1.53
| style="text-align:right;" |850,224
|-
|2019
| style="text-align:right;" |3,949,390
| style="text-align:right;" |36,135
| style="text-align:right;" |51,794
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -15,659
| style="text-align:right;" |9.1
| style="text-align:right;" |13.1
| style="text-align:right; color:red;" | -4.0
| −1.7
| style="text-align:right;" |1.54
| style="text-align:right;" |830,836
|-
|2020
| 3,914,206
| 35,845
| 57,023
| style="color:red" | -21,178
| 9.2
| 14.6
| style="color:red" | -5.4
| 0.9
| 1.57
| 815,720
|-
|2021
| 3,878,981
| 36,508
| style="color:red" |62,712
| style="color:red" | -26,204
| 9.4
| 16.2
| style="color:red" | -6.8
| style=" color:red"|−35.2
| 1.62
| 804,303
|-
|2022
| 3,855,641
| 33,883
| 56,979
| style="color:red" | -23,096
| 8.8
| 14.8
| style="color:red" | -6.0
| −0.1
| 1.53
| 794,595
|-
|2023
| 3,859,686
| 32,170
| 51,275
| style="color:red" | -19,105
| style="color:red" |8.3
| 13.3
| style="color:red" | -4.9
| style=" color:blue"|4.4
|1.46
| style="color:red" |792,162
|-
|2024
|
| style="color:red" |31,858
| 51,118
| style="color:red" | -19,260
| style="color:red" |
|
| style="color:red" |
|
|
| style="color:red" |
|-
|}
Current vital statistics
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+
|-
! Period
! Live births
! Deaths
! Natural increase
|-
| January-February 2024
| 5,416
| 10,355
| −4,939
|-
| January-February 2025
| 5,193
| 9,970
| −4,777
|-
| Difference
| -223 (-4.12%)
| -385 (-3.72%)
| +162
|}
Structure of the population
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 2 066 335
| align="right" | 2 218 554
| align="right" | 4 284 889
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 109 251
| align="right" | 103 458
| align="right" | 212 709
| align="right" | 4.96
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 104 841
| align="right" | 99 476
| align="right" | 204 317
| align="right" | 4.77
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 120 633
| align="right" | 114 769
| align="right" | 235 402
| align="right" | 5.49
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 124 918
| align="right" | 119 259
| align="right" | 244 177
| align="right" | 5.70
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 133 455
| align="right" | 128 203
| align="right" | 261 658
| align="right" | 6.11
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 147 416
| align="right" | 141 650
| align="right" | 289 066
| align="right" | 6.75
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 149 998
| align="right" | 144 621
| align="right" | 294 619
| align="right" | 6.88
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 143 984
| align="right" | 140 770
| align="right" | 284 754
| align="right" | 6.65
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 143 603
| align="right" | 143 330
| align="right" | 286 933
| align="right" | 6.70
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 152 446
| align="right" | 155 115
| align="right" | 307 561
| align="right" | 7.18
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 157 981
| align="right" | 162 521
| align="right" | 320 502
| align="right" | 7.48
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 153 750
| align="right" | 158 068
| align="right" | 311 818
| align="right" | 7.28
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 127 851
| align="right" | 144 889
| align="right" | 272 740
| align="right" | 6.37
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 89 364
| align="right" | 112 638
| align="right" | 202 002
| align="right" | 4.71
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 88 912
| align="right" | 123 489
| align="right" | 212 401
| align="right" | 4.96
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 66 456
| align="right" | 109 070
| align="right" | 175 526
| align="right" | 4.10
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 35 999
| align="right" | 72 105
| align="right" | 108 104
| align="right" | 2.52
|-
| align="right" | 85–89
| align="right" | 12 415
| align="right" | 35 226
| align="right" | 47 641
| align="right" | 1.11
|-
| align="right" | 90–94
| align="right" | 2 580
| align="right" | 8 178
| align="right" | 10 758
| align="right" | 0.25
|-
| align="right" | 95–99
| align="right" | 446
| align="right" | 1 557
| align="right" | 2 003
| align="right" | 0.05
|-
| align="right" | 100+
| align="right" | 36
| align="right" | 162
| align="right" | 198
| align="right" | <0.01
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 334 725
| align="right" | 317 703
| align="right" | 652 428
| align="right" | 15.23
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 1 435 402
| align="right" | 1 438 426
| align="right" | 2 873 828
| align="right" | 67.07
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 296 208
| align="right" | 462 425
| align="right" | 758 633
| align="right" | 17.70
|-
|}
| align="right" | 2,075
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 5,596
| align="right" | –
| align="right" | 3,883
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 4,242
| align="right" | –
|-
| Others
| align="right" | 24,582
| align="right" | 0.9
| align="right" | 40,840
| align="right" | 2.6
| align="right" | 18,455
| align="right" | 0.6
| align="right" | 18,964
| align="right" | 1.8
|-bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! align="left" | Total
! colspan="2" | 3,160,406
! colspan="2" | 3,460,201
! colspan="2" | 3,447,594
! colspan="2" | 3,785,455
|}
1948–2021
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Population of Croatia according to ethnic group 1948–2021<sup>1</sup>
|-bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! rowspan="2" | Ethnic<br />group
! colspan="2" | census 1948
! colspan="2" | census 1953
! colspan="2" | census 1961
! colspan="2" | census 1971
! colspan="2" | census 1981
! colspan="2" | census 1991
! colspan="2" | census 2001
! colspan="2" | census 2011
! colspan="2" |census 2021
|-bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! Number
! %
! Number
! %
! Number
! %
! Number
! %
! Number
! %
! Number
! %
! Number
! %
! Number
! %
!Number
! %
|-
| Croats
| align="right" | 2,975,399
| align="right" | 79.2
| align="right" | 3,117,513
| align="right" | 79.6
| align="right" | 3,339,841
| align="right" | 80.3
| align="right" | 3,513,647
| align="right" | 79.4
| align="right" | 3,454,661
| align="right" | 75.1
| align="right" | 3,736,356
| align="right" | 78.1
| align="right" | 3,977,171
| align="right" | 89.6
| align="right" | 3,874,321
| align="right" | 90.4
| align="right" | 3,547,614
| align="right" | 91.6
|-
| Serbs
| align="right" | 543,795
| align="right" | 14.5
| align="right" | 588,411
| align="right" | 15.0
| align="right" | 624,985
| align="right" | 15.0
| align="right" | 626,789
| align="right" | 14.2
| align="right" | 531,502
| align="right" | 11.6
| align="right" | 581,663
| align="right" | 12.2
| align="right" | 201,631
| align="right" | 4.5
| align="right" | 186,633
| align="right" | 4.4
| align="right" | 123,892
| align="right" | 3.2
|-
| Bosniaks
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 1,077
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 0.0
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 16,185
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 0.4
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 3,113
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 0.1
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 18,457
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 0.4
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 23,740
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 0.5
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 43,459
| align"right" rowspan"2" | 0.9
| align="right" | 20,755
| align="right" | 0.5
| align="right" | 31,479
| align="right" | 0.7
| align="right" | 24,131
| align="right" | 0.6
|-
| Muslims
| align="right" | 19,677
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 7,558
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 3,902
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| Italians
| align="right" | 76,093
| align="right" | 2.0
| align="right" | 33,316
| align="right" | 0.9
| align="right" | 21,103
| align="right" | 0.5
| align="right" | 17,433
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 11,661
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 21,303
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 19,636
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 17,807
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 13,763
| align="right" | 0.4
|-
| Albanians
| align="right" | 635
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 1,001
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 2,126
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 4,175
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 6,006
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 12,032
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 15,082
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 17,513
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 13,817
| align="right" | 0.4
|-
| Roma
| align="right" | 405
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 1,261
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 313
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 1,257
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 3,858
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 6,695
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 9,463
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 16,975
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 17,980
| align="right" | 0.5
|-
| Hungarians
| align="right" | 51,399
| align="right" | 1.4
| align="right" | 47,711
| align="right" | 1.2
| align="right" | 42,347
| align="right" | 1.0
| align="right" | 35,488
| align="right" | 0.8
| align="right" | 25,439
| align="right" | 0.6
| align="right" | 22,355
| align="right" | 0.5
| align="right" | 16,595
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 14,048
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 10,315
| align="right" | 0.3
|-
| Slovenes
| align="right" | 38,734
| align="right" | 1.0
| align="right" | 43,010
| align="right" | 1.1
| align="right" | 39,101
| align="right" | 0.9
| align="right" | 32,497
| align="right" | 0.7
| align="right" | 25,136
| align="right" | 0.5
| align="right" | 22,376
| align="right" | 0.5
| align="right" | 13,173
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 10,517
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 7,729
| align="right" | 0.2
|-
| Czechs
| align="right" | 28,991
| align="right" | 0.8
| align="right" | 25,954
| align="right" | 0.7
| align="right" | 23,391
| align="right" | 0.6
| align="right" | 19,001
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 15,061
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 13,086
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 10,510
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 9,641
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 7,862
| align="right" | 0.2
|-
| Montenegrins
| align="right" | 2,871
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 5,128
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 7,465
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 9,706
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 9,818
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 9,724
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 4,926
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 4,517
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 3,127
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| Macedonians
| align="right" | 1,387
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 2,385
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 4,381
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 5,625
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 5,362
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 6,280
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 4,270
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 4,138
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 3,555
| align="right" | 0.1
|-
| Yugoslavs
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 15,559
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 84,118
| align="right" | 1.9
| align="right" | 379,057
| align="right" | 8.2
| align="right" | 106,041
| align="right" | 2.2
| align="right" | 176
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 331
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 942
| align="right" | 0.0
|-
| Others/undeclared
| align="right" | 36,021
| align="right" | 1.0
| align="right" | 36,942
| align="right" | 0.9
| align="right" | 35,971
| align="right" | 0.9
| align="right" | 58,028
| align="right" | 1.3
| align="right" | 110,168
| align="right" | 2.4
| align="right" | 246,354
| align="right" | 5.1
| align="right" | 124,395<sup>2</sup>
| align="right" | 2.8
| align="right" | 84,991<sup>3</sup>
| align="right" | 2.0
| align="right" | 93,204<sup>4</sup>
| align="right" | 2.4
|-bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! align="left" | Total
! colspan="2" | 3,756,807
! colspan="2" | 3,918,817
! colspan="2" | 4,159,696
! colspan="2" | 4,426,221
! colspan="2" | 4,601,469
! colspan="2" | 4,784,265
! colspan="2" | 4,437,460
! colspan="2" | 4,284,889
! colspan="2" | 3,871,833
|-
| colspan"19" |
|}
Significant migrations
The demographic history of Croatia is characterised by significant migrations, starting with the arrival of the Croats in the area. According to the work De Administrando Imperio written by the 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, the Croats arrived in the area of modern-day Croatia in the early 7th century. However, that claim is disputed, and competing hypotheses date the event between the 6th and the 9th centuries. Following the establishment of a personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102, and the joining of the Habsburg Empire in 1527, the Hungarian and German-speaking population of Croatia began gradually increasing in number. The processes of Magyarization and Germanization varied in intensity but persisted to the 20th century. The Ottoman conquests initiated a westward migration of parts of the Croatian population; the Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of some of those settlers. To replace the fleeing Croats the Habsburgs called on the Orthodox populations of Bosnia and Serbia to provide military service in the Croatian Military Frontier. Serb migration into this region peaked during the Great Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737–39. Similarly, Venetian Republic rule in Istria and in Dalmatia, following the Fifth and the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars ushered gradual growth of Italian speaking population in those areas. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, the Hungarian population declined, especially in the areas north of the Drava river, where they represented the majority before World War I.
The period between 1890 and World War I was marked by large economic emigration from Croatia to the United States, and particularly to the areas of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Cleveland, Ohio, and Chicago, Illinois. Besides the United States, the main destination of the migrants was South America, especially Argentina, Chile, Bolivia and Peru. It is estimated that 500,000 people left Croatia during this period. After World War I, the main focus of emigration shifted to Canada, where about 15,000 people settled before the onset of World War II. During World War II and in the period immediately following the war, there were further significant demographic changes as the German-speaking population, the Volksdeutsche, were either forced or otherwise compelled to leave—reducing their number from the prewar German population of Yugoslavia of 500,000, living in parts of present-day Croatia and Serbia, to the figure of 62,000 recorded in the 1953 census.
were the majority of the population, in orange the areas where Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians were the majority of the population. The boundaries of Venetian Dalmatia in 1797 are delimited with blue dots.]]
leave Pola in 1947 during the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus.]]
After the fall of Napoleon (1814), Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia were annexed to the Austrian Empire. Many Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy. However, after the Third Italian War of Independence (1866), when the Veneto and Friuli regions were ceded by the Austrians to the newly formed Kingdom Italy, Istria and Dalmatia remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of Italian irredentism among many Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia, who demanded the unification of the Julian March, Kvarner and Dalmatia with Italy. The Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia supported the Italian Risorgimento: as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia.
During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the Germanization or Slavization of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence:
Istrian Italians made up about a third of the population in Istria in 1900. Dalmatia, especially its maritime cities, once had a substantial local ethnic Italian population (Dalmatian Italians). In Dalmatia, there was a constant decline in the Italian population, in a context of repression that also took on violent connotations. During this period, Austrians carried out an aggressive anti-Italian policy through a forced Slavization of Dalmatia. According to Austrian census, the Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% of the population in 1865. In the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census, Istria had a population of 57.8% Slavic-speakers (Croat and Slovene), and 38.1% Italian speakers. For the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia, (i.e. Dalmatia), the 1910 numbers were 96.2% Slavic speakers and 2.8% Italian speakers. In Rijeka the Italians were the relative majority in the municipality (48.61% in 1910), and in addition to the large Croatian community (25.95% in the same year), there was also a fair Hungarian minority (13.03%). According to the official Croatian census of 2011, there are Italians in Rijeka (equal to 1.9% of the total population).
The Italian population in Dalmatia was concentrated in the major coastal cities. In the city of Split in 1890 there were Dalmatian Italians (12.5% of the population), in Zadar (64.6%), in Šibenik (14.5%), in Kotor (18.7%) and in Dubrovnik (4.6%). In other Dalmatian localities, according to Austrian censuses, Dalmatian Italians experienced a sudden decrease: in the twenty years 1890–1910, in Rab they went from 225 to 151, in Vis from 352 to 92, in Pag from 787 to 23, completely disappearing in almost all the inland locations.
The Istrian–Dalmatian exodus (; ; ) was the post-World War II exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) as well as ethnic Croats from Yugoslavia. The emigrants, who had lived in the now Yugoslav territories of the Julian March (Karst Region and Istria), Kvarner and Dalmatia, largely went to Italy, but some joined the Italian diaspora in the Americas, Australia and South Africa. According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians (the others being ethnic Slovenes and Croats who chose to maintain Italian citizenship) leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict. According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia). The number of speakers of Italian is larger if taking into account non-Italians who speak it as a second language.
In addition, since the dissolution of Yugoslavia, a significant portion of the population of Istria opted for a regional declaration in the census instead of a national one. As such, more people have Italian as a first language than those having declared Italian. In 2001, about 500 Dalmatian Italians were counted in Dalmatia. In particular, according to the official Croatian census of 2011, there are 83 Dalmatian Italians in Split (equal to 0.05% of the total population), 16 in Šibenik (0.03%) and 27 in Dubrovnik (0.06%). According to the official Croatian census of 2021, there are 63 Dalmatian Italians in Zadar (equal to 0.09% of the total population). According to the official Montenegrin census of 2011, there are 31 Dalmatian Italians in Kotor (equal to 0.14% of the total population).
The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by colonisation of settlements where the displaced Germans used to live by people from the mountainous parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, and migrations to larger cities spurred on by the development of industry. In the 1960s and 1970s, another wave of economic migrants left Croatia. They largely moved to Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Western Europe. During this period, 65,000 people left for Canada, Particularly large European emigrant communities of Croats exist in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, which largely stem from the 1960s and 1970s migrations.
A series of significant migrations came as a result of the 1991–1995 Croatian War of Independence. In 1991, more than 400,000 Croats and other non-Serbs were displaced by the Croatian Serb forces or fled the violence in areas with significant Serb populations.
Demographic losses in the 20th century wars and pandemics
In addition to demographic losses through significant migrations, the population of Croatia suffered significant losses due to wars and epidemics. In the 20th century alone, there were several such events. The first was World War I, when the loss of the population of Croatia amounted to an estimated 190,000 persons, or about 5.5% of the total population recorded by the 1910 census. The 1918 flu pandemic started to take its toll in Croatia in July 1918, with peaks of the disease occurring in October and November. Available data is scarce, but it is estimated that the pandemic caused at least 15,000–20,000 deaths. Around 295,000 people were killed on the territory of present-day Croatia during World War II, according to the demographer Bogoljub Kočović. The demise of the armed forces of the Independent State of Croatia and of the civilians accompanying the troops at the end of World War II was followed by the Yugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators. A substantial number of people were executed, but the exact number is disputed. The claims range from 12,000 to 15,000 to as many as 80,000 killed in May 1945. Finally, approximately 20,000 were killed or went missing during the 1991–1995 Croatian War of Independence. The figure pertains only to those persons who would have been recorded by the 1991 census as living in Croatia.MigrationInternational migration data of Croatia, 2014–present{| class"wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Immigrants !! Emigrants !! Net Migration
|-
| 2014 || 10,638 || 20,858 || −10,220
|-
| 2015 || 11,706 || 29,651 || −17,945
|-
| 2016 || 13,985 || 36,436 || −22,451
|-
| 2017 || 15,553 || 47,352 || −31,799
|-
| 2018 || 26,029 || 39,515 || −13,486
|-
| 2019 || 37,726 || 40,148 || −2,422
|-
| 2020 || 33,414 || 34,046 || −632
|-
| 2021 || 35,912 || 40,424 || −4,512
|-
| 2022 || 57,972 || 46,287 || 11,685
|-
|2023
|69,396
|39,218
|30,178
|}
Other demographic statistics
Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review.
*One birth every 14 minutes
*One death every 10 minutes
*Net loss of one person every 22 minutes
*One net migrant every 72 minutes
The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.
;Population:
:4,270,480 (July 2018 est.)
;Age structure:
:0-14 years: 14.21% (male 312,805 /female 293,931)
:15-24 years: 11.09% (male 242,605 /female 230,853)
:25-54 years: 40.15% (male 858,025 /female 856,455)
:55-64 years: 14.65% (male 304,054 /female 321,543)
:65 years and over: 19.91% (male 342,025 /female 508,184) (2018 est.)
;Median age:
:total: 44.4 years
:male: 42.6 years
:female: 46.1 years (2018 est.)
;Birth rate:
:8.3 births/1,000 population (2023 est.)
;Death rate:
:13.3 deaths/1,000 population (2023 est.)
;Total fertility rate:
:1.53 children born/woman (2023 est.)
;Net migration rate:
:-1.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 150th
;Population growth rate:
:-0.51% (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 221st
;Mother's mean age at first birth:
:28 years (2014 est.)
;Life expectancy at birth:
:total population: 76.3 years (2018 est.) Country comparison to the world: 87th
:male: 73.2 years (2018 est.)
:female: 79.6 years (2018 est.)
;Ethnic groups:
:Croat 90.4%, Serb 4.4%, other 4.4% (including Bosniak, Hungarian, Slovene, Czech, and Romani), unspecified 0.8% (2011 est.)
;Languages:
:Croatian (official) 95.6%, Serbian 1.2%, other 3% (including Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, and Albanian), unspecified 0.2% (2011 est.)
;Religions:
:Roman Catholic 86.3%, Orthodox 4.4%, Muslim 1.5%, other 1.5%, unspecified 2.5%, not religious or atheist 3.8% (2011 est.)
;Nationality:
:noun: Croat(s), Croatian(s)
:adjective: Croatian
:note: the French designation of "Croate" to Croatian mercenaries in the 17th century eventually became "Cravate" and later came to be applied to the soldiers' scarves – the cravat; Croatia celebrates Cravat Day every 18 October
;Dependency ratios:
:total dependency ratio: 50.9 (2015 est.)
:youth dependency ratio: 22.4 (2015 est.)
:elderly dependency ratio: 28.5 (2015 est.)
:potential support ratio: 3.5 (2015 est.)
;Urbanization:
:urban population: 56.9% of total population (2018)
:rate of urbanization: -0.08% annual rate of change (2015–20 est.)
;Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.)
:total population: 99.3%
:male: 99.7%
:female: 98.9% (2015 est.)
;School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education):
:total: 15 years
:male: 14 years
:female: 16 years (2016)
;Unemployment, youth ages 15–24:
:total: 31.3% (2016 est.) Country comparison to the world: 26th
:male: 31.2% (2016 est.)
:female: 31.3% (2016 est.)
Languages
in 1991]]
Croatian is the official language of Croatia, and one of 24 official languages of the European Union since 2013. Minority languages are in official use in local government units where more than a third of the population consists of national minorities or where local legislation mandates their use. These languages are Czech, German, Hungarian, Italian, Ruthenian, Serbian, Slovene, and Slovak. According to the 2021 Census, 95.25% of citizens of Croatia declared Croatian as their native language, 1.16% declared Serbian as their native language, while no other language is represented in Croatia by more than 0.5% of native speakers among the population of Croatia.
In the region of Dalmatia, each city historically spoke a variant of the Dalmatian language. It developed from Latin like all Romance languages, but became heavily influenced by Venetian and Croatian. The language fell out of use in the region by the 16th century and went extinct when the last speaker died in 1898.
Croatian replaced Latin as the official language of the Croatian government in 1847. The Croatian lect is generally viewed as one of the four standard varieties of the Shtokavian dialect of Serbo-Croatian, a South Slavic language. Croatian is written using the Latin alphabet and there are three major dialects spoken on the territory of Croatia, with the Shtokavian idiom used as the literary standard. The Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects are distinguished by their lexicon, phonology, and syntax.
From 1961 to 1991, the official language was formally designated as Serbo-Croatian or Croato-Serbian. Even during socialist rule, Croats often referred to their language as Croato-Serbian (instead of Serbo-Croatian) or as Croatian. Croatian and Serbian variants of the language were not officially recognised as separate at the time, but referred to as the "West" and "East" versions, and preferred different alphabets: the Gaj's Latin alphabet and Karadžić's Cyrillic alphabet. According to a survey ordered by the European Commission in 2005, 49% of Croats speak English as their second language, 34% speak German, and 14% speak Italian. French and Russian are spoken by 4% each, and 2% of Croats speak Spanish. A substantial proportion of Slovenes (59%) have a certain level of knowledge of Croatian.Religions
s more than doubled by 2008.]]
Literacy in Croatia is 98.1 percent. The 2001 census reported that 15.7% of the population over the age of 14 has an incomplete elementary education, and 21.9% has only an elementary school education. 42.8% of the population over the age of 14 has a vocational education and 4.9% completed gymnasium. 4.2% of the same population received an undergraduate degree, while 7.5% received an academic degree, and 0.5% received a postgraduate or a doctoral degree. Croatia recorded a substantial growth of the population attaining academic degrees and by 2008, this population segment was estimated to encompass 16.7% of the total population of Croatians 15 and over. A worldwide study about the quality of living in different countries published by Newsweek in August 2010 ranked the Croatian education system at 22nd, a position shared with Austria. In 2004, it was estimated that 4.5% of the GDP is spent for education, while schooling expectancy was estimated to 14 years on average.
]]
There are 84 elementary level and 47 secondary level music and art schools, as well as 92 schools for disabled children and youth and 74 schools for adults.
Croatia has eight public universities, the University of Zagreb, University of Split, University of Rijeka, University of Osijek, University of Zadar, University of Dubrovnik, University of Pula and Dubrovnik International University.
The University of Zadar, the first university in Croatia, was founded in 1396 and remained active until 1807, when other institutions of higher education took over. It was reopened in 2002. The University of Zagreb, founded in 1669, is the oldest continuously operating university in Southeast Europe. There are also 11 polytechnics and 23 higher education institutions, of which 19 are private. In total, there are 132 institutions of higher education in Croatia, attended by more than 145 thousand students. The Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb is a learned society promoting language, culture, arts and science since its inception in 1866. Scientists from Croatia include inventors and Nobel Prize winners.Health
in Zagreb]]
Croatia has a universal health care system, the roots of which can be traced back to the Hungarian-Croatian Parliament Act of 1891, providing a form of mandatory insurance for all factory workers and craftsmen. The population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by statute and optional insurance. In 2014, the annual compulsory healthcare related expenditures reached 21.8 billion kuna (2.9 billion euro). Healthcare expenditures comprise only 0.6% of private health insurance and public spending. In 2010, Croatia spent 6.9% of its GDP on healthcare, representing a decline from approximately 8% estimated in 2008, when 84% of healthcare spending came from public sources. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Croatia ranks around the 50th in the world in terms of life expectancy.
There are hundreds of healthcare institutions in Croatia, including 79 hospitals and clinics with 23,967 beds. The hospitals and clinics care for more than 700 thousand patients per year and employ 5,205 medical doctors, including 3,929 specialists. There are 6,379 private practice offices, and a total of 41,271 health workers in the country. There are 63 emergency medical service units, responding to more than a million calls. The principal cause of death in 2008 was cardiovascular disease at 43.5% for men and 57.2% for women, followed by tumours, at 29.4% for men and 21.4% for women. Other significant causes of death are injuries, poisonings and other external causes (7.7% men/3.9% women), digestive system diseases (5.7% men/3.6% women), respiratory system diseases (5.1% men/3.5% women) and endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (2.1% men/3.0% women). There is no other cause of disease affecting more than 3% of the population. According to 2003 WHO data, 22% of the Croatian adult population is obese.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
!Period
!Life expectancy in<br />Years
|-
|1950–1955
|61.26
|-
|1955–1960
| 63.64
|-
|1960–1965
| 65.72
|-
|1965–1970
| 67.46
|-
|1970–1975
| 69.02
|-
|1975–1980
| 69.90
|-
|1980–1985
| 70.59
|-
|1985–1990
| 71.88
|-
|1990–1995
| 72.81
|-
|1995–2000
| 74.58
|-
|2000–2005
| 74.94
|-
|2005–2010
| 76.09
|-
|2010–2015
| 77.05
|}
Economic indicators
Personal income, jobs and unemployment
Net monthly income in September 2011 averaged 5,397 kuna ( 729 euro), dropping 2.1% relative to the previous month. In the same month, gross monthly income averaged 7,740 kuna ( 1,046 euro), and it includes the net salary along with income tax, retirement pension insurance, healthcare insurance, occupational safety and health insurance and employment promotion tax. The average net monthly income grew compared to 5,311 kuna ( 717 euro) in 2009 or 3,326 kuna ( 449 euro) in 2000. Since January 2016, the minimum wage in Croatia is 3,120 kuna before tax ( 400 euro).
Number of employed persons recorded steady growth between 2000 and 2008 when it peaked, followed by 4% decline in 2009. That year, there were 1.499 million employed persons, with 45% of that number pertaining to women. The total number of employed persons includes 252,000 employed in crafts and freelance professionals and 35,000 employed in agriculture. The most significant sources of employment in 2008 were manufacturing industry and wholesale and retail trade (including motor vehicle repair services) employing 278,640 and 243,640 respectively. Further significant employment sector was construction industry comprising 143,336 jobs that year. In the same year, more than 100,000 were employed in public administration, defence and compulsory social insurance sector as well as in education. Since 2009, negative trends persisted in Croatia with jobs in the industry declined further by 3.5%. Number of unemployed and retired persons combined exceeded number of employed in August 2010, as it fell to 1.474 million. In 2009, labour force consisted of 1.765 million persons out of 3.7 million working age population—aged 15 and over. 7.2% of employed persons hold a second job.Urbanisation and housing2011 census recorded a total of 1,534,148 private households in Croatia as well as 1,487 other residential communities such as retirement homes, convents etc. At the same time, there were 1,923,522 permanent housing units—houses and apartments. 2001 census recorded 1.66 million permanent housing units, including 196 thousand intermittently occupied and 42 thousand abandoned ones. Average size of a permanently used housing unit is . The intermittently used housing units include 182 thousand vacation houses and 8 thousand houses used during agricultural works. The same census also recorded 25 thousand housing units used for business purposes only. As of 2007, 71% of the households owned their own housing and had no mortgage or other loans to repay related to the housing, while further 9% were repaying loans for their housing. The households vary by type and include single households (13%), couples (15%), single parent households (4%), couples with children (27%) and extended family households (20%).
Average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56%, with the maximum rate recorded within the territory of the City of Zagreb, where it reached 94.5% and Zagreb metropolitan area comprising the City of Zagreb and the Zagreb County, where it stands at 76.4%. Very significant rate of urbanisation was observed in the second half of the 20th century. 1953 census recorded 57% of population which was active in agriculture, while a census performed in 1991
noted only 9.1% of population active in that field. This points to augmentation of urban population and reduction of rural population.See also
* Croats
* Croatian diaspora
* Croatian Bureau of Statistics
*
** Demographics of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
** Demographics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
Notes
References
Sources
* }}External links
* [https://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/croatia0903/ Human Rights Watch Report "Broken Promises: Impediments to Refugee Return to Croatia"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20031128003242/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_results.asp?crID191&fIDr15 United Nations Statistics Division Millennium Indicators for Croatia]
* [http://www.vojska.net/military/croatia/about/population.asp Population of Croatia 1931–2001]
Category:Society of Croatia
Category:Demographics of Yugoslavia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Croatia | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.835644 |
5577 | Politics of Croatia | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
The politics of Croatia are defined by a parliamentary, representative democratic republic framework, where the Prime Minister of Croatia is the head of government in a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the Government and the President of Croatia. Legislative power is vested in the Croatian Parliament (). The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The parliament adopted the current Constitution of Croatia on 22 December 1990 and decided to declare independence from Yugoslavia on 25 May 1991. The Constitutional Decision on the Sovereignty and Independence of the Republic of Croatia
came into effect on 8 October 1991. The constitution has since been amended several times. The first modern parties in the country developed in the middle of the 19th century, and their agenda and appeal changed, reflecting major social changes, such as the breakup of Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, dictatorship and social upheavals in the kingdom, World War II, the establishment of Communist rule and the breakup of the SFR Yugoslavia.
The President of the Republic () is the head of state and the commander in chief of the Croatian Armed Forces and is directly elected to serve a five-year term. The government (), the main executive power of Croatia, is headed by the prime minister, who has four deputy prime ministers who serve also as government ministers. Twenty ministers are in charge of particular activities. The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies. The parliament is a unicameral legislative body. The number of Sabor representatives (MPs) ranges from 100 to 160; they are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution and laws; adoption of the government budget, declarations of war and peace, defining national boundaries, calling referendums and elections, appointments and relief of officers, supervising the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor, and granting of amnesties. The Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular presidential and parliamentary elections, and the election of county prefects (county presidents) and assemblies, and city and municipal mayors and councils.
Croatia has a three-tiered, independent judicial system governed by the Constitution of Croatia and national legislation enacted by the Sabor. The Supreme Court () is the highest court of appeal in Croatia, while municipal and county courts are courts of general jurisdiction. Specialised courts in Croatia and the Superior Commercial Court, misdemeanour courts and the Superior Misdemeanour Court, administrative courts and the Superior Administrative Court. Croatian Constitutional Court () is a court that deals primarily with constitutional law. Its main authority is to rule on whether laws that are challenged are in fact unconstitutional, i.e., whether they conflict with constitutionally established rights and freedoms. The State Attorney's Office represents the state in legal proceedings.
Legal framework
Croatia is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic. Following the collapse of the ruling Communist League, Croatia adopted a new constitution in 1990 – which replaced the 1974 constitution adopted by the Socialist Republic of Croatia – and organised its first multi-party elections. While the 1990 constitution remains in force, it has been amended four times since its adoption—in 1997, 2000, 2001 and 2010. Under its 1990 constitution, Croatia operated a semi-presidential system until 2000 when it switched to a parliamentary system. Government powers in Croatia are divided into legislative, executive and judiciary powers. The legal system of Croatia is civil law and, along with the institutional framework, is strongly influenced by the legal heritage of Austria-Hungary. By the time EU accession negotiations were completed on 30 June 2010, Croatian legislation was fully harmonised with the Community acquis. Croatia became a member state of the European Union on 1 July 2013.
Executive
, seat of the Government of Croatia]]
The President of the Republic () is the head of state. The president is directly elected and serves a five-year term. The president is the commander in chief of the armed forces, has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor (Parliament) through a majority vote (majority of all MPs), and has some influence on foreign policy. He took the oath of office on 18 February 2020. The constitution limits holders of the presidential office to a maximum of two terms and prevents the president from being a member of any political party. The two largest political parties in Croatia are the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) and the Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP). The last parliamentary election was held on 17 April 2024.
The Sabor meets in public sessions in two periods; the first from 15 January to 30 June, and the second from 15 September to 15 December. Extra sessions can be called by the President of the Republic, by the president of the parliament or by the government. The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution, enactment of laws, adoption of the state budget, declarations of war and peace, alteration of the country's boundaries, calling and conducting referendums and elections, appointments and relief of office, supervising the work of the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor, and granting amnesty. Decisions are made based on a majority vote if more than half of the Chamber is present, except in cases of constitutional issues.
140 members of parliament are elected to a four-year term in ten multi-seat constituencies, which are defined on the basis of the existing county borders, with amendments to achieve a uniform number of eligible voters in each constituency to within 5%. Citizens of Croatia living abroad are counted in an eleventh constituency; however, its number of seats was not fixed for the last parliamentary election. It was instead calculated based on numbers of votes cast in the ten constituencies in Croatia and the votes cast in the eleventh constituency. In the 2007 parliamentary election the eleventh constituency elected five MPs. Constitutional changes first applied in the 2011 parliamentary election have abolished this scheme and permanently assigned three MPs to the eleventh constituency. Additionally, eight members of parliament are elected by voters belonging to twenty-two recognised minorities in Croatia: the Serb minority elects three MPs, Hungarians and Italians elect one MP each, Czech and Slovak minorities elect one MP jointly, while all other minorities elect two more MPs to the parliament. The Standard D'Hondt formula is applied to the vote, with a 5% election threshold. The last parliamentary election, held in 2016, elected 151 MPs. Members of county, city, and municipal councils are elected to four-year terms through proportional representation; the entire local government unit forms a single constituency. The number of council members is defined by the councils themselves based on applicable legislation. Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national minorities are represented in the council as required by the constitution. If the minorities are not represented, further members, who belong to the minorities and who have not been elected through the proportional representation system, are selected from electoral candidate lists and added to the council.
Latest presidential election
{| classwikitable styletext-align:right
!colspan2 rowspan2|Candidate
!rowspan=2|Party
!colspan=2|First round
!colspan=2|Second round
|-
!Votes
!%
!Votes
!%
|-
|bgcolor| ||alignleft|Zoran Milanović||align=left|Social Democratic Party||562,783||29.55||1,034,170||52.66
|-
|bgcolor| ||alignleft|||align=left|Independent ||507,628||26.65||929,707||47.34
|-
|bgcolor| ||alignleft|Miroslav Škoro||alignleft|Independent||465,704||24.45|| colspan2 rowspan=9|
|-
|bgcolor| ||alignleft|Mislav Kolakušić||align=left|Independent||111,916||5.88
|-
|bgcolor| ||alignleft|Dario Juričan||align=left|Independent|| 87,883||4.61
|-
|bgcolor| ||alignleft|Dalija Orešković||align=left|Independent|| 55,163||2.90
|-
|bgcolor#00324e| ||alignleft|Ivan Pernar||align=left|Party of Ivan Pernar|| 44,057||2.31
|-
|bgcolor| ||alignleft|Katarina Peović||align=left|Workers' Front || 21,387||1.12
|-
|bgcolor| ||alignleft|Dejan Kovač||align=left|Croatian Social Liberal Party|| 18,107||0.95
|-
|bgcolor#134094| ||alignleft|Anto Đapić||align=left|DESNO|| 4,001||0.21
|-
|bgcolor#099240| ||alignleft|Nedjeljko Babić||align=left|HSSČKŠ|| 3,014||0.16
|-
|alignleft colspan3|Invalid/blank votes||22,218||1.17||89,415||–
|-
|alignleft colspan3|Total||1,903,861||100||2,053,292||100
|-
|alignleft colspan3|Registered voters/turnout||3,719,741||51.18||3,734,115||54.99
|-
|alignleft colspan7|Source: [https://www.izbori.hr/pre2019/rezultati/1/ Izbori], [https://www.izbori.hr/pre2019/rezultati/2/ Izbori]
|}
Latest parliamentary election
{| class=wikitable
|-
! style"background-color:#E9E9E9" colspan3 | Parties and coalitions
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|Votes
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|%
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|Swing
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|Seats
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" | +/–
|-
| colspan"9" style"text-align:center;" | Domestic electoral districts (1st–10th)
|-
|width5px style"background-color:"|
| style="text-align:left;" | HDZ Coalition
| style="text-align:left;" | HDZ, HSLS, HDS
| style="text-align:right" | 682,687
| style="text-align:right" | 36.27%
| style="text-align:right" | +2.91%
| style="text-align:right" | 59
| style="text-align:right" | +3
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | People's Coalition
| style="text-align:left;" | SDP, HNS, HSU, HSS
| style="text-align:right" | 636,602
| style="text-align:right" | 33.82%
| style="text-align:right" | +0.62%
| style="text-align:right;" | 54
| style="text-align:right;" | -2
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Bridge of Independent Lists
| style="text-align:right" | 186,626
| style="text-align:right" | 9.91%
| style="text-align:right" | -3.60%
| style="text-align:right" | 13
| style="text-align:right" | -6
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | The Only Option Coalition
| style="text-align:left;" | Human Blockade, Change Croatia, Youth Action, Alphabet of democracy, HDSS
| style="text-align:right" | 117,208
| style="text-align:right" | 6.23%
| style="text-align:right" | +1.99%
| style="text-align:right;" | 8
| style="text-align:right;" | +7
|-
! style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" | For Prime Minister Coalition
| style="text-align:left;" | BM 365, Reformisti, Novi val, HSS SR, BUZ
| style="text-align:right" | 76,054
| style="text-align:right" | 4.04%
| style="text-align:right" | +0.72%
| style="text-align:right;" | 2
| style="text-align:right;" | ±0
|-
! style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" | Even Stronger Istria Coalition
| style="text-align:left;" | IDS, PGS, List for Rijeka
| style="text-align:right;" | 43,180
| style="text-align:right;" | 2.29%
| style="text-align:right;" | +0.46%
| style="text-align:right;" | 3
| style="text-align:right;" | ±0
|-
! style="background:#141c40;"|
| style="text-align:left;" | Turn Croatia Around Coalition
| style="text-align:left;" | Pametno, Za Grad
| style="text-align:right;" | 38,812
| style="text-align:right;" | 2.06%
| style="text-align:right;" | New
| style="text-align:right;" | 0
| style="text-align:right;" | New
|-
|style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | HDSSB Coalition
| style="text-align:left;" | HDSSB, HKS
| style="text-align:right" | 23,573
| style="text-align:right" | 1.25%
| style="text-align:right" | -0.11%
| style="text-align:right;" | 1
| style="text-align:right;" | -1
|-
|style="background-color:" |
| style="text-align:left;" | Homeland Coalition
| style="text-align:left;" | HSP AS, Desno, HKDU, USP, HDS
| style="text-align:right" | 11,100
| style="text-align:right" | 0.59%
| style="text-align:right" |
| style="text-align:right;" | 0
| style="text-align:right;" | -3
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Croatian Labourists - Labour Party
| style="text-align:right" | 4,821
| style="text-align:right" | 0.26%
| style="text-align:right" |
| style="text-align:right" | 0
| style="text-align:right" | -1
|-
|style="background-color: white"|
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Other parties and independent lists
| style="text-align:right;" | 61,654
| style="text-align:right;" | 3.28%
| style="text-align:right;" |
| style="text-align:right;" | 0
| style="text-align:right;" | ±0
|-
| style="background-color: white"|
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Invalid
| style="text-align:right;" | 36,871
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.92%
| style="text-align:right;" |
| style="text-align:right;" | -
| style="text-align:right;" | -
|-
| colspan"3" style"text-align:left;background-color:#E9E9E9" | Domestic total
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 1,919,188
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 100%
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 140
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | ±0
|-
| colspan"3" style"text-align:left;background-color:#E9E9E9" | Registered voters / turnout
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 3,531,279
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 54.35%
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -6.47%
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -
|-
| colspan"9" style"text-align:center;" | District XI – Croatian citizens living abroad
|-
| width5px style"background-color:"|
| colspan"2" style"text-align:left;" | Croatian Democratic Union
| style="text-align:right" | 13,117
| style="text-align:right" | 62.72%
| style="text-align:right" | -22.97%
| style="text-align:right;" | 2
| style="text-align:right;" | -1
|-
| style="background-color:white" |
| colspan"2" style"text-align:left;"| Independent list led by Željko Glasnović
| style="text-align:right" | 5,211
| style="text-align:right" | 24.91%
| style="text-align:right" | New
| style="text-align:right;" | 1
| style="text-align:right;" | New
|-
! style="background-color: " |
| style="text-align:left;" | For Prime Minister Coalition
| style="text-align:left;" | BM 365, Reformisti, Novi val, HSS SR, BUZ
| style="text-align:right" | 936
| style="text-align:right" | 4.47%
| style="text-align:right" | +0.17%
| style="text-align:right;" | 0
| style="text-align:right;" | ±0
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Bridge of Independent Lists
| style="text-align:right" | 656
| style="text-align:right" | 3.13%
| style="text-align:right" | -0.76%
| style="text-align:right" | 0
| style="text-align:right" | ±0
|-
| style="background-color: white" |
| style"text-align:left;" colspan"2" | Other District XI lists
| style="text-align:right" | 993
| style="text-align:right" | 4.75%
| style="text-align:right" |
| style="text-align:right" | 0
| style="text-align:right" | ±0
|-
| style="background-color: white"|
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Invalid
| style="text-align:right;" | 295
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.39%
| style="text-align:right;" |
| style="text-align:right;" | -
| style="text-align:right;" | -
|-
| colspan"3" style"text-align:left;background-color:#E9E9E9" | District XI total
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 21,208
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 100%
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 3
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | ±0
|-
| colspan"3" style"text-align:left;background-color:#E9E9E9" | Registered voters / turnout
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 21,223
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 99.93%
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | +0.02%
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -
|-
| colspan"9" style"text-align:center;" | District XII – National minority electoral district
|-
| style="background-color:" |
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Independent Democratic Serb Party
| colspan3 rowspan6 style="text-align:center; | Differing election system
| style="text-align:right;" | 3
| style="text-align:right;" | ±0
|-
| style="background-color:orange" |
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Democratic Union of Hungarians of Croatia
| style="text-align:right;" | 1
| style="text-align:right;" | +1
|-
| style="background-color:white" |
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Union of Roma in Croatia "Kali Sara"
| style="text-align:right;" | 1
| style="text-align:right;" | ±0
|-
| style="background-color:white" |
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Union of Albanians in Croatia
| style="text-align:right;" | 1
| style="text-align:right;" | +1
|-
| style="background-color:white" |
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Independents (Italian minority)
| style="text-align:right;" | 1
| style="text-align:right;" | ±0
|-
| style="background-color:white" |
| style"text-align:left;" colspan2 | Independents (Czech/Slovak minority)
| style="text-align:right;" | 1
| style="text-align:right;" | ±0
|-
| colspan"3" style"text-align:left;background-color:#E9E9E9" | District XII total
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 37,902
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 100%
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 8
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | ±0
|-
| colspan"3" style"text-align:left;background-color:#E9E9E9" | Registered voters / turnout
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 211,267
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 17.94%
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -1.14%
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -
| style="text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | -
|-
| colspan"6" style"text-align:left;background-color:#E9E9E9" | Total parliamentary seats
| width"30" style"text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | 151
| width"30" style"text-align:right;background-color:#E9E9E9" | ±0
|-
| style"text-align:left;" colspan"9" | Sources: State Election Committee;
|}
Latest European elections
|party7The Bridge–HS–HSP|votes730155|seats70|sc7-1
|party8Law and Justice|votes822425|seats80|sc8-2
|party9|votes910328|seats90|sc9New
|party10Independent list of Ladislav Ilčić|votes109156|seats100|sc10New|color10=
|party11Ričard Independent|votes118757|seats110|sc11New|color11=#0B2971
|party12Croatian Party of Pensioners|votes125235|seats120|sc12New
|party13Workers' Front|votes134729|seats130|sc130
|party14Pensioners Together|votes144298|seats140|sc14New|color14=#373080
|party15Movement for Animals|votes153060|seats150|sc15New|color15=#548235
|party16Agrarian Party|votes162840|seats160|sc16New|color16=#008001
|party17Party of Ivan Pernar|votes172280|seats170|sc17New
|party18Green Alternative – ORaH|votes181636|seats180|sc180
|party19Autochthonous Croatian Party of Rights|votes191402|seats190|sc190
|party20Republic|votes201099|seats200|sc20New
|party21Movement for a Modern Croatia|votes211005|seats210|sc210|color21=#457DC0
|party22Croatian Civil Resistance Party|votes22986|seats220|sc22New|color22=#100FE7
|party23Dalmatian Action|votes23973|seats230|sc23New
|party24Righteous Croatia|votes24963|seats240|sc24New|color24=#005596
|party25Public Good|votes25770|seats250|sc25New|color25=#0C9344
|total_sc=0
|invalid=11428
|blank=<!--TBD -->
|electorate=3731860
|source=[https://www.izbori.hr/eup2024/rezultati/ Results]
}}
Judiciary
Croatia has a three-tiered, independent judicial system governed by the constitution and national legislation enacted by the Sabor. The Supreme Court () is the highest court of appeal in Croatia; its hearings are open and judgments are made publicly, except in cases where the privacy of the accused is to be protected. Judges are appointed by the National Judicial Council and judicial office is permanent until seventy years of age. The president of the Supreme Court is elected for a four-year term by the Croatian Parliament at the proposal of the President of the Republic. As of 2017, the president of the Supreme Court is Đuro Sessa. The Supreme Court has civil and criminal departments.
building]]
There are other specialised courts in Croatia; commercial courts and the Superior Commercial Court, misdemeanour courts that try trivial offences such as traffic violations, the Superior Misdemeanour Court, the Administrative Court and the Croatian Constitutional Court (). The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding compliance of legislation with the constitution, repeals unconstitutional legislation, reports any breaches of provisions of the constitution to the government and the parliament, declares the speaker of the parliament acting president upon petition from the government in the event the country's president becomes incapacitated, issues consent for commencement of criminal procedures against or arrest of the president, and hears appeals against decisions of the National Judicial Council. The court consists of thirteen judges elected by members of the parliament for an eight-year term. The president of the Constitutional Court is elected by the court judges for a four-year term. As of June 2012, the president of the Constitutional Court is Jasna Omejec. The National Judicial Council () consists of eleven members, specifically seven judges, two university professors of law and two parliament members, nominated and elected by the Parliament for four-year terms, and may serve no more than two terms. It appoints all judges and court presidents, except in case of the Supreme Court. As of January 2015, the president of the National Judicial Council is Ranko Marijan, who is also a Supreme Court judge.
The State Attorney's Office represents the state in legal procedures. As of April 2018, Dražen Jelenić is the General State Attorney, and there are twenty-three deputies in the central office and lower-ranking State Attorneys at fifteen county and thirty-three municipal State Attorney's Offices. The General State Attorney is appointed by the parliament. A special State Attorney's Office dedicated to combatting corruption and organised crime, USKOK, was set up in late 2001.Local government
}}
Croatia was first subdivided into counties () in the Middle Ages. The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and the subsequent recapture of the same territory, and changes to the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik and Istria. The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively. After 1945 under Communist rule, Croatia, as a constituent part of Yugoslavia, abolished these earlier divisions and introduced municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities. Counties, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions, were reintroduced in 1992 legislation. In 1918, the Transleithanian part of Croatia was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar, Gospić, Ogulin, Požega, Vukovar, Varaždin, Osijek and Zagreb; the 1992 legislation established fifteen counties in the same territory. Since the counties were re-established in 1992, Croatia is divided into twenty counties and the capital city of Zagreb, the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time. In some instances, the boundaries of the counties have been changed, with the latest revision taking place in 2006. The counties subdivide into 128 cities and 428 municipalities.
The county prefects, city and municipal mayors are elected to four-year terms by a majority of votes cast within applicable local government units. If no candidate achieves a majority in the first round, a runoff election is held. Eight nationwide local elections have been held in Croatia since 1990, the most recent being the 2017 local elections to elect county prefects and councils, and city and municipal councils and mayors. In 2017, the HDZ-led coalitions won a majority or plurality in fifteen county councils and thirteen county prefect elections. SDP-led coalitions won a majority or plurality in five county councils, including the city of Zagreb council, and the remaining county council election was won by IDS-SDP coalition. The SDP won two county prefect elections, the city of Zagreb mayoral election, the HSS and the HNS won a single county prefect election each.
Other significant parties formed in the era were the Serb People's Independent Party, which later formed the Croat-Serb Coalition with the Party of Rights and other Croat and Serb parties. The Coalition ruled Croatia between 1903 and 1918. The leaders of the Coalition were Frano Supilo and Svetozar Pribićević. The Croatian Peasant Party (HSS), established in 1904 and led by Stjepan Radić, advocated Croatian autonomy but achieved only moderate gains by 1918. The Autonomists won the first three elections, but all elections since 1870 were won by the People's Party. In the period 1861–1918 there were seventeen elections in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and ten in the Kingdom of Dalmatia. The 1921 constitution defined the kingdom as a unitary state and abolished the historical administrative divisions, which effectively ended Croatian autonomy; the constitution was opposed by HSS. The political situation deteriorated further as Stjepan Radić of the HSS was assassinated in the Yugoslav Parliament in 1928, leading to the dictatorship of King Alexander in January 1929. The HSS, now led by Vladko Maček, continued to advocate the federalisation of Yugoslavia, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia. The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban. This arrangement was soon made obsolete with the beginning of World War II, when the Independent State of Croatia, which banned all political opposition, was established. Since then, the HSS continues to operate abroad.
In the 1945 election, the Communists were unopposed because the other parties abstained. Once in power, the Communists introduced a single-party political system, in which the Communist Party of Yugoslavia was the ruling party and the Communist Party of Croatia was its branch. In 1971, the Croatian national movement, which sought greater civil rights and the decentralisation of the Yugoslav economy, culminated in the Croatian Spring, which was suppressed by the Yugoslav leadership. In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines; the Croatian faction demanded a looser federation.Modern Croatia
in December 2011]]
In 1989, the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia decided to tolerate political parties in response to growing demands to allow political activities outside the Communist party. The first political party founded in Croatia since the beginning of the Communist rule was the Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS), established on 20 May 1989, followed by the Croatian Democratic Union on 17 June 1989. In December 1989, Ivica Račan became the head of the reformed Communist party. At the same time, the party cancelled political trials, released political prisoners and endorsed a multi-party political system. The Civil Organisations Act was formally amended to allow political parties on 11 January 1990, legalising the parties that were already founded.
By the time of the first round of the first multi-party elections, held on 22 April 1990, there were 33 registered parties. The most relevant parties and coalitions were the League of Communists of Croatia – Party of Democratic Changes (the renamed Communist party), the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), and the Coalition of People's Accord (KNS), which included the HSLS led by Dražen Budiša, and the HSS, which resumed operating in Croatia in December 1989. During his term, Croatia's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia took effect on 8 October 1991.
Franjo Tuđman won the presidential elections in 1992 and 1997. During his terms, the Constitution of Croatia, adopted in 1990, provided for a semi-presidential system. After Tuđman's death in 1999, the constitution was amended and much of the presidential powers were transferred to the parliament and the government.
In January 2020, former prime minister Zoran Milanovic of the Social Democrats (SDP) won the presidential election. He defeated center-right incumbent Kolinda Grabar-Kitarovic of the ruling Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) in the second round of the election.
In July 2020, the ruling right-wing HDZ won the parliamentary election. Since 2016 ruled HDZ-led coalition of prime minister Andrej Plenković continued to govern.
See also
* List of political parties in Croatia
* Foreign relations of Croatia
* Left-wing politics in Croatia
* Far-right politics in Croatia
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Croatia | 2025-04-05T18:27:18.937834 |
5578 | Economy of Croatia | | population 3,861,967 (2023 est.)
| gdp = $96.03 billion (nominal, 2025f)
* $196.12 billion (PPP, 2025f) (57th)
| growth = 3.3% (2023)
* 3.8% (2024)
* 3.3%
}}
| per capita = $25,080 (nominal, 2025f)}}
| inflation 4.0% (2024f)
----
*Pannonian Croatia: 29.4% (2023)
| hdi = 0.878 (39th) (2022)
* 0.817 IHDI (29th) (2022)}}
| labor = 1,707,050 (2022)
* 70.7% employment rate (2023)}}
| unemployment = 4.6% (September 2024)
* 16.7% (youth) (June 2024)}}
| average gross salary €1,925 monthly (January 2025)
| average net salary €1,392 monthly (January 2025)
| exports $24.70 billion (2023)
| export-goods = transport equipment, machinery, textiles, chemicals, foodstuffs, fuels
| export-partners = 12.23%
* 12.20%
* 11.21%
* 10.04%
* 6.88%
*(2023)}}
| imports $42.75 billion (2023)
| FDI = $43.71 billion (on-shore) (2017)
* $8.473 billion (off-shore) (2017)}}
| revenue 46.4% of GDP (2021)
| expenses 49.2% of GDP (2021)}}
| credit =
| reserves €2.92 billion (August 2024)
}}
The economy of Croatia is a developed mixed economy. It is one of the largest economies in Southeast Europe by nominal gross domestic product (GDP). It is an open economy with accommodative foreign policy, highly dependent on international trade in Europe. Within Croatia, economic development varies among its counties, with strongest growth in Central Croatia and its financial centre, Zagreb. It has a very high level of human development, low levels of income inequality, Croatia's labor market has been perennially inefficient, with inconsistent business standards as well as ineffective corporate and income tax policy.
Croatia's economic history is closely linked to its historic nation-building efforts. Its pre-industrial economy leveraged the country's geography and natural resources to guide agricultural growth. The 1800s saw a shipbuilding boom, railroading, and industrial production. During the 1900s, Croatia entered into a planned economy (with socialism) in 1941 and a command economy (with communism) during World War II. It experienced rapid urbanization in the 1950s and decentralized in 1965, diversifying its economy before the collapse of Yugoslavia during the 1990s. The Croatian War of Independence (1991–95) curbed 21–25% of wartime GDP, leaving behind a developing transition economy.
The modern Croatian economy is considered high-income and dominated by its tertiary service sector, which accounts for 70% of GDP. The high levels of tourism in Croatia contributes to nearly 20% of GDP, with a total of 20.6 million tourists visiting in 2023. Croatia is an emerging energy power in the region, with strategic investments in liquefied natural gas (LNG), geothermal power, and electric automobiles. It supports regional economic activity via transportation networks across the Adriatic Sea and throughout Pan-European corridors. As a member of the European Union, Eurozone, and Schengen Area, it uses the euro (€) as official currency. Croatia has free-trade agreements with many world nations and is a part of the World Trade Organization (2000) and the EEA (2013).HistoryPre-20th century
Stock Exchange Palace in 1927]]
in Rijeka in the 1930s]]
When Croatia was still part of the Dual Monarchy, its economy was largely agricultural. However, modern industrial companies were also located in the vicinity of the larger cities. The Kingdom of Croatia had a high ratio of population working in agriculture. Many industrial branches developed in that time, like forestry and wood industry (stave fabrication, the production of potash, lumber mills, shipbuilding). The most profitable one was stave fabrication, the boom of which started in the 1820s with the clearing of the oak forests around Karlovac and Sisak and again in the 1850s with the marshy oak masses along the Sava and Drava rivers. Shipbuilding in Croatia played a huge role in the 1850s Austrian Empire, especially the long-range sailing boats. Sisak and Vukovar were the centres of river-shipbuilding. Slavonia was also mostly an agricultural land and it was known for its silk production. Agriculture and the breeding of cattle were the most profitable occupations of the inhabitants. It produced corn of all kinds, hemp, flax, tobacco, and great quantities of liquorice.
The first steps towards industrialization began in the 1830s and in the following decades the construction of big industrial enterprises took place. During the 2nd half of the 19th and early 20th century there was an upsurge of industry in Croatia, strengthened by the construction of railways and the electric-power production. The industrial production was still lower than agricultural production. Regional differences were high. Industrialization was faster in inner Croatia than in other regions, while Dalmatia remained one of the poorest provinces of Austria-Hungary. The slow rate of modernization and rural overpopulation caused extensive emigration, particularly from Dalmatia. According to estimates, roughly 400,000 Croats emigrated from Austria-Hungary between 1880 and 1914. In 1910 8.5% of the population of Croatia-Slavonia lived in urban settlements.
In 1918 Croatia became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was in the interwar period one of the least developed countries in Europe. Most of its industry was based in Slovenia and Croatia, but further industrial development was modest and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brick yards and food-processing plants. The economy was still traditionally based on agriculture and raising of livestock, with peasants accounting for more than half of Croatia's population.
In 1941 the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a World War II puppet state of Germany and Italy, was established in parts of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia. The economic system of NDH was based on the concept of "Croatian socialism". The main characteristic of the new system was the concept of a planned economy with high levels of state involvement in economic life. The fulfillment of basic economic interests was primarily ensured with measures of repression. All large companies were placed under state control and the property of the regime's national enemies was nationalized. Its currency was the NDH kuna. The Croatian State Bank was the central bank, responsible for issuing currency. As the war progressed the government kept printing more money and its amount in circulation was rapidly increasing, resulting in high inflation rates.
After World War II, the new Communist Party of Yugoslavia converted to a command economy on the Soviet model of rapid industrial development. In accordance with the communist plan, mainly companies in the pharmaceutical industry, the food industry and the consumer goods industry were founded in Croatia. Metal and heavy industry was mainly promoted in Bosnia and Serbia. By 1948 almost all domestic and foreign-owned capital had been nationalized. The industrialization plan relied on high taxation, fixed prices, war reparations, Soviet credits, and export of food and raw materials. Forced collectivization of agriculture was initiated in 1949. At that time 94% of agricultural land was privately owned, and by 1950 96% was under the control of the social sector. A rapid improvement of food production and the standard of living was expected, but due to bad results the program was abandoned three years later. Croatia and Slovenia accounted for nearly half of the total Yugoslav GDP, and this was reflected in the overall standard of living. In the mid-1960s, Yugoslavia lifted emigration restrictions and the number of emigrants increased rapidly. In 1971 224,722 workers from Croatia were employed abroad, mostly in West Germany. Foreign remittances contributed $2 billion annually to the economy by 1990. Profits gained through Croatia's industry were used to develop poor regions in other parts of former Yugoslavia, leading to Croatia contributing much more to the federal Yugoslav economy than it gained in return. This, coupled with austerity programs and hyperinflation in the 1980s, led to discontent in both Croatia and Slovenia which eventually fuelled political movements calling for independence., 2010]]
]]
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the collapse of socialism and the beginning of economic transition, Croatia faced considerable economic problems stemming from:
* the legacy of longtime communist mismanagement of the economy;
* damage during the internecine fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses;
* the large refugee and displaced population, both Croatian and Bosnian;
* the disruption of economic ties; and
* inefficient privatization
At the time Croatia gained independence, its economy (and the whole Yugoslavian economy) was in the middle of recession. Privatization under the new government had barely begun when war broke out in 1991. As a result of the Croatian War of Independence, infrastructure sustained massive damage in the period 1991–92, especially the revenue-rich tourism industry. The privatization of sovereign assets and transformation from a planned economy to a market economy was thus slow and unsteady, largely as a result of public mistrust when many state-owned companies were sold to politically well-connected at below-market prices. With the end of the war, Croatia's economy recovered moderately, but corruption, cronyism, and a general lack of transparency stymied economic reforms and foreign investment. The privatization of large government-owned companies was practically halted during the war and in the years immediately following the conclusion of peace. In 2000, roughly 70% of Croatia's major companies were still state-owned, including water, electricity, oil, transportation, telecommunications, and tourism.
The early 1990s experienced high inflation. In 1991 the Croatian dinar was introduced as a transitional currency, but inflation continued to accelerate. The anti-inflationary stabilization steps in 1993 decreased retail price inflation from a monthly rate of 38.7% to 1.4%, and by the end of the year, Croatia experienced deflation. In 1994 Croatia introduced the kuna as its currency.
At the beginning of 1998 value-added tax was introduced. The central government budget was in surplus in that year, most of which was used to repay foreign debt. Government debt to GDP had fallen from 27.30% to 26.20% at the end of 1998. However, the consumer boom was disrupted in mid 1998, as a result of the bank crisis when 14 banks went bankrupt. In 1999 the government tightened its fiscal policy and revised the budget with a 7% cut in spending.
In 1999 the private sector share in GDP reached 60%, which was significantly lower than in other former socialist countries. After several years of successful macroeconomic stabilization policies, low inflation and a stable currency, economists warned that the lack of fiscal changes and the expanding role of the state in the economy caused the decline in the late 1990s and were preventing sustainable economic growth. Due to overall increase in stability, the economic rating of the country improved and interest rates dropped. Economic growth in the 2000s was stimulated by a credit boom led by newly privatized banks, capital investment, especially in road construction, a rebound in tourism and credit-driven consumer spending. Inflation remained tame and the currency, the kuna, stable. In 2000 Croatia generated 5,899 billion kunas in total income from the shipbuilding sector, which employed 13,592 people. Total exports in 2001 amounted to $4,659,286,000, of which 54.7% went to the countries of the EU. Croatia's total imports were $9,043,699,000, 56% of which originated from the EU.
Unemployment reached its peak in late 2002, but has since been steadily declining. In 2003, the nation's economy would officially recover to the amount of GDP it had in 1990. In late 2003 the new government led by HDZ took over the office. Unemployment continued falling, powered by growing industrial production and rising GDP, rather than only seasonal changes from tourism. Unemployment reached an all-time low in 2008 when the annual average rate was 8.6%, GDP per capita peaked at $16,158, The Croatian National Bank took steps to curb further growth of indebtedness of local banks with foreign banks. The dollar debt figure is adversely affected by the EUR-USD ratio—over a third of the increase in debt since 2002 is due to currency value changes.
Economic growth has been hurt by the global financial crisis. Immediately after the crisis it seemed that Croatia did not suffer serious consequences like some other countries. However, in 2009, the crisis gained momentum and the decline in GDP growth, at a slower pace, continued during 2010. In 2011 the GDP stagnated as the growth rate was zero. Since the global crisis hit the country, the unemployment rate has been steadily increasing, resulting in the loss of more than 100,000 jobs. While unemployment was 9.6% in late 2007, in January 2014 it peaked at 22.4%. In 2010 Gini coefficient was 0,32. In September 2012, Fitch ratings agency unexpectedly improved Croatia's economic outlook from negative to stable, reaffirming Croatia's current BBB rating. The slow pace of privatization of state-owned businesses and an over-reliance on tourism have also been a drag on the economy. In terms of minimum monthly wage, Croatia is ahead of 9 EU members (Greece, Malta, Estonia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Latvia, Hungary, and Bulgaria) at €970.
The annual average unemployment rate in 2014 was 17.3% and Croatia has the third-highest unemployment rate in the European Union, after Greece (26.5%), and Spain (24.%).2016–2019During 2015 the Croatian economy started with slow but upward economic growth, which continued during 2016 and conclusive at the end of the year seasonally adjusted was recorded at 3.5%. The better than expected figures during 2016 enabled the Croatian Government and with more tax receipts enabled the repayment of debt as well as narrow the current account deficit during Q3 and Q4 of 2016 This growth in economic output, coupled with the reduction of government debt has made a positive impact on the financial markets with many ratings agencies revising their outlook from negative to stable, which was the first upgrade of Croatia's credit rating since 2007. Due to consecutive months of economic growth and the demand for labour, plus the outflows of residents to other European countries, Croatia had recorded the biggest fall in the number of unemployed during the month of November 2016 from 16.1% to 12.7%. 2020
COVID-19 Pandemic has caused more than 400,000 workers to file for economic aid of 4000.00 HRK./month. In the first quarter of 2020, Croatian GDP rose by 0.2% but then in Q2 Government of Croatia announced the biggest quarterly GDP plunge of -15.1% since GDP has been measured. Economic activity also plunged in Q3 2020 when GDP slid by an additional -10.0%.
In autumn 2020 European Commission estimated total GDP loss in 2020 to be -9.6%. Growth was set to pick up in the last month of Q1 2021 and the second quarter of 2021 respectively +1.4% and +3.0%, meaning that Croatia was set to reach 2019 levels by 2022. 2021 In July 2021 projection was improved to 5.4% due to the strong outturn in the first quarter and the positive high-frequency indicators concerning consumption, construction, industry and tourism prospects. In November 2021 Croatia outperformed these projections and the real GDP growth was calculated to be 8.1% for the year 2021, improving its projection of 5.4% GDP growth made in July. The recovery was supported by strong private consumption, the better-than-expected performance of tourism and the ongoing resilience of the export sector. Preliminary data point to tourism-related expenditure already exceeding 2019 levels, which has been supportive of both employment and consumption. Exports of goods have also continued to perform strongly (up 43%yoy in 2Q21) pointing to resilient competitiveness. Croatian merchandise exports in the first nine months of 2021 amounted to €13.3 billion, an annual increase of 24.6%. At the same time, imports rose 20.3% to €20.4 billion. The coverage of imports by exports for the first nine months is 65.4%. This made 2021 Croatian export's record year as the trade off-set from 2019 was exceeded by €2 billion.
Exports recovered in all major markets, more precisely with all EU countries and CEFTA countries. Specifically, on the EU market, only a lower export result is recorded in relations with Sweden, Belgium and Luxembourg. Italy is again the main market for Croatian products, followed by Germany and Slovenia. Apart from the high contribution of crude oil that Ina sends to Hungary to the Mol refinery for processing, the export of artificial fertilizers from Petrokemija also has a significant contribution to growth.
For 2022, the Commission revised downwards its projection for Croatia's economic growth to 5.6% from 5.9% previously predicted in July 2021. Commission again confirmed that the volume of Croatia's GDP should reach its 2019 level during 2022, while in 2023 the GDP will grow by 3.4%. The Commission warned that the key downside risks stem from Croatia's relatively low vaccination rates, which could lead to stricter containment measures, and continued delays of the earthquake-related reconstruction. Croatia's entry into the Schengen area and euro adoption towards the end of the forecast period could benefit investment and trade.
On Friday, 12 November 2021 Fitch raised Croatia's credit rating by one level, from ‘BBB−‘ to ‘BBB’, Croatia's highest credit rating in history, with a positive outlook, noting progress in preparations for Eurozone membership and a strong recovery of the Croatian economy from the pandemic crisis. This is also secured by the failure of the eurosceptic party Hrvatski Suverenisti in a bid on the referendum to block Euro adoption in Croatia. In December 2021 Croatia's industrial production increased for the thirteenth consecutive month, observing the growth of production increasing in all of the five aggregates. meaning that industrial production in 2021 increased by 6.7 percent.
In 2021 Croatia joined the list of countries with its own automobile industry, with Rimac Automobili's Nevera started being produced. The company also took over Bugatti Automobiles in November same year and started building its new HQ in Zagreb, titled as the "Rimac Campus", that will serve as the company's international research and development (R&D) and production base for all future Rimac products, as well as home of R&D for future Bugatti models. The company also plans to build battery systems for different manufacturers from the automotive industry This campus will also become the home of R&D for future Bugatti models due to the new joint venture, though these vehicles will be built at Bugatti's Molsheim plant in France. 2022 In late March 2022 Croatian Bureau of Statistics announced that Croatia's industrial output rose by 4% in February, thus growing for 15 months in a row. Croatia continued to have strong growth during 2022 fuelled by tourism revenue and increased exports. According to a preliminary estimate, Croatia's GDP in Q2 grew by 7.7% from the same period of 2021. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) projected in early September 2022 that Croatia's economy will expand by 5.9% in 2022, whilst EBRD expects Croatian GDP growth to reach 6.5% by the end of 2022. Pfizer announced launching a new production plant in Savski Marof whilst Croatian IT industry grew 3.3% confirming the trend that started with Coronavirus pandemic where the Croatia's digital economy increased by 16 percent on average annually from 2019 to 2021. It is estimated that by 2030 its value could reach 15 percent of GDP, with the ICT sector being the main driver of that growth.
In 2022, Croatian economy is expected to grow between 5.9 and 7.8% in real terms and it is expected to reach between $72 and $73.6 billion according to preliminary estimates by Croatian Government surpassing early estimates of 491 billion kuna or $68.5 billion. Croatian Purchasing Power Parity in 2022 for the first time should exceed $40 000, however considering Croatian economy experienced 6 years of deep recession, catching up will take several more years of high growth. Economic outlook for 2023 for Croatian economy are mixed, depends largely on how the big Eurozone economies perform, Croatia's largest trading partners; Italy, Germany, Austria, Slovenia and France are expected to slow down, but avoid recession according to latest economic projections and estimates, so Croatian economy as a result could see better than expected results in 2023, early projections of between 1 and 2.6% economic growth in 2023 with inflation at 7% is a significant slow down for the country, however country is experiencing major internal and inward investment cycle unparalleled in recent history. EU recovery funds in tune of €8.7 billion coupled with large EU investments in recently earthquake affected areas of Croatia, as well as major investments by local business in to renewable energy sector, also EU supported and funded, as well as major investments in transport infrastructure and rapidly expanding Croatia's ICT sector, Croatian economy could see continuation of rapid growth in 2023.
On 12 July 2022, the Eurogroup approved Croatia becoming the 20th member of the Eurozone, with the formal introduction of the Euro currency to take place on 1 January 2023. Croatia joined the Schengen Area in 2023. increasing consumer spending.Industry
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Uljanik ship launch (01).JPG|Uljanik shipyard
File:Asfaltna baza Ivanovec.1.jpg|Asphalt plant in Ivanovec
File:Sisak oil refinery2.JPG|Sisak oil refinery
File:Zadar2006.2.JPG|Maraska liqueur factory in Zadar
</gallery>
Tourism
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Costa Serena u Dubrovniku.jpg|Cruise ship in Dubrovnik.
File:Kopački rit wooden trail.JPG|Kopački Rit Nature park.
File:St. Mark's Church, Zagreb (16054174011).jpg|St. Mark's Church in Zagreb.
File:Varaždin - stari grad.jpg|Varaždin Old Town.
File:Golden Cape.jpg|Zlatni Rat beach on the island of Brač.
</gallery>
Tourism is a notable source of income during the summer and a major industry in Croatia. In 2019, it dominates the Croatian service sector and accounts for up to 11.8% of Croatian GDP. In 2023, 15.8 million international tourists visited Croatia. Annual tourist industry income for 2011 was estimated at €6.61 billion. Its positive effects are felt throughout the economy of Croatia in terms of increased business volume observed in retail business, processing industry orders and summer seasonal employment. The industry is considered an export business, because it significantly reduces the country's external trade imbalance. Since the conclusion of the Croatian War of Independence, the tourist industry has grown rapidly, recording a fourfold rise in tourist numbers, with more than 10 million tourists each year. The most numerous are tourists from Germany, Slovenia, Austria and the Czech Republic as well as Croatia itself. Length of a tourist stay in Croatia averages 4.9 days.
The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic Sea coast. Opatija was the first holiday resort since the middle of the 19th century. By the 1890s, it became one of the most significant European health resorts. Later a large number of resorts sprang up along the coast and numerous islands, offering services ranging from mass tourism to catering and various niche markets, the most significant being nautical tourism, as there are numerous marinas with more than 16 thousand berths, cultural tourism relying on appeal of medieval coastal cities and numerous cultural events taking place during the summer. Inland areas offer mountain resorts, agrotourism and spas. Zagreb is also a significant tourist destination, rivalling major coastal cities and resorts.
Croatia has unpolluted marine areas reflected through numerous nature reserves and 99 Blue Flag beaches and 28 Blue Flag marinas. Croatia is ranked as the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world. About 15% of these visitors (over one million per year) are involved with naturism, an industry for which Croatia is world-famous. It was also the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts.
Agriculture
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Boškarin.JPG|Boškarin cattle.
File:Fields near Metkovic 4.jpg|Plantations in the fertile Neretva valley.
File:Vineyards of Istria (Croatia).jpg|Vineyards of Istria.
File:CUJZEK - Centar za uzgoj i zaštitu međimurskog konja - kobila u hodu.JPG|Horse breeding
</gallery>
Croatian agricultural sector subsists from exports of blue water fish, which in recent years experienced a tremendous surge in demand, mainly from Japan and South Korea. Croatia is a notable producer of organic foods and much of it is exported to the European Union. Croatian wines, olive oil and lavender are particularly sought after. Value of Croatia's agriculture sector is around 3.1 billion according to preliminary data released by the national statistics office.
Croatia has around 1.72 million hectares of agricultural land, however totally utilized land for agricultural in 2020 was around 1.506 million hectares, of these permanent pasture land constituted 536 000 hectares or some 35.5% of total land available to agriculture. Croatia imports significant quantity of fruits and olive oil, despite having large domestic production of the same. In terms of livestock Croatian agriculture had some 15.2 million poultry, 453 000 Cattle, 802 000 Sheep, 1.157 000 Pork/Pigs,88 000 Goats. Croatia also produced 67 000 tons of blue fish, some 9000 of these are Tuna fish, which are farmed and exported to Japan, South Korea and United States.
Croatia produced in 2022:
* 1.66 million tons of maize;
* 970 thousand tons of wheat;
* 524 thousand tons of sugar beet (the beet is used to manufacture sugar and ethanol);
* 319 thousand tons of barley;
* 196 thousand tons of soybean;
* 154 thousand tons of sunflower seed;
* 146 thousand tons of grape;
* 107 thousand tons of potato;
* 59 thousand tons of rapeseed;
In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like apple (93 thousand tons), triticale (62 thousand tons) and olive (34 thousand tons).
Transport
, in 2010]]
The highlight of Croatia's recent infrastructure developments is its rapidly developed motorway network, largely built in the late 1990s and especially in the 2000s. By January 2022, Croatia had completed more than of motorways, connecting Zagreb to most other regions and following various European routes and four Pan-European corridors. The busiest motorways are the A1, connecting Zagreb to Split and the A3, passing east–west through northwest Croatia and Slavonia. A widespread network of state roads in Croatia acts as motorway feeder roads while connecting all major settlements in the country. The high quality and safety levels of the Croatian motorway network were tested and confirmed by several EuroTAP and EuroTest programs.
Croatia has an extensive rail network spanning , including of electrified railways and of double track railways. The most significant railways in Croatia are found within the Pan-European transport corridor Vb and corridor X connecting Rijeka to Budapest and Ljubljana to Belgrade, both via Zagreb.
There are international airports in Zagreb, Zadar, Split, Dubrovnik, Rijeka, Osijek and Pula. As of January 2011, Croatia complies with International Civil Aviation Organization aviation safety standards and the Federal Aviation Administration upgraded it to Category 1 rating.
The busiest cargo seaport in Croatia is the Port of Rijeka and the busiest passenger ports are Split and Zadar. In addition to those, a large number of minor ports serve an extensive system of ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities in addition to ferry lines to several cities in Italy. The largest river port is Vukovar, located on the Danube, representing the nation's outlet to the Pan-European corridor VII.
Energy
, 2012]]
, 2014]]
There are of crude oil pipelines in Croatia, connecting the JANAF oil terminal with refineries in Rijeka and Sisak, as well as several transhipment terminals. The system has a capacity of 20 million tonnes per year. The natural gas transportation system comprises of trunk and regional natural gas pipelines, and more than 300 associated structures, connecting production rigs, the Okoli natural gas storage facility, 27 end-users and 37 distribution systems.
Croatian production of energy sources covers 29% of nationwide natural gas demand and 26% of oil demand. In 2023, net total electrical power production in Croatia reached 16,378 GWh and Croatia imported 26% of its electric power energy needs. The bulk of Croatian imports are supplied by the Krško Nuclear Power Plant in Slovenia, 50% owned by Hrvatska elektroprivreda, providing 12% of Croatia's electricity.
* Hydro: 34% (2023)
* Thermal: 21% (2023)
* Nuclear: 12% (2023)
* Renewable: 7% (2023)
* Imports: 26% (2023)
Crude Oil:
* Production: 594 thousand tons (2022)
* Consumption: 2.306 million tons (2022)
* Exports: 202 thousand tons (2022)
* Imports: 1,979 million tons (2022)
* Proved Reserves: (2022)
Natural Gas:
* Production: 745 million m<sup>3</sup> (2022)
* Consumption: 2,529 billion m<sup>3</sup> (2022)
* Exports: 1,063 million m<sup>3</sup> (2022)
* Imports: 3,022 billion m<sup>3</sup> (2022)
* Proved Reserves: 15.592,4 million m<sup>3</sup> (2022)
The breakdown of Croatia's budget for 2023, by ministry (department), is shown below.
The Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) conversion factors are based on IMF estimates. Croatian government debt values are published by the Croatian National Bank. Indicators for 2024-2027 are provided by the IMF, specifically the World Economic Outlook (April 2024).
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: center;"
|-
!Year
!Population <small>(Mil.)</small>
!GDP
<small>(in Bil. EUR nominal)</small>
!GDP
<small>(Bil. USD nominal)</small>
!GDP per capita <small>(nominal. EUR)</small>
!GDP per capita <small>(nominal, USD)</small>
!GDP
<small>(Bil., USD PPP)</small>
!GDP per capita <small>(PPP, USD)</small>
!Exchange Rate <small>(USD/EUR)</small>
!PPP <small>(National currency units/USD)</small>
!Inflation <small>(%)</small>
!GDP growth <small>(real %)</small>
!Government debt <small>(% GDP)</small>
|-
| 2000
|4.426
|24.0
|21.8
|5,351
|4,929
|47.7
|10,786
|0.9236
|0.503
|4.6
|2.9
|35.4
|-
| 2001
|4.300
|25.8
|23.3
|6,044
|5,414
|50.1
|11,655
|0.8956
|0.514
|3.8
|3.0
|36.6
|-
| 2002
|4.302
|28.3
|27.1
|6,688
|6,293
|56.0
|12,771
|0.9456
|0.505
|1.7
|5.7
|36.5
|-
| 2003
|4.303
|31.2
|35.0
|7,206
|8,130
|58.9
|13,682
|1.1312
|0.529
|1.8
|5.5
|37.9
|-
| 2004
|4.305
|33.6
|42.0
|7,847
|9,752
|63.2
|14,675
|1.2439
|0.532
|2.1
|4.1
|40.0
|-
| 2005
|4.310
|36.2
|45.8
|8,539
|10,620
|66.7
|15,439
|1.2441
|0.543
|3.3
|4.3
|40.9
|-
| 2006
|4.311
|39.4
|50.9
|9,405
|11,795
|75.9
|17,596
|1.2556
|0.520
|3.2
|4.9
|38.5
|-
| 2007
|4.310
|43.2
|60.6
|10,272
|14,043
|84.2
|19,491
|1.3705
|0.513
|2.9
|4.9
|37.2
|-
| 2008
|4.310
|46.5
|71.0
|11,216
|16,419
|90.4
|20,924
|1.4708
|0.514
|6.1
|1.9
|39.1
|-
| 2009
|4.305
|44.4
|63.4
|10,549
|14,663
|87.1
|20,147
|1.3948
|0.510
|2.4
| -7.3
|48.4
|-
| 2010
|4.295
|44.3
|60.7
|10,615
|14,062
|86.1
|19,965
|1.3257
|0.514
|1.1
| -1.3
|57.3
|-
| 2011
|4.281
|45.0
|63.4
|10,608
|14,758
|90.3
|21,013
|1.3920
|0.498
|2.3
| -0.1
|63.7
|-
| 2012
|4.268
|44.5
|57.4
|10,430
|13,400
|91.7
|21,398
|1.2848
|0.486
|3.4
| -2.3
|69.4
|-
| 2013
|4.256
|44.7
|59.0
|10,423
|13,869
|94.3
|22,135
|1.3281
|0.474
|2.2
| -0.4
|80.3
|-
| 2014
|4.238
|44.6
|58.4
|10,386
|13,783
|94.8
|22,366
|1.3285
|0.470
| -0.2
| -0.4
|83.9
|-
| 2015
|4.204
|45.7
|50.7
|10,755
|11,944
|98.1
|23,339
|1.1095
|0.466
| -0.5
|2.5
|83.3
|-
| 2016
|4.174
|47.3
|52.4
|11,324
|12,557
|105.4
|25,262
|1.1069
|0.449
| -1.1
|3.6
|79.8
|-
| 2017
|4.125
|49.5
|55.9
|12,101
|13,657
|112.3
|27,201
|1.1297
|0.441
|1.1
|3.4
|76.7
|-
| 2018
|4.088
|51.9
|61.3
|12,896
|15,245
|118.3
|28,909
|1.1810
|0.439
|1.5
|2.8
|73.3
|-
| 2019
|4.065
|54.8
|61.3
|13,678
|15,333
|130.4
|30,585
|1.1195
|0.420
|0.8
|3.4
|71.1
|-
| 2020
|4.048
|50.5
|57.6
|12,408
|14,205
|123.1
|28,911
|1.1422
|0.410
|0.1
| -8.6
|87.3
|-
| 2021
|3.879
|58.2
|68.8
|15,006
|17,747
|143.0
|34,533
|1.1827
|0.407
|2.6
|13.1
|78.3
|-
| 2022
|3.857
|68.0
|71.5
|17,637
|18,544
|155.9
|40,573
|1.0530
|0.418
|10.8
|6.3
|70.4
|-
|2023
|3.856
|78.0
|84.4
|20,239
|21,878
|186.7
|48,586
|1.0824
|0.418
|8.3
|3.3
|83.9
|-
|2024
|3.866
|85.5
|92.5
|22,111
|23,933
|190.0
|49,137
|1.0824
|0.45
|3.0
|3.8
| rowspan="4" | -
|-
|2025f
|3.829
|86.0
|92.3
|22,462
|24,111
|183.2
|47,860
|1.0734
|0.469
|2.2
|2.7
|-
|2026f
|3.822
|90.5
|97.1
|23,680
|25,391
|191.8
|50,180
|1.0722
|0.472
|2.2
|2.7
|-
|2027f
|3.816
|94.9
|101.6
|24,877
|26,633
|200.5
|52,563
|1.0705
|0.473
|2.2
|2.6
|}
Economic output
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
! colspan=20|Counties of Croatia by GDP, in million Euro
|-
! data-sort-type="text" | County
! data-sort-type="number" | 2000
! data-sort-type="number" | 2001
! data-sort-type="number" | 2002
! data-sort-type="number" | 2003
! data-sort-type="number" | 2004
! data-sort-type="number" | 2005
! data-sort-type="number" | 2006
! data-sort-type="number" | 2007
! data-sort-type="number" | 2008
! data-sort-type="number" | 2009
! data-sort-type="number" | 2010
! data-sort-type="number" | 2011
! data-sort-type="number" | 2012
! data-sort-type="number" | 2013
! data-sort-type="number" | 2014
! data-sort-type="number" | 2015
! data-sort-type="number" | 2016
! data-sort-type="number" | 2017
! data-sort-type="number" | 2018
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Bjelovar-Bilogora
|align=right|520
|align=right|569
|align=right|639
|align=right|645
|align=right|688
|align=right|698
|align=right|800
|align=right|804
|align=right|953
|align=right|917
|align=right|834
|align=right|823
|align=right|786
|align=right|790
|align=right|789
|align=right|809
|align=right|855
|align=right|874
|align=right|925
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Brod-Posavina
|align=right|564
|align=right|628
|align=right|687
|align=right|713
|align=right|779
|align=right|771
|align=right|849
|align=right|918
|align=right|1,032
|align=right|952
|align=right|914
|align=right|917
|align=right|895
|align=right|888
|align=right|853
|align=right|879
|align=right|917
|align=right|969
|align=right|1,016
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Dubrovnik-Neretva
|align=right|573
|align=right|630
|align=right|676
|align=right|754
|align=right|883
|align=right|977
|align=right|1,083
|align=right|1,292
|align=right|1,340
|align=right|1,267
|align=right|1,248
|align=right|1,208
|align=right|1,202
|align=right|1,234
|align=right|1,260
|align=right|1,313
|align=right|1,403
|align=right|1,532
|align=right|1,587
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Istria
|align=right|1,420
|align=right|1,614
|align=right|1,814
|align=right|1,980
|align=right|2,182
|align=right|2,291
|align=right|2,482
|align=right|2,729
|align=right|2,842
|align=right|2,768
|align=right|2,773
|align=right|2,762
|align=right|2,635
|align=right|2,631
|align=right|2,666
|align=right|2,747
|align=right|2,947
|align=right|3,106
|align=right|3,162
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Karlovac
|align=right|586
|align=right|713
|align=right|785
|align=right|758
|align=right|777
|align=right|835
|align=right|943
|align=right|1,048
|align=right|1,107
|align=right|998
|align=right|969
|align=right|978
|align=right|948
|align=right|961
|align=right|934
|align=right|961
|align=right|1,008
|align=right|1,031
|align=right|1,035
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Koprivnica-Križevci
|align=right|723
|align=right|762
|align=right|830
|align=right|845
|align=right|853
|align=right|855
|align=right|988
|align=right|1,046
|align=right|1,069
|align=right|998
|align=right|935
|align=right|926
|align=right|906
|align=right|919
|align=right|905
|align=right|916
|align=right|961
|align=right|991
|align=right|979
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Krapina-Zagorje
|align=right|569
|align=right|655
|align=right|681
|align=right|706
|align=right|729
|align=right|815
|align=right|858
|align=right|947
|align=right|974
|align=right|868
|align=right|807
|align=right|815
|align=right|803
|align=right|823
|align=right|837
|align=right|867
|align=right|928
|align=right|990
|align=right|1,021
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Lika-Senj
|align=right|235
|align=right|250
|align=right|309
|align=right|384
|align=right|522
|align=right|407
|align=right|429
|align=right|417
|align=right|491
|align=right|445
|align=right|416
|align=right|405
|align=right|382
|align=right|388
|align=right|379
|align=right|388
|align=right|402
|align=right|427
|align=right|436
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Međimurje
|align=right|510
|align=right|562
|align=right|644
|align=right|654
|align=right|691
|align=right|737
|align=right|841
|align=right|892
|align=right|1,034
|align=right|977
|align=right|933
|align=right|941
|align=right|929
|align=right|1,088
|align=right|959
|align=right|986
|align=right|1,045
|align=right|1,109
|align=right|1,142
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Osijek-Baranja
|align=right|1,352
|align=right|1,459
|align=right|1,668
|align=right|1,700
|align=right|1,872
|align=right|2,043
|align=right|2,249
|align=right|2,600
|align=right|2,834
|align=right|2,642
|align=right|2,507
|align=right|2,514
|align=right|2,421
|align=right|2,438
|align=right|2,375
|align=right|2,436
|align=right|2,544
|align=right|2,581
|align=right|2,572
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Požega-Slavonia
|align=right|325
|align=right|355
|align=right|380
|align=right|420
|align=right|451
|align=right|464
|align=right|478
|align=right|508
|align=right|554
|align=right|504
|align=right|497
|align=right|482
|align=right|458
|align=right|461
|align=right|433
|align=right|440
|align=right|453
|align=right|466
|align=right|499
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Primorje-Gorski Kotar
|align=right|2,111
|align=right|2,138
|align=right|2,261
|align=right|2,543
|align=right|2,685
|align=right|3,066
|align=right|3,371
|align=right|3,560
|align=right|4,060
|align=right|3,820
|align=right|3,822
|align=right|3,905
|align=right|3,981
|align=right|3,849
|align=right|3,849
|align=right|3,854
|align=right|3,961
|align=right|4,177
|align=right|4,270
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Sisak-Moslavina
|align=right|925
|align=right|938
|align=right|972
|align=right|989
|align=right|1,033
|align=right|1,137
|align=right|1,335
|align=right|1,262
|align=right|1,435
|align=right|1,447
|align=right|1,451
|align=right|1,439
|align=right|1,434
|align=right|1,306
|align=right|1,221
|align=right|1,268
|align=right|1,247
|align=right|1,266
|align=right|1,309
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Split-Dalmatia
|align=right|1,924
|align=right|2,118
|align=right|2,318
|align=right|2,529
|align=right|2,898
|align=right|3,061
|align=right|3,427
|align=right|3,934
|align=right|4,115
|align=right|3,804
|align=right|3,788
|align=right|3,695
|align=right|3,578
|align=right|3,583
|align=right|3,581
|align=right|3,712
|align=right|3,913
|align=right|4,133
|align=right|4,278
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Šibenik-Knin
|align=right|423
|align=right|450
|align=right|511
|align=right|581
|align=right|659
|align=right|748
|align=right|765
|align=right|902
|align=right|923
|align=right|802
|align=right|859
|align=right|856
|align=right|835
|align=right|851
|align=right|852
|align=right|862
|align=right|903
|align=right|988
|align=right|1,027
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Varaždin
|align=right|894
|align=right|996
|align=right|1,139
|align=right|1,175
|align=right|1,166
|align=right|1,229
|align=right|1,347
|align=right|1,451
|align=right|1,637
|align=right|1,549
|align=right|1,463
|align=right|1,456
|align=right|1,436
|align=right|1,467
|align=right|1,462
|align=right|1,506
|align=right|1,601
|align=right|1,718
|align=right|1,865
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Virovitica-Podravina
|align=right|357
|align=right|406
|align=right|438
|align=right|458
|align=right|471
|align=right|476
|align=right|555
|align=right|590
|align=right|615
|align=right|546
|align=right|516
|align=right|526
|align=right|504
|align=right|496
|align=right|455
|align=right|460
|align=right|485
|align=right|500
|align=right|536
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Vukovar-Syrmia
|align=right|624
|align=right|686
|align=right|762
|align=right|816
|align=right|864
|align=right|928
|align=right|1,079
|align=right|1,109
|align=right|1,260
|align=right|1,171
|align=right|1,090
|align=right|1,092
|align=right|1,049
|align=right|1,048
|align=right|999
|align=right|1,031
|align=right|1,076
|align=right|1,120
|align=right|1,171
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Zadar
|align=right|627
|align=right|733
|align=right|829
|align=right|982
|align=right|1,055
|align=right|1,166
|align=right|1,238
|align=right|1,443
|align=right|1,618
|align=right|1,478
|align=right|1,405
|align=right|1,383
|align=right|1,366
|align=right|1,386
|align=right|1,395
|align=right|1,445
|align=right|1,527
|align=right|1,671
|align=right|1,797
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Zagreb County
|align=right|1,284
|align=right|1,272
|align=right|1,583
|align=right|1,653
|align=right|1,823
|align=right|2,059
|align=right|2,128
|align=right|2,419
|align=right|2,653
|align=right|2,555
|align=right|2,398
|align=right|2,449
|align=right|2,439
|align=right|2,450
|align=right|2,466
|align=right|2,549
|align=right|2,651
|align=right|2,832
|align=right|3,011
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| City of Zagreb
|align=right|6,912
|align=right|7,806
|align=right|8,569
|align=right|9,458
|align=right|10,400
|align=right|11,717
|align=right|12,954
|align=right|14,059
|align=right|15,439
|align=right|14,561
|align=right|15,586
|align=right|15,383
|align=right|15,055
|align=right|14,778
|align=right|14,754
|align=right|15,206
|align=right|15,818
|align=right|16,782
|align=right|17,544
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan"20" style"text-align:left;" |Source: Croatian Bureau of Statistics
|}
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
! colspan=20|Counties of Croatia by GDP per capita, in Euro
|-
! data-sort-type="text" | County
! data-sort-type="number" | 2000
! data-sort-type="number" | 2001
! data-sort-type="number" | 2002
! data-sort-type="number" | 2003
! data-sort-type="number" | 2004
! data-sort-type="number" | 2005
! data-sort-type="number" | 2006
! data-sort-type="number" | 2007
! data-sort-type="number" | 2008
! data-sort-type="number" | 2009
! data-sort-type="number" | 2010
! data-sort-type="number" | 2011
! data-sort-type="number" | 2012
! data-sort-type="number" | 2013
! data-sort-type="number" | 2014
! data-sort-type="number" | 2015
! data-sort-type="number" | 2016
! data-sort-type="number" | 2017
! data-sort-type="number" | 2018
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Bjelovar-Bilogora
|align=right|4,007
|align=right|4,383
|align=right|4,951
|align=right|5,042
|align=right|5,417
|align=right|5,539
|align=right|6,395
|align=right|6,489
|align=right|7,756
|align=right|7,522
|align=right|6,907
|align=right|6,888
|align=right|6,657
|align=right|6,766
|align=right|6,829
|align=right|7,107
|align=right|7,647
|align=right|7,958
|align=right|7,986
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Brod-Posavina
|align=right|3,425
|align=right|3,812
|align=right|4,171
|align=right|4,345
|align=right|4,766
|align=right|4,731
|align=right|5,223
|align=right|5,660
|align=right|6,384
|align=right|5,921
|align=right|5,731
|align=right|5,789
|align=right|5,691
|align=right|5,700
|align=right|5,539
|align=right|5,810
|align=right|6,195
|align=right|6,726
|align=right|6,607
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Dubrovnik-Neretva
|align=right|4,886
|align=right|5,373
|align=right|5,738
|align=right|6,378
|align=right|7,442
|align=right|8,197
|align=right|9,025
|align=right|10,698
|align=right|11,024
|align=right|10,351
|align=right|10,174
|align=right|9,855
|align=right|9,812
|align=right|10,083
|align=right|10,297
|align=right|10,737
|align=right|11,500
|align=right|12,608
|align=right|13,277
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Istria
|align=right|7,184
|align=right|8,160
|align=right|9,117
|align=right|9,880
|align=right|10,813
|align=right|11,267
|align=right|12,116
|align=right|13,221
|align=right|13,691
|align=right|13,285
|align=right|13,297
|align=right|13,270
|align=right|12,684
|align=right|12,665
|align=right|12,811
|align=right|13,199
|align=right|14,165
|align=right|14,915
|align=right|15,570
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Karlovac
|align=right|4,181
|align=right|5,082
|align=right|5,635
|align=right|5,491
|align=right|5,666
|align=right|6,139
|align=right|6,989
|align=right|7,830
|align=right|8,341
|align=right|7,598
|align=right|7,458
|align=right|7,615
|align=right|7,461
|align=right|7,651
|align=right|7,541
|align=right|7,868
|align=right|8,373
|align=right|8,701
|align=right|8,301
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Koprivnica-Križevci
|align=right|5,955
|align=right|6,269
|align=right|6,858
|align=right|7,025
|align=right|7,134
|align=right|7,181
|align=right|8,335
|align=right|8,878
|align=right|9,108
|align=right|8,545
|align=right|8,052
|align=right|8,020
|align=right|7,890
|align=right|8,039
|align=right|7,969
|align=right|8,149
|align=right|8,660
|align=right|9,066
|align=right|8,711
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Krapina-Zagorje
|align=right|4,089
|align=right|4,702
|align=right|4,919
|align=right|5,129
|align=right|5,323
|align=right|5,972
|align=right|6,313
|align=right|7,008
|align=right|7,250
|align=right|6,479
|align=right|6,049
|align=right|6,142
|align=right|6,091
|align=right|6,287
|align=right|6,439
|align=right|6,721
|align=right|7,265
|align=right|7,830
|align=right|7,919
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Lika-Senj
|align=right|4,219
|align=right|4,493
|align=right|5,582
|align=right|6,965
|align=right|9,466
|align=right|7,446
|align=right|7,927
|align=right|7,783
|align=right|9,277
|align=right|8,515
|align=right|8,091
|align=right|7,984
|align=right|7,652
|align=right|7,874
|align=right|7,812
|align=right|8,134
|align=right|8,571
|align=right|9,297
|align=right|8,878
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Međimurje
|align=right|4,472
|align=right|4,930
|align=right|5,644
|align=right|5,729
|align=right|6,056
|align=right|6,459
|align=right|7,375
|align=right|7,830
|align=right|9,086
|align=right|8,583
|align=right|8,196
|align=right|8,273
|align=right|8,176
|align=right|9,592
|align=right|8,480
|align=right|8,751
|align=right|9,328
|align=right|9,989
|align=right|10,302
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Osijek-Baranja
|align=right|4,247
|align=right|4,582
|align=right|5,239
|align=right|5,354
|align=right|5,914
|align=right|6,480
|align=right|7,174
|align=right|8,353
|align=right|9,162
|align=right|8,578
|align=right|8,183
|align=right|8,249
|align=right|7,990
|align=right|8,105
|align=right|7,965
|align=right|8,270
|align=right|8,779
|align=right|9,098
|align=right|8,684
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Požega-Slavonia
|align=right|3,904
|align=right|4,255
|align=right|4,572
|align=right|5,066
|align=right|5,479
|align=right|5,658
|align=right|5,874
|align=right|6,286
|align=right|6,897
|align=right|6,330
|align=right|6,314
|align=right|6,194
|align=right|5,971
|align=right|6,081
|align=right|5,774
|align=right|5,973
|align=right|6,307
|align=right|6,681
|align=right|6,620
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Primorje-Gorski Kotar
|align=right|7,123
|align=right|7,210
|align=right|7,622
|align=right|8,575
|align=right|9,051
|align=right|10,326
|align=right|11,337
|align=right|11,959
|align=right|13,642
|align=right|12,847
|align=right|12,873
|align=right|13,185
|align=right|13,474
|align=right|13,061
|align=right|13,103
|align=right|13,204
|align=right|13,686
|align=right|14,559
|align=right|14,797
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Sisak-Moslavina
|align=right|4,884
|align=right|4,952
|align=right|5,158
|align=right|5,285
|align=right|5,552
|align=right|6,156
|align=right|7,292
|align=right|6,966
|align=right|8,018
|align=right|8,184
|align=right|8,321
|align=right|8,372
|align=right|8,465
|align=right|7,832
|align=right|7,459
|align=right|7,899
|align=right|7,939
|align=right|8,284
|align=right|7,868
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Split-Dalmatia
|align=right|4,422
|align=right|4,866
|align=right|5,278
|align=right|5,723
|align=right|6,508
|align=right|6,820
|align=right|7,593
|align=right|8,684
|align=right|9,059
|align=right|8,361
|align=right|8,323
|align=right|8,121
|align=right|7,866
|align=right|7,876
|align=right|7,876
|align=right|8,184
|align=right|8,655
|align=right|9,183
|align=right|9,636
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Šibenik-Knin
|align=right|3,855
|align=right|4,094
|align=right|4,631
|align=right|5,254
|align=right|5,946
|align=right|6,733
|align=right|6,863
|align=right|8,081
|align=right|8,262
|align=right|7,202
|align=right|7,788
|align=right|7,855
|align=right|7,764
|align=right|7,998
|align=right|8,086
|align=right|8,267
|align=right|8,776
|align=right|9,737
|align=right|9,713
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Varaždin
|align=right|4,952
|align=right|5,516
|align=right|6,327
|align=right|6,550
|align=right|6,525
|align=right|6,890
|align=right|7,564
|align=right|8,165
|align=right|9,233
|align=right|8,758
|align=right|8,298
|align=right|8,281
|align=right|8,193
|align=right|8,412
|align=right|8,434
|align=right|8,752
|align=right|9,389
|align=right|10,176
|align=right|10,899
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Virovitica-Podravina
|align=right|3,887
|align=right|4,416
|align=right|4,793
|align=right|5,029
|align=right|5,222
|align=right|5,329
|align=right|6,253
|align=right|6,703
|align=right|7,048
|align=right|6,326
|align=right|6,037
|align=right|6,213
|align=right|6,012
|align=right|5,979
|align=right|5,542
|align=right|5,704
|align=right|6,135
|align=right|6,480
|align=right|6,525
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Vukovar-Syrmia
|align=right|3,277
|align=right|3,604
|align=right|4,018
|align=right|4,330
|align=right|4,617
|align=right|4,985
|align=right|5,825
|align=right|6,012
|align=right|6,853
|align=right|6,401
|align=right|6,016
|align=right|6,094
|align=right|5,856
|align=right|5,961
|align=right|5,772
|align=right|6,082
|align=right|6,498
|align=right|6,999
|align=right|6,730
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Zadar
|align=right|4,050
|align=right|4,726
|align=right|5,289
|align=right|6,193
|align=right|6,579
|align=right|7,186
|align=right|7,534
|align=right|8,676
|align=right|9,640
|align=right|8,752
|align=right|8,281
|align=right|8,114
|align=right|7,985
|align=right|8,084
|align=right|8,146
|align=right|8,478
|align=right|9,003
|align=right|9,901
|align=right|10,803
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Zagreb County
|align=right|4,327
|align=right|4,283
|align=right|5,279
|align=right|5,459
|align=right|5,966
|align=right|6,686
|align=right|6,859
|align=right|7,745
|align=right|8,443
|align=right|8,089
|align=right|7,565
|align=right|7,703
|align=right|7,660
|align=right|7,687
|align=right|7,748
|align=right|8,050
|align=right|8,434
|align=right|9,083
|align=right|9,710
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| City of Zagreb
|align=right|8,962
|align=right|10,114
|align=right|11,091
|align=right|12,238
|align=right|13,418
|align=right|15,082
|align=right|16,642
|align=right|18,005
|align=right|19,709
|align=right|18,526
|align=right|19,765
|align=right|19,453
|align=right|18,986
|align=right|18,578
|align=right|18,479
|align=right|18,992
|align=right|19,711
|align=right|20,879
|align=right|22,695
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan"20" style"text-align:left;"|Source: Croatian Bureau of Statistics<ref name="dzs" />
|}
See also
* Economy of Europe
* Areas of Special State Concern
* Croatia and the euro
* Croatia and the World Bank
* Croatian brands
* Taxation in Croatia
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060824185818/http://www.hnb.hr/eindex.htm Croatian National Bank]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060827211400/http://www2.hgk.hr/en/ Croatian Chamber of Economy]
Croatia
Croatia
Croatia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Croatia | 2025-04-05T18:27:19.065682 |
5580 | Transport in Croatia | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
Transport in Croatia relies on several main modes, including transport by car, train, ship and plane. Road transport incorporates a comprehensive network of state, county and local routes augmented by a network of highways for long-distance travelling. Water transport can be divided into sea, based on the ports of Rijeka, Ploče, Split and Zadar, and river transport, based on Sava, Danube and, to a lesser extent, Drava. Croatia has 9 international airports and several airlines, of which the most notable are Croatia Airlines and Trade Air. Rail network is fairly developed but regarding inter-city transport, bus tends to be far more common than the rail.
Air transport
taking off at Franjo Tuđman Airport ]]
Croatia counts 9 civil, 13 sport and 3 military airports. There are nine international civil airports: Zagreb Airport, Split Airport, Dubrovnik Airport, Zadar Airport, Pula Airport, Rijeka Airport (on the island of Krk), Osijek Airport, Bol and Mali Lošinj. The two busiest airports in the country are the ones serving Zagreb and Split.
By the end of 2010, significant investments in the renovation of Croatian airports began. New modern and spacious passenger terminals were opened in 2017 at Zagreb and Dubrovnik Airports and in 2019 at Split Airport. The new passenger terminals at Dubrovnik Airport and Zagreb Airport are the first in Croatia to feature jet bridges.
Airports that serve cities on the Adriatic coast receive the majority of the traffic during the summer season due to the large number of flights from foreign air carriers (especially low-cost) that serve these airports with seasonal flights.
Croatia Airlines is the state-owned flag carrier of Croatia. It is headquartered in Zagreb and its main hub is Zagreb Airport.
Croatia is connected by air with a large number of foreign (especially European) destinations, while its largest cities are interconnected by a significant number of domestic air routes such as lines between Zagreb and Split, Dubrovnik and Zadar, between Osijek and Rijeka, between Osijek and Split and between Zadar and Pula. This routes are operated by domestic air carriers such as Croatia Airlines or Trade Air.
Rail transport
Railway corridors
<!--- see also Category:Railway lines in Croatia --->
The Croatian railway network is classified into three groups: railways of international, regional and local significance.
The most important railway lines follow Pan-European corridors V/branch B (Rijeka - Zagreb - Budapest) and X, which connect with each other in Zagreb. With international passenger trains, Croatia is directly connected with two of the neighbouring (Slovenia and Hungary), and many medium-distanced Central European countries such as Czech Republic, Slovakia (during the summer season), Austria, Germany and Switzerland.
Dubrovnik and Zadar are the two of the most populous and well known cities in Croatia that are not connected with the railway, while the city of Pula (together with the rest of westernmost Istria County) can only be directly reached by railway through Slovenia (unless one takes the railway company's organized bus service between Rijeka and Lupoglav). As most of the country's interior-based larger towns are connected with the railway on which regular passenger train operation is provided (opposite to the coastal part of the country), there are many small inland towns, villages and remote areas that are served by the trains running on regional or local corridors.
Infrastructure condition
In Croatia, railways are served by standard-gauge (1,435 mm; 4 ft 8+<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>2</sub>). Construction length of the railway network is 2617 km; 1626.12 mi. (2341 km; /1454.63 mi. of single-track corridors and 276 km / 171.49 mi. of double-track corridors). 1013 km (629.44 mi.) of railways are electrified, according to the annual rail network public report of Croatian Railways (2023 issue). The largest part of country's railway infrastructure dates back from the pre-World War II period and more than half of the core routes were, in fact, built during the Habsburg monarchy i.e. before the World War I. More on that, there were also significant lack of investments and decrease of proper maintenance in Croatian railway infrastructure, roughly from the time of country's independence (1991) to late 2000s, which mainly resulted in slowing of permitted track speeds, increase of the riding times and decrease in the overall quality of passenger transport, especially since 2010s on Inter City level. As a result, a fair number of routes lag significantly behind the West-European standards in the form of infrastructural condition.
However, major infrastructure improvements started to occur in early 2010's and continued through 2020's, such as full-profile reconstruction and/or upgrading of the country's international and most of the regional/local corridors. Those improvements, among other things, results in increasing of both maximum track speed and operation safety, shortening of the travel time and modernization of supporting infrastructure (stations, platforms and other equipment).
First newly built railway in Croatia since 1967 (L214) was opened in December 2019.
The official rail speed record in Croatia is . Maximum speed reached in regular service is .
Passenger transport
All nationwide and commuter passenger rail services in Croatia are operated by the country's national railway company Croatian Railways.
Road transport
motorway entrance near Maslenica]]
From the time of Napoleon and building the Louisiana road, the road transport in Croatia has significantly improved, topping most European countries. Croatian highways are widely regarded as being one of the most modern and safe in Europe. This is because the largest part of the Croatian motorway and expressway system (autoceste and brze ceste, resp.) has been recently constructed (mainly in the 2000s), and further construction is continuing. The motorways in Croatia connect most major Croatian cities and all major seaports. The two longest routes, the A1 and the A3, span the better part of the country and the motorway network connects most major border crossings.
Tourism is of major importance for the Croatian economy, and as most tourists come to vacation in Croatia in their own cars, the highways serve to alleviate summer jams. They have also been used as a means of stimulating urgently needed economic growth, and for the sustainable development of this country. Croatia now has a considerable highway density for a country of its size, helping it cope with the consequences of being a transition economy and having suffered in the Croatian War of Independence.
Some of the most impressive parts of the road infrastructure in Croatia includes the Sveti Rok and Mala Kapela tunnels on the A1 motorway, and the Pelješac Bridge in the southernmost part of the country.
, Croatia has a total of of roads.
Traffic laws
The traffic signs adhere to the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals.
The general speed limits are:
* in inhabited areas 50 km/h
* outside of inhabited areas 90 km/h
* on marked expressways 110 km/h
* on marked motorways 130 km/h
Some of the more technical safety measures include that all new Croatian tunnels have modern safety equipment and there are several control cereers, which monitor highway traffic.
Motorways
Motorways (, plural ) in Croatia applies to dual carriageway roads with at least two traffic lanes in each driving direction and an emergency lane. Direction road signs at Croatian motorways have green background with white lettering similar to the German Autobahn. The designations of motorways are "A" and the motorway number. , the Croatian motorway network is long, with additional of new motorways under construction.
The list of completed motorways is as follows (see individual articles for further construction plans and status):
*A1, Zagreb - Bosiljevo - Split - Ploče (E71, E65)
*A2, Zagreb - Krapina - Macelj (E59)
*A3, Bregana - Zagreb - Lipovac (E70)
*A4, Goričan - Varaždin/Čakovec - Zagreb (E71)
*A5, Osijek - Đakovo - Sredanci (E73)
*A6, Bosiljevo - Rijeka (E65)
*A7, Rupa - Rijeka bypass (E61)
*A8, Kanfanar interchange - Matulji (E751)
*A9, Umag - Pula (E751)
*A10, A1 Ploče interchange - Metković border crossing
*A11, Velika Gorica - Lekenik
Toll is charged on most Croatian motorways, and exceptions are the A11 motorway, Zagreb bypass and Rijeka bypass, as well as sections adjacent to border crossings (except eastbound A3). Payment at toll gates is by all major credit cards or cash, in Euro. Most motorways are covered by the closed toll collection system, where a driver receives a ticket at the entrance gates and pays at the exit gates according to the number of sections travelled. Open toll collection is used on some bridges and tunnels and short stretches of tolled highway, where drivers immediately pay the toll upon arriving. Various forms of prepaid electronic toll collection systems are in place which allow quicker collection of toll, usually at a discounted rate, as well as use of dedicated toll plaza lanes (for ENC system of the electronic toll collection).
Expressways
The term brza cesta or expressway refers to limited-access roads specifically designated as such by legislation and marked with appropriate limited-access road traffic signs. The expressways may comprise two or more traffic lanes, while they normally do not have emergency lanes.
Polu-autocesta or semi-highway refers to a two-lane, undivided road running on one roadway of a motorway while the other is in construction. By legal definition, all semi-highways are expressways.
The expressway routes in Croatia usually correspond to a state road (see below) and are marked a "D" followed by a number. The "E" numbers are designations of European routes.
State roads
Major roads that aren't part of the motorway system are državne ceste (state routes). They are marked with the letter D and the road's number.
The most traveled state routes in Croatia are:
* D1, connects Zagreb and Split via Lika - passes through Karlovac, Slunj, Plitvice, Korenica, Knin, Sinj.
* D2, connects Varaždin and Osijek via Podravina - passes through Koprivnica, Virovitica, Slatina, Našice.
* D8, connects Rijeka and Dubrovnik, widely known as Jadranska magistrala and part of E65 - runs along the coastline and connects many cities on the coast, including Crikvenica, Senj, Zadar, Šibenik, Trogir, Split, Omiš, Makarska and Ploče.
Since the construction of A1 motorway beyond Gorski kotar started, D1 and D8 are much less used.
These routes are monitored by Croatian roadside assistance because they connect important locations. Like all state routes outside major cities, they are only two-lane arterials and do not support heavy traffic. All state routes are routinely maintained by Croatian road authorities. The road sign for a state route has a blue background and the route's designation in white. State routes have one, two or three-digit numbers.
County roads and minor roads
Secondary routes are known as county roads. They are marked with signs with yellow background and road number. These roads' designations are rarely used, but usually marked on regional maps if these roads are shown. Formally, their designation is the letter Ž and the number. County roads have four-digit numbers.
The least known are the so-called local roads. Their designations are never marked on maps or by roadside signs and as such are virtually unknown to public. Their designations consist of the letter L and a five-digit number.
Bus traffic
bus stop]]
Buses represent the most-accepted, cheapest and widely used means of public transport. National bus traffic is very well developed - from express buses that cover longer distances to bus connections between the smallest villages in the country, therefore it's possible to reach most of the remotest parts of Croatia by bus on a daily basis. Every larger town usually has a bus station with the ticket office(s) and timetable information. Buses that run on national lines in Croatia (owned and run by private companies) are comfortable and modern-equipped vehicles, featuring air-conditioning and offering pleasant traveling comfort.
National bus travel is generally divided in inter-city (Međugradski prijevoz), inter-county (Međužupanijski prijevoz) and county (local; Županijski prijevoz) transport. Although there can be bus companies whose primary goal is to serve inter-city lines, a certain bus company can - and most of them usually do - operate all or most of the above-mentioned modes of transport.
The primary goal of intercity buses is to connect the largest cities in the country with each other in the shortest possible time. Buses on inter-city level usually offer far more frequent daily services and shorter riding time than trains, mostly due to the large number of competing companies and great quality of the country's freeway network. According to timetables of bus companies, there are several types of inter-city bus lines. Some lines run directly on the highway to connect certain cities by the shortest route. Other lines run on lower-ranked roads (all the way or part of the way) even when there is a highway alternative, to connect settlements along the way, while some lines run on the highway and sometimes (one time or more) temporarily exit it to serve some smaller settlement nearby, thus giving the opportunity to a certain smaller settlement to be connected by express service.
Buses on county lines usually run between larger cities or towns in a particular county, connecting towns and smaller villages along the way. These buses are mostly used by local residents - students or workers and occasional passengers, so the timetables and line frequencies of these bus routes are mostly adjusted according to the needs of passenger's daily migrations. Since there is no bus terminal in smaller villages, passengers which board buses from those stations buy a ticket from the driver while boarding the bus, unless they have a monthly student or worker pass, in which case they must validate it each time they board the vehicle. Buses running on inter-county lines usually have the same or very similar purpose, except they cross county borders to transport passengers to the more distanced larger town or area.
There are many international bus routes from Croatia to the neighboring countries (Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Hungary) and to other European countries. International bus services correspond to European standards.
Zagreb has the largest and busiest bus terminal in Croatia. It is located near the downtown in Trnje district on the Marin Držić Avenue. The bus terminal is close to the main railway station and it is easy to reach by tram lines and by car.
Maritime and river transport
Maritime transport
Coastal infrastructure
]]
Republic of Croatia counts six ports open for public traffic of outstanding (international) economic importance and those are the ports: Rijeka, Zadar, Šibenik, Split, Ploče and Dubrovnik. There are also numerous smaller public ports located along the country's coast.
Rijeka is the country's largest cargo port, followed by Ploče which is of great economic importance for the neighboring Bosnia and Herzegovina. The three most common destinations for foreign cruise ships are the ports of Dubrovnik, Split and Zadar. Split is the country's largest passenger port, serving as the public port for domestic ferry, conventional ship and catamaran services as well as for international ferry, cruise or mega cruise services.
Zadar has two public transport ports opened for passenger traffic – one located in the town center served by conventional ship and catamaran services and the other located in the suburb of Gaženica, serving ferry and cruise ship services. Republic of Croatia defined the need to relieve the Zadar's passenger port and the historic center of Zadar and move ferry traffic from the city center to the new passenger port in Gaženica. Work on the construction of the new port began in 2009, and a new ferry port of approximately 100,000 square meters was opened to traffic in 2015. The advantages of the Port of Gaženica are the short distance from the city center (3.5 kilometers), the proximity of the airport and quality traffic connection with the A1 Motorway. The Port of Gaženica meets multiple traffic requirements - it serves for domestic ferry traffic, international ferry traffic, passenger traffic on mega cruisers and RO-RO traffic, with all the necessary infrastructure and accompanying upgrades. In 2019, the passenger port of Gaženica was named Port of the Year at the most prestigious Seatrade Cruise Awards held in Hamburg. Connection of islands and the mainland Performing of the public transport on national conventional ship, catamaran and ferry lines and all occasional public maritime lines in Croatia is supervised by the government-founded Agency for coastal line traffic (Agencija za obalni linijski promet). Croatia has about 50 inhabited islands along its coast (most of which are reached from either Zadar or Split ports), which means that there is a large number of local car ferry, conventional ship and catamaran connections. The vast majority of Croatian islands have a road network and several ports for public transport - usually a single ferry port and one or more additional ports mostly located near the bay settlements, served exclusively by conventional ships and catamarans. According to sailing schedules or in case of extraordinary conditions, conventional and catamaran ships can also serve ferry ports. There are also very small number of car-free islands that are accessible only by conventional ship or catamaran services, such as Silba in northern Dalmatia.
Regarding national ferry lines, in the lead terms of the number of transported passengers and vehicles are the one between Split and Supetar on the island of Brač (central Dalmatia) and one between Valbiska (island of Krk) and Merag (island of Cres) in northern Kvarner Gulf. Ferry line between Zadar and Preko on the island of Ugljan (northern Dalmatia) is the most frequent one in Croatia and the rest of the Adriatic - in the summer sailing schedule on this there is around 20 departures per day in each direction. The longest ferry line in Croatia is Zadar - Ist - Olib - Silba (passenger service only) - Premuda - Mali Lošinj (), while the shortest one is between Biograd na Moru and Tkon on the island of Pašman (), both operating in northern Dalmatia.
Almost all ferry lines in Croatia are provided by the state-owned shipping company Jadrolinija, except the ferry service between Stinica and Mišnjak on the island of Rab (Kvarner Gulf area) which is operated by the company “Rapska Plovidba d.d”. Catamaran and passenger ship services are operated by Jadrolinija and several other companies such as "Krilo - Kapetan Luka" , "G&V Line Iadera" , Tankerska plovidba, "Miatours d.o.o." etc. Jadrolinija alone provides a total of 34 national lines with almost 600 departures per day during the summer tourist season, when the number of ferry, conventional ship and catamaran lines on the most capacity-demanding routes is significantly higher compared to the off-season period. International routes With its largest vessels, Jadrolinija connects Croatia with Italy by operating international cross-Adriatic routes Split - Ancona - Split, Zadar - Ancona - Zadar and Dubrovnik - Bari - Dubrovnik. Ferry line between Split and Ancona is also operated by Italian operator SNAV. River transport
Croatia is also on the important Danube waterway which connects Eastern and Central Europe. The major Danube port is Vukovar, but there are also some smaller ports in Osijek, Sisak and Slavonski Brod.
Navigable rivers:
* Danube(E 80) - 137,5 km from entering Croatia near Batina to exits near Ilok; VIc class
* Sava(E 80–12) - 383.2 km from Sisak until it exits Croatia near Gunja; II-IV class
* Drava(E 80–08) - 14 km from the mouth of the Danube to Osijek; IV class
Total waterway length (2021): 534.7 km
Pipelines
The projected capacity of the oil pipeline is 34 million tons of oil per year, and the installed 20 million tons of oil per year. The system was built for the needs of refineries in Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as users in Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The total capacity of the storage space today is 2,100,000 m3 for crude oil and 242,000 m3 for petroleum products. The pipeline is long and it is fully controlled by JANAF. The system consists of: reception and dispatch Terminal Omišalj on the island of Krk, with two berths for tankers and storage space for oil and derivatives, receiving and dispatching terminals in Sisak, Virje and Slavonski Brod with oil storage space at the Sisak and Virje terminals, Žitnjak Terminal in Zagreb, for storage of petroleum products with railway and truck transfer stations for delivery, reception and dispatch of derivatives.
Natural gas is transported by Plinacro, which operates of the transmission system in 19 counties, with more than 450 overhead transmission system facilities, including a compressor station and 156 metering and reduction stations through which gas is delivered to system users. The system houses the Okoli underground storage facility with a working volume of 553 million cubic meters of natural gas.
Public transport
Public transport within most of the largest cities (and their suburbs/satellite towns) in Croatia is mostly provided by the city buses owned and operated by municipal organizations such as Zagrebački električni tramvaj in Zagreb, Promet Split in Split, "Autotrolej" d.o.o." in Rijeka, "Liburnija Zadar" in Zadar, "Gradski Prijevoz Putnika d.o.o." in Osijek, etc.
In addition to city buses, the cities of Zagreb and Osijek have tram networks. Tram lines in Zagreb are operated by Zagrebački električni tramvaj (which also operates a single funicular line - mostly for tourist purposes - and a gondola lift system), while the tram lines in Osijek are operated by "Gradski Prijevoz Putnika d.o.o.". Tram network in the capital city of Zagreb is, however, far more extensive than the one in Osijek.
See also
* Croatian car number plates
* Transport in Zagreb
* Hrvatske autoceste
* Croatian Railways
* List of E-roads in Croatia
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Croatia | 2025-04-05T18:27:19.089304 |
5581 | Armed Forces of Croatia | | image = Seal of the Armed Forces of Croatia.png
| caption = Croatian Armed Forces emblem
| founded = 1991
| branches <br /><br />
| commander-in-chief Zoran Milanović
| commander-in-chief_title = Commander-in-Chief
| minister Ivan Anušić
| minister_title = Ministry of Defence
| commander Tihomir Kundid
| commander_title = Chief of the General Staff
<!-- Manpower -->| age = 18 years of age
| conscription = No
| active = 14,100 (2023.)
| reserve = 17,580
| deployed – 26 <br /> – 195 ($1,624 billion)
| percent_GDP = 1.81% (2024)
| domestic_suppliers = Đuro Đaković (armored vehicles)
<br />Brodosplit (naval vessels)<br /> HS Produkt (small arms)
| website =
| foreign_suppliers = <br /><br /><br /><br />
| exports = <!-- Related articles -->
| history = Military history of Croatia<br />Croatian War of Independence<br />War in Bosnia and Herzegovina<br />List of Croatian soldiers<br />Orders, decorations, and medals of Croatia
| ranks = Croatian military ranks
}}
The Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia () are the military forces organized for the defense of the Republic of Croatia and its allies by military means and for other forms of use and use in accordance with the domestic and international law. The Croatian Armed Forces protect the sovereignty and independence of the Republic of Croatia and defend its territorial integrity.
In accordance with the requirements set for the Croatian Armed Forces in national defence and the fulfilment of obligations arising from NATO membership, the missions and tasks of the Croatian Armed Forces have been defined. The Croatian Armed Forces have three basic missions and those being: Defence of the Republic of Croatia and its allies, contribution to the international security and supporting civil institutions.
The President is the Armed Forces Commander-in-Chief and exercises administrative powers in times of war by giving orders to the Chief of Staff, while administration and defence policy execution in peacetime is carried out by the Government through the Ministry of Defence. This unified institution consists of land, sea, and air branches referred to as:
* Croatian Army (Hrvatska Kopnena Vojska - HKoV)
* Croatian Navy (Hrvatska Ratna Mornarica - HRM)
* Croatian Air Force (Hrvatsko Ratno Zrakoplovstvo - HRZ)
In 2023, Armed Forces had 15,900 members, of which 14,103 were active military personnel and 1,806 civil servants. Total available male manpower aged 16–49 numbers 1,035,712, of which 771,323 are technically fit for military service. Conscription is to be introduced once again from January 2025.
The Army has 650 AFVs, around 150 pieces of Artillery, 105 MLRSs, 75 Tanks, and 25 SPGs. The Air Force has 10 Dassault Rafale F3-R fighter jets, 4 UH-60 helicopters, 10 Mi-171 combat-transport helicopters and 15 OH-58 attack helicopters. The Navy has 30 ships, out of which five 60-80 metre fast attack craft are used in offensive capabilities. In April 2024 Croatia acquired first 6 out of 12 used French Rafale F-3R. History Formation in the early 1990s
In the late spring of 1991, the first military units of the National Guard Corps were formed, established on 20 April 1991. by the decision of the President of the Republic and which, for legal and political reasons, was formally part of the Ministry of the Interior. In addition to the structures and units that were created by state policy, there were also party armies or their loose affiliations. The Croatian Party of Rights organized its armed detachments, the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS), which were privately armed, relatively well trained and trained at the tactical level, and deployed to critical positions on the battlefields. The Party of Democratic Change (Reformed Communists, SDP) armed its activists in Istria, the Littoral and Dalmatia, as did the ruling Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) in other parts of Croatia. In some places, however, the TO system was reactivated (e.g. in Zagreb), which gave better results.
The system of command and control was initially critically confused, and the competencies were vague and unclear. The ZNG is thus under the dual jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Defense. A large part of the command in the field was transferred to local crisis staffs composed and led by political officials who did not necessarily have military knowledge broader than those they had acquired during their conscription service in the JNA. There were often several different units in the field, which, even if they were nominally in the same organization, often did not have a common higher command.
The main tasks of the ZNG (later HV) were to prevent the penetration of the JNA and other forces in the most important directions, to defend cities and critical areas, and to conquer JNA barracks in the depth of their own deployment. These tasks began to be fulfilled more comprehensively and systematically only after the armed forces were organized into a single Croatian Army (HV) on the basis of the new Defence Law, and when the General Staff was established on 21 September 1991, with Chief General Anton Tus as its Chief. At that time, a more systematic mobilization of reserve soldiers and the organization of units, commands and institutions began, as well as the planned use of forces.
On 1 October 1991, large military-territorial and combat commands (Operational Zones) were formed with headquarters in Osijek, Bjelovar, Zagreb, Karlovac, Rijeka and Split. Subordinate to them were operational groups that commanded certain directions and areas. The basic and at the same time the highest tactical units were infantry brigades (professional and reserve), and brigades and battalions of other branches were also formed. By the end of the year, 63 brigades had been formed and developed.
Croatian War of Independence
in Knin]]
During the Homeland War, the armed forces gradually grew to about 300,000 members. Most of the units were filled from the reserve, i.e. from the personnel who acquired basic military knowledge during their compulsory military service in the Yugoslav People's Army. Thanks to the growing military experience, the quality of these units grew, and the organization of the entire system improved over time.
The training of new generations of 18-year-old young men who served in the Croatian Army continued, whereby army units during military service were generally not used for combat tasks (young men would mostly receive call-ups for combat units soon after completing their compulsory military service).
As the war progressed, through clandestine operations (the legal procurement of military equipment for the war-torn territory of the former Yugoslavia was prevented), significant amounts of military surpluses created after the collapse of the Warsaw Pact were purchased; in particular, the procurement of combat aircraft of Soviet origin was significant for the formation of the Croatian Air Force. The Croatian Air Force had included about twenty Mig 21 aircraft and several Mil Mi-24 combat helicopters, as well as several transport helicopters. Also, the domestic industry has become capable of significant independent production of weapons and military equipment.
The Croatian Navy was created to a large extent thanks to the successful action of capturing about one quarter of the Yugoslav Navy vessels in Šibenik in 1991. RBS-15 anti-ship missiles were also captured: this system made in Sweden has not yet been put into operation by the Yugoslav Navy, and the Croatian Navy succeeded in doing so after Croatian experts independently developed the "Phobos" fire control system; Namely, the Swedish manufacturer was not allowed to deliver that key part of the weapon system. With the introduction of modern missiles with a range of over 70 km into operational use, the Croatian Navy has largely prevented serious action by the enemy navy.
The Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia were in a wartime structure until 12 March 1996, when they switched to peacetime by the decision of the President of the Republic of Croatia.
Reforms
at the Bastille Day 2013 military parade.]]
With the stabilization of the situation after the end of the war, several important waves of reforms followed. There was an increasingly visible trend of other transition countries, as well as NATO members, to put emphasis in the development of the armed forces on mobility, on multifunctionality and flexibility in the use of the armed forces, and not on the mass composition and heavy equipment. Economic over-demanding and conceptual inadequacy, i.e. the inapplicability of the old Cold War conception became obvious. New security threats and a new international constellation called for deeper changes in the way armed forces were designed. The process of reforming the defense system began in 2002. The aim of the reform and reorganization is to establish a modern structure of the defence system that will be able to respond to the challenges of the new era, taking into account the membership of the Republic of Croatia in NATO and security arrangements within the European Union. The main guidelines for the reform are set by strategic documents adopted by the Republic of Croatia: the National Security Strategy of the Republic of Croatia, the Defence Strategy of the Republic of Croatia, the Military Strategy of the Republic of Croatia. During 2003, the Ministry of Defence and the General Staff began working on the Strategic Defence Review (SPO), which was adopted in 2005. With the adoption of the Long-Term Development Plan of the Croatian Armed Forces 2006 – 2015 (DPR) in the Croatian Parliament on 7 July 2006, clear content and time frames for further reform, development and modernization of the Croatian Armed Forces in the next ten years were set.
The essence of the changes consists in the gradual transition from Croatian individual (national) to collective defence and security mechanisms, and this also implies:
* transition to the professionalization of the Croatian Armed Forces, which means replenishment of soldiers voluntarily, and not through conscription (it also implies significant changes in the method of replenishment of the reserve, because the system of voluntary/contractual reserve will no longer be able to be replenished by conscript soldiers after the completion of conscript service);
* the transition to a collective defence system means a smaller active and reserve composition, but better trained, equipped, compatible and interoperable with allies.
* the possibility that smaller nations that are members of the Alliance, such as Croatia, can partially "specialize" in order to be able to contribute to joint operations in a specific way with their limited capacities.
* even greater overall engagement of units and members of the Croatian Armed Forces in collective activities, international missions, preventive security activities, etc.
In 2007, the Decision was made not to call up recruits for military service which represented an important step towards the professionalization of the Croatian Armed Forces, which implies the abolition of compulsory military service and the introduction of voluntary military service. The first generation of volunteer conscripts began serving in November 2008.
After the Long-Term Development Plan of the Croatian Armed Forces for the period 2015-2024 envisaged a frugal development of the armed forces, the complication of the security situation in Europe regarding Russia which culminated in the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 the political will to decisively strengthen the Croatian Armed Forces was formed in Croatia, and the military budget was significantly increased.
Defence expenditure
The trajectory of Croatian military budget and spending was constantly below 2% of GDP, a major difference from the 1990s when defence expenditure represented a major stake in Croatian budgetary expenditure due to then ongoing Croatian War of Independence. For example, in 1995 the Croatian defence budget stood at 12.4 billion Croatian Kuna or around 10% of GDP, which was also represented at the time highest defence expenditure rate. In late 2019, the Croatian Government issued a revised defence expenditure strategy which will see the country increase its defence expenditure to gradually meet the 2% NATO target, with 2019 and 2020 defence budgets seeing immediate revisions and increases to meet the new spending plan. However, if defence pensions are included in Croatia's defence expenditure, then Croatia already meets the 2% target recommended by the NATO. Some €1140 million was paid in defence pensions to some 97000 individuals in Croatia.
Defence expenditures in recent years;
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|Year||Amount (in USD)|| % of GDP ||Change in %
|-
|2014
|1.064 bil.
|1.78
|
|-
|2015
|883 mil.
|1.73
| 1.03
|-
|2016
|837 mil.
|1.58
| 5.96
|-
|2017
|926 mil.
|1.64
| 6.15
|-
|2018
|966 mil.
|1.56
| 2.81
|-
|2019
|1,001 bil.
|1.61
| 7.19
|-
|2020
|983 mil.
|1.69
| 3.02
|-
|2021
|1,361 bil.
|1.95
| 30.82
|-
|2022
|1,285 bil.
|1.78
| 2.40
|-
|2023
|1,441 bil.
|1.74
| 0.73
|-
|2024
|1,624 bil.
|1.81
| 7.11
|}
With the publishment of the new budget for the year 2025., defence expenditure will reach 2% mark as per the obligations to the NATO. Furthermore, in regard to the modernization of the equipment of the Armed Forces, it is planned that 29% of the total amount will be spent on acquiring new NATO standard equipment, well above 20% that NATO charter obliges its member state to spend.
Structure
The Armed Forces are divided into branches, services, professions and their specialties. The branches of the Armed Forces are the Croatian Army, the Croatian Navy and the Croatian Air Force.
Branches of the Armed Forces are parts of the Armed Forces within which the preparation and equipping of individuals, units and purpose-built forces are carried out for the execution of tasks in certain geographical areas (land, sea, air) whose primary task is to maintain the required level of combat readiness of operational units.
The armed forces have a peacetime and a wartime composition. The peacetime composition of the Armed Forces consists of active military personnel, civil servants and employees assigned to the Armed Forces, reservists called up for training, contract reservists, cadets and persons who have received voluntary military training. Exceptionally, the peacetime composition of the Armed Forces also consists of conscripts when compulsory military service is in force. The wartime composition of the Armed Forces, in addition to military personnel, civil servants, employees and conscripts (when compulsory military service is in force), also consists of conscripts mobilized into the Armed Forces.
The current structure of the Croatian Armed Forces has been in force since 1 December 2014 and consists of the General Staff of the Croatian Armed Forces, Croatian Army (HKoV),Croatian Navy (HRM), Croatian Air Force (HRZ), Croatian Defence Academy (HVU), Support Command (ZZP), Special Forces Command (ZSS), Military Disciplinary Court (VSS), Military representations (VP) and Headquarter support units (PP).
* General Staff of the Croatian Armed Forces is a joint body organized within the Ministry of Defence which is responsible for the command, preparation and use of the Armed Forces. General Staff commands the entire Armed Forces in accordance with the dictate of the Commander-in-Chief (President of Croatia) and the Minister of Defense and performs other professional activities for the Commander-in-Chief and the Minister of Defense. It also has a number of units under its direct command, including the ZSS, Honour Guard Battalion and several others.
* Commands of the branches of the Armed Forces are responsible for the functioning of the branches of the Armed Forces and are responsible for the preparation of subordinate commands and units for the execution of tasks. Branch commands participate in the professional development of personnel and are responsible for the training of active and reserve personnel.
* Croatian Defence Academy "Dr. Franjo Tuđman" (HVU) is a higher educational military institution of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia. It is responsible for the training of individuals for the needs of the entire Croatian Armed Forces. It is located in the "Petar Zrinski" barracks in the Zagreb district of Črnomerec.
* Support Command (ZZP) is the most important part of the logistics system of the Croatian Armed Forces and is responsible for the implementation of logistical, medical and part of personnel support for the Croatian Armed Forces. It's responsible for the acquisition and preparation of all State resources allocated to the Armed Forces and for the overall plan of their use and its applicability to operations on the battlefield.
* Croatian Special Forces Command (ZSS) is one of the three independent commands of the Croatian Armed Forces, subordinate directly to the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia. CROSOFCOM mission is to ensure the combat readiness of the special operations forces for operations in defense of the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of the Republic of Croatia and to participate in NATO and coalition-led operations.
* Military representations (VP) represent the Armed Forces and carry out their duties, professional tasks related to participation in the work and monitoring the work of departments, working groups, permanent and temporary bodies at the North Atlantic Alliance, European Union and at the Allied Command Operations and the Allied Command Transformation.
* Staff support units (PP) are established for the purpose of developing capabilities for the implementation of various tasks and support activities, which other compositions, due to the specificity or scope, cannot be provided by the Armed Forces within its organic composition. Those units are: Intelligence Center (SOD), Military Police Regiment (PVP), Honor Guard Battalion (PZB), Center for Communication and Information Systems (SKIS), Personnel Management Center (ZUO) and Home of the General Staff of the Armed Forces (DGSOS)
Command and control
during welcoming ceremony.|alt=President of Croatia Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović during welcoming ceremony.|thumb]]
The Commander-in-Chief of the Croatian Armed Forces is the President of the Republic of Croatia. Command of the Armed Forces in peacetime shall be exercised by the Commander-in-Chief through the Minister of Defence, who shall be responsible to the Commander-in-Chief for the implementation of the order and shall report to him on the implementation. In a state of imminent threat and a state of war, the Commander-in-Chief directly issues orders to the Chief of the General Staff and at the same time informs the Minister of Defence of the issued orders. In this case, the Chief of the General Staff shall be responsible to the Commander-in-Chief for the implementation of the order. If the Minister of Defence fails to carry out the orders of the Commander-in-Chief, the Commander-in-Chief may exercise command of the Armed Forces directly through the Chief of the General Staff.
Command and direction in the Armed Forces shall be carried out by officers and non-commissioned officers appointed and assigned to command duties in the Armed Forces. Command is based on the principles of single-leadership and subordination. Members of the Armed Forces shall be accountable to their superiors for their work, command and management.
For the purpose of establishing a unified system of command and control over all parts of units in the country and abroad, a new organizational unit was established at the General Staff of the Croatian Armed Forces: the Command Operations Center (ZOS). A unique operational picture is created in the Command Operations Center and enables the conduct of all activities and operations of the Croatian Armed Forces units in the period of up to 96 hours, including the engagement of forces in the execution of tasks of surveillance of the air and sea space of the Republic of Croatia.
The Croatian Parliament exercises democratic control over the Armed Forces.
International cooperation
The Republic of Croatia began its first participation in the UN peacekeeping mission in 1999 by sending 10 members of the Croatian Armed Forces to the peacekeeping mission in Sierra Leone - UNAMSIL as peace observers. In addition to UN peacekeeping missions, in February 2003, with the participation of Military Police platoons in NATO's ISAF mission in Afghanistan, Croatia also began its engagement in NATO missions. In October 2008, for the first time, a reconnaissance team (15 members) has been deployed to the EU peacekeeping mission (EUFOR) in Chad and the Central African Republic for 6 months.
Croatian soldiers have been participating in the KFOR operation in Kosovo since July 2009 when the first HRVCON was sent with 20 members and two Mi-171Sh transport helicopters. The contingents consisted of an infantry company, an air component (located at the Bondsteel base), national support components (command group, intelligence support team, national support element and mobile medical team), a reconnaissance team. In addition, the Croatian Armed Forces also participate with the staff of KFOR HQ and advisors in the NALT team, who are located in the "Film City" camp, KFOR HQ in Pristina.
Croatia participates in NATO's Enhanced Forward Presence operation in Poland and Lithuania. The first Croatian contingent went to Poland in October 2017, the second in March 2018, and in October of the same year, the 3rd Croatian contingent (HRVCON eFPBG – USA) was deployed to the northeast of Poland to the military training ground "Bemowo Piskie" and took over the tasks of its predecessors. The 4th HRVCON is currently in Poland, together with members of the armed forces of Romania and Great Britain and are part of the Battle Group led by the United States of America, which is attached to the 15th Mechanized Brigade of the Republic of Poland. The backbone of the contingent consists of members of the Artillery and Missile Battalion of the Guards Mechanized Brigade with a battalion of self-propelled multiple rocket launchers Vulkan, staff working as part of the BGP Command, as well as the Military Police team and the national support element with associated weapons, equipment and vehicles.
In November 2017, the 1st Croatian Contingent of NATO's Enhanced Forward Presence went to Lithuania, where they participated in this NATO activity as part of the German-led Battle Group (1st HRVCON eFPBG-DEU). 181 members of the Croatian Armed Forces were sent for a period of seven months, and the majority of the forces were members of the mechanized company from the 1st Mechanized Battalion "Tigers" of the Guards Mechanized Brigade. The basic task and mission of the Croatian contingent was integration into the multinational battle group led by the Federal Republic of Germany, as well as the implementation of training in that composition, which, in addition to members of the Croatian Armed Forces, also includes members of the armed forces of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Norway, the Kingdom of Belgium, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the French Republic and the host country of the Republic of Lithuania.
As part of the further strengthening of the Allies' deterrence and defence posture and taking into account the deteriorating security situation in Eastern Europe following Russian aggression on Ukraine, NATO launched an enhanced vigilance activity in February 2022, which led to the establishment of battlegroups in Hungary, the Slovak Republic, Romania and the Republic of Bulgaria. In accordance with the Decision of the Croatian Parliament of March 2022. The Republic of Croatia has been participating in this battle group since July 2022, when the first Croatian contingent was sent to Hungary.
At the Warsaw Summit in July 2016, NATO announced the transformation of the Active Endeavour mission in the Mediterranean Sea into a broader maritime security operation. The new operation was named Sea Guardian. In September 2018, the Croatian Navy ship RTOP-41 Vukovar participated in the Sea Guardian peace support operation in the Mediterranean. The commander of the ship was Lieutenant Battalion Ante Uljević, and the commander of the 1st HRVCON was the captain of the corvette Nikola Bašić. It was the first time that a Croatian Navy ship participated in the NATO-led Operation Sea Guardian, where it carried out non-combat tasks with a focus on creating a comprehensive maritime situational picture, with the aim of deterring possible threats and ensuring common safety at sea.
Members of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia have been participating in the UNIFIL (United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon) operation since July 2007 as staff officers, and since 2013 as liaison officers. In March 2023, officer of the Croatian Armed Forces was commended by the UNIFIL commander for his assistance in the evacuation of injured soldiers of the Israel Defense Forces due to the activation of a mine explosive device during March 2023.<ref name=":0" />
{| style="margin:auto; border:1px solid black; background:#efe8ff; font-size:95%; width:80%;"
|-
! Current Mission
! Organization
! Location
! Number of personnel (2023)
|-
| NATO Enhanced Forward Presence – Battle Group Poland
| NATO
| Poland
| 161
|-
| NATO Enhanced Forward Presence – Battle Group Lithuania
| NATO
| Lithuania
| 195
|-
|NATO Enhanced Forward Presence – Battle Group Hungary
|NATO
|Hungary
|205
|-
|NATO in Kosovo - KFOR
|NATO
|Kosovo
|520
|-
|NATO mission in Iraq
|NATO
|Iraq
|26
|-
|Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 2
|NATO
|Mediterranean Sea
|13
|-
|Operation Sea Guardian
|NATO
|Mediterranean Sea
|66
|-
|European Union Naval Force Somalia – Operation Atalanta
|European Union
|Somalia
|4
|-
|European Union Naval Force Mediterranean – Operation Irini
|European Union
|Mediterranean Sea
|5
|-
| United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan – UNMOGIP
| United Nations
| India and Pakistan
| 20
|-
| United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara – MINURSO
| United Nations
| Western Sahara
| 12
|-
|United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon - UNIFIL
|United Nations
|Lebanon
|2
|-
|Operation Inherent Resolve
|U.S Armed Forces
|Kuwait
|3
|}
{| style="margin:auto; border:1px solid black; background:#efe8ff; font-size:95%; width:80%;"
|-
! Former Mission
! Organization
! Location
|-
| European Union mission in Chad – EUFOR Tchad/RCA
| European Union
| Chad
|-
|European Union Naval Force Mediterranean – Operation Sophia
|European Union
|Mediterranean Sea
|-
| International Security Assistance Force – ISAF
| NATO
| Afghanistan
|-
|Operation Active Endeavour
|NATO
|Mediterranean Sea
|-
|Operation Triton
|European Union
|Mediterranean Sea
|-
|Resolute Support Mission – RS
|NATO
|Afghanistan
|-
| United Nations Disengagement Observer Force – UNDOF
| United Nations
| Golan Heights - Syria and Israel
|-
| United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea – UNMEE
| United Nations
| Ethiopia and Eritrea
|-
|United Nations Mission in Liberia – UNMIL
|United Nations
|Liberia
|-
| United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone – UNAMSIL
| United Nations
| Sierra Leone
|-
| United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor – UNMISET
| United Nations
| East Timor
|-
| United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia – UNOMIG
| United Nations
| Georgia
|-
|United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire – UNOCI
|United Nations
|Ivory Coast
|-
|United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus – UNFICYP
|United Nations
|Cyprus
|-
|United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti – MINUSTAH
|United Nations
|Haiti
|}
References
Category:Permanent Structured Cooperation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Croatia | 2025-04-05T18:27:19.128212 |
5582 | Foreign relations of Croatia | The foreign relations of Croatia is primarily formulated and executed via its government which guides the state's interactions with other nations, their citizens, and foreign organizations. Active in global affairs since the 9th century, modern Croatian diplomacy is considered to have formed following their independence from Yugoslavia in 1991. As an independent state, Croatia established diplomatic relations with most world nations – 189 states in total – during the 1990s, starting with Germany (1991) and ending most recently with Liberia (2024). Croatia has friendly relations with most of its neighboring countries, namely Slovenia, Hungary, and Montenegro. They maintain colder, more tense relations with Serbia as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina due to historic nation-building conflict and differing political ideologies.
Croatia is seen as a stabilizing influence in Southeast Europe due to its political alignment with the Western world. It maintains strong relations with the United States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union (E.U.), joining the organization in 2013. Croatia is a military ally to the U.S., U.K., and E.U. through its membership in NATO, having joined in 2009. The economy of Croatia is one of the largest in Southeast Europe with $80.1 billion in nominal gross domestic product (GDP). The country receives foreign aid from the IMF and USAID.
Their foreign policy objectives have shifted since the Croatian War of Independence. During the 1990s, Croatia sought to gain international recognition and join the United Nations (2000), later seeking entry into NATO (2009) and the European Union (2013). Modern policy objectives are regional stabilization, influence in international organizations, and strengthening multilateral cooperation. Succession issues following the 1991-92 dissolution of Yugoslavia continue to complicate regional relations. Croatia has outstanding border disputes, sovereign ownership issues, and treaty disagreements with multiple neighbors.
Croatia is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization (WTO), Union for the Mediterranean and a number of other international organizations. The Council of Europe has been led by Croatian diplomat Marija Pejčinović Burić since 2019.
History
thumb|Croatian-Italian diplomat Roger Joseph Boscovich, 1760
The first native Croatian ruler recognised by the Pope was duke Branimir, who received papal recognition from Pope John VIII on 7 June 879. Tomislav was the first king of Croatia, noted as such in a letter of Pope John X in 925. Maritime Republic of Ragusa (1358–1808) maintained widespread diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire, Republic of Venice, Papal States and other states. Diplomatic relations of the Republic of Ragusa are often perceived as a historical inspiration for the contemporary Croatian diplomacy. During the Wars of the Holy League Ragusa avoided alignment with either side in the conflict rejecting Venetian calls to join the Holy League. The Yugoslav Committee, political interest group formed by South Slavs from Austria-Hungary during World War I, petitioned Allies of World War I and participated in international events such as the Congress of Oppressed Nationalities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Association for the Promotion of the League of Nations Values was active in Zagreb in the interwar period organizing lectures by Albert Thomas, Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson and Ludwig Quidde. During World War II, the Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia maintained diplomatic relations with several different countries in Europe.
Socialist Republic of Croatia within Yugoslavia
thumb|Embassy of Croatia in Austria, 2015
While each constitution of Yugoslavia defined foreign affairs as a federal level issue, over the years Yugoslav constituent republics played increasingly prominent role in either defining this policy or pursuing their own initiatives. Number of diplomats from Croatia gained significant experience in the service to the prominent Cold War era Yugoslav diplomacy.
In June 1943 Vladimir Velebit became the point of contact for foreign military missions in their dealings with the Yugoslav Partisans. Ivan Šubašić (1944–1945), Josip Smodlaka (NKOJ: 1943–1945), Josip Vrhovec (1978–1982) and Budimir Lončar (1987–1991) led the federal level Ministry of Foreign Affairs while numerous Croatian diplomats served in Yugoslav embassies or multilateral organizations. In 1956 Brijuni archipelago in People's Republic of Croatia hosted the Brioni Meeting, one of the major early initiatives leading to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement. Between 1960 and 1967 Vladimir Velebit was executive secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. During the Croatian Spring Croatian economist Hrvoje Šošić argued for the separate admission of the Socialist Republic of Croatia into the United Nations similar to the membership of Ukrainian and Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic which led to his imprisonment. In 1978, Croatia together with SR Slovenia joined the newly established Alps-Adriatic Working Group. The breakup of Yugoslavia led to mass transfers of experts from federal institutions enabling post-Yugoslav states to establish their own diplomatic bodies primarily by employing former Yugoslav cadres. The 2001 Agreement on Succession Issues of the Former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia formally assigned to Croatia a portion of the diplomatic and consular properties of the previous federation.
Foreign policy since independence
thumb|Ministry of Foreign Affairs building at the Nikola Šubić Zrinski Square, 2007
On 17 December 1991 the European Economic Community adopted the "Common Position for the recognition of the Yugoslav Republics" requesting the Yugoslav republics wishing to gain recognition to accept provisions of international law protecting human rights as well as national minorities rights in hope that credible guarantees may prevent incentives for violent confrontations. Later that month Croatian Parliament introduced the Constitutional Act on the Rights of National Minorities in the Republic of Croatia opening the way for 15 January 1992 collective recognition by the Community. Croatia maintained some links beyond the Euro-Atlantic world via its observer status in the Non-Aligned Movement which it enjoyed already at the 10th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement in Jakarta, Indonesia.
Following the international recognition of Croatia in 1992 the country was faced with the Croatian War of Independence between 1992 and 1995. A significant part of the country was outside of the control of the central government with the declaration of self-proclaimed unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina. In 1992 signing of the Sarajevo Agreement led to the cease-fire to allow UNPROFOR deployment in the country. Diplomatic efforts led to unsuccessful proposals which included the Daruvar Agreement and Z-4 Plan. In 1995 UNCRO mission took over the UNPROFOR mandate yet soon after Operation Storm led to a decisive victory for the Croatian Army with only the Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia remaining initially as a rump territory of Krajina. A diplomatic solution that avoided conflict in Eastern Slavonia was reached on 12 November 1995 via the signing of the Erdut Agreement with significant support and facilitation from the international community (primarily the United States, and with United Nations and various European actors). Temporary UNTAES administration over the region opened the way for the signing of the Dayton Agreement which ended the Bosnian War. It also led to the signing of 1996 Agreement on Normalization of Relations between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Republic of Croatia.
With the resolution of some of the major bilateral issues arising from the Yugoslav Wars Croatian foreign policy has focused on greater Euro-Atlantic integration, mainly entering the European Union and NATO. The progress was nevertheless slow in the period between 1996 and 1999 with rising concerns over authoritarian tendencies in the country. In order to gain access to European and trans-Atlantic institutions, it has had to undo many negative effects of the breakup of Yugoslavia and the war that ensued, and improve and maintain good relations with its neighbours. Croatia has had an uneven record in these areas between 1996 and 1999 during the right-wing HDZ government, inhibiting its relations with the European Union and the United States. In 1997 United States diplomacy even called upon its European partners to suspend Croatia from the Council of Europe as long as country fails to show adequate respect for human and minority rights. Lack of improvement in these areas severely hindered the advance of Croatia's prospects for further Euro-Atlantic integration. Progress in the areas of Dayton, Erdut, and refugee returns were evident in 1998, but progress was slow and required intensive international engagement. Croatia's unsatisfactory performance implementing broader democratic reforms in 1998 raised questions about the ruling party's commitment to basic democratic principles and norms. Areas of concern included restrictions on freedom of speech, one-party control of public TV and radio, repression of independent media, unfair electoral regulations, a judiciary that is not fully independent, and lack of human and civil rights protection.
With the 1999 death of President Franjo Tuđman, 2000 Croatian parliamentary election as well as corresponding regional changes such as the Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević, the European Union organized the 2000 Zagreb and 2003 Thessaloniki Summits in which European integration perspective was discussed for all the countries in the region. The new SDP-led centre-left coalition government slowly relinquished control over public media companies and did not interfere with freedom of speech and independent media, though it did not complete the process of making Croatian Radiotelevision independent. Judiciary reforms remained a pending issue as well. The government's foreign relations were severely affected by the hesitance and stalling of the extradition of Croatian general Janko Bobetko to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), and inability to take general Ante Gotovina into custody for questioning by the Court. Nevertheless, Croatia managed to enter NATO's Partnership for Peace Programme in May 2000, World Trade Organization in July 2000, signing a Stabilization and Association Agreement with the EU in October 2001, Membership Action Plan in May 2002, and joined the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) in December 2002. The EU membership application was the last major international undertaking of the Račan government, which submitted a 7,000-page report in reply to the questionnaire by the European Commission. Negotiations were initiated with the achievement of the full cooperation with the Hague Tribunal in October 2005. Croatian president Stjepan Mesić participated in the NAM conferences in Havana in 2006 and Sharm el-Sheikh in 2009 using the country's post-Yugoslav link with the Third World in its successful campaign for the Eastern European Spot at the United Nations Security Council in 2008–2009 (in open competition with Czech Republic which was a member state both of EU and NATO).
Refugee returns accelerated since 1999, reached a peak in 2000, but then slightly decreased in 2001 and 2002. The OSCE Mission to Croatia, focusing on the governed by the UNTAES, continued to monitor human rights and the return of refugees until December 2007 with the OSCE office in Zagreb finally closing in 2012. Croatian Serbs continue to have problems with restitution of property and acceptance to the reconstruction assistance programmes. Combined with lacking economic opportunities in the rural areas of former Krajina, the return process was only partial.
Accession to the European Union
thumb|right|
At the time of Croatia's application to the European Union, three EU members states were yet to ratify the Stabilization and Association Agreement: United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Italy. The new Sanader government elected in 2003 elections repeated the assurances that Croatia will fulfill the missing political obligations, and expedited the extradition of several ICTY inductees. The European Commission replied to the answers of the questionnaire sent to Croatia on 20 April 2004 with a positive opinion. The country was finally accepted as EU candidate in July 2004. Italy and United Kingdom ratified the Stabilization and Association Agreement shortly thereafter, while the ten EU member states that were admitted to membership that year ratified it all together at a 2004 European Summit. In December 2004, the EU leaders announced that accession negotiations with Croatia would start on 17 March 2005 provided that Croatian government cooperates fully with the ICTY. The main issue, the flight of general Gotovina, however, remained unsolved and despite the agreement on an accession negotiation framework, the negotiations did not begin in March 2005. On 4 October 2005 Croatia finally received green light for accession negotiations after the Chief Prosecutor of the ICTY Carla Del Ponte officially stated that Croatia is fully cooperating with the Tribunal. This has been the main condition demanded by EU foreign ministers for accession negotiations. The ICTY called upon other southern European states to follow Croatia's good example. Thanks to the consistent position of Austria during the meeting of EU foreign ministers, a long period of instability and the questioning of the determination of the Croatian government to extradite alleged war criminals has ended successfully. Croatian Prime minister Ivo Sanader declared that full cooperation with the Hague Tribunal will continue. The accession process was also complicated by the insistence of Slovenia, an EU member state, that the two countries' border issues be dealt with prior to Croatia's accession to the EU.
Croatia finished accession negotiations on 30 June 2011, and on 9 December 2011, signed the Treaty of Accession. A referendum on EU accession was held in Croatia on 22 January 2012, with 66% of participants voting in favour of joining the Union. The ratification process was concluded on 21 June 2013, and entry into force and accession of Croatia to the EU took place on 1 July 2013.
Current events
The main objective of the Croatian foreign policy is positioning within the EU institutions and in the region, cooperation with NATO partners and strengthening multilateral and bilateral cooperation.
Government officials in charge of foreign policy include the Minister of Foreign and European Affairs, currently Gordan Grlić-Radman, and the President of the Republic, currently Zoran Milanović.
Croatia has established diplomatic relations with 189 countries around the world. As of 2009, Croatia maintains a network of 51 embassies, 24 consulates and eight permanent diplomatic missions abroad. Furthermore, there are 52 foreign embassies and 69 consulates in the Republic of Croatia in addition to offices of international organizations such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Organization for Migration, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), World Bank, World Health Organization, International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), United Nations Development Programme, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and UNICEF.
International organizations
Republic of Croatia participates in the following international organizations:
CE,
CEI,
EAPC,
EBRD,
ECE,
EEA,
EU,
FAO,
G11,
IADB,
IAEA,
IBRD,
ICAO,
ICC,
ICRM,
IDA,
IFAD,
IFC,
IFRCS,
IHO,
ILO,
IMF,
IMO,
Inmarsat,
Intelsat,
Interpol,
IOC,
IOM,
ISO,
ITU,
ITUC,
NAM (observer),
NATO,
OAS (observer),
OPCW,
OSCE,
PCA,
PFP,
SECI,
UN,
UNAMSIL,
UNCTAD,
UNESCO,
UNIDO,
UNMEE,
UNMOGIP,
UPU,
WCO,
WHO,
WIPO,
WMO,
WToO,
WTO
There exists a Permanent Representative of Croatia to the United Nations.
Foreign support
Croatia receives support from donor programs of:
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
European Union
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
International Monetary Fund
USAID
Between 1991 and 2003, the EBRD had directly invested a total of 1,212,039,000 EUR into projects in Croatia.
In 1998, U.S. support to Croatia came through the Southeastern European Economic Development Program (SEED), whose funding in Croatia totaled $23.25 million. More than half of that money was used to fund programs encouraging sustainable returns of refugees and displaced persons. About one-third of the assistance was used for democratization efforts, and another 5% funded financial sector restructuring.
In 2003 USAID considered Croatia to be on a "glide path for graduation" along with Bulgaria. Its 2002/2003/2004 funding includes around $10 million for economic development, up to $5 million for the development of democratic institutions, about $5 million for the return of population affected by war and between 2 and 3 million dollars for the "mitigation of adverse social conditions and trends". A rising amount of funding is given to cross-cutting programs in anti-corruption, slightly under one million dollars.
The European Commission has proposed to assist Croatia's efforts to join the European Union with 245 million euros from PHARE, ISPA and SAPARD aid programs over the course of 2005 and 2006.
International disputes
Relations with neighbouring states have normalized somewhat since the breakup of Yugoslavia. Work has begun — bilaterally and within the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe since 1999 — on political and economic cooperation in the region.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
thumb|Consulate-General in Banja Luka, 2011|239x239px
Discussions continue between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina on various sections of the border, the longest border with another country for each of these countries. Sections of the Una river and villages at the base of Mount Plješevica are in Croatia, while some are in Bosnia, which causes an excessive number of border crossings on a single route and impedes any serious development in the region. The Zagreb-Bihać-Split railway line is still closed for major traffic due to this issue. The border on the Una river between Hrvatska Kostajnica on the northern, Croatian side of the river, and Bosanska Kostajnica on the southern, Bosnian side, is also being discussed. A river island between the two towns is under Croatian control, but is also claimed by Bosnia. A shared border crossing point has been built and has been functioning since 2003, and is used without hindrance by either party.
The Herzegovinian municipality of Neum in the south makes the southernmost part of Croatia an exclave and the two countries are negotiating special transit rules through Neum to compensate for that. Recently Croatia has opted to build a bridge to the Pelješac peninsula to connect the Croatian mainland with the exclave but Bosnia and Herzegovina has protested that the bridge will close its access to international waters (although Croatian territory and territorial waters surround Bosnian-Herzegovinian territory and waters completely) and has suggested that the bridge must be higher than 55 meters for free passage of all types of ships. Negotiations are still being held.
Montenegro
Croatia and Montenegro have a largely latent border dispute over the Prevlaka peninsula, and maintain friendly relations.
Serbia
The border between Croatia and Serbia in the area of the Danube is disputed while at the same time the issue is not considered of the highest priority for either country in their bilateral relations. The issue therefore only occasionally entered into in the public debate with other open issues being higher on the agenda, yet with some commentators fearing that the issue may once be used as an asymmetric pressure tool in the accession of Serbia to the European Union. The cadastre-based boundary reflects the course of the Danube which existed in the 19th century, before meandering and hydrotechnical engineering works altered its course. The area size of the territory in dispute is reported variously, up to and is uninhabited area of forests and islands.12345678910—1112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263–646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171–172173174175176177178179180181182183184185186187188189
Bilateral relations
Multilateral
Organization Formal Relations BeganNotesSee 2013 enlargement of the European Union
Croatia joined the European Union as a full member on 1 July 2013. See Croatia–NATO relations
Croatia joined NATO as a full member on 1 April 2009.
Africa
Country Formal relations began Notes Croatia has an embassy in Algiers.
Algeria has an embassy in Zagreb. Croatia is represented in Angola through its embassy in Lisbon (Portugal).
Angola is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria). Croatia is represented in Benin through its embassy in Paris (France).
Benin is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Geneva (Switzerland).Diplomatic relations between Botswana and Croatia were established on 9 September 2005. Croatia is represented in Burkina Faso through its embassy in Paris (France).
Burkina Faso is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria) and consulate in Zagreb. Croatia is represented in Cape Verde through its embassy in Lisbon (Portugal).
Cape Verde is not represented in Croatia. Central African Republic Croatia maintains diplomatic relations with the C.A.R. Croatia is represented in Chad through its embassy in Paris (France).
Chad is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Comoros through its embassy in Pretoria (South Africa).
Comoros is not represented in Croatia.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 May 2017.See Croatia–Egypt relations
Croatia has an embassy in Cairo and an honorary consulate in Alexandria.
Egypt has an embassy in Zagreb. Croatia is represented in Eritrea through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt).
Eritrea is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Ethiopia through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt).
Ethiopia is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Gabon through its embassy in Rabat (Morocco).
Gabon is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Gambia through its embassy in London (UK).
Gambia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in London (UK). Croatia is represented in Ghana through its embassy in London (UK).
Ghana is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Croatia is represented in Guinea-Bissau through its embassy in Lisbon (Portugal).
Guinea-Bissau is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Kenya through its embassy in Pretoria (South Africa).
Kenya has a consulate in Zagreb, accredited to its embassy in Rome (Italy). Croatia is represented in Lesotho through its embassy in Pretoria (South Africa).
Lesotho is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Liberia Diplomatic relations between Liberia and Croatia were established on 26 September 2024.See Croatia–Libya relations
Croatia has evacuated its embassy in Tripoli due to the worsening of security situation in the country.
Libya has an embassy in Zagreb.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 September 2006.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 November 1998. Croatia is represented in Mali through its embassy in Rabat (Morocco).
Mali is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy). Croatia is represented in Mauritania through its embassy in Rabat (Morocco).
Mauritania is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Mauritius through its embassy in Pretoria (South Africa).
Mauritius is not represented in Croatia. Croatia has an embassy in Rabat.
Morocco has an embassy in Zagreb. Croatia is represented in Mozambique through its embassy in Pretoria (South Africa).
Mozambique is not represented in Croatia.Diplomatic relations between Croatia and Namibia were established on 22 June 1998.
South Africa is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary), and consulate in Zagreb.
There are around 1500 to 2000 Croats who live in South Africa.
As of 2006, the two countries have a trade agreement.Croatia is represented in Sudan through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt).
Sudan is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy).Croatia is represented in Tanzania through its embassy in Pretoria, (South Africa).
Tanzania is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome, (Italy).Croatia is represented in Tongo through its embassy in Paris (France).
Togo is not represented in Croatia.Croatia is represented in Tunisia through its embassy in Rabat (Morocco) and consulate in Tunis.
Tunisia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria) and consulate in Zagreb.Croatia is represented in Uganda through its embassy in Pretoria (South Africa).
Uganda is not represented in Croatia.Croatia is represented in Zambia through its embassy in Pretoria (South Africa).
Zambia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Paris (France).Both countries established diplomatic relations on February 12, 1999.
Americas
Country Formal relations began Notes Croatia is represented in Antigua and Barbuda through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (USA).
Antigua and Barbuda is represented in Croatia through its through its embassy in Vienna (Austria). See Argentina–Croatia relations
Croatia has an embassy in Buenos Aires.
Argentina is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary).
More than 400,000 Argentinians are of Croatian descent. Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of Croatia and the Commonwealth of Bahamas was signed on 31 January 2017. Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 January 1996.Croatia is represented in Bolivia through its embassy in Santiago (Chile) and 2 consulates in Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba.
Bolivia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria). Brazil has an embassy in Zagreb.
Croatia has an embassy in Brasília and consulate in São Paulo.Croatia has an embassy in Ottawa, a consulate general in Mississauga, and an honorary consulate in Saint John.
Canada has an embassy in Zagreb.
Both countries are members on NATO.See Chile–Croatia relations
Chile has an embassy in Zagreb and 3 consulates in Zagreb, Rijeka and Split.
Croatia has an embassy in Santiago and 2 consulates in Antofagasta and Punta Arenas.
It is officially accepted that there are up to 380,000 Chileans of Croatian descentColombia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).
Croatia is represented in Colombia through its embassy in Brasília (Brazil).
Croatia is defined as an ally by Colombia on the war on drugs and as an example to follow after a post-conflict situation Croatia is represented in Costa Rica through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (US).
Costa Rica is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria). Croatia is represented in Cuba through its embassy in Madrid (Spain).
Cuba is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).
Croatian President Stjepan Mesić made a state visit to Cuba in September 2009.
Croatia and Cuba signed 16 agreements about cooperation.2013 Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of Croatia and the Commonwealth of Dominica was signed on 30 July 2013. Croatia is represented in El Salvador through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (US).
El Salvador is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Grenada through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (USA). Croatia is represented in Guatemala through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (US).
Guatemala is not represented in Croatia.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 February 2003.
Croatia is represented in Guyana through its Permanent Mission in New York City. Croatia is represented in Honduras through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (US).
Honduras is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Jamaica through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (USA). See Croatia–Mexico relations
Croatia is represented in Mexico through its embassy in Washington, D.C. (US) and consulate in Mexico City.
Mexico is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary) and consulates in Zagreb and Split. Croatia is represented in Nicaragua through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (US) and embassy in Brasília (Brazil).
Nicaragua is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Panama through its embassy in Washington, D.C. (US).
Panama is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Piraeus (Greece). Croatia is represented in Paraguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires (Argentina).
Paraguay is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Peru through its embassy in Santiago (Chile) and consulate in Lima.
Peru is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Bucharest (Romania) and consulate in Zagreb.
There are around 6,500 people of Croatian descent living in Peru. Croatia is represented in Saint Lucia through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (USA). Croatia is represented in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (USA). Croatia is represented in Suriname through its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York (US) and embassy in Brasília (Brazil).
Suriname is not represented in Croatia.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 December 2011.See Croatia–United States relations
Croatia has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and three consulates-general in New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago; as well as six honorary consulates in Seattle, Kansas City, Pittsburgh, Houston, Anchorage and New Orleans.
United States has an embassy in Zagreb.
Both countries are members of NATO.See Croats in Uruguay
Croatia is represented in Uruguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires (Argentina) and consulate in Montevideo.
Uruguay is not represented in Croatia.
According to UN estimates there are some 3,300 people of Croat descent living in Uruguay. Other estimates place the figure at around 5,000. Croatia is represented in Venezuela through its embassy in Brasília (Brazil).
Venezuela is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).
Asia
Country Formal relations began NotesCroatia is represented in Afghanistan through its embassy in Ankara (Turkey).
Croatian Presidents Stjepan Mesić, Ivo Josipović and Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović visited Afghanistan several times.
Croatia has few hundred deployed personnel in Afghanistan as part of the NATO Resolute Support Mission. They work on training other soldiers and do not participate in combats.See Armenia–Croatia relations
Armenia has an embassy in Zagreb.
Croatia has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.See Azerbaijan–Croatia relations
Azerbaijan has an embassy in Zagreb.
Croatia has an embassy in Baku.
Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe. Croatia is represented in Bahrain through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt).
Bahrain is not represented in Croatia. Bhutan N/ACroatia does not maintain diplomatic relations with Bhutan. Croatia is represented in Cambodia through its embassy in Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia).
Cambodia is not represented in Croatia. (People's Republic) Croatia has an embassy in Beijing and a general consulate in Hong Kong.
China has an embassy in Zagreb.
On 16 May 2002, Croatian president Stjepan Mesić made a state visit to China, while Chinese president Hu Jintao made a state visit to Croatia on 19 June 2009.
On 21 May 2007, Croatian Foreign Minister Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović visited Beijing, and again as President of Croatia on 13–18 October 2015.See Croatia–Georgia relations
Croatia is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and consulate in Tbilisi.
Georgia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Zagreb.
Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
Croatia is an EU member and Georgia is an EU candidate.See Croatia–India relations
Croatia has an embassy in New Delhi and 2 consulate in Mumbai and Kolkata.
India has an embassy in Zagreb.
See also Hinduism in Croatia Croatia has embassy in Jakarta.
Indonesia has embassy in Zagreb.See Croatia–Iran relations
Croatia has an embassy in Tehran.
Iran has an embassy and a cultural centre in Zagreb.
Croatia and Iran signed 24 agreements of cooperation. Croatia has an embassy in Baghdad.
Iraq has an embassy in Zagreb.See Croatia–Israel relations
Croatia has an embassy in Tel Aviv and 4 consulates in Ashdod, Caesarea, Jerusalem and Kfar Shmaryahu.
Israel has an embassy in Zagreb.
See also History of the Jews in CroatiaSee Croatia–Japan relations
Croatia has an embassy in Tokyo.
Japan has an embassy in Zagreb.
Princess Sayako visited Croatia in 2002. Croatia is represented in Jordan through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt) and consulate in Amman.
Jordan is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and consulate in Zagreb. Croatia is represented in Kazakhstan through its embassy in Nur-Sultan and honorary consulate in Almaty.
Kazakhstan is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Zagreb and through 2 honorary consulates in Dubrovnik and Umag.
Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev visited Croatia in 2001 and 2006. Croatian high-ranking officials, including President Stjepan Mesić, Prime Minister Zoran Milanović, and Foreign Minister Vesna Pusić also visited Kazakhstan.
Kazakhstan & Croatia recognized 25 years of diplomatic relations in 2017. Croatia has an embassy in Kuwait City.
Kuwait is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Prague (Czech Republic) and consulate in Zagreb. Croatia is represented in Kyrgyzstan through its embassy in Ankara (Turkey). Croatia is represented in Laos through its embassy in Kuala Lumpur.Croatia is represented in Lebanon through its embassy in Cairo and consulate in Beirut.
Lebanon is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna.
Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Croatia is represented in Malaysia through its embassy in Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia).
Malaysia has embassy in Zagreb. Croatia is represented in Maldives through its embassy in New Delhi (India).
Maldives is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in Beijing (China) and consulate in Ulaanbaatar.
Mongolia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria) and consulate in Zagreb.
Croatian President Stjepan Mesić visited Mongolia in August 2008, while Mongolian President Tsakhia Elbegdorj visited Croatia on 19 October 2011.
During the Mongol invasion of Europe from 1241 to 1242, ancient Mongolians and Croats fought in battles in Pannonia and Dalmatia. Croatia is represented in Nepal through its embassy in New Delhi and consulate in Kathmandu.
Nepal is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Geneva (Switzerland). Croatia is represented in North Korea through its embassy in Beijing (China).
North Korea is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Bucharest (Romania).
In January 2016, former Croatian president Stjepan Mesić visited North Korea. Croatia is represented in Pakistan through its embassy in Tehran (Iran).
Pakistan is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina) and an honorary consulate in Zagreb. Croatia is represented in The Philippines through its embassy in Jakarta (Indonesia).
The Philippines is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).See Croatia–Qatar relations
Croatia has an embassy in Doha.
Qatar has an embassy in Zagreb.See Croatia–Saudi Arabia relations
Croatia is represented in Saudi Arabia through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt).
Saudi Arabia is not represented in Croatia but citizens that need any assistance are advised to contact the Saudi Arabia embassy in Sarajevo (BiH). Croatia is represented in Singapore through its embassy in Jakarta (Indonesia).
Singapore is not represented in Croatia.See Croatia–South Korea relations
The Establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Croatia and the South Korea began on 18 November 1992.
Croatia has an embassy in Seoul.
South Korea has an embassy in Zagreb.
Croatian President Stjepan Mesić visited South Korea in April 2006.
The number of the South Koreans living in Croatia in 2015 was about 88.
Foreign relations of South Korea#Europe. Croatia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in New Delhi and consulate in Colombo.
Sri Lanka is represented in Sri Lanka through its embassy in Vienna (Austria) and consulate in Zagreb.See Croatia–Syria relations
Croatia is represented in Syria through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt) and consulate in Damascus.
Syria is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary).
On 18 January 2013 Croatian Foreign Ministry declared that Croatia, as well as the entire European Union, recognizes the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces as "only legitimate representatives of the aspirations of the Syrian people". Taiwan N/ACroatia does not maintain diplomatic relations with Taiwan.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 April 1999.
Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. Croatia is represented in Thailand through its embassy in Jakarta (Indonesia) and through a consulate in Bangkok.
Thailand is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary) and through consulate in Zagreb.Croatia is represented in East Timor through its embassy in Canberra (Australia).
Military of Croatia was part of UNMISET peacekeeping operation in East Timor.See Croatia–Turkey relations
Croatia has an embassy in Ankara and two consulates-general in Istanbul and İzmir.
Turkey has an embassy in Zagreb.
Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and of NATO.
Both have been EU candidates since 3 October 2005. (Croatia become a member state on 1 July 2013)
Croatia is an EU member and Turkey is an EU candidate. Croatia supports Turkey's accession negotiations to the EU, although negotiations have now been suspended.
Turkey has Office of the Defence Attaché and Office of Trading Advisor in Zagreb.See Croatia–Turkmenistan relations
Croatia is represented in Turkmenistan through its embassy in Ankara (Turkey).
Turkmenistan is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Bucharest (Romania).
Croatian presidents Stjepan Mesić (2008) and Ivo Josipović (2014) as well as the Croatian Prime Minister Zoran Milanović and Foreign Minister Vesna Pusić (5 December 2014) visited Turkmenistan.
Turkmen president Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov visited Croatia in 2009.
United Arab Emirates are represented in Croatia through its embassy in Berlin (Germany). Croatia is represented in Uzbekistan through its embassy in Ankara (Turkey). Croatia is represented in Vietnam through its embassy in Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia).
Vietnam is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary). Croatia is represented in Yemen through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt).
Yemen is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria) and consulate in Zagreb.
Europe
Country Formal relations began Notes See Albania–Croatia relations
Albania has an embassy in Zagreb.
Croatia has an embassy in Tirana.
Both countries are full members of NATO.Croatia is represented in Andorra through its embassy in Madrid (Spain).
Andorra is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Paris (France).See Austria–Croatia relations
Austria has an embassy in Zagreb and 4 honorary consulates in Dubrovnik, Pula, Rijeka and Split.
Croatia has an embassy in Vienna and 2 honorary consulates in Graz and Innsbruck.
From 1527 until 1918 Croatia and Austria were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with Croatian region Dalmatia being under the Austrian administration.
Both countries are full members of the European Union.See Belarus–Croatia relations
Croatia is represented in Belarus through its embassy in Moscow (Russia).
Belarus is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).
The states maintain their bilateral relations through their embassies in Moscow.
On 16 December 2002 Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, Slovakia, Hungary and Croatia signed an intergovernmental agreement on cooperation within the project to integrate the Druzhba and Adria oil-pipelines in Zagreb.See Belgium–Croatia relations
Belgium has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates in Dubrovnik and Zadar.
Croatia has an embassy in Brussels and an honorary consulate in Bruges.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Bosnia and Herzegovina–Croatia relations
Croatia has an embassy in Sarajevo and 4 consulates in Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Mostar and Tuzla.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in Zagreb.
Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina were part of Yugoslavia from 1918 to 1991.
Croats are one out of three constituent nations of BiH.
The two countries share a border.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is an EU candidate and Croatia is an EU member.See Bulgaria–Croatia relations
Bulgaria has an embassy in Zagreb.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Cyprus relations
Croatia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.
Cyprus is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria) and an honorary consulate in Zagreb.
Both countries are full members of the European Union.See Croatia–Czech Republic relations
Croatia has an embassy in Prague.
Czech Republic has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates in Rijeka and Split.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with the Czech RepublicSee Croatia–Denmark relations
Croatia has an embassy in Copenhagen and an honorary consulate in Aarhus.
Denmark has an embassy in Zagreb and 3 honorary consulates in Dubrovnik, Rijeka, and Split.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. Croatia is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Helsinki, Finland and honorary consulate in Tallinn.
Estonia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome, Italy and honorary consulate in Zagreb.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Finland relations
Croatia has an embassy in Helsinki.
Finland has an embassy in Zagreb and 3 honorary consulates in Rijeka, Split and Zagreb.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
Croatia fully supported Finland's application to join NATO, which resulted in membership on 4 April 2023.See Croatia–France relations
Croatia has an embassy in Paris and an honorary consulate in Lyon.
France has an embassy in Zagreb.
Since 2004, Croatia is an observer on the Francophonie.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Germany relations
Croatia has an embassy in Berlin and 5 consulates general in Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich and Stuttgart.
Germany has an embassy in Zagreb and an honorary consulate in Split.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Greece relations
Greece has an embassy in Zagreb.
Croatia has an embassy in Athens and consulate in Thessaloniki.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Holy See relations
Croatia has a resident embassy to the Holy See in Rome.
Holy See has a nunciature with a nuncio of ambassadorial rank with additional privileges in Zagreb.
According to the 2011 census 86.28% of Croats are Roman Catholic.
See Croatia–Hungary relations
Croatia has an embassy in Budapest, a general consulate in Pécs and an honorary consulate in Nagykanizsa.
Hungary has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates in Rijeka and Split.
From 1102 until 1527 Croatia and Hungary were in a Personal union, and from 1527 until 1918 Austro-Hungarian Empire, most part of Croatia being under Hungarian administration.
Today, both countries share 329 km of common border.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. Croatia is represented in Iceland thought it embassy in Copenhagen (Denmark) and consulate in Reykjavík.
Iceland is represented in Croatia thought it embassy in Berlin (Germany) and consulate in Zagreb.
Ireland has an embassy and consulate in Zagreb.
Both countries are full members of the European Union. See Croatia-Italy relations
Croatia has an embassy in Rome, 2 general consulates in Milan and Trieste and 5 honorary consulates in Bari, Florence, Montemitro, Naples, and Padua.
Italy has an embassy in Zagreb, general consulate in Rijeka, a consulate in Split and 2 honorary consulates in Buje and Pula.
Croatia and Italy share maritime border.
Italy is most important trading partner to Croatia.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Kosovo relations
Croatia has an embassy Pristina.
Kosovo has an embassy in Zagreb.
Croatia has 27 of its soldiers deployed on Kosovo. Croatia is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden).
Latvia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Prague (Czech Republic) and an honorary consulate in Zagreb.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. Croatia is represented in Liechtenstein through its embassy in Bern (Switzerland).
Liechtenstein is not represented in Croatia.See Croatia–Lithuania relations
Croatia is represented in Lithuania through the Croatian office in Lithuania which is a branch of Croatian embassy in Stockholm (Sweden).
Lithuania is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria) and 2 consulate in Zagreb and Starigrad.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. Croatia is represented in Luxembourg through it embassy in Brussels (Belgium).
Luxembourg is represented in Croatia through it embassy in Berlin (Germany).
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. Croatia is represented in Malta through it embassy in Rome (Italy).
Malta is represented in Croatia through its general embassy in Valletta (Malta) and 2 honorary consulate in Zagreb and Split.
Both countries are full members of the European Union. Croatia is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Bucharest (Romania).
Moldova is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Budapest (Hungary).
Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
Croatia is an EU member and Moldova is an EU candidate. Croatia is represented in Monaco through it embassy in Paris (France) and honorary consulate in Monaco.
Monaco is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and honorary consulate in Zagreb.See Croatia–Montenegro relations
Croatia has an embassy in Podgorica and consulate in Kotor.
Montenegro has an embassy in Zagreb and consulate in Dubrovnik.
From 1918 to 1991 Croatia and Montenegro were part of Yugoslavia.
Relations between the two countries are promoted through the Croatian-Montenegrin Friendship Society "Croatica-Montenegrina".
Both countries are full members of NATO.
Croatia is an EU member and Montenegro is an EU candidate.See Croatia–Netherlands relations
Croatia has an embassy in The Hague.
The Netherlands has an embassy in Zagreb and 3 honorary consulates in Dubrovnik, Opatija and Split.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–North Macedonia relations
Croatia has an embassy in Skopje, and the general consulate in Bitola.
North Macedonia has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 consulates in Zadar and Rijeka.
From 1918 to 1991 Croatia and North Macedonia were part of Yugoslavia.
Both countries are full members of NATO.
Croatia is an EU member and North Macedonia is an EU candidate.See Croatia–Norway relations
Croatia has an embassy in Oslo.
Norway has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 consulate in Rijeka and Dubrovnik.
Both countries are full members of NATO.See Croatia–Poland relations
Croatia has an embassy in Warsaw and 5 consulates in Kraków, Poznań, Bialystok, Bydgoszcz and Opole.
Poland has an embassy in Zagreb and consulate in Opatija.
Poland has Office of Military Attaché and Department of Trade and Investment Promotion of the Polish Embassy in Zagreb.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
See also Istro-RomaniansSee Croatia–Russia relations
Croatia has an embassy in Moscow and an honorary consulate in Kaliningrad.
Russia has an embassy in Zagreb.
Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe (before Russia was suspended in March 2022) and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. Croatia is represented in San Marino through its embassy in Rome (Italy).
San Marino is represented in Croatia through its General embassy in San Marino.
According to legend San Marino was founded in year 301 by sculptor Saint Marinus from the Croatian island of Rab.then as FR Yugoslavia and including MontenegroSee Croatia–Serbia relations
Croatia has an embassy in Belgrade and a general consulate in Subotica.
Serbia has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 general consulates in Rijeka and Vukovar.
Both countries shares 241 km of common border.
From 1918 to 1991 Croatia and Serbia were part of Yugoslavia.
Croatia is full member of the European Union while Serbia is candidate for membership.See Croatia–Slovakia relations
Croatia has an embassy in Bratislava.
Slovakia has an embassy in Zagreb and consulate in Osijek. In addition, since 2014 Slovakian Embassy operates temporary office in Zadar during the summer.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Slovenia relations
Croatia has an embassy in Ljubljana and 2 honorary consulates in Maribor and Koper.
Slovenia has an embassy in Zagreb and an honorary consulate in Split.
Both countries shares 670 km of common border.
From 1918 to 1991 Croatia and Slovenia were part of Yugoslavia.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO. Sovereign Military Order of Malta has an embassy in Zagreb.See Croatia–Spain relations
Croatia has an embassy in Madrid and 4 honorary consulates in Barcelona, Palma de Mallorca, Pamplona and Seville.
Spain has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates in Dubrovnik and Split.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Sweden relations
Croatia has an embassy in Stockholm and 2 honorary consulates in Gothenburg and Malmö.
Sweden has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates in Rijeka and Split.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.
Croatia fully supported Sweden's application to join NATO, which resulted in membership on 7 March 2024. Croatia has an embassy in Bern, a general consulate in Zürich and 2 honorary consulates in Lugano and Massagno.
Switzerland has an embassy in Zagreb, consulate in Split and honorary consulate in Smoljanci.
More than 45,000 Croats live in Switzerland. See Turkey in Asia Above
See Croatia–Turkey relationsSee Croatia–Ukraine relations
Croatia has an embassy in Kyiv.
Ukraine has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 consulates in Zadar and Malinska.
Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
Croatia is an EU member and Ukraine is an EU candidate.See Croatia–United Kingdom relations
Croatia established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 24 June 1992.
Croatia maintains an embassy in London.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Croatia through its embassy in Zagreb.
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, European Court of Human Rights, the International Criminal Court, NATO, OSCE, and the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Agreement, and an Investment Agreement.
Oceania
Country Formal Relations Began Notes Australia has an embassy in Zagreb.
Croatia has an embassy in Canberra and three consulates general in Melbourne, Perth and Sydney.
Since 2006, 118,051 people living in Australia declared themselves as Croats. Australian Ministry of Foreign Affairs believes that in Australia live around 150,000 Croats while the Croatian community in Australia claims to have 250,000 members.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 July 1997. Croatia is represented in Nauru through its embassy in Canberra (Australia).
Nauru is not represented in Croatia. Croatia is represented in New Zealand through its embassy in Canberra (Australia) and through consulate in Auckland.
New Zealand is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and through an honorary consulate in Zagreb.
According to the Croatian community the number of Croats that live in New Zealand is around 20 and 60 thousand. Tonga N/ACroatia does not maintain diplomatic relations with Tonga. Croatia is represented in Samoa through its embassy in Canberra (Australia).
Samoa is not represented in Croatia. Diplomatic relations were established between the Republic of Croatia and Tuvalu in an agreement signed at the United Nations.
Croatia is represented in Tuvalu through its embassy in Canberra (Australia).
Tuvalu is not represented in Croatia.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 April 2000.
See also
List of diplomatic missions in Croatia
List of diplomatic missions of Croatia
List of diplomatic relations of Croatia
Visa requirements for Croatian citizens
Croatia and the European Union
References
External links
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration
Government of the Republic of Croatia
EBRD and Croatia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Croatia | 2025-04-05T18:27:21.209620 |
5584 | History of Cuba | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
The island of Cuba was inhabited by various Native American cultures prior to the arrival of the explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492. After his arrival, Spain conquered Cuba and appointed Spanish governors to rule in Havana. The administrators in Cuba were subject to the Viceroy of New Spain and the local authorities in Hispaniola. In 1762–63, Havana was briefly occupied by Britain, before being returned to Spain in exchange for Florida. A series of rebellions between 1868 and 1898, led by General Máximo Gómez, failed to end Spanish rule and claimed the lives of 49,000 Cuban guerrillas and 126,000 Spanish soldiers. However, the Spanish–American War resulted in a Spanish withdrawal from the island in 1898, and following three and a half years of subsequent US military rule, Cuba gained formal independence in 1902.
In the years following its independence, the Cuban republic saw significant economic development, but also political corruption and a succession of despotic leaders, culminating in the overthrow of the dictator Fulgencio Batista by the 26th of July Movement, led by Fidel Castro, during the 1953–1959 Cuban Revolution. The new government aligned with the Soviet Union and embraced communism. In the early 1960s, Castro's regime withstood invasion, faced nuclear Armageddon, and experienced a civil war that included Dominican support for regime opponents. On 14 June 1959, approximately 200 Dominican exiles and Cuban revolutionaries launched an invasion of the Dominican Republic from Cuba with the hope of overthrowing the Trujillo regime. Trujillo's forces quickly routed the invaders. A week later, another group of invaders in 2 yachts were intercepted and blasted by mortar fire and bazookas from the shore. The leaders of the invasion were taken aboard a Dominican Air Force plane and then pushed out in mid-air, falling to their deaths. Trujillo responded by supporting an October 1960 uprising in the Escambray Mountains by 1,000 Cuban counter-revolutionaries. The rebels were defeated and their leader, William Morgan, was captured and executed.}} Following the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968), Castro publicly declared Cuba's support. His speech marked the start of Cuba's complete absorption into the Eastern Bloc. During the Cold War, Cuba also supported Soviet policy in Afghanistan, Poland, Angola, Ethiopia, Nicaragua, and El Salvador. The Cuban economy was mostly supported by Soviet subsidies.
With the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 Cuba was plunged into a severe economic crisis known as the Special Period that ended in 2000 when Venezuela began providing Cuba with subsidized oil. The country has been politically and economically isolated by the United States since the Revolution, but has gradually gained access to foreign commerce and travel as efforts to normalise diplomatic relations have progressed. Domestic economic reforms are also beginning to tackle existing economic problems which arose in the aftermath of the special period (i.e. the introduction of the dual currency system).Pre-Columbian (to 1500)
women preparing cassava bread]]
Cuba's earliest known human inhabitants inhabited the island in the 4th millennium BC. The oldest known Cuban archeological site, Levisa, dates from approximately 3100 BC. A wider distribution of sites date from after 2000 BC, most notably represented by the Cayo Redondo and Guayabo Blanco cultures of western Cuba. These neolithic cultures used ground stone and shell tools and ornaments, including the dagger-like gladiolitos. The Cayo Redondo and Guayabo Blanco cultures lived a subsistence lifestyle based on fishing, hunting and collecting wild plants.
Spanish conquest
painting of Havana Bay, ]]
Christopher Columbus, on his first Spanish-sponsored voyage to the Americas in 1492, sailed south from what is now the Bahamas to explore the northeast coast of Cuba and the northern coast of Hispaniola. Columbus, who was searching for a route to India, believed the island to be a peninsula of the Asian mainland. Columbus arrived at Cuba on October 27, 1492, and he landed on October 28, 1492, at Puerto de Nipe.
During a second voyage in 1494, Columbus passed along the south coast, landing at various inlets including what was to become Guantánamo Bay. With the Papal Bull of 1493, Pope Alexander VI commanded Spain to conquer and convert the pagans of the New World to Catholicism. The Spanish began to create permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, east of Cuba, soon after Columbus' arrival in the Caribbean, but the coast of Cuba was not fully mapped by Europeans until 1508, by Sebastián de Ocampo. In 1511, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar set out from Hispaniola to form the first Spanish settlement in Cuba, with orders from Spain to conquer the island. The settlement was at Baracoa, but the new settlers were greeted with stiff resistance from the local Taíno population. The Taínos were initially organized by cacique (chieftain) Hatuey, who had himself relocated from Hispaniola to escape Spanish rule. After a prolonged guerrilla campaign, Hatuey and successive chieftains were captured and burnt alive, and within three years the Spanish had gained control of the island. In 1514, a south coast settlement was founded in what was to become Havana. The current city was founded in 1519.
Clergyman Bartolomé de las Casas observed a number of massacres initiated by the invaders, notably the massacre near Camagüey of the inhabitants of Caonao. According to his account, some three thousand villagers had traveled to Manzanillo to greet the Spanish with food, and were "without provocation, butchered". The surviving indigenous groups fled to the mountains or the small surrounding islands before being captured and forced into reservations. One such reservation was Guanabacoa, today a suburb of Havana.
, Cuba]]
In 1513, Ferdinand II of Aragon issued a decree establishing the encomienda land settlement system that was to be incorporated throughout the Spanish Americas. Velázquez, who had become Governor of Cuba, was given the task of apportioning the land and the indigenous peoples to groups throughout the new colony. The scheme was not a success, however, as the natives either succumbed to diseases brought from Spain such as measles and smallpox, or simply refused to work, preferring to move into the mountains. However, these new arrivals also dispersed into the wilderness or died of disease. although the native population was largely destroyed as a culture and civilization after 1550. Under the Spanish New Laws of 1552, indigenous Cuban were freed from encomienda, and seven towns for indigenous peoples were set up. There are indigenous descendant Cuban (Taíno) families in several places, mostly in eastern Cuba. The local indigenous population also left their mark on the language, with some 400 Taíno terms and place-names surviving to the present day. For example, Cuba and Havana were derived from Classic Taíno, and indigenous words such as tobacco, hurricane and canoe were transferred to English. African slaves were imported to work the plantations as field labor. However, restrictive Spanish trade laws made it difficult for Cubans to keep up with the 17th and 18th century advances in processing sugar cane until the Haitian Revolution saw French planters flee to Cuba. Spain also restricted Cuba's access to the slave trade, instead issuing foreign merchants asientos to conduct it on Spain's behalf, and ordered regulations on trade with Cuba. The resultant stagnation of economic growth was particularly pronounced in Cuba because of its great strategic importance in the Caribbean, and the stranglehold that Spain kept on it as a result.
Colonial Cuba was a frequent target of buccaneers, pirates and French corsairs. In response to repeated raids, defenses were bolstered throughout the island during the 16th century. In Havana, the fortress of Castillo de los Tres Reyes Magos del Morro was built to deter potential invaders. Havana's inability to resist invaders was dramatically exposed in 1628, when a Dutch fleet led by Piet Heyn plundered the Spanish ships in the city's harbor. In 1662, English pirate Christopher Myngs captured and briefly occupied Santiago de Cuba on the eastern part of the island. In the War of the Austrian Succession, the British carried out unsuccessful attacks against Santiago de Cuba in 1741 and again in 1748. Additionally, a skirmish between British and Spanish naval squadrons occurred near Havana in 1748. When Havana surrendered, the admiral of the British fleet, George Keppel, entered the city as a new colonial governor and took control of the whole western part of the island. The arrival of the British immediately opened up trade with their North American and Caribbean colonies, causing a rapid transformation of Cuban society.
In the 19th century, Cuba became the most important world producer of sugar, thanks to the expansion of slavery and a relentless focus on improving sugar technology. Use of modern refining techniques was especially important because the British Slave Trade Act 1807 abolished the slave trade in the British Empire. The British government set about trying to eliminate the transatlantic slave trade. Under British diplomatic pressure, in 1817 Spain agreed to abolish the slave trade from 1820 in exchange for a payment from London. Cubans rushed to import further slaves in the time legally left to them. Over 100,000 new slaves were imported from Africa between 1816 and 1820. Many Cubans were torn between desire for the profits generated by sugar and a repugnance for slavery. By the end of the 19th century, slavery was abolished.
, among which Cuba was included.]]
When Spain opened the Cuban trade ports, it quickly became a popular place. Cubans began to use water mills, enclosed furnaces, and steam engines to produce higher-quality sugar at a much more efficient pace. The boom in Cuba's sugar industry in the 19th century made it necessary for the country to improve its transportation infrastructure. Many new roads were built, and old roads were quickly repaired. Railroads were built relatively early, easing the collection and transportation of perishable sugar cane. By 1860, Cuba was devoted to growing sugar, having to import all other necessary goods. Cuba was particularly dependent on the United States, which bought 82 percent of its sugar. In 1820, Spain abolished the slave trade, hurting the Cuban economy even more and forcing planters to buy more expensive, illegal, and "troublesome" slaves (as demonstrated by the slave rebellion on the Spanish ship Amistad in 1839). Reformism, annexation, and independence (1800–1898)
In the early 19th century, three major political currents took shape in Cuba: reformism, annexation and independence. Spontaneous and isolated actions added a current of abolitionism. The 1776 Declaration of Independence by the Thirteen Colonies and the successes of the French Revolution of 1789 influenced early Cuban liberation movements, as did the successful revolt of black slaves in Haiti in 1791. One of the first of such movements in Cuba, headed by the free black Nicolás Morales, aimed at gaining equality between "mulatto and whites" and at the abolition of sales taxes and other fiscal burdens. Morales' plot was discovered in 1795 in Bayamo, and the conspirators were jailed.
Reform, autonomy and separatist movements
As a result of the political upheavals caused by the Iberian Peninsular War of 1807–1814 and of Napoleon's invasion of Spain and the removal of Ferdinand VII from the Spanish throne in 1808, a western separatist rebellion emerged among the Cuban Creole aristocracy in 1809 and 1810. One of its leaders, Joaquín Infante, drafted Cuba's first constitution, declaring the island a sovereign state, presuming the rule of the country's wealthy, maintaining slavery as long as it was necessary for agriculture, establishing a social classification based on skin color and declaring Catholicism the official religion. This conspiracy also failed, and the main leaders were deported. In 1812 a mixed-race abolitionist conspiracy arose, organized by José Antonio Aponte, a free-black carpenter. He and others were executed.
The Spanish Constitution of 1812, and the legislation passed by the Cortes of Cádiz after it was set up in 1808, instituted a number of liberal political and commercial policies, which were welcomed in Cuba but also curtailed a number of older liberties. Between 1810 and 1814 the island elected six representatives to the Cortes, in addition to forming a locally elected Provincial Deputation. Nevertheless, the liberal regime and the Constitution proved ephemeral: Ferdinand VII suppressed them when he returned to the throne in 1814 after Napoleon's total defeat. By the end of the 1810s, some Cubans were inspired by the successes of Simón Bolívar in South America and Mexico's criollo independence movement. Numerous secret-societies emerged, most notably the "", founded in 1821 and led by José Francisco Lemus. It aimed to establish the free Republic of Cubanacán, and it had branches in five districts of the island.
In 1823 the society's leaders were arrested and condemned to exile. In the same year, King Ferdinand VII abolished constitutional rule in Spain yet again. As a result, the national militia of Cuba, established by the Constitution and a potential instrument for liberal agitation, was dissolved, a permanent executive military commission under the orders of the governor was created, newspapers were closed, elected provincial representatives were removed and other liberties suppressed.
This suppression, and the success of independence movements in the former Spanish colonies on the North American mainland, led to a notable rise of Cuban nationalism. A number of independence conspiracies developed during the 1820s and 1830s, but all failed. Among these were the "Expedición de los Trece" (Expedition of the 13) in 1826, the "Gran Legión del Aguila Negra" (Great Legion of the Black Eagle) in 1829, the "Cadena Triangular" (Triangular Chain) and the "Soles de la Libertad" (Suns of Liberty) in 1837. Leading national figures in these years included Félix Varela and Cuba's first revolutionary poet, José María Heredia.
Between 1810 and 1826, 20,000 royalist refugees from the Latin American Revolutions arrived in Cuba. They were joined by others who left Florida when Spain ceded it to the United States in 1819. These influxes strengthened loyalist pro-Spanish sentiments.
Antislavery and independence movements
In 1826 the first armed uprising for independence took place in Puerto Príncipe, led by Francisco Agüero Velasco and Andrés Manuel Sánchez. Both were executed, becoming the first popular martyrs of the Cuban independence movement.
The 1830s saw a surge of activity from the reformist movement, whose main leader, José Antonio Saco, stood out for his criticism of Spanish despotism and of the slave trade. Nevertheless, Cubans remained deprived of the right to send representatives to the Spanish parliament, and Madrid stepped up repression.
Under British diplomatic pressure, the Spanish government had pledged to abolish slavery. In this context, Black revolts in Cuba increased, and were put down with mass executions. One of the most significant was the Conspiración de la Escalera (Ladder Conspiracy) in 1843–1844. The Ladder Conspiracy involved free Black persons and enslaved, as well as white intellectuals and professionals. It is estimated that 300 Black and mixed-race persons died from torture, 78 were executed, over 600 were imprisoned and over 400 expelled from the island. José Antonio Saco, one of Cuba's most prominent thinkers, was expelled.
in Havana, Colonial Cuba, 1878]]
Following the 1868–1878 rebellion of the Ten Years' War, all slavery was abolished by 1886. Slave traders looked for others sources of cheap labour, such as Chinese colonists and Indians from Yucatán. Another feature of the population was the number of Spanish-born colonists, known as peninsulares, who were mostly adult males; they constituted between ten and twenty per cent of the population between the middle of the 19th century and the great depression of the 1930s.
Possibility of annexation by the United States
Black unrest and attempts by the Spanish metropolis to abolish slavery motivated many Creoles to advocate Cuba's annexation by the United States, where slavery was still legal. Other Cubans supported the idea due to their desire for American-style economic development and democratic freedom. In 1805, President Thomas Jefferson considered annexing Cuba for strategic reasons, sending agents to the island to negotiate with Captain General Someruelos.
In April 1823, U.S. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams discussed the rules of political gravitation: "if an apple severed by its native tree cannot choose but fall to the ground, Cuba, forcibly disjoined from its own unnatural connection with Spain, and incapable of self-support, can gravitate only towards the North American Union which by the same law of nature, cannot cast her off its bosom". He furthermore warned that "the transfer of Cuba to Great Britain would be an event unpropitious to the interest of this Union". Adams voiced concern that a country outside of North America would attempt to occupy Cuba.
On 2 December 1823, U.S. President James Monroe specifically addressed Cuba and other European colonies in his proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine. Cuba, located just from Key West, Florida, was of interest to the doctrine's founders, as they warned European forces to leave "America for the Americans".
The most outstanding attempts in support of annexation were made by the Venezuelan filibuster General Narciso López, who prepared four expeditions to Cuba in the US. The first two, in 1848 and 1849, failed before departure due to U.S. opposition. The third, made up of some 600 men, managed to land in Cuba and take the central city of Cárdenas, but failed eventually due to a lack of popular support. López's fourth expedition landed in Pinar del Río province with around 400 men in August 1851; the invaders were defeated by Spanish troops and López was executed.
Struggle for independence
(1868–78)]]
In the 1860s, Cuba had two more liberal-minded governors, Serrano and Dulce, who encouraged the creation of a Reformist Party, despite the fact that political parties were forbidden. But they were followed by a reactionary governor, Francisco Lersundi, who suppressed all liberties granted by the previous governors and maintained a pro-slavery regime. On 10 October 1868, the landowner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes declared Cuban independence and freedom for his slaves. This began the Ten Years' War from 1868 to 1878. The Dominican Restoration War (1863–65) brought to Cuba an unemployed mass of former Dominicans who had served with the Spanish Army in the Dominican Republic before being evacuated to Cuba.
With reinforcements and guidance from the Dominicans, the Cuban rebels defeated Spanish detachments, cut railway lines, and gained dominance over vast sections of the eastern portion of the island. The Spanish government used the Voluntary Corps to commit harsh acts against the Cuban rebels, and the Spanish atrocities fuelled the growth of insurgent forces; however, they failed to export the revolution to the west. On 11 May 1873, Ignacio Agramonte was killed by a stray bullet; Céspedes was killed on 27 February 1874. In 1875, Máximo Gómez began an invasion of Las Villas west of a fortified military line, or trocha, bisecting the island. The trocha was built between 1869 and 1872; the Spanish erected it to prevent Gómez to move westward from Oriente province. It was the largest fortification built by the Spanish in the Americas.
Gómez was controversial in his calls to burn sugar plantations to harass the Spanish occupiers. After the American admiral Henry Reeve was killed in 1876, Gómez ended his campaign. By that year, the Spanish government had deployed more than 250,000 troops to Cuba, as the end of the Third Carlist War had freed up Spanish soldiers. On 10 February 1878, General Arsenio Martínez Campos negotiated the Pact of Zanjón with the Cuban rebels, and the rebel general Antonio Maceo's surrender on 28 May ended the war. Spain sustained 200,000 casualties, mostly from disease; the rebels sustained 100,000–150,000 dead and the island sustained over $300 million in property damage. The Pact of Zanjón promised the manumission of all slaves who had fought for Spain during the war, and slavery was legally abolished in 1880. However, dissatisfaction with the peace treaty led to the Little War of 1879–80.
Conflicts in the late 19th century (1886–1900)
Background
During the time of the so-called "Rewarding Truce", which encompassed the 17 years from the end of the Ten Years' War in 1878, fundamental changes took place in Cuban society. With the abolition of slavery in October 1886, former slaves joined the ranks of farmers and urban working class. Most wealthy Cubans lost their rural properties, and many of them joined the urban middle class. The number of sugar mills dropped and efficiency increased, with only companies and the most powerful plantation owners owning them. The numbers of campesinos and tenant farmers rose considerably. Furthermore, American capital began flowing into Cuba, mostly into the sugar and tobacco businesses and mining. By 1895, these investments totalled $50 million. Although Cuba remained Spanish politically, economically it became increasingly dependent on the United States.
These changes also entailed the rise of labour movements. The first Cuban labour organization, the Cigar Makers Guild, was created in 1878, followed by the Central Board of Artisans in 1879, and many more across the island. Abroad, a new trend of aggressive American influence emerged. Secretary of State James G. Blaine placed particular importance on the control of Cuba: "If ever ceasing to be Spanish, Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination".Martí's Insurrection and the start of the warAfter his second deportation to Spain in 1878, the pro-independence Cuban activist José Martí moved to the United States in 1881, where he began mobilizing the support of the Cuban exile community in Florida. He sought a revolution and Cuban independence from Spain, but also lobbied to oppose U.S. annexation of Cuba. Propaganda efforts by the Cuban Junta continued for years and intensified starting in 1895.
After deliberations with patriotic clubs across the United States, the Antilles and Latin America, the Partido Revolucionario Cubano (Cuban Revolutionary Party) was officially proclaimed on 10 April 1892, with the purpose of gaining independence for both Cuba and Puerto Rico. Martí was elected delegate, the highest party position. In Foner's words, "Martí's impatience to start the revolution for independence was affected by his growing fear that the United States would succeed in annexing Cuba before the revolution could liberate the island from Spain".
On 25 December 1894, three ships set sail for Cuba from Fernandina Beach, Florida, loaded with armed men and supplies. Two of the ships were seized by U.S. authorities in early January, but the proceedings went ahead. The insurrection began on 24 February 1895, with uprisings across the island. The uprisings in the central part of the island, such as Ibarra, Jagüey Grande and Aguada, suffered from poor co-ordination and failed; the leaders were captured, some of them deported and some executed. In the province of Havana the insurrection was discovered before it got off and the leaders detained. Thus, the insurgents further west in Pinar del Río were ordered to wait.
Martí, on his way to Cuba, gave the Proclamation of Montecristi in Santo Domingo, outlining the policy for Cuba's war of independence: the war was to be waged by blacks and whites alike; participation of all blacks was crucial for victory; Spaniards who did not object to the war effort should be spared, private rural properties should not be damaged; and the revolution should bring new economic life to Cuba.
On 1 and 11 April 1895, the main rebel leaders landed on two expeditions in Oriente: Major Antonio Maceo and 22 members near Baracoa and Martí, Máximo Gómez and four other members in Playitas. Around that time, Spanish forces in Cuba numbered about 80,000, including 60,000 Spanish and Cuban volunteers. The latter were a locally enlisted force that took care of most of the guard and police duties on the island. By December, 98,412 regular troops had been sent to the island and the number of volunteers had increased to 63,000 men. By the end of 1897, there were 240,000 regulars and 60,000 irregulars on the island. The revolutionaries were far outnumbered. When the Ten Years' War broke out in 1868, some of the same soldiers were assigned to Cuba, importing what had by then become a derogatory Spanish slur. The Cubans adopted the name with pride.
After the Ten Years' War, possession of weapons by private individuals was prohibited in Cuba. Thus, one of the most serious and persistent problems for the rebels was a shortage of suitable weapons. This lack of arms forced them to utilise guerrilla tactics, using the environment, the element of surprise, fast horses and simple weapons such as machetes. Most of their firearms were acquired in raids on the Spaniards. Between 11 June 1895 and 30 November 1897, 60 attempts were made to bring weapons and supplies to the rebels from outside Cuba, but only one succeeded, largely due to British naval protection. By the end of June all of Camagüey was at war. Continuing west, Gómez and Maceo joined up with veterans of the 1868 war, Polish internationalists, General Carlos Roloff and Serafín Sánchez in Las Villas. In mid-September, representatives of the five Liberation Army Corps assembled in Jimaguayú to approve the Jimaguayú Constitution. This constitution established a central government, which grouped the executive and legislative powers into one entity, the Government Council, which was headed by Salvador Cisneros and Bartolomé Masó.
After a period of consolidation in the three eastern provinces, the liberation armies headed for Camagüey and then for Matanzas, outmanoeuvring and deceiving the Spanish Army. The revolutionaries defeated the Spanish general Arsenio Martínez Campos and killed his most trusted general at Peralejo. Campos tried the same strategy he had employed in the Ten Years' War, constructing a broad defensive belt across the island, about long and wide. This line, called the trocha, was intended to limit rebel activities to the eastern provinces, and consisted of a railroad, from Jucaro in the south to Moron in the north, on which armored railcars could travel. At various points along this railroad there were fortifications, posts and barbed wire; booby traps were placed at the locations most likely to be attacked.
For the rebels, it was essential to bring the war to the western provinces of Matanzas, Havana and Pinar del Río, where the island's government and wealth was located.
Unable to defeat the rebels with conventional military tactics, the Spanish government sent Gen. Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau (nicknamed The Butcher), who reacted to these rebel successes by introducing terror methods: periodic executions, mass exiles, and the destruction of farms and crops. These methods reached their height on 21 October 1896, when he ordered all countryside residents and their livestock to gather in various fortified areas and towns occupied by his troops. Hundreds of thousands of people had to leave their homes, creating appalling conditions of overcrowding. This was the first recorded and recognized use of concentration camps where non-combatants were removed from their land to deprive the enemy of succor and then the internees were subjected to appalling conditions. The forced relocation policy was maintained until March 1898. As the war continued, the major obstacle to Cuban success was weapons supply. Although weapons and funding came from within the United States, the supply operation violated American laws, which were enforced by the U.S. Coast Guard; of 71 resupply missions, only 27 got through.
In 1897, the liberation army maintained a privileged position in Camagüey and Oriente, where the Spanish only controlled a few cities. Spanish liberal leader Praxedes Sagasta admitted in May 1897: "After having sent 200,000 men and shed so much blood, we don't own more land on the island than what our soldiers are stepping on". The rebel force of 3,000 defeated the Spanish in various encounters, such as the battle of La Reforma and the surrender of Las Tunas on 30 August, and the Spaniards were kept on the defensive.
As stipulated at the Jimaguayú Assembly two years earlier, a second Constituent Assembly met in La Yaya, Camagüey, on 10 October 1897. The newly adopted constitution decreed that a military command be subordinated to civilian rule. The government was confirmed, naming Bartolomé Masó as president and Domingo Méndez Capote as vice president. Thereafter, Madrid decided to change its policy toward Cuba, replacing Weyler, drawing up a colonial constitution for Cuba and Puerto Rico, and installing a new government in Havana. But with half the country out of its control, and the other half in arms, the new government was powerless and rejected by the rebels.
USS Maine incident
, photographed in 1898]]
The Cuban struggle for independence had captured the North American imagination for years and newspapers had been agitating for intervention with sensational stories of Spanish atrocities. Americans came to believe that Cuba's battle with Spain resembled the United States's Revolutionary War. North American public opinion was very much in favor of intervening for the Cubans.
In January 1898, a riot by Cuban-Spanish loyalists against the new autonomous government broke out in Havana, leading to the destruction of the printing presses of four local newspapers which published articles critical of the Spanish Army. The U.S. Consul-General cabled Washington, fearing for the lives of Americans living in Havana. In response, the battleship was sent to Havana. On 15 February 1898, the Maine was destroyed by an explosion, killing 268 crewmembers. The cause of the explosion has not been clearly established, but the incident focused American attention on Cuba, and President William McKinley and his supporters could not stop Congress from declaring war to "liberate" Cuba. In an attempt to appease the United States, the colonial government ended the forced relocation policy and offered negotiations with the independence fighters. However, the truce was rejected by the rebels and the concessions proved too late. Madrid asked other European powers for help; they refused.
On 11 April 1898, McKinley asked Congress for authority to send U.S. Armed Forces troops to Cuba for the purpose of ending the civil war. On 19 April, Congress passed joint resolutions supporting Cuban independence and disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, demanding Spanish withdrawal, and authorizing military force to help Cuban patriots gain independence. This included from Senator Henry Teller the Teller Amendment, which passed unanimously, stipulating that "the island of Cuba is, and by right should be, free and independent". The amendment disclaimed any intention on the part of the United States to exercise jurisdiction or control over Cuba for other than pacification reasons. War was declared on 20/21 April 1898.Cuban Theatre of the Spanish–American War
Hostilities started hours after the declaration of war when a U.S. contingent under Admiral William T. Sampson blockaded several Cuban ports. The Americans decided to invade Cuba in Oriente where the Cubans were able to co-operate. The first U.S. objective was to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba to destroy Linares' army and Cervera's fleet. To reach Santiago they had to pass through concentrated Spanish defences in the San Juan Hills. Between 22 and 24 June 1898 the Americans landed under General William R. Shafter at Daiquirí and Siboney and established a base. The port of Santiago became the main target of U.S. naval operations, and the American fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season. Nearby Guantánamo Bay was chosen for this purpose and attacked on 6 June. The Battle of Santiago de Cuba, on 3 July 1898, was the largest naval engagement during the Spanish–American War, and resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron.
Resistance in Santiago consolidated around Fort Canosa, while major battles between Spaniards and Americans took place at Las Guasimas on 24 June, and at El Caney and San Juan Hill on 1 July, after which the American advance ground to a halt. Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago. The Americans and Cubans began a siege of the city, which surrendered on 16 July after the defeat of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron. Thus, Oriente fell under the control of Americans and the Cubans, but U.S. General Nelson A. Miles would not allow Cuban troops to enter Santiago, claiming that he wanted to prevent clashes between Cubans and Spaniards. Cuban General Calixto García, head of the mambi forces in the Eastern department, ordered his troops to hold their areas and resigned, writing a letter of protest to General Shafter. On 12 August, the U.S. and Spain signed a protocol of peace, in which Spain agreed to relinquish Cuba. On 10 December 1898, the U.S. and Spain signed the formal Treaty of Paris, recognizing continuing U. S. military occupation. Although the Cubans had participated in the liberation efforts, the United States prevented Cuba from sending representatives to the Paris peace talks or signing the treaty, which set no time limit for U.S. occupation and excluded the Isle of Pines from Cuba. Although the U.S. president had no objection to Cuba's eventual independence, U.S. General William R. Shafter refused to allow Cuban General Calixto García and his rebel forces to participate in the surrender ceremonies in Santiago de Cuba.U.S. occupation (1898–1902)
After the last Spanish troops left the island in December 1898, the government of Cuba was temporarily handed over to the United States on 1 January 1899. The first governor was General John R. Brooke. Unlike Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, the United States did not annex Cuba because of the restrictions imposed in the Teller Amendment.
Political changes
The U.S. administration was undecided on Cuba's future status. Once it had been pried away from the Spaniards it was to be assured that it moved and remained in the U.S. sphere. How this was to be achieved was a matter of intense discussion and annexation was an option. Brooke set up a civilian government, placed U.S. governors in seven newly created departments, and named civilian governors for the provinces as well as mayors and representatives for the municipalities. Many Spanish colonial government officials were kept in their posts. The population were ordered to disarm and, ignoring the Mambi Army, Brooke created the Rural Guard and municipal police corps at the service of the occupation forces. Cuba's judicial powers and courts remained legally based on the codes of the Spanish government. Tomás Estrada Palma, Martí's successor as delegate of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, dissolved the party a few days after the signing of the Paris Treaty. The revolutionary Assembly of Representatives was also dissolved.
Economic changes
Before the United States officially took over the government, it had already begun cutting tariffs on American goods entering Cuba, without granting the same rights to Cuban goods going to the United States. Government payments had to be made in U.S. dollars.
Immediately after the war, there were several serious barriers for foreign businesses attempting to operate in Cuba. The Joint Resolution of 1898, the Teller Amendment, and the Foraker Amendment threatened foreign investment. Eventually, Cornelius Van Horne of the Cuba Company, an early railroad company in Cuba, found a loophole in "revocable permits" justified by preexisting Spanish legislation that effectively allowed railroads to be built in Cuba. General Leonard Wood, the governor of Cuba and a noted annexationist, used this loophole to grant hundreds of franchises, permits, and other concessions to American businesses.
Once the legal barriers were overcome, American investments transformed the Cuban economy. Within two years of entering Cuba, the Cuba Company built a 350-mile railroad connecting the eastern port of Santiago to the existing railways in central Cuba. The company was the largest single foreign investment in Cuba for the first two decades of the twentieth century. By the 1910s it was the largest company in the country. The improved infrastructure allowed the sugar cane industry to spread to the previously underdeveloped eastern part of the country. As many small Cuban sugar cane producers were crippled with debt and damages from the war, American companies were able to quickly and cheaply take over the industry. At the same time, new productive units called centrales could grind up to 2,000 tons of cane a day making large-scale operations most profitable. The large fixed cost of these centrales made them almost exclusively accessible to American companies with large capital stocks. Furthermore, the centrales required a large, steady flow of cane to remain profitable, which led to further consolidation. Cuban cane farmers who had formerly been landowners became tenants on company land. By 1902, 40% of the country's sugar production was controlled by Americans.
With American corporate interests firmly rooted in Cuba, the U.S. tariff system was adjusted accordingly to strengthen trade between the nations. The Reciprocity Treaty of 1903 lowered the U.S. tariff on Cuban sugar by 20%. This gave Cuban sugar a competitive edge in the American marketplace. At the same time, it granted equal or greater concessions on most items imported from the United States. Cuban imports of American goods went from $17 million in the five years before the war, to $38 million in 1905, and eventually to over $200 million in 1918. Likewise, Cuban exports to the United States reached $86 million in 1905 and rose to nearly $300 million in 1918.
Elections and independence
Popular demands for a Constituent Assembly soon emerged. The Constitution was drawn up from November 1900 to February 1901 and then passed by the Assembly. It established a republican form of government, proclaimed internationally recognized individual rights and liberties, freedom of religion, separation between church and state, and described the composition, structure and functions of state powers.
On 2 March 1901, the U.S. Congress passed the Army Appropriations Act, stipulating the conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba. As a rider, this act included the Platt Amendment, which defined the terms of Cuban–U.S. relations until 1934. The amendment provided for a number of rules heavily infringing on Cuba's sovereignty:
* That the government of Cuba shall never enter into any treaty with any foreign power which will impair the independence of Cuba, nor in any manner permit any foreign power to obtain control over any portion of the island.
* That Cuba would contract no foreign debt without guarantees that the interest could be served from ordinary revenues.
* That Cuba consent that the United States may intervene for the preservation of Cuban independence, to protect life, property, and individual liberty, and to discharging the obligations imposed by the treaty of Paris.
* That the Cuban claim to the Isle of Pines (now called Isla de la Juventud) was not acknowledged and to be determined by treaty.
* That Cuba commit to providing the United States "lands necessary for coaling or naval stations at certain specified points to be agreed upon".
On 6 April 1901, the Constituent Assembly rejected the Platt Amendment by a vote of 24 to 2. The United States demanded that this amendment be approved fully and without changes by the Constituent Assembly as an appendix to the new constitution. US Secretary of War Elihu Root told Governor Wood to convey to the Cuban delegates that “they never can have any further government in Cuba, except the intervening Government of the United States, until they have [approved the Platt Amendment].” On 12 June 1901, after heated debate, the Constituent Assembly approved the appendix by a margin of four votes. Wood later admitted privately to US President Roosevelt: "Little or no independence had been left to Cuba with the Platt Amendment and the only thing appropriate was to seek annexation".
In the presidential elections of 31 December 1901, Tomás Estrada Palma, an American still living in the United States, was the only candidate. His adversary, General Bartolomé Masó, withdrew his candidacy in protest against U.S. favoritism and the manipulation of the political machine by Palma's followers. Palma was elected to be the Republic's first President.
Early 20th century (1902–1959)
The U.S. occupation officially ended when Palma took office on 20 May 1902. Havana and Varadero soon became popular tourist resorts. Though some efforts were made to ease Cuba's ethnic tensions through government policies, racism and informal discrimination towards blacks and mestizos remained widespread.
Guantanamo Bay was leased to the United States as part of the Platt Amendment. The status of the Isle of Pines as Cuban territory was left undefined until 1925, when the United States finally recognized Cuban sovereignty over the island. Palma governed successfully for his four-year term; yet when he tried to extend his time in office, a revolt ensued.
The Second Occupation of Cuba, also known as the Cuban Pacification, was a major US military operation that began in September 1906. After the collapse of Palma's regime, US President Roosevelt invaded and established an occupation that would continue for nearly two and a half years. The stated goal of the operation was to prevent fighting between the Cubans, to protect North American economic interests, and to hold free elections. In 1906, the United States representative William Howard Taft negotiated an end of the successful revolt led by the young general Enrique Loynaz del Castillo. Palma resigned and the United States Governor Charles Magoon assumed temporary control until 1909. Following the election of José Miguel Gómez in November 1908, Cuba was deemed stable enough to allow a withdrawal of American troops, which was completed in February 1909.
For three decades, the country was led by former War of Independence leaders, who after being elected did not serve more than two constitutional terms. The Cuban presidential succession was as follows: José Miguel Gómez (1908–1912); Mario García Menocal (1913–1920); Alfredo Zayas (1921–25) and Gerardo Machado (1925–1933).
Under the Liberal Gómez the participation of Afro-Cubans in the political process was curtailed when the Partido Independiente de Color was outlawed and bloodily suppressed in 1912, as American troops reentered the country to protect the sugar plantations. Under Gómez's successor, Mario Menocal of the Conservative Party, income from sugar rose steeply. Menocal's reelection in 1916 was met with armed revolt by Gómez and other Liberals (the so-called "Chambelona War"), prompting the United States to send in Marines. Gómez was defeated and captured and the rebellion was snuffed out.
In World War I, Cuba declared war on Imperial Germany on 7 April 1917, one day after the United States entered the war. Despite being unable to send troops to fight in Europe, Cuba played a significant role as a base to protect the West Indies from German U-boat attacks. A draft law was instituted, and 25,000 Cuban troops raised, but the war ended before they could be sent into action.
Alfredo Zayas was elected president in 1920 and took office in 1921. When the Cuban financial system collapsed after a drop in sugar prices, Zayas secured a loan from the United States in 1922. One historian has concluded that the continued U.S. military intervention and economic dominance had once again made Cuba "a colony in all but name."
Post-World War I
President Gerardo Machado was elected by popular vote in 1925, but he was constitutionally barred from reelection. Machado, determined to modernize Cuba, set in motion several massive civil works projects such as the Central Highway, but at the end of his constitutional term he held on to power. The United States decided not to interfere militarily. In the late 1920s and early 1930s a number of Cuban action groups staged a series of uprisings that either failed or did not affect the capital.
The Sergeants' Revolt undermined the institutions and coercive structures of the oligarchic state. The young and relatively inexperienced revolutionaries found themselves pushed into the halls of state power by worker and peasant mobilisations. Between September 1933 and January 1934 a loose coalition of radical activists, students, middle-class intellectuals, and disgruntled lower-rank soldiers formed a Provisional Revolutionary Government. This coalition was directed by a popular university professor, Dr Ramón Grau San Martín. The Grau government promised a 'new Cuba' which would belong to all classes, and the abrogation of the Platt Amendment. They believed their legitimacy stemmed from the popular support which brought them to power, and not from the approval of the United States Department of State.
To this end, throughout the autumn of 1933, the government decreed a dramatic series of reforms. The Platt Amendment was unilaterally abrogated, and all the political parties of the Machadato were dissolved. The Provisional Government granted autonomy to the University of Havana, women obtained the right to vote, the eight-hour day was decreed, a minimum wage was established for cane-cutters, and compulsory arbitration was promoted. The government created a Ministry of Labour, and a law was passed establishing that 50 per cent of all workers in agriculture, commerce and industry had to be Cuban citizens. The Grau regime set agrarian reform as a priority, promising peasants legal title to their lands. The Provisional Government survived until January 1934, when it was overthrown by an anti-government coalition of right-wing civilian and military elements. Led by a young mestizo sergeant, Fulgencio Batista, this movement was supported by the United States.
1940 Constitution and the Batista era
(left), with US president Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C. in 1948]]
Rise of Batista
In 1940, Cuba conducted free and fair national elections. Fulgencio Batista, was originally endorsed by Communist leaders in exchange for the legalization of the Popular Socialist Party and Communist domination of the labor movement. The reorganization of the labor movement during this time was capped with the establishment of the Confederacion de Trajabadores de Cuba (Confederation of Cuban Workers, or CTC), in 1938. However, in 1947, the Communists lost control of the CTC, and their influence in the trade union movement gradually declined into the 1950s. The assumption of the Presidency by Batista in 1952 and the intervening years to 1958 placed tremendous strain on the labor movement, with some independent union leaders resigning from the CTC in opposition to Batista's rule. The relatively progressivist 1940 Constitution was adopted by the Batista administration. Grau's administration coincided with the end of World War II, and he presided over an economic boom as sugar production expanded and prices rose. He instituted programs of public works and school construction, increasing social security benefits and encouraging economic development and agricultural production. However, increased prosperity brought increased corruption and urban violence. The country was also steadily gaining a reputation as a base for organized crime, with the Havana Conference of 1946 seeing leading Mafia mobsters descend upon the city.
Grau's presidency was followed by that of Carlos Prío Socarrás, whose government was tainted by increasing corruption and violent incidents among political factions. Eduardo Chibás the leader of the Partido Ortodoxo (Orthodox Party), a nationalist group was widely expected to win in 1952 on an anticorruption platform. However, Chibás committed suicide before he could run, and the opposition was left without a unifying leader. Batista seized power in an almost bloodless coup. President Prío was forced to leave Cuba. Due to the corruption of the previous two administrations, the general public reaction to the coup was somewhat accepting at first. However, Batista soon encountered stiff opposition when he temporarily suspended balloting and the 1940 constitution, and attempted to rule by decree. Nonetheless, elections were held in 1954 and Batista was re-elected under disputed circumstances.Economic expansion and stagnationAlthough corruption was rife under Batista, Cuba did flourish economically. Wages rose significantly; with 56% of the population living in cities. Cuba's education spending in the 1950s was the highest in Latin America, relative to GDP.
Cuba's labour regulations ultimately caused economic stagnation. Hugh Thomas asserts that "militant unions succeeded in maintaining the position of unionized workers and, consequently, made it difficult for capital to improve efficiency." Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba increased economic regulation enormously.
Political repression and human rights abuses
In 1952, while receiving military, financial, and logistical support from the United States, Batista suspended the 1940 Constitution and revoked most political liberties, including the right to strike. He then aligned with the wealthiest landowners and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans. Eventually it reached the point where most of the sugar industry was in U.S. hands, and foreigners owned 70% of the arable land. Batista's repressive government then began to systematically profit from the exploitation of Cuba's commercial interests, by negotiating lucrative relationships with both the American Mafia, who controlled the drug, gambling, and prostitution businesses in Havana, and with large U.S.-based multinational companies who were awarded lucrative contracts. To quell the growing discontent amongst the populace—displayed through frequent student riots and demonstrations—Batista established tighter censorship of the media, while also utilizing his Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities secret police to carry out wide-scale violence, torture and public executions. Estimates range from hundreds to about 20,000 people killed.Cuban Revolution (1952–1959)
, Fidel Castro, Huber Matos, entering Havana on 8 January 1959]]
In 1952, Fidel Castro, a young lawyer running for a seat in the Chamber of Representatives for the Partido Ortodoxo, circulated a petition to depose Batista's government on the grounds that it had illegitimately suspended the electoral process. The courts ignored the petition. Castro thus resolved to use armed force to overthrow Batista; he and his brother Raúl gathered supporters, and on 26 July 1953 led an attack on the Moncada Barracks near Santiago de Cuba. The attack ended in failurethe authorities killed several of the insurgents, captured Castro himself and sentenced him to 15 years in prison. However, the Batista government released him in 1955, when amnesty was given to many political prisoners. Castro and his brother subsequently went into exile in Mexico, where they met the Argentine revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevara. While in Mexico, Guevara and the Castros organized the 26 July Movement with the goal of overthrowing Batista. In December 1956, Fidel Castro led a group of 82 fighters to Cuba aboard the yacht Granma. Despite a pre-landing rising in Santiago by Frank País Pesqueira and his followers among the urban pro-Castro movement, Batista's forces promptly killed, dispersed or captured most of Castro's men.
Castro escaped into the Sierra Maestra mountains with as few as 12 fighters, aided by the urban and rural opposition. Castro and Guevara then began a guerrilla campaign against the Batista régime, with their main forces supported by numerous poorly armed escopeteros and the well-armed fighters of Frank País' urban organization. Growing anti-Batista resistance, including a bloodily crushed rising by Cuban Navy personnel in Cienfuegos, soon led to chaos. At the same time, rival guerrilla groups in the Escambray Mountains also grew more effective. Castro attempted to arrange a general strike in 1958, but could not win support among Communists or labor unions. Multiple attempts by Batista's forces to crush the rebels ended in failure. Castro's forces acquired captured weaponry, the biggest being a government M4 Sherman tank, which would be used in the Battle of Santa Clara.
The United States imposed trade restrictions on the Batista administration and sent an envoy who attempted to persuade Batista to leave the country voluntarily. As the revolution became more radical and continued its marginalization of the wealthy and political opponents, thousands of Cubans fled the island, eventually forming a large exile community in the United States.
Government of Fidel Castro (1959–2006)
's July 26 Movement rebels mounted on horses in 1959]]
Political consolidation
On 1 January 1959, Che Guevara marched his troops from Santa Clara to Havana, without encountering resistance. Meanwhile, Fidel Castro marched his soldiers to the Moncada Army Barracks, where all 5,000 soldiers in the barracks defected to the Revolutionary movement.
On April 9, 1959, Fidel Castro declared that elections would be postponed; under the rationale of "revolution first, elections later", inferring Castro needed time for domestic reforms before elections could take place. On October 11, 1959, army officer Huber Matos resigned in protest of communist influence in the Cuban government. After Matos' arrest, a greater trend of political removals followed.
Fidel Castro eventually purged all political opponents from the administration. Loyalty to Castro and the revolution became the primary criterion for all appointments.
Break with the United States
The United States recognized the Castro government on 7 January 1959. President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent a new ambassador, Philip Bonsal, to replace Earl E. T. Smith, who had been close to Batista. The Eisenhower administration, in agreement with the American media and Congress, did this with the assumption that "Cuba [would] remain in the U.S. sphere of influence". However, Castro belonged to a faction which opposed U.S. influence. On 5 June 1958, at the height of the revolution, he had written: "The Americans are going to pay dearly for what they are doing. When the war is over, I'll start a much longer and bigger war of my own: the war I'm going to fight against them." "Castro dreamed of a sweeping revolution that would uproot his country's oppressive socioeconomic structure and of a Cuba that would be free of the United States".
Only six months after Castro seized power, the Eisenhower administration began to plot his overthrow. The United Kingdom was persuaded to cancel a sale of Hawker Hunter fighter aircraft to Cuba. The US National Security Council (NSC) met in March 1959 to consider means to institute a régime-change and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began arming guerillas inside Cuba in May.
</blockquote>
Domestic repression and Soviet relations
, dispersed by a policeman firing his gun. (February 5, 1960)]]
A popular desire for some form of urban-based civil defence cumilated after the explosion of the French freighter La Coubre. Speaking the day after the explosion, at the funeral for 27 dock workers killed, Fidel Castro said that the United States was responsible for the explosion, calling it "the work of those who do not wish us to receive arms for our defense". U.S. Secretary of State Christian Herter denied that on 7 March in a meeting with the Cuban chargé d'affaires in Washington, then delivered a formal note of protest to Cuban Foreign Minister Raul Roa on 15 March.
Relations between the United States and Cuba deteriorated rapidly as the Cuban government, in reaction to the refusal of Royal Dutch Shell, Standard Oil and Texaco to refine petroleum from the Soviet Union in Cuban refineries under their control, took control of those refineries in July 1960. The Eisenhower administration promoted a boycott of Cuba by oil companies; Cuba responded by nationalizing the refineries in August 1960. Cuba expropriated more US-owned properties, notably those belonging to the International Telephone and Telegraph Company (ITT) and to the United Fruit Company. In the Castro government's first agrarian reform law, on 17 May 1959, the state sought to limit the size of land holdings, and to distribute that land to small farmers in "Vital Minimum" tracts. This law served as a pretext for seizing lands held by foreigners and redistributing them to Cuban citizens.
Finally, in September 28, 1960, after a bombing by the Presidential Palace, Castro announced the formation of vigilance organizations to report suspicious activity. This vigilance organization became the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution.
By the end of 1960, all opposition newspapers had been closed down and all radio and television stations had come under state control. The Organization of American States, under pressure from the United States, suspended Cuba's membership on 22 January 1962, and the U.S. government banned all U.S.–Cuban trade on 7 February. The Kennedy administration extended this ban on 8 February 1963, forbidding U.S. citizens to travel to Cuba or to conduct financial or commercial transactions with the country. The United States later pressured other nations and American companies with foreign subsidiaries to restrict trade with Cuba. The Helms–Burton Act of 1996 makes it very difficult for foreign companies doing business with Cuba to also do business in the United States.
Cuba began to pursue more close relations with the Soviet Union. As early as September 1959, Valdim Kotchergin, a KGB agent, was seen in Cuba. Jorge Luis Vasquez, a Cuban who was imprisoned in East Germany, states that the East German Stasi trained the personnel of the Cuban Interior Ministry (MINIT). The relationship between the KGB and the Cuban Intelligence Directorate (DI) was complex and marked by both times of close cooperation and times of extreme competition. The Soviet Union saw the new revolutionary government in Cuba as an excellent proxy agent in areas of the world where Soviet involvement was not popular on a local level. Nikolai Leonov, the KGB chief in Mexico City, was one of the first Soviet officials to recognize Fidel Castro's potential as a revolutionary, and urged the Soviet Union to strengthen ties with the new Cuban leader. The USSR saw Cuba as having far more appeal with new revolutionary movements, western intellectuals, and members of the New Left, given Cuba's perceived David and Goliath struggle against U.S. "imperialism". In 1963, shortly after the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1,500 DI agents, including Che Guevara, were invited to the USSR for intensive training in intelligence operations.Golden exile and Bay of Pigs
invaders at the Bay of Pigs.]]
In the 1961 New Year's Day parade, the Cuban administration exhibited Soviet tanks and other weapons. Cuban officers began to receive extended military training in the Soviet Union, becoming proficient in the use of advanced Soviet weapons systems.
Castro's policies in Cuba slowly led hundreds of thousands of upper- and middle-class Cubans to flee to the United States and other countries. By 1961, thousands of Cubans had fled for the United States. On 22 March of that year, an exile council was formed. The aim of the invasion was to empower existing opposition militant groups to "overthrow the Communist regime" and establish "a new government with which the United States can live in peace." The Kennedy administration thereafter began Operation Mongoose, a covert CIA campaign of sabotage against Cuba, including the arming of militant groups, sabotage of Cuban infrastructure, and plots to assassinate Castro. All this reinforced Castro's distrust of the US.Escalante affair
In July 1961, the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (IRO) was formed, merging Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement with Blas Roca's Popular Socialist Party and Faure Chomón's Revolutionary Directory 13 March. Later, on 26 March 1962, the IRO became the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution (PURSC), which, in turn, became the Communist Party on 3 October 1965, with Castro as First Secretary. The constitution secured the Communist Party's central role in governing Cuba, but kept party affiliation out of the election process.
The creation of the ORI was entrusted to PSP executive secretary Anibal Escalante, who used this opportunity to place PSP executives in positions of power and then purge the army of old guerrilla leaders, and speed up agrarian reforms which caused an economic decline. These actions were unpopular in the country causing Fidel Castro to condemn the ORI and order for its restructuring. At the end of the affair, Castro dismissed Escalante and his compatriots from the IRO.
The affair alarmed the Soviet leadership who feared a loss of good relations with Cuba. Soviet leadership was also growing to fear a possible U.S. invasion of Cuba. In this crisis of international relations the Soviet Union sent more SA-2 anti-aircraft missiles in April as well as a regiment of regular soviet troops. Agricultural diversification led to a steep drop in sugar production, which was a vital market in Cuba.
Following the economic decline brought by the Four Year Plan, Fidel Castro invited leftist economists from all over the world were to print their opinions in economic journals in Cuba about how Cuba should develop into a communist society. The two main spokespeople in the debate were Che Guevara who argued for an independent Cuban model to communism, and Carlos Rafael Rodríguez of the Popular Socialist Party who advocated for more of a "soviet" model towards communism which meant a development of capitalism before socialism and later communism.
This "Great Debate" came to an end when Guevara left Cuba in 1965. The creation of the UMAP camps themselves was initially proposed by Fidel Castro and implemented by his brother Raúl Castro after a state visit to the Soviet Union and Bulgaria, where he learned that the Soviets ran camps for "anti-socials." According to an April 14, 1966 article in Granma, the official state newspaper, UMAP camps were proposed at a November 1965 meeting between Fidel Castro and military leaders. Both were concerned over how to handle "misplaced elements." Emigrants were often forced to serve in labor camps before departure, and all their property was confiscated before their exit from Cuba.
In 1968, the "Revolutionary Offensive" was announced, as a campaign to nationalize all remaining private small businesses, which at the time totaled to be about 58,000 small enterprises. The campaign would spur industrialization in Cuba and focus the economy on sugar production, specifically to a deadline for an annual sugar harvest of 10 million tons by 1970. The economic focus on sugar production involved international volunteers and the mobilization of workers from all sectors of the Cuban economy. Economic mobilization also coincided with greater militarization of Cuban political structures and the Cuban workforce in general, which was put under military command. Some of the small merchants whose enterprises were nationalized in the offensive chose to leave Cuba in the "Freedom Flights" airlift. By 1971, over 250,000 Cubans in general, had flown to the United States in the Freedom Flights. Castro changed economic policies in the first half of the 1970s. The "grey years" are often associated with the tenure of Luis Pavón Tamayo (de) as the head of Cuba's National Cultural Council ("Consejo Nacional de Cuba", or CNC) from 1971 to 1976. The grey years were generally defined by cultural censorship, harassment of intellectuals and artists, Greater monetary influence from the Soviet Union during this time period pressured Cuba into adopting a model of cultural repression that was reflected in Cuba's domestic policy throughout the 1970s. In 1976, a new constitution was also approved. The constitution was modeled off the Soviet system, and introduced the National Assembly of People's Power as the institution of indirect representation in government.
Involvement in Third World conflicts
]]
tank crew on routine security duties in Angola]]
From its inception, the Cuban Revolution defined itself as internationalist, seeking to spread its revolutionary ideals abroad and gain foreign allies. Although still a developing country itself, Cuba supported African, Latin American and Asian countries in the fields of military development, health and education. These "overseas adventures" not only irritated the United States but were also quite often a source of dispute with Cuba's ostensible allies in the Kremlin.
The Sandinista insurgency in Nicaragua, which led to the demise of the Somoza dictatorship in 1979, was openly supported by Cuba. However, it was on the African continent where Cuba was most active, supporting a total of 17 liberation movements or leftist governments, in countries including Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, and Mozambique. Cuba offered to send troops to Vietnam, but the initiative was turned down by the Vietnamese.
Cuba had some 39,000–40,000 military personnel abroad by the late 1970s, with the bulk of the forces in Sub-Saharan Africa but with some 1,365 stationed among Algeria, Iraq, Libya, and South Yemen. By 1982, Cuba possessed the best equipped and largest per capita armed forces in Latin America. Moscow used Cuban surrogate troops in Africa and the Middle East because they had a high level of training for combat in Third World environments, familiarity with Soviet weapons, physical toughness and a tradition of successful guerrilla warfare dating back to the uprisings against Spain in the 19th century. An estimated 7,000–11,000 Cubans died in conflicts in Africa.
As early as 1961, Cuba supported the National Liberation Front in Algeria against France. In 1964, Cuba supported the Simba Rebellion of adherents of Patrice Lumumba in Congo-Leopoldville (present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo).
Its involvement in the Angolan Civil War was particularly intense and noteworthy with heavy assistance given to the Marxist–Leninist MPLA. At the height of its operation, Cuba had as many as 50,000 soldiers stationed in Angola. Cuban soldiers also defeated the FNLA and UNITA armies and established MPLA control over most of Angola. South African Defence Force soldiers were again drawn into the Angolan Civil War in 1987–88, and several inconclusive battles were fought between Cuban and South African forces. Cuban-piloted MiG-23s performed airstrikes against South African forces in South West Africa during the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.
Cuba's presence in Mozambique was more subdued, involving by the mid-1980s 700 Cuban military and 70 civilian personnel. In 1978, in Ethiopia, 16,000 Cuban combatants, along with the Soviet-supported Ethiopian Army, defeated an invasion force of Somalians. but its heaviest casualties came in the irregular war that followed. From March 1978 to November 1979, irregular hostilities claimed, according to the WSLF, 60,000 lives, including 25,000 civilians and 6,000 Cuban soldiers supporting the Ethiopians.}} Assisted by Soviet advisors, the Cubans launched a second offensive in December 1979 directed at the population's means of survival, including the poisoning and destruction of wells and the killing of cattle herds.
Cuba was unable to pay on its own for the costs of its overseas military activities. After it lost its subsidies from the USSR, Cuba withdrew its troops from Ethiopia (1989), Nicaragua (1990), Angola (1991), and elsewhere.
Mariel boatlift
Several attempts by Cubans to seek asylum at the embassies of South American countries set the stage for the events of the spring of 1980. On 21 March 1978, two young Cuban writers who had been punished for dissent and denied permission to emigrate, Reynaldo Colas Pineda and Esteban Luis Cárdenas Junquera, unsuccessfully sought asylum in the Argentine embassy in Havana and were sentenced to two years in prison. On May 13, 1979, 12 Cubans sought to take asylum in the Venezuelan embassy in Havana by crashing their bus through a fence to gain entry to the grounds and the building. In January 1980, groups of asylum seekers took refuge in the Peruvian and Venezuelan embassies, and Venezuela called its ambassador home for consultations to protest that they had been fired on by the Cuban police. In March, Peru recalled its ambassador, who had denied entry to a dozen Cubans who were seeking asylum in his embassy. The Peruvians announced that they would not hand those who were seeking asylum over to Cuban police. The embassy grounds contained two 2-story buildings and gardens covering an area the size of a US football field, or 6,400 square yards
Castro stated ultimately on 20 April that the port of Mariel would be opened to anyone wishing to leave Cuba if they had someone to pick them up. Soon after Castro's decree, many Cuban Americans began making arrangements to pick up refugees in the harbor. On April 21, the first boat from the harbor docked in Key West and held 48 refugees. By April 25 as many as 300 boats were picking up refugees in Mariel Harbor. Cuban officials also packed refugees into Cuban fishing vessels. Around 1,700 boats brought thousands of Cubans from Mariel to Florida between the months of April and October in that year.
Rectification process
In February 1986, at the Congress of the Communist Party of Cuba, Castro proclaimed: "Now, we are going to build socialism". Castro criticized material incentives for laborers. Over the next months continued to criticize the Cuban bureaucracy and laziness. Economic reforms also included restructurings of party management. In 1986, the System of Direction for Economic Planning was made to obey the command of the Politboro of the Communist Party of Cuba.
On October 8, 1987, at the anniversary of Che Guevara's death, Castro gave a speech inferring Guevara would be horrified at the bureaucracy in Cuba, and the lack of patriotic enthusiasm of common workers.
Throughout the rectification process, private businesses became more heavily regulated, farmers markets were banned, material incentives were ended, and the minimum wage was increased.
Special Period
Starting from the mid-1980s, Cuba experienced a crisis referred to as the "Special Period". When the Soviet Union was dissolved in late 1991, a major supporter of Cuba's economy was lost, leaving it essentially paralyzed because of the economy's narrow basis, focused on just a few products with just a few buyers. National oil supplies, which were mostly imported, were severely reduced. Over 80% of Cuba's trade was lost and living conditions declined. A "Special Period in Peacetime" was declared, which included cutbacks on transport and electricity and even food rationing. In response, the United States tightened its trade embargo, hoping it would lead to Castro's downfall. But the government tapped into a pre-revolutionary source of income and opened the country to tourism, entering into several joint ventures with foreign companies for hotel, agricultural and industrial projects. As a result, the use of U.S. dollars was legalized in 1994, with special stores being opened which only sold in dollars. There were two separate economies, dollar-economy and the peso-economy, creating a social split in the island because those in the dollar-economy made much more money. However, in October 2004, the Cuban government announced an end to this policy: from November U.S. dollars would no longer be legal tender, but would instead be exchanged for convertible pesos with a 10% tax payable to the state on the exchange of U.S. dollars.
A Canadian Medical Association Journal paper states that "The famine in Cuba during the Special Period was caused by political and economic factors similar to the ones that caused a famine in North Korea in the mid-1990s. Both countries were run by authoritarian regimes that denied ordinary people the food to which they were entitled when the public food distribution collapsed; priority was given to the elite classes and the military." forcing many Cubans to eat anything they could find. Even domestic cats were reportedly eaten.
Extreme food shortages and electrical blackouts led to a brief period of unrest, including numerous anti-government protests and widespread increases in urban crime. In response, the Cuban Communist Party formed hundreds of "rapid-action brigades" to confront protesters. The Communist Party's publication Granma stated that "delinquents and anti-social elements who try to create disorder ... will receive a crushing reply from the people". In July 1994, 41 Cubans drowned attempting to flee the country aboard a tugboat; the Cuban government was later accused of sinking the vessel deliberately.
Thousands of Cubans protested in Havana during the Maleconazo uprising on 5 August 1994. However, the regime's security forces swiftly dispersed them. After the Maleconazo riots, Fidel Castro announced that any Cubans who wished to leave the island could. Around 5,000 rafters had left earlier in the year but after the announcement around 33,000 rafters left the island. U.S. President Bill Clinton would announce that any rafters intercepted at sea would be detained at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. Around 200,000 rafters would be detained at the base.
Recovery and new diplomacy
Although contacts between Cubans and foreign visitors were made legal in 1997, extensive censorship had isolated it from the rest of the world. In 1997, a group led by Vladimiro Roca, son of the founder of the Cuban Communist Party, sent a petition, entitled La Patria es de Todos ("the homeland belongs to all") to the Cuban general assembly, requesting democratic and human rights reforms. Roca and his associates were imprisoned but were eventually released. I
Though it was largely diplomatically isolated from the West at this time, Cuba nonetheless cultivated regional allies. After the rise to power of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela in 1999, Cuba and Venezuela formed an increasingly close relationship.
In December 1999, during a Federation of University Students meeting, a student announced a spontaneous march to the Office of American Interests in Havana to demand the return of Elián González. A few days after the march the "Group of the Battle of Ideas" was formed by the Young Communist League and the Federation of University Students. The group began organizing demonstrations across Cuba for the return of Elián González. After González's return, the group began regularly meeting with Fidel Castro to oversee various construction projects and government meetings in Cuba. Fidel Castro ensured that the group had special authorities, and could bypass the approval of various ministries. What followed was a political campaign titled the "Battle of Ideas", which focused on human development, and youth mobilization. Various improvement projects were conducted in regards to education and healthcare. Cuba also began forging closer diplomatic ties with Pink tide governments, often providing them medical services. Over 30,000 health workers would be deployed overseas by 2007.
n 2001, a group of Cuban activists collected thousands of signatures for the Varela Project, a petition requesting a referendum on the island's political process, which was openly supported by former U.S. President Jimmy Carter. The petition gathered sufficient signatures to be considered by the Cuban government, but was rejected on an alleged technicality. Instead, a plebiscite was held in which it was formally proclaimed that Castro's brand of socialism would be perpetual.
In 2003, Castro cracked down on independent journalists and other dissidents in an episode which became known as the "Black Spring". The government imprisoned 75 dissident thinkers, including journalists, In 2008, Cuba was struck by three separate hurricanes, in the most destructive hurricane season in the country's history; over 200,000 were left homeless, and over US$5 billion of property damage was caused.Improving foreign relations
In July 2012, Cuba received its first American goods shipment in over 50 years, following the partial relaxation of the U.S. embargo to permit humanitarian shipments. In July 2013, Cuba became embroiled in a diplomatic scandal after Chong Chon Gang, a North Korean ship illegally carrying Cuban weapons, was impounded by Panama.
The severe economic strife suffered by Venezuela in the mid-2010s lessened its ability to support Cuba, and may ultimately have contributed to the thawing of Cuban-American relations. In December 2014, after a highly publicized exchange of political prisoners between the United States and Cuba, U.S. President Barack Obama announced plans to re-establish diplomatic relations, In April 2015, the U.S. government announced that Cuba would be removed from its list of state sponsors of terrorism. The U.S. embassy in Havana was formally reopened in August 2015.
Economic reforms
As of 2015, Cuba remains one of the few officially socialist states in the world. Though it remains diplomatically isolated and afflicted by economic inefficiency, major currency reforms were begun in the 2010s, and efforts to free up domestic private enterprise are now underway. Living standards in the country have improved significantly since the turmoil of the Special Period, with GDP per capita in terms of purchasing power parity rising from less than US$2,000 in 1999 to nearly $10,000 in 2010. Tourism has furthermore become a significant source of prosperity for Cuba.
Despite the reforms, Cuba remains afflicted by chronic shortages of food and medicines. The electrical and water services are still unreliable. In July 2021, protests erupted over these problems and the government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, but primarily because of the historical government oppression, profound lack of opportunities, and repression of personal liberties. Presidency of Diaz-Canel (2018–present)
in 2023.]]
Fidel Castro was succeeded both as the leader of the ruling Communist party in 2011 and as the country's president in 2008 by his brother, Raúl Castro. In 2018, Miguel Díaz-Canel took over from Raúl Castro as president. In April 2021, Díaz-Canel succeeded Raúl Castro also as the leader of the party. He is the first person to hold both the Cuban presidency and the leadership of the Communist Party (PCC) without being a member of the Castro family.
A series of protests against the Cuban government and the Communist Party of Cuba began on 11 July 2021, triggered by a shortage of food and medicine and the government's response to the resurgent COVID-19 pandemic in Cuba. The protests were the largest anti-government demonstrations since the Maleconazo in 1994.<!-- Empty reference <ref name":1" />See also
* History of the Caribbean
* History of Cuban nationality
* History of Latin America
* List of colonial governors of Cuba
* List of Cuba hurricanes
* List of presidents of Cuba
* Politics of Cuba
* Spanish Empire
* Spanish colonization of the Americas
* Timeline of Cuban history
Notes
References
*
*Bibliography and further reading
* Castillo Ramos, Ruben (1956). "Muerto Edesio, El rey de la Sierra Maestra". Bohemia XLVIII No. 9 (12 August 1956). pp. 52–54, 87.
*
*
* De Paz Sánchez, Manuel Antonio; Fernández, José; López, Nelson (1993–1994). El bandolerismo en Cuba (1800–1933). Presencia canaria y protesta rural. Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Two volumes.
* Foner, Philip S. (1962). A History of Cuba and its Relations with the United States.
* Franklin, James (1997). Cuba and the United States: A Chronological History. Ocean Press.
* Gleijeses, Piero (2002). Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976. University of North Carolina Press. 552 pp.
* Gott, Richard. (2004). Cuba: A New History.
* Hernández, Rafael and Coatsworth, John H., eds. (2001). Culturas Encontradas: Cuba y los Estados Unidos. Harvard University Press. 278 pp.
* Hernández, José M. (1993). Cuba and the United States: Intervention and Militarism, 1868–1933. University of Texas Press. 288 pp.
* Johnson, Willis Fletcher (1920). The History of Cuba. New York: B.F. Buck & Company, Inc.
* Kapcia, Antoni. (2021) A Short History of Revolutionary Cuba: Revolution, Power, Authority and the State from 1959 to the Present Day
* Kirk, John M. and McKenna, Peter (1997). Canada–Cuba Relations: The Other Good Neighbor Policy. University Press of Florida. 207 pp.
* McPherson, Alan (2003). Yankee No! Anti-Americanism in U.S.–Latin American Relations. Harvard University Press. 257 pp.
* Morley, Morris H. and McGillian, Chris. Unfinished Business: America and Cuba after the Cold War, 1989–2001. Cambridge University Press. 253 pp.
* Offner, John L. (2002). An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895–1898. University of North Carolina Press, 1992. 306 pp.
* Paterson, Thomas G. (1994). Contesting Castro: The United States and the Triumph of the Cuban Revolution. Oxford University Press. 352 pp.
* Pérez, Louis A., Jr. (1998). The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography. University of North Carolina Press. 192 pp.
* Pérez, Louis A. (1990). Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy. University of Georgia Press. 314 pp.
* Perez, Louis A. (1989). Lords of the Mountain: Social Banditry and Peasant Protest in Cuba, 1878–1918. Pitt Latin American Series: University of Pittsburgh Press. .
* Schwab, Peter (1999). Cuba: Confronting the U.S. Embargo. New York: St. Martin's. 226 pp.
* Staten, Clifford L. (2005). The History of Cuba. Palgrave Essential Histories.
* Thomas, Hugh (1998). Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom. .
* Tone, John Lawrence (2006). War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895–1898.
* Walker, Daniel E. (2004). No More, No More: Slavery and Cultural Resistance in Havana and New Orleans. University of Minnesota Press. 188 pp.
* Whitney, Robert W. (2001). State and Revolution in Cuba: Mass Mobilization and Political Change, 1920–1940. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press. .
* Zeuske, Michael (2004). Insel der Extreme: Kuba im 20. Jahrhundert. Zürich: Rotpunktverlag. .
* Zeuske, Michael (2004). Schwarze Karibik: Sklaven, Sklavereikulturen und Emanzipation. Zürich: Rotpunktverlag. .
* Danielle Bleitrach, Viktor Dedaj, Jacques-François Bonaldi. Cuba est une île, Cuba es una isla, Le Temps des cerises, 2004. .
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120208125248/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552531 Post-USSR: Modern Cuban Struggles], 1991 video from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
* [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f/g/a/2009/03/04/petercoyote030409.DTL&typeprintable Reflecting on Cuba's Bloody History]. Peter Coyote. San Francisco Chronicle. 4 March 2009.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160224063257/http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/stryker/ Deena Stryker Photographs of Cuba, 1963–1964 and undated] – Duke University Libraries Digital Collections
* [http://merrick.library.miami.edu/cubanHeritage/manuscript/ Cuban Historical and Literary Manuscript Collection] – University of Miami libraries Digital Collections
* [http://www.cubasettlers.com/ American Settlers in Cuba] – Historic photographs and information on American settlers in Cuba before the Revolution
*
* [https://compass.fivecolleges.edu/collections/digital-photographic-archive-historic-havana/ Digital Photographic Archive of Historic Havana]- a digital archive of 1055 significant buildings in the Historic Center of Havana
Category:History of the Spanish West Indies | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Cuba | 2025-04-05T18:27:21.280652 |
5588 | Economy of Cuba | 9,860,000 (2024)
| gdp = $100.023 billion (nominal, 2018)
* $137 billion (2017 est.)}}
| gdp rank =
| per capita = $11,255 (nominal, 2021)
* $12,300 (2016 est.)
| hdi = 0.764 (2021) (83rd)
* N/A IHDI (2021)}}
| labor = 5,088,527 (2019)
* State sector 72.3%, non-state sector 27.7% in 2017}}
| unemployment = 2.6% (2017 est.)}}
| imports $2.06 billion (2017 est.)}}
| FDI = NA Foreign direct investment in various Cuban economic sectors increased before 2018. As of 2021, Cuba's private sector is allowed to operate in most sectors of the economy. Investment is restricted and requires approval by the government. In 2021, Cuba ranked 83rd out of 191 on the Human Development Index in the high human development category. , the country's public debt comprised 35.3% of GDP, inflation (CDP) was 5.5%, and GDP growth was 3%. Housing and transportation costs are low. Cubans receive government-subsidized education, healthcare, and food subsidies.
Historically, Cuba was one of the most prosperous Latin American countries. At the time of the Cuban Revolution of 1953–1959, during the military dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista, Cuba's GDP per capita was ranked 7th of 47 Latin American economies. Its income distribution compared favorably with that of other Latin American countries. However, "available data must be viewed cautiously and assumed to portray merely a rough approximation of conditions at the time," according to Susan Eckstein. There were profound social inequalities between city and countryside and between whites and blacks, with trade and unemployment problems. According to an American PBS program, "[o]n the eve of Fidel Castro's 1959 revolution, Cuba was neither the paradise that would later be conjured by the nostalgic imaginations of Cuba's many exiles nor the hellhole painted by many supporters of the revolution." The socialist revolution was followed by the ongoing United States embargo against Cuba, described as "the oldest and most comprehensive US economic sanctions regime against any country in the world."
Between 1970 and 1985, Cuba sustained high rates of growth: "Cuba had done remarkably well in terms of satisfying basic needs (especially education and health)" and "was actually following the World Bank recipe from the 1970s: redistribution with growth". During the Cold War, the Cuban economy was heavily dependent on subsidies from the Soviet Union, amounting to 10% to 40% of Cuban GDP in various years, and valued at $65 billion in total from 1960 to 1990, over three times the total U.S. economic aid to Latin America through the Alliance for Progress. While the massive Soviet subsidies funded Cuba's enormous state budget, they did not sufficiently develop a self-sustaining Cuban economy. Described by economists as "a relatively highly developed Latin American export economy" in 1959 and the early 1960s, Cuba's fundamental economic structure changed very little from the Revolution to 1990. Cigars and cigarettes were the only manufactured products among Cuba's leading exports, produced mostly by pre-industrial piecework. The economy remained inefficient and over-specialized in a few commodities purchased by the Eastern Bloc countries.
Following the fall of the Soviet Union, Cuba's GDP declined by 33% between 1990 and 1993, partially due to the loss of Soviet subsidies augmented by a crash in sugar prices in the early 1990s. This economic crisis is known as the Special Period. Cuba's economy rebounded in the early 2000s due to a combination of marginal liberalization of the economy and heavy subsidies from the government of Venezuela, which provided Cuba with low-cost oil and other subsidies worth up to 12% of Cuban GDP annually. The country's economy had grown rapidly in the early part of the century, fueled by the sale of sugar to the United States.
Before the Cuban Revolution, in 1958, Cuba had a per-capita GDP of $2,363, which placed it in the middle of Latin American countries. According to the UN, between 1950 and 1955, Cuba had a life expectancy of 59.4 years, which placed it in 56th place in the global ranking.
Its proximity to the United States made it a familiar holiday destination for wealthy Americans. Their visits for gambling, horse racing, and golfing made tourism an important economic sector. Tourism magazine Cabaret Quarterly described Havana as "a mistress of pleasure, the lush and opulent goddess of delights".
Early economic planning (1959-1967)
On 3 March 1959, Fidel Castro seized control of the Cuban Telephone Company, which was a subsidiary of the International Telephone and Telecommunications Corporation. This was the first of many nationalizations made by the new government; the assets seized totaled US$9 billion.
After the 1959 Revolution, citizens were not required to pay a personal income tax (their salaries being regarded as net of any taxes). The government also began to subsidize healthcare and education for all citizens; this action created strong national support for the new revolutionary government.
The USSR and Cuba reestablished their diplomatic relations in May 1960. When oil refineries like Shell, Texaco, and Esso refused to refine Soviet oil, Castro nationalized that industry as well, taking over the refineries on the island. Days later in response, the United States cut the Cuban sugar quota completely; Eisenhower was quoted saying "This action amounts to economic sanctions against Cuba. Now we must look ahead to other economic, diplomatic, and strategic moves." General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev consolidated Cuba's dependence on the USSR when, in 1973, Castro caved to Brezhnev's pressure to become a full member of Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon). Comecon deemed Cuba one of its underdeveloped member countries and therefore Cuba could obtain oil in direct exchange for sugar at a rate that was highly favorable to Cuba. In July 1970, after the harvest was over, Castro took responsibility for the failure, but later that same year, shifted the blame toward the Sugar Industry Minister saying "Those technocrats, geniuses, super-scientists assured me that they knew what to do to produce the ten million tons. But it was proven, first, that they did not know how to do it and, second, that they exploited the rest of the economy by receiving large amounts of resources ... while there are factories that could have improved with a better distribution of those resources that were allocated to the Ten-Million-Ton plan".
During the Revolutionary period, Cuba was one of the few developing countries to provide foreign aid to other countries. Foreign aid began with the construction of six hospitals in Peru in the early 1970s. It expanded later in the 1970s to the point where some 8000 Cubans worked in overseas assignments. Cubans built housing, roads, airports, schools, and other facilities in Angola, Ethiopia, Laos, Guinea, Tanzania, and other countries. By the end of 1985, 35,000 Cuban workers had helped build projects in some 20 Asian, African, and Latin American countries.
Special Period (1991-1994)
The Cuban gross domestic product declined at least 35% between 1989 and 1993 due to the loss of 80% of its trading partners and Soviet subsidies. This loss of subsidies coincided with a collapse in world sugar prices. Sugar had done well from 1985 to 1990, crashed precipitously in 1990 and 1991 and did not recover for five years. Cuba had been insulated from world sugar prices by Soviet price guarantees. However, the Cuban economy began to improve again following a rapid improvement in trade and diplomatic relations between Cuba and Venezuela following the election of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela in 1998, who became Cuba's most important trading partner and diplomatic ally.
This era was referred to as the "Special Period in Peacetime", Other reports painted an equally dismal picture, describing Cubans having to resort to eating anything they could find, from Havana Zoo animals to domestic cats. But although the collapse of centrally planned economies in the Soviet Union and other countries of the Eastern bloc subjected Cuba to severe economic difficulties, which led to a drop in calories per day from 3052 in 1989 to 2600 in 2006, mortality rates were not strongly affected thanks to the priority given on maintaining a social safety net.
Reforms and recovery (1994-2011)
The government undertook several reforms to stem excess liquidity, increase labor incentives, and alleviate serious shortages of food, consumer goods, and services. To alleviate the economic crisis, the government introduced a few market-oriented reforms, including opening to tourism, allowing foreign investment, legalizing the U.S. dollar, and authorizing self-employment for some 150 occupations. (This policy was later partially reversed so that while the U.S. dollar is no longer accepted in businesses, it remains legal for Cubans to hold the currency.) These measures resulted in modest economic growth. The liberalized agricultural markets were introduced in October 1994, at which state and private farmers sell above-quota production at free market prices, broadened legal consumption alternatives, and reduced black market prices.
Government efforts to lower subsidies to unprofitable enterprises and to shrink the money supply caused the semi-official exchange rate for the Cuban peso to move from a peak of 120 to the dollar in the summer of 1994 to 21 to the dollar by year-end 1999. The drop in GDP halted in 1994 when Cuba reported 0.7% growth, followed by increases of 2.5% in 1995 and 7.8% in 1996. Growth slowed again in 1997 and 1998 to 2.5% and 1.2% respectively. One of the key reasons was the failure to notice that sugar production had become uneconomic. Reflecting on the Special Period, Cuban president Fidel Castro later admitted that many mistakes had been made, "The country had many economists, and it is not my intention to criticize them, but I would like to ask why we hadn't discovered earlier that maintaining our levels of sugar production would be impossible. The Soviet Union collapsed, oil cost $40 a barrel, and sugar prices were at basement levels, so why did we not rationalize the industry?" Living conditions in 1999 remained well below the 1989 level.
of Cuba and some other Caribbean countries, based on Maddison and current Cuban statistics ]]
Due to the continued growth of tourism, growth began in 1999 with a 6.2% increase in GDP. Growth then picked up, with a growth in GDP of 11.8% in 2005 according to government figures. In 2007 the Cuban economy grew by 7.5%, higher than the Latin American average. Accordingly, the cumulative growth in GDP since 2004 stood at 42.5%.
However, starting in 1996, the government imposed income taxes on self-employed Cubans.
Every year the United Nations holds a vote asking countries to choose if the United States is justified in its economic embargo against Cuba and whether it should be lifted. 2016 was the first year that the United States abstained from the vote, rather than voting no, "since 1992 the US and Israel have constantly voted against the resolution – occasionally supported by the Marshall Islands, Palau, Uzbekistan, Albania and Romania". In its 2020 report to the United Nations, Cuba stated that the total cost to Cuba from the United States embargo is $144 billion since its inception. Post-Fidel Castro reforms (2011-present)
In 2011, "[t]he new economic reforms were introduced, effectively creating a new economic system", which the Brookings Institution dubbed the "New Cuban Economy". Since then, over 400,000 Cubans have signed up to become entrepreneurs. the government listed 181 official jobs no longer under their control—such as taxi driver, construction worker and shopkeeper. Workers must purchase licenses to work for some roles, such as a mule driver, palm-tree trimmer, or well digger. Despite these openings, Cuba maintains nationalized companies for the distribution of all essential amenities (water, power, etc.) and other essential services to ensure a healthy population (education, health care).
Around 2000, half the country's sugar mills closed. Before reforms, imports were double exports, doctors earned £15 per month, and families supplemented incomes with extra jobs. After reforms, more than 150,000 farmers could lease land from the government for surplus crop production. Before the reforms, the only real estate transactions involved homeowners swapping properties; reforms legalized the buying and selling of real estate and created a real estate boom in the country. In 2012 a Havana fast-food burger/pizza restaurant, La Pachanga, started in the owner's home; it served 1,000 meals on a Saturday at £3 each. Tourists can now ride factory steam locomotives through closed sugar mills.
In 2008, Raúl Castro's administration hinted that the purchase of computers, DVD players, and microwaves would become legal; however, monthly wages remain less than 20 U.S. dollars. Mobile phones, which had been restricted to Cubans working for foreign companies and government officials, were legalized in 2008.
To remedy Cuba's economic structural distortions and inefficiencies, the Sixth Congress approved an expansion of the internal market and access to global markets on 18 April 2011. A comprehensive list of changes is:
* expenditure adjustments (education, healthcare, sports, culture)
* change in the structure of employment; reducing inflated payrolls and increasing work in the non-state sector
* legalizing 201 different personal business licenses
* fallow state land in usufruct leased to residents
* incentives for non-state employment, as a re-launch of self-employment
* proposals for the formation of non-agricultural cooperatives
* legalization of the sale and private ownership of homes and cars
* greater autonomy for state firms
* search for food self-sufficiency, the gradual elimination of universal rationing and change to targeting the poorest population
* possibility to rent state-run enterprises (including state restaurants) to self-employed persons
* separation of state and business functions
* tax-policy update
* easier travel for Cubans
* strategies for external debt restructuring
On 20 December 2011, a new credit policy allowed Cuban banks to finance entrepreneurs and individuals wishing to make major purchases to make home improvements in addition to farmers. "Cuban banks have long provided loans to farm cooperatives, they have offered credit to new recipients of farmland in usufruct since 2008, and in 2011 they began making loans to individuals for business and other purposes".
The system of rationed food distribution in Cuba was known as the Libreta de Abastecimiento ("Supplies booklet"). ration books at bodegas still procured rice, oil, sugar, and matches above the government average wage of £15 monthly.
Raúl Castro signed Law 313 in September 2013 to set up a special economic zone, the first in the country, in the port city of Mariel. The zone is exempt from normal Cuban economic legislation. The convertible peso (CUC) was no longer issued from 1 January 2021 and ceased circulation on 30 December 2021.
The achievements of the radical social policy of socialist Cuba, which enabled social advancement for the formerly underprivileged classes, were curbed by the economic crisis and the low wages of recent decades. The socialist leadership is reluctant to tackle this problem because it touches a core aspect of its revolutionary legitimacy. As a result, Cuba's National Bureau of Statistics (ONE) publishes little data on the growing socio-economic divide. A nationwide scientific survey shows that social inequalities have become increasingly visible in everyday life and that the Afro-Cuban population is structurally disadvantaged. The report notes that while 58 percent of white Cubans have incomes of less than $3,000 a year, that proportion reaches 95 percent among Afro-Cubans. Afro-Cubans, moreover, receive a very limited portion of family remittances from the Cuban-American community in South Florida, which is mostly white. Remittances from family members from abroad serve often as starting capital for the emerging private sector. The most lucrative branches of business, such as restaurants and lodgings, are run by white people in particular.
In February 2019, Cuban voters approved a new constitution granting the right to private property and greater access to free markets while also maintaining Cuba's status as a socialist state. Since 2014, the Cuban economy has seen a dramatic uptick in foreign investment.
In February 2021, the Cuban Cabinet authorized private initiatives in more than 1,800 occupations.
The Cuban economy was negatively affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as by additional sanctions from the United States imposed by the Trump administration. In 2020, the country's economy declined by 11%, the country's worst decline in nearly 30 years. Cubans have faced shortages of basic goods as a result.
In 2011, China forgave $6 billion in debt owed to it by Cuba.
In 2013, Mexico's Finance Minister Luis Videgaray announced a loan issued by Mexico's foreign trade development bank Bancomext to Cuba more than 15 years prior was worth $487 million. The governments agreed to "waive" 70% of it, approximately $340.9 million. Cuba would repay the remaining $146.1 million over ten years.
In 2014, before making a diplomatic visit to Cuba, Russian President Vladimir Putin forgave over 90% of the debt owed to Russia by Cuba. The forgiveness totaled $32 billion. A remaining $3.2 billion would be paid over ten years.
In 2018, during a diplomatic visit to Cuba, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam Nguyễn Phú Trọng wrote off Cuba's official debt to Vietnam. The forgiveness totaled $143.7 million.
In 2019, Cuba once again defaulted on its Paris Club debt. Of the estimated payment due in 2019 of $80 million, Cuba made only a partial payment that left $30 million owed for that year. Cuban Deputy Prime Minister Ricardo Cabrisas wrote a letter to Odile Renaud-Basso, president of the Paris Club, noting that Cuba was aware that "circumstances dictated that we were not able to honour our commitments with certain creditor countries as agreed in the multilateral Minute signed by the parties in December 2015". He maintained that they had "the intention of settling" the payments in arrears by 31 May 2020.
In May 2020, with payments still not made, Deputy PM Cabrisas sent a letter to the fourteen Paris Club countries in the agreement requesting "a moratorium (of payments) for 2019, 2020 and 2021 and a return to paying in 2022". As of Aug 2023, payments had still not resumed with a new payment calendar still being negotiated.SectorsEnergyAs of 2011, 96% of electricity was produced from fossil fuels. Solar panels were introduced in some rural areas to reduce blackouts, brownouts, and the use of kerosene. Citizens were encouraged to swap inefficient lamps with newer models to reduce consumption. A power tariff reduced inefficient use.
In 2007, Cuba produced an estimated 16.89 billion kWh of electricity and consumed 13.93 billion kWh with no exports or imports.
About 25% of Cuba's electricity is generated on ships with floating power plants. As of 2023, eight powerships from Turkey provide 770 MW from burning oil.
The Energy Revolution is a program begun by Cuba in 2005. Cuba's energy sector lacks the resources to produce optimal amounts of power. One of the issues the Energy Revolution program faces comes from Cuba's power production suffering from the absence of investment and the ongoing trade sanctions imposed by the United States. Likewise, the energy sector has received a multimillion-dollar investment distributed among a network of power resources. However, customers are experiencing rolling blackouts of power from energy companies to preserve electricity during Cuba's economic crisis. The electrical grid was restored to only 90% until 2009.
The country frequently suffers rolling blackouts due to fuel shortages, and many plants are shut down due to a lack of fuel. In October 2024, the entire country suffered a multiday electricity blackout when the Antonio Guiteras power plant failed and efforts to restart the grid were not successful.
Renewable energy
Renewable energy has become a major priority as the government has promoted wind and solar power. Under a March 2017 law, the Cuban government has begun to roll out solar panels to every home in Cuba.
Oil and gas
As of August 2012, off-shore petroleum exploration of promising formations in the Gulf of Mexico had been unproductive, with two failures reported. Additional exploration is planned.
In both 2007 and 2008 estimates, the country produced 62,100 bbl/d of oil and consumed 176,000 bbl/d with 104,800 bbl/d of imports, as well as 197,300,000 bbl proved reserves of oil. and 80–84% of the food it rations to the public. Raúl Castro ridiculed the bureaucracy that shackled the agriculture sector. A rally in sugar prices in 2009 stimulated investment and development of sugar processing.
In 2003 Cuba's biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry was gaining in importance. Among the products sold internationally are vaccines against various viral and bacterial pathogens. For example, the drug Heberprot-P was developed as a cure for diabetic foot ulcer and had success in many developing countries. Cuba has also done pioneering work on the development of drugs for cancer treatment.
Scientists such as V. Verez-Bencomo were awarded international prizes for their biotechnology and sugar cane contributions.
Biotechnology
Cuba's biotechnology sector developed in response to the limitations on technology transfer, international financing, and international trade resulting from the United States embargo. The Cuban biotechnology sector is entirely state-owned. By 2012, some 3 million visitors brought nearly £2 billion yearly.
The growth of tourism has had social and economic repercussions. This led to speculation of the emergence of a two-tier economy and the fostering of a state of tourist apartheid. This situation was exacerbated by the influx of dollars during the 1990s, potentially creating a dual economy based on the dollar (the currency of tourists) on the one hand and the peso on the other. Scarce imported goods – and even some local manufactures, such as rum and coffee – could be had at dollar-only stores but were hard to find or unavailable at peso prices. As a result, Cubans who earned only in the peso economy, outside the tourist sector, were at a disadvantage. Those with dollar incomes based upon the service industry began to live more comfortably. This widened the gap between Cubans' material living standards, conflicting with the Cuban government's long-term socialist policies.
Retail
Cuba has a small retail sector. A few large shopping centers operated in Havana as of September 2012 but charged US prices. Pre-Revolutionary commercial districts were largely shut down. Most stores are small dollar stores, bodegas, agro-mercados (farmers' markets), and street stands.
Finance
The financial sector remains heavily regulated, and access to credit for entrepreneurial activity is seriously impeded by the shallowness of the financial market.
Foreign investment and trade
in 2023, Canada receives the largest share of Cuban exports (30.6%), 70 to 80% of which go through Indiana Finance BV, a company owned by the Van 't Wout family, who have close personal ties with Fidel Castro. This trend can be seen in other colonial Caribbean communities with direct political ties with the global economy. Cuba's primary import partner is Venezuela. The second-largest trade partner is China, with a 16.9% share of the Cuban export market.
Cuba's average tariff rate is 10 percent. As of 2014, the country's planned economy deterred foreign trade and investment. At this point, the state maintained strict capital and exchange controls. In 2017, however, the country reported a record 2 billion in foreign investment. It was also reported that foreign investment in Cuba had increased dramatically since 2014.
]]
Currencies
From 1994 until 2021, Cuba had two official currencies: the national peso (or CUP) and the convertible peso (or CUC, often called "dollar" in the spoken language). In January 2021, however, a long-awaited process of currency unification began, with Cuban citizens being given six months to exchange their remaining CUCs at a rate of one to every 24 CUPs.
In 1994 the possession and use of US dollars were legalized, and by 2004 the US dollar was in widespread use in the country. To capture the hard currency flowing into the island through tourism and remittances – estimated at $500–800 million annually – the government set up state-run "dollar stores" throughout Cuba that sold "luxury" food, household, and clothing items, compared with necessities, which could be bought using national pesos. As such, the standard of living diverged between those with access to dollars and those without. Jobs that could earn dollar salaries or tips from foreign businesses and tourists became highly desirable. Meeting doctors, engineers, scientists, and other professionals working in restaurants or as taxicab drivers was common.
However, in response to stricter economic sanctions by the US and because the authorities were pleased with Cuba's economic recovery, the Cuban government decided in October 2004 to remove US dollars from circulation. In its place, the convertible peso was created, which, although not internationally traded, had a value pegged to the US dollar 1:1. A 10% surcharge was levied for cash conversions from US dollars to the convertible peso, which did not apply to other currencies, thus acting as an encouragement for tourists to bring currencies such as euros, pounds sterling or Canadian dollars into Cuba. An increasing number of tourist zones accept Euros.
Private businesses
Owners of small private restaurants (paladares) originally could seat no more than 12 people and can only employ family members. Set monthly fees must be paid regardless of income earned, and frequent inspections yield stiff fines when any of the many self-employment regulations are violated.
As of 2012, more than 150,000 farmers had signed up to lease land from the government for bonus crops. Before, homeowners were only allowed to swap; once buying and selling were allowed, prices rose.
In 2021, Cuba's "economic freedom" score from the free-market oriented Heritage Foundation was 28.1, ranking Cuba's economy 176th (among the "least free") on such measures as "trade freedom, fiscal freedom, monetary freedom, freedom, and business freedom". Cuba ranked 31st among the 32 South and Central America countries, with the Heritage Foundation rating Venezuela as a "client state" of Cuba's and one of the least free.Wages, development, and pensionsUntil June 2019, typical wages ranged from 400 non-convertible Cuban pesos a month, for a factory worker, to 700 per month for a doctor, or around 17–30 US dollars per month. However, the Human Development Index of Cuba still ranks much higher than the vast majority of Latin American nations. After Cuba lost Soviet subsidies in 1991, malnutrition resulted in an outbreak of diseases. Despite this, the poverty level reported by the government is one of the lowest in the developing world, ranking 6th out of 108 countries, 4th in Latin America and 48th among all countries. According to a 2022 report from the Cuban Human Rights Observatory (OCDH), 72 percent of Cubans live below the poverty line. 21 percent of Cubans who live below the poverty line frequently go without breakfast, lunch or dinner due to a lack of money. Pensions are among the smallest in the Americas at $9.50/month. In 2009, Raúl Castro increased minimum pensions by 2 dollars, which he said was to recompense for those who have "dedicated a great part of their lives to working ... and who remain firm in defense of socialism".
Cuba is known for its system of food distribution, the Libreta de Abastecimiento ("Supplies booklet"). The system establishes the rations each person can buy through that system and the frequency of supplies. Despite rumors of ending, the system still exists.
In June 2019, the government announced an increase in public sector wages, especially for teachers and health personnel. The increase was about 300%. In October, the government opened stores where citizens could purchase, via international currencies (USD, euro, etc.) stored on electronic cards, household supplies, and similar goods. These funds are provided by remittances from emigres. The government leaders recognized that the new measure was unpopular but necessary to contain the flight of capital to other countries, such as Panama, where Cuban citizens traveled and imported items to resell on the island.
On 1 January 2021, the government launched the "Tarea Ordenamiento" (Ordering Task), previously announced on national television by President Miguel Díaz Canel and Gen. Raúl Castro, the then-first secretary of the Cuban Communist Party. This is an effort, years in the making, to end the use of the Cuban convertible peso (CUC) and to solely use the Cuban peso (CUP), ostensibly to increase economic efficiency. In February, the government created new restrictions to the private sector, with prohibitions on 124 activities, in areas like national security, health, and educational services. Wages and pensions were increased again, between 4 and 9 times, for all the sectors. For example, a university instructor's salary went from 1500 to 5500 CUP. Additionally, the dollar price was maintained by the Cuban central bank at 24 CUP, but was unable to sell dollars to the population due to the drought of foreign currency created by the COVID-19 pandemic.Public facilities* Bodegas Local shops offering basic products such as rice, sugar, salt, beans, cooking oil, matches, rum at low prices. The country sends tens of thousands of doctors to other countries as aid, and to obtain favorable trade terms. According to Carmelo Mesa-Lago, a Cuban-born US economist, in nominal terms, the Venezuelan subsidy is higher than the subsidy which the Soviet Union gave to Cuba, with the Cuban state receiving cheap oil and the Cuban economy receiving around $6 billion annually. In 2013 Carmelo Mesa-Lago said, "If this help stops, industry is paralysed, transportation is paralysed and you'll see the effects in everything from electricity to sugar mills".
From an economic standpoint, Cuba relies much more on Venezuela than Venezuela does on Cuba. As of 2012, Venezuela accounted for 20.8% of Cuba's GDP, while Cuba only accounted for roughly 4% of Venezuela's. Because of this reliance, the most recent economic crisis in Venezuela, with inflation nearing 800% and GDP shrinking by 19% in 2016, Cuba is not receiving their amount of payment and heavily subsidized oil. Further budget cuts are in the plans for 2018, marking a third straight year. Taxes and revenues As of 2009, Cuba had $47.08 billion in revenues and $50.34 billion in expenditures, with 34.6% of GDP in public debt, an account balance of $513 million, and $4.647 billion in reserves of foreign exchange and gold.<ref name"The World Factbook" /> Government spending is around 67 percent of GDP, and public debt is around 35 percent of the domestic economy. Despite reforms, the government plays a large role in the economy.<ref name="2014 Index of Economic Freedom" />
The top individual income tax rate is 50 percent. The top corporate tax rate is 30 percent (35 percent for wholly foreign-owned companies). Other taxes include a tax on property transfers and a sales tax. The overall tax burden is 24.42 percent of GDP.<ref name"2014 Index of Economic Freedom" /> See also
References
Citations Sources * }}External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120208125248/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552531 Cuba's Economic Struggles] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121217122436/http://econweb.umd.edu/~davis/eventpapers/CUBA.pdf The Road not taken: Pre-Revolutionary Cuban Living Standards in Comparative Perspective], Marianne Ward (Loyola College) and John Devereux (Queens College CUNY)
* Archibold, Randal. [https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/25/world/americas/as-cuba-shifts-toward-capitalism-inequality-grows-more-visible.html?_r=0 Inequality Becomes More Visible in Cuba as the Economy Shifts] (February 2015), The New York Times
* Cave, Danien. [https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/21/world/americas/castro-thanks-us-but-affirms-cubas-communist-rule.html?actionclick&contentCollectionUS%20Open®ionArticle&modulePromotron "Raúl Castro Thanks U.S., but Reaffirms Communist Rule in Cuba"]. (December 2014), The New York Times. "Mr. Castro prioritized economics. He acknowledged that Cuban state workers needed better salaries and said Cuba would accelerate economic changes in the coming year, including an end to its dual-currency system. But he said the changes needed to be gradual to create a system of 'prosperous and sustainable communism.
* [https://archive.today/20130105181248/http://www.ceec.uh.cu/ Centro de Estudios de la Economía Cubana]
Cuba | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Cuba | 2025-04-05T18:27:21.341016 |
5590 | Transport in Cuba | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is already sufficiently detailed; see WP:SDNONE -->
Transportation in Cuba is the system of railways, roads, airports, waterways, ports and harbours in Cuba:
Railways
* Total: 8,285 km
* Standard gauge: 8,125 km gauge (105 km electrified)
* Narrow gauge: 160 km of gauge.
]]
Cuba built the first railway system in the Spanish empire, before the 1848 start in the Iberian peninsula. While the rail infrastructure dates from colonial and early republican times, passenger service along the principal Havana to Santiago corridor is increasingly reliable and popular with tourists who can purchase tickets in Cuban convertible pesos. As with most public transport in Cuba, many of the vehicles used are second hand.
With the order of 12 new Chinese locomotives in 2006, built specifically for Cuban Railways at China Northern Locomotives and Rolling Stock Works, services have been improving in reliability<nowiki/>https://english.www.gov.cn/news/photos/201907/15/content_WS5d2bf230c6d05cbd94d67885.html. Those benefiting the most are long-distance freight services with the French train Havana-Santiago being the only passenger train using one of the new Chinese locomotives regularly.
In 2019, the Cuban railways received the first delivery of new Chinese-built coaches, and new services with these began in July 2019.
Metro systems are not present in the island, although a suburban rail network exists in Havana. Urban tramways were in operation between 1858 and 1954, initially as horse-drawn systems. In the early 20th century electric trolley or storage battery powered tramways were introduced in seven cities. Of these overhead wire systems were adopted in Havana, Guanabacoa, Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Camagüey and Santiago de Cuba.
Roads
]]
The total length of Cuba's highways is 60,858 km, including
*paved: 29,820 km (including 915 km of expressways)
*unpaved: 31,038 km (1999 est.)
Expressways (autopistas) include:
*the Autopista Nacional (A1) from Havana to Santa Clara and Sancti Spiritus, with additional short sections near Santiago and Guantanamo
*the Autopista Este-Oeste (A4) from Havana to Pinar del Río
*the Autopista del Mediodia from Havana to San Antonio de los Baños
*an autopista from Havana to Melena del Sur
*an autopista from Havana to Mariel
*the Havana ring road (), which starts at a tunnel under the entrance to Havana Harbor
*the section of the Via Blanca from Matanzas to Varadero (toll road)
*an autopista from Nueva Gerona to Santa Fe, in the Isla de la Juventud
Older roads include the Carretera Central, and the Via Blanca from Havana to Matanzas.
Long-distance and inter-municipality buses in Cuba
There are several national bus companies in Cuba. Viazul operates a fleet of modern and comfortable coaches on longer distance routes designed principally for tourists. Schedules, prices, and ticket booking can be done online, at any of the major international airports or National Terminals across Cuba. There are also other bus lines operated by tourism companies.
AstroBus, a bus service in Cuban National Pesos, designed to bring comfortable air-conditioned coaches to Cuban locals at an affordable price. The AstroBus lines operate with modern Chinese Yutong buses, and are accessible to Cuban Residents of Cuba with their ID Card, and is payable in Cuba Pesos. Routes that have benefited most so far are those from Havana to each of the 13 provincial capitals of the country.
Urban buses
, now operating in Havana]]
In Havana, urban transportation used to be provided by a colorful selection of buses imported from the Soviet Union or Canada. Many of these vehicles were second hand, such as the 1,500 decommissioned Dutch buses that the Netherlands donated to Cuba in the mid-1990s as well as GM fishbowl buses from Montreal. Despite the United States trade embargo, American-style yellow school buses (imported second-hand from Canada) are also increasingly common sights. Since 2008, service on seven key lines in and out of the city is provided by Chinese Zhengzhou Yutong Buses. These replaced the famous camellos ("camels" or "dromedaries", after their "humps") trailer buses that hauled as many as two hundred passengers in a passenger-carrying trailer.
After the upgrading of Seville's public bus fleet to CNG-powered vehicles, many of the decommissioned ones were donated to the city of Havana. These bright orange buses still display the name of Transportes Urbanos de Sevilla, S.A.M., their former owner, and Seville's coat of arms as a sign of gratitude.
As of 2016, urban transport in Havana consists entirely of modern Yutong diesel buses. Seville and Ikarus buses are gone. Automobiles
(left) and Emgrand EC7 (right) taxis in Havana, January 2017]]
car in 2011.]]
Since 2009, Cuba has imported sedans from Chinese automaker Geely to serve as police cars, taxis and rental vehicles. Previously, the Soviet Union supplied Volgas, Moskvichs, and Ladas, as well as heavy trucks like the ZIL and the KrAZ; and Cuba also bought cars from European and Asian companies. In 2004, it was estimated that there were some 173,000 cars in Cuba.
Old American cars in Cuba
Most new vehicles came to Cuba from the United States until the 1960 United States embargo against Cuba ended importation of both cars and their parts. As many as 60,000 American vehicles are in use, nearly all in private hands. Of Cuba's vintage American cars, many have been modified with newer engines, disc brakes and other parts, often scavenged from Soviet cars, and most bear the marks of decades of use. Pre-1960 vehicles remain the property of their original owners and descendants, and can be sold to other Cubans providing the proper traspaso certificate is in place.
However, the old American cars on the road today have "relatively high inefficiencies" due in large part to the lack of modern technology. This resulted in increased fuel consumption as well as adding to the economic plight of their owners. With these inefficiencies, noticeable drop in travel occurred from an "average of nearly 3000 km/year in the mid-1980s to less than 800 km/year in 2000–2001". As the Cuban people try to save as much money as possible, when traveling is done, the cars are usually loaded past the maximum allowable weight and travel on the decaying roads, resulting in even more abuse to the already under-maintained vehicles.
Hitchhiking and carpooling
As a result of the "Special Period" in 1991 (a period of food and energy shortages caused by the loss of the Soviet Union as a trading partner), hitchhiking and carpooling became important parts of Cuba's transportation system and society in general. In 1999, an article in Time magazine claimed "In Cuba[...] hitchhiking is custom. Hitchhiking is essential. Hitchhiking is what makes Cuba move."
Changes in the 2000s
For many years, Cubans could only acquire new cars with special permission.
In 2011, the Cuban government legalized the purchase and sale of used post-1959 autos. In December 2013, Cubans were allowed to buy new cars from state-run dealerships - previously this had not been permitted.
In 2020, this was further extended with cars being sold in convertible currencies.
Waterways
*Cauto River
*Sagua la Grande River
Ports and harbors
* Cienfuegos
* Havana
* Manzanillo
* Mariel
* Matanzas
* Nuevitas
* Santiago de Cuba
Merchant marine
:Total: 3 ships
Ships by type
*Cargo ships (1)
*Passenger ship (1)
*Refrigerated cargo ships (1)
:Registered in other countries: 5
Airlines
Besides the state owned airline Cubana (Cubana de Aviación), only Aerogavitoa operates flights to and within Cuba.
Airports
at Antonio Maceo Airport]]
* Total: 133
Airports with paved runways
*total: 64
*over 3,047 m: 7
*2,438 to 3,047 m: 10
*1,524 to 2,437 m: 16
*914 to 1,523 m: 4
*under 914 m: 27
Airports with unpaved runways
*total: 69
*914 to 1,523 m: 11
*under 914 m: 58
See also
*Infrastructure of Cuba
* Trailer bus
* Transit bus
Gallery
<gallery>
Image:DirkvdM yank tank yellow.jpg|1952 Chevrolet in Havana
Image:DirkvdM yank tank blue-red.jpg|1958 Plymouth Belvedere in Havana
File:Antique Ford Truck, Havana Jan 2014, image by Marjorie Kaufman.jpg|Antique Ford Truck, Jan 2014
File:Antique car, Havana, Jan 2014, image by Marjorie Kaufman.jpg|Edsel Pacer in Havana, Jan 2014
File:Pink Chevvy, Havana Jan 2014, image by Marjorie Kaufman.jpg|Pink Chevy, Jan 2014
File:Cuba yank tank.jpg|1956 Ford in Trinidad, Cuba.
File:Varadero_-_Cuba_(40276279854).jpg|1959 Cadillac in Varadero
File:Wołga,_Kuba.jpg|Purple Volga station wagon, May 2018
File:Skoda Fabia Cuba 4575.JPG|Škoda Fabia I (left) and Moskvitch-2141 "Aleko" (right), Feb 2009
File:Classic_cars_in_Cuba,_Varadero_-_Laslovarga003.JPG|A Buick car in Varadero
File:Hotel_Parque_Central,_Havana.jpg|Audi car in Havana, May 2018
File:Automobile à La Havane (14).jpg|Mercedes-Benz W120 in Havana, Jan 2015
File:Alter Opel Rekord P1 auf Cuba - Flickr - 02ide.jpg|Opel Rekord in Pinar de Río, Nov 2008
File:AutoLaHabanaCuba-04678.jpg|Suzuki Grand Vitara in Havana, Jan 2017
File:Fiat 125 - Havana.jpg|Fiat 125 in Havana, May 2018
File:Lada,_Trinidad.jpg|Lada-2103 in Trinidad
File:KrAZ_255,_Cuba.jpg|KrAZ-255 truck, Dec 2016
File:ZiŁ,_Cienfuegos.jpg|ZiL-130 water tank truck in Cienfuegos
File:B176286.jpg|Ex-NHZ Holland Den Oudsten bodied DAF MB230 bus in Havana
File:Transport_(3055159679).jpg|GMC school bus, Oct 2008
File:B107835.jpg|Viazul Yutong ZK6120A coach, Feb 2020
File:MAZ105.jpg|MAZ-105 bus in Havana
File:Havana,_Cuba_city_bus.jpg|Yutong ZK6180HGC articulated bus in Havana
File:Cienfuegos train station2.jpg|Cienfuegos railroad station, Feb 2019
File:Siguaney Ferkeltaxi.jpg|Ex-DB VT 2.09 railcar at Sigüaney
</gallery>
References
External links
*[http://www.cubana.cu/ Cubana Airlines]
*[http://www.aero-caribbean.com Aero-Caribbean]
*[http://www.aerogaviota.com Aero-Gaviota]
*[http://www.viazul.com/ Viazul long distance coaches]
*[http://seat61.com/Cuba.htm Information on train travel in Cuba]
*[http://www.philseed.com/Cuba.html Photos of antique Cuban cars]
*[https://www.travelblog.org/Central-America-Caribbean/Cuba/Oeste/La-Habana/blog-959811.html Blog entry about antique Cuban cars]
*[http://www.horariodebuses.com/cu Bus and train timetable]
*[http://ymtram.mashke.org/cuba/hershey/ Hershey Electric Railroad]
*[http://david-longman.com/Cuba.html Steam Railway Photographs - Cuba] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Cuba | 2025-04-05T18:27:21.353047 |
5592 | Foreign relations of Cuba | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
Cuba's foreign policy has been fluid throughout history depending on world events and other variables, including relations with the United States. Without massive Soviet subsidies and its primary trading partner, Cuba became increasingly isolated in the late 1980s and early 1990s after the fall of the USSR and the end of the Cold War, but Cuba opened up more with the rest of the world again starting in the late 1990s when they have since entered bilateral co-operation with several South American countries, most notably Venezuela and Bolivia beginning in the late 1990s, especially after the Venezuela election of Hugo Chávez in 1999, who became a staunch ally of Castro's Cuba. The United States used to stick to a policy of isolating Cuba until December 2014, when Barack Obama announced a new policy of diplomatic and economic engagement. The European Union accuses Cuba of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms". Cuba has developed a growing relationship with the People's Republic of China and Russia. Cuba provided civilian assistance workers – principally medical – to more than 20 countries. More than one million exiles have escaped to foreign countries. Cuba's present foreign minister is Bruno Rodríguez Parrilla.
Cuba is currently a lead country on the United Nations Human Rights Council, and is a founding member of the organization known as the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas, a member of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, the Latin American Integration Association and the United Nations. Cuba is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and hosted its September 2006 summit. In addition as a member of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Cuba was re-appointed as the chair- of the special committee on transportation issues for the Caribbean region. Following a meeting in November 2004, several leaders of South America have attempted to make Cuba either a full or associate member of the South American trade bloc known as Mercosur.
History
1917
In 1917, Cuba entered World War I on the side of the allies. The Cold War
Following the establishment of diplomatic ties to the Soviet Union, and after the Cuban Missile Crisis, Cuba became increasingly dependent on Soviet markets and military and economic aid. Castro was able to build a formidable military force with the help of Soviet equipment and military advisors. The KGB kept in close touch with Havana, and Castro tightened Communist Party control over all levels of government, the media, and the educational system, while developing a Soviet-style internal police force.
Castro's alliance with the Soviet Union caused something of a split between him and Guevara. In 1966, Guevara left for Bolivia in an ill-fated attempt to stir up revolution against the country's government.
On August 23, 1968, Castro made a public gesture to the USSR that caused the Soviet leadership to reaffirm their support for him. Two days after Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia to repress the Prague Spring, Castro took to the airwaves and publicly denounced the Czech rebellion. Castro warned the Cuban people about the Czechoslovakian 'counterrevolutionaries', who "were moving Czechoslovakia towards capitalism and into the arms of imperialists". He called the leaders of the rebellion "the agents of West Germany and fascist reactionary rabble." Relations in Latin America during the Cold War
During the Cold War, Cuba's influence in the Americas was inhibited by the Monroe Doctrine and the dominance of the United States. Despite this Fidel Castro became an influential figurehead for leftist groups in the region, extending support to Marxist Revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, most notably aiding the Sandinistas in overthrowing Somoza in Nicaragua in 1979. In 1971, Fidel Castro took a month-long visit to Chile. The visit, in which Castro participated actively in the internal politics of the country, holding massive rallies and giving public advice to Salvador Allende, was seen by those on the political right as proof to support their view that "The Chilean Way to Socialism" was an effort to put Chile on the same path as Cuba.
Intervention in Cold War conflicts
During the Cold War, Africa was a major target of Cuba's influence. Fidel Castro stated that Africa was chosen in part to represent Cuban solidarity with its own large population of African descent. Exporting Cuba's revolutionary tactics abroad increased its worldwide influence and reputation. Wolf Grabendorff states that "Most African states view Cuban intervention in Africa as help in achieving independence through self-help rather than as a step toward the type of dependence which would result from a similar commitment by the super-powers." Cuban Soldiers were sent to fight in the Simba rebellion in the DRC during the 1960s. Furthermore, by providing military aid Cuba won trading partners for the Soviet bloc and potential converts to Marxism.Intervention in Africa
On November 4, 1975, Castro ordered the deployment of Cuban troops to Angola to aid the Marxist MPLA against UNITA, which were supported by the People's Republic of China, United States, Israel, and South Africa (see: Cuba in Angola). After two months on their own, Moscow aided the Cuban mission with the USSR engaging in a massive airlift of Cuban forces into Angola. Both Cuban and South African forces withdrew in the late 1980s and Namibia was granted independence. The Angolan civil war would last until 2002. Nelson Mandela is said to have remarked "Cuban internationalists have done so much for African independence, freedom, and justice." Cuban troops were also sent to Marxist Ethiopia to assist Mengistu Haile Mariam's government in the Ogaden War with Somalia in 1977. Cuba sent troops along with the Soviet Union to aid the FRELIMO government against the Rhodesian and South African-backed RENAMO.
Castro never disclosed the number of casualties in Soviet African wars, but one estimate is that 14,000 Cubans were killed in Cuban military actions abroad.Intervention in Latin AmericaIn addition, Castro extended support to Marxist Revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, such as aiding the Sandinistas in overthrowing the Somoza government in Nicaragua in 1979. However, in December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, an active member of the non-aligned Movement. At the United Nations, non-aligned members voted 56 to 9, with 26 abstaining, to condemn the Soviet invasion. Cuba, however, was deeply in debt financially and politically to Moscow, and voted against the resolution. It lost its reputation as non-aligned in the Cold War. Castro, instead of becoming a spokesman for the Movement, became inactive, and in 1983, leadership passed to India, which had abstained on the UN vote. Cuba lost its bid to become a member of the United Nations Security Council. Cuba's ambitions for a role in global leadership had ended.
Social and economic programs
Cuba had social and economic programs in 40 developing countries. This was possible by a growing Cuban economy in the 1970s. The largest programs were construction projects, in which 8,000 Cubans provided technical advice, planning, and training of engineers. Educational programs involved 3,500 teachers. In addition thousands of specialists, technicians, and engineers were sent as advisors to agricultural mining and transportation sectors around the globe. Cuba also hosted 10,000 foreign students, mostly from Africa and Latin America, in health programs and technical schools. Cuba's extensive program of medical support to international attention. A 2007 study reported:
:Since the early 1960s, 28,422 Cuban health workers have worked in 37 Latin American countries, 31,181 in 33 African countries, and 7,986 in 24 Asian countries. Throughout a period of four decades, Cuba sent 67,000 health workers to structural cooperation programs, usually for at least two years, in 94 countries ... an average of 3,350 health workers working abroad every year between 1960 and 2000.
Post–Cold War relations
, December 2000]]
In the post–Cold War environment Cuban support for guerrilla warfare in Latin America has largely subsided, though the Cuban government continued to provide political assistance and support for left leaning groups and parties in the developing Western Hemisphere.
When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited Cuba in 1989, the ideological relationship between Havana and Moscow was strained by Gorbachev's implementation of economic and political reforms in the USSR. "We are witnessing sad things in other socialist countries, very sad things", lamented Castro in November 1989, in reference to the changes that were sweeping such communist allies as the Soviet Union, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland. The subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had an immediate and devastating effect on Cuba.
Cuba today works with a growing bloc of Latin American politicians opposed to the "Washington consensus", the American-led doctrine that free trade, open markets, and privatization will lift poor third world countries out of economic stagnation. The Cuban government condemned neoliberalism as a destructive force in the developing world, creating an alliance with Presidents Hugo Chávez of Venezuela and Evo Morales of Bolivia in opposing such policies.
Currently, Cuba has diplomatically friendly relationships with Presidents Nicolás Maduro of Venezuela with Maduro as perhaps the country's staunchest ally in the post-Soviet era. Cuba has sent thousands of teachers and medical personnel to Venezuela to assist Maduro's socialist oriented economic programs. Maduro, in turn provides Cuba with lower priced petroleum. Cuba's debt for oil to Venezuela is believed to be on the order of one billion US dollars.
Historically during Nicaragua's initial Sandinista period and since the 2007 election of Daniel Ortega, Cuba has maintained close relations with Nicaragua.
In the wake of the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the ongoing international isolation of Russia, Cuba emerged as one of the few countries that maintained friendly relations with the Kremlin. Cuban president Miguel Diaz-Canel visited Vladimir Putin in Moscow in November 2022, where the two leaders opened a monument of Fidel Castro, as well as speaking out against U.S. sanctions against Russian and Cuba. Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Cuba maintains diplomatic relations with:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
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|2
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Bilateral relations
Africa
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> 7 October 1962||See Algeria–Cuba relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Algiers.
* Algeria has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| ||<!-- Date started -->|| See Angola–Cuba relations
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> 18 July 1975||See Cuba–Ethiopia relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Addis Ababa.
* Ethiopia has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Kenya relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Nairobi.
* Kenya has an embassy in Havana.
|-
| || 1 March 1976 || See Cuba–Libya relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 March 1976.
* Cuba is accredited to Libya from its embassy in Cairo.
* Libya has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Namibia relations
Cuban-Namibian relations began during the South African Border War, when Cuba helped establish a number of training camps in Angola for the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), armed wing of the South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO). Cuba also supported both SWAPO and PLAN through a number of political and diplomatic initiatives. Since independence, Namibia and Cuba have held joint meetings every two years for Economic, Scientific-Technical and Commercial Cooperation. In 2005, it was reported that 1,460 Cuban professionals had worked in Namibia, including 208 in 2005. Later the Cuban government expanded this pledge with an additional three hundred health workers being sent throughout the region.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–South Africa relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Pretoria.
* South Africa has an embassy in Havana.
|}
Americas
Cuba has supported a number of leftist groups and parties in Latin America and the Caribbean since the 1959 revolution. In the 1960s Cuba established close ties with the emerging Guatemalan social movement led by Luis Augusto Turcios Lima, and supported the establishment of the URNG, a militant organization that has evolved into one of Guatemala's current political parties. In the 1980s Cuba backed both the Sandinistas in Nicaragua and the FMLN in El Salvador, providing military and intelligence training, weapons, guidance, and organizational support.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started -->12 May 1909 || See Argentina–Cuba relations
* Argentina has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in Buenos Aires.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Bolivia–Cuba relations
* Bolivia has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in La Paz.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Brazil–Cuba relations
With the electoral win of the President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in 2002 ties between Cuba and Brazil steadily warmed. Brazil continued to play its part in trying to revive and upgrade the offshore oil and gas infrastructure of Cuba. In addition, talks led by Brazil were underway seeking to develop a framework for Cuba to become a normalised affiliate member of the Mercosur bloc of countries.
Brazilian-Cuban relations deteriorated greatly under the presidency of Brazilian rightwing president Jair Bolsonaro since 2019 .He stopped Mais Medicos (More Doctors) programme and thousands of Cuban doctors left Brazil. In November 2019, Brazil voted for the first time against an annual United Nations resolution condemning and calling for an end to Washington's economic embargo on Cuba.
* Brazil has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started -->1945 || See Canada–Cuba relations
Canada has always maintained consistently cordial relations with Cuba, in spite of considerable pressure from the United States, and the island is also one of the most popular travel destinations for Canadian citizens. Canada-Cuba relations can be traced back to the 18th century, when vessels from the Atlantic provinces of Canada traded codfish and beer for rum and sugar. Cuba was the first country in the Caribbean selected by Canada for a diplomatic mission. Official diplomatic relations were established in 1945, when Emile Vaillancourt, a noted writer and historian, was designated Canada's representative in Cuba. Canada and Mexico were the only two countries in the hemisphere to maintain uninterrupted diplomatic relations with Cuba following the Cuban Revolution in 1959.
In 1994, a joint venture was formed between the Cuban Nickel Union and the Canadian firm Sherritt International, which operates a mining and processing plant on the island in Moa. A second enterprise, Cobalt Refinery Co. Inc., was created in Alberta for nickel refining. Canada has been critical of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba, and strongly objected to the Helms-Burton Act. In 1996 Foreign Affairs Minister Lloyd Axworthy stated: "Canada shares the U.S. objectives of improving human rights standards and moving to more representative government in Cuba. But we are concerned that the Helms-Burton Act takes the wrong approach. That is why we have been working with other countries to uphold the principles of international law". In 1996 a Private Member's Bill was introduced, but not made law, in the Canadian Parliament; this law called the Godfrey–Milliken Bill was in response to the extraterritoriality of the aforementioned Act.
Former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and Fidel Castro were personal friends. Castro was among Pierre Trudeau's pallbearers at his funeral in 2000. Former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien and Fidel Castro also maintained a close relationship.
* Canada has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in Ottawa.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Chile–Cuba relations
Cuba has been since the 1960s a reference point to left wing politicians in Chile. Recently relations to Cuba has been hot subject in Concertación politics since the Christian Democrat Party of Chile, member of the Concertación, has supported a harder line in the diplomatic relations with Cuba while the Socialist Party of Chile has opposed this.
In 1971, despite an Organization of American States convention that no nation in the Western Hemisphere would have a relationship with Cuba (the only exception being Mexico, which had refused to adopt that convention), Castro took a month-long visit to Chile, following the re-establishment of diplomatic relations with Cuba. The visit, in which Castro participated actively in the internal politics of the country, holding massive rallies and giving public advice to Salvador Allende, was seen by those on the political right as proof to support their view that "The Chilean Way to Socialism" was an effort to put Chile on the same path as Cuba.
* Chile has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in Santiago.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Colombia–Cuba relations
Cuba gave training, money, medicines, weapons and safe haven to members of Colombian guerrilla movements, especially to the ELN and also to members of the FARC, both of which were founded in the early 1960s. In the years leading up to his death, Fidel Castro made gestures of reconciliation with different Colombian government administrations, and has been considered responsible for facilitating talks between them and the opposing guerrilla groups.
* Colombia has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in Bogotá.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||
Costa Rica broke relations with Cuba in 1961 to protest Cuban support of the left in Central America and renewed formal diplomatic ties with Fidel Castro's government in March 2009. In 1995, Costa Rica established a consular office in Havana. Cuba opened a consular office in Costa Rica in 2001, but relations continued to be difficult. In 2006, shortly after the death of Augusto Pinochet, Costa Rican President Óscar Arias compared Fidel Castro's human rights record to that of the former Chilean president. In response, Cuban officials released a statement describing the Washington aligned Arias as a "vulgar mercenary" of U.S. officials, and asserting that Washington "always had on hand another opportunistic clown ready to follow its aggressive plans against Cuba."
* Costa Rica has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in San José.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Cuba-Dominican Republic relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Santo Domingo.
* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||
Cuba and El Salvador resumed diplomatic relations on June 1, 2009. El Salvador previously suspended diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961 due to the Cuban Revolution. Diplomatic ties were resumed after El Salvador's new president Mauricio Funes, who had pledged to reestablish them, was sworn into office. El Salvador is also the very last Latin American nation to resume diplomatic relations with Cuba.
* Cuba has an embassy in San Salvador.
* El Salvador has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Cuba–Grenada relations
* Cuba has an embassy in St. George's.
* Grenada has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| ||<!-- Date started -->||See Cuba–Guatemala relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Guatemala City.
* Guatemala has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> 1972||
*Both countries established diplomatic relations on December 8, 1972.
*Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.
* Cuba has an embassy in Georgetown.
* Guyana has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Cuba-Haiti relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Port-au-Prince.
* Haiti has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba resumed relations with Haiti in 1997 and since has sent thousands of doctors to Haiti since relations were re-established in 1997, performing hundreds of thousands of surgeries, medical consultations and have trained over 1,000 Haitian doctors at its medical schools. In addition, over 100,000 people in Haiti have become literate through Cuban efforts.
|- valign="top"
| ||1972||See Cuba–Jamaica relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Kingston.
* Jamaica has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started -->1902 || See Cuba–Mexico relations
with former Cuban President Fidel Castro in January 2014]]
Before the Cuban revolution, Mexico was the country where several Cubans were exiled fleeing political persecution by the government of Batista like Julio Antonio Mella, Juan Marinello, Fidel Castro and Raúl Castro.
After the Cuban revolution when Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States, Mexico did not support this resolution and abstained, claiming a non-intervention policy. Relations were stable from 1934 to 1998.
Although the relationship between Cuba and Mexico remains strained, each side appears to make attempts to improve it. In 1998, Fidel Castro apologized when he said that "Mexican kids knew Mickey Mouse better than national heroes of their own country", which led Mexico to recall its ambassador from Havana. Rather, he said, his words were meant to underscore the cultural dominance of the US.
Mexican President Vicente Fox apologized to Fidel Castro in 2002 over statements by Castro, who had taped their telephone conversation, to the effect that Fox forced him to leave a United Nations summit in Mexico so that he would not be in the presence of President Bush, who also attended.
In 2004, Mexico suspended relations with Cuba after businessman Carlos Ahumada was arrested and deported to Mexico and the paperwork provided by the Cuban government proved that there was a plan from the Mexican government to make a complot against the potential presidential candidate from the opposition party Andrés Manuel López Obrador. In April 2012, Mexican president Felipe Calderón made a two-day visit to Havana. In January 2014, Mexican president Enrique Peña Nieto paid an official visit to Cuba.
* Cuba has an embassy in Mexico City and consulates-general in Cancún, Mérida, Monterrey and Veracruz City.
* Mexico has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||
Cuba and Panama have restored diplomatic ties after breaking them off in 2004 when Panama's former president Mireya Moscoso pardoned four Cubans, including Luis Posada Carriles, who were accused of attempting to assassinate Cuban President Fidel Castro. The foreign minister of each country re-established official diplomatic relations in Havana by signing a document describing a spirit of fraternity that has long linked both nations. In March 2009, the governments of Costa Rica and El Salvador announced that they plan on re-establishing full diplomatic relations with Cuba.
* Cuba has an embassy in Panama City.
* Panama has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Cuba–Peru relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Lima.
* Peru has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Cuba–Suriname relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Paramaribo.
* Suriname has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–United States relations
The Cuban Revolution led to the deterioration of relations between the two countries, and diplomatic ties were broken on January 3, 1961, after the Eisenhower administration rejected a demand from Fidel Castro to reduce the number of US embassy personnel in Havana. However, since December 2014, relations have improved greatly, and on July 20, 2015, Cuba and the United States re-opened diplomatic relations, upgrading their "interest sections" to embassies. In December 2014, US President Barack Obama and Cuban President Raúl Castro announced the start of the process to normalize diplomatic relations between the two countries, following 18 months of secret negotiations in Canada and Vatican City. Although relations have greatly improved since then, the United States still holds a trade embargo against Cuba, making it illegal for American companies to do business in Cuba. However, Barack Obama has called for an end to the embargo, saying that it failed to get Cuba to abandon one-party rule.
* Cuba has an embassy in Washington, D.C.
* United States has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Cuba–Uruguay relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Montevideo.
* Uruguay has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Venezuela relations
Relations between Cuba and Venezuela significantly improved during the Presidency of Hugo Chávez. Chávez formed a major alliance with Cuban president Fidel Castro and significant trade relationship with Cuba since his election in 1999. The warm relationship between the two countries continued to intensify. Hugo Chávez described Castro as his mentor and called Cuba "a revolutionary democracy".
In 2005 the two countries also signed cooperation agreements in the area of energy and electricity, an accord between Venezuela's oil company PDVSA and its Cuban counterpart Cupet to buy and sell crude oil and a crude oil storage agreement between the two companies.
Hugo Chávez, who said he was one of the few people in the world who knew Castro's illness from July 31, 2006, helped Cuba undermine a strict U.S. embargo by sending cheap oil and boosting commercial relations. Agreements between Cuba and Venezuela, the world's No. 5 oil exporter, have brought more than 20,000 Cuban doctors to Venezuela to provide medical services for the poor. The program, one of numerous oil-funded social projects, helped Chávez build a strong political support base, and he won a reelection bid in December 2006.
A U.S. official told the Miami Herald in 2016 that U.S. estimates of total Venezuelan subsidies to Cuba per year "are up to the $2 billion figure." This is comparable to the $4 billion to $6 billion that the Soviet Union once pumped into Cuba per year.
* Cuba has an embassy in Caracas.
* Venezuela has an embassy in Havana.
|}
Asia
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Region
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started -->27 March 1992 ||
* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 March 1992.
* Armenia is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.<!-- Date started -->||See Azerbaijan–Cuba relations
* The diplomatic relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Cuba were established on March 27, 1992.
* China has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Guangzhou and Shanghai.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–India relations
Relations between India and Cuba have generally been warm and cordial since the Cuban revolution. Both nations are part of the Non-Aligned Movement and Cuba has repeatedly called for a more "democratic" representation of the United Nations Security Council, supporting India's candidacy for permanent membership on a reformed Security Council. Fidel Castro had said that "The maturity of India…, its unconditional adherence to the principles which lay at the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement give us the assurances that under the wise leadership of Indira Gandhi (the former Prime Minister of India), the non-aligned countries will continue advancing in their inalienable role as a bastion for peace, national independence and development…"
India provided Cuba with 10,000 tonnes of wheat and 10,000 tonnes of rice in 1992 when Cuba was undergoing hardship. Fidel Castro termed the donation as the "Bread of India" because it was sufficient for one loaf of bread for each one of the then Cuban population of eleven million people.
* Cuba has an embassy in New Delhi.
* India has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Cuba–Indonesia relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Jakarta.
* Indonesia has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Iran–Cuba relations
Iran has a productive trade balance with Cuba. The two governments signed a document to bolster cooperation in Havana in January 2006. President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad called relations "firm and progressive" over the past three decades. Ahmadinejad made an official visit to the island in January 2012 as part of a series of official visits to various countries in Latin America. During his brief stay in Cuba, Ahmadinejad met with Fidel Castro and said that the two countries were "fighting on the same front."
* Cuba has an embassy in Tehran.
* Iran has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Iraq relations
* Cuba is accredited to Iraq from its embassy in Tehran, Iran.
* Iraq is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Israel relations
, 1960]]
On 29 November 1947, Cuba voted against the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, the Cuban delegation stating they would vote against partition because they could not be party to coercing the majority in Palestine. Nevertheless, Israel came into being on 14 May 1948, and Cuba recognised the State of Israel de facto on 14 January 1949. In March 1949 Cuba voted in the UN Security Council in favour of admission of Israel to the United Nations, and recognised Israel de jure on 18 April 1949. In May of that year Cuba also voted in favour of Israel's admission to the UN in the UN General Assembly.
Israel-Cuba relations have been icy since the 1960s. Cuba didn't succumb to Arab pressure to sever relations with Israel, but sent troops to fight against Israel during the War of Attrition (1967–70), and also joined the expeditionary forces during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, and broke diplomatic relations with Israel the same year. Israel has been the only country to consistently vote with the U.S. in the UN General Assembly against the annual resolution criticizing the embargo, which began in 1992.
In late 2010, Fidel Castro, who no longer held office in Cuba's government, stated that he believes Israel has a "right to exist", which is a shift from his regime's earlier policy. Margalit Bejarano posed in 2015 that any future relationship between Israel and Cuba will not solely rest on the course that will take Havana-Washington ties, but will also factor in Cuba's dependence on Iran, on Venezuela and its closeness to the Palestinians.
In the light of the thaw in US-Cuba relations, the Israeli government is re-examining the state of its relations with Cuba – Israel is presently represented in Cuba through an interest section in the Canadian embassy.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started -->21 December 1929|| See Cuba–Japan relations
Cuba and Japan established diplomatic relations on 21 December 1929.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Cuba–Malaysia relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.
* Malaysia has an embassy in Havana.
|-
|
|<!-- Date started -->7 December 1960
|
* Cuba has an embassy in Ulaanbaatar.
* Mongolia has an embassy in Havana.
*In the 1980s, the trade and cooperation agreements between the two governments were ratified.
|-
|
|<!-- Date started -->25 March 1975
|
* Cuban Ambassador to India is accredited to Nepal.
* Embassy of Nepal in Ottawa is concurrently accredited to Cuba.
* The friendly relations between the two countries have been further strengthened by exchange of visits and contacts at various levels in the past. Late King Birendra paid an official visit to Havana in September 1979 to represent Nepal in the 6th NAM summit.
* The Cuban Government had offered some scholarships to the Nepalese students in the streams of culture and sports, engineering, psychology and agriculture for bachelor's degrees.
* A medical team from the Government of Cuba extended medical treatment to the earthquake affected people of Nepal.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started -->29 August 1960|| See Cuba–North Korea relations
The Republic of Cuba has had diplomatic relations with North Korea since 29 August 1960. Cuba maintains an embassy in Pyongyang and North Korea maintains an embassy in Havana. Che Guevara then a Cuban government minister visited North Korea in 1960 and proclaimed it a model for Cuba to follow. Cuban leader Fidel Castro visited in 1986. In 2013 a North Korean cargo ship seized while travelling through the Panama Canal and was found to be carrying weapons from Cuba, apparently to be repaired in North Korea. The ship was later returned to the North Korean government.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Pakistan relations
The relations between the two countries strengthened after Cuba provided humanitarian assistance to the victims of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Both nations continue to strengthen the bilateral relations especially in the fields of higher education, agriculture, industry and science and technology and have also held talks for military cooperation. In March 2008 ambassador Gustavo Machin Gomez met Gen. Tariq Majid, the Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC) at Joint Staff Headquarters and discussed issues related to military cooperation. Both of them expressed positive views over the increasing relations between the two nations and were optimistic that the bilateral cooperation will expand in different fields. Majid stressed that Pakistan has formed strong defence infrastructure both in defence production and in shape of military academies to provide help and cooperation to the Military of Cuba. He also said that both countries should use their capacity for expanding military cooperation. In an interview with Overseas Pakistani Friends, Machin Gomez suggested further ways that Cuba and Pakistan might be able to help each other.
* Cuba has an embassy in Islamabad.
* Pakistan has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba-Philippines relations
Like Cuba, the Philippines was once a Spanish possession, and Spanish rule in both colonies ended with the victory of the United States in the Spanish–American War. Provisions in the subsequent 1898 Treaty of Paris gave Cuba independence while giving the Philippine Islands over to American control, which was gradually lessened until the country achieved full sovereignty on 4 July 1946. Despite the Philippines being a long-time American ally, it has denounced the American sanctions against Cuba.
* Cuba is accredited to the Philippines from its embassy in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
* Philippines is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started -->14 February 2024|| See Cuba–South Korea relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 July 1949, Cuba was the first country that recognize South Korea in Latin America.
There was no official-level diplomatic relation between the Cuba and South Korea from 1 January 1959 to 14 February 2024. Despite this there has been unofficial interactions in the economic level between the two countries. For instance South Korea's Hyundai Heavy Industries sent Packaged power station mobile generators to Cuba for the country's power grids. A picture of a PPS was later incorporated into the 10 Cuban convertible peso banknote.
|- valign="top"
| || ||See Cuba–Syria relations
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> 1952||See Cuba–Turkey relations
*Cuba has an embassy in Ankara.
*Turkey has an embassy in Havana.
|}
Europe
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–European Union relations
European Union (EU) relations with Cuba are governed by the Common Position, as approved by the European Council of Ministers in 1996, which is updated every six months following regular evaluations. According to the Common Position "the objective of the European Union in its relations with Cuba is to encourage a process of transition to a pluralist democracy and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as sustainable recovery and improvement in the living standards of the Cuban people". Cuba rejects the Common Position as interference in its internal affairs. There is an EU Delegation in Havana that works under the responsibility of the EC Delegation in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.
Cuba benefits from the GPS (Generalized Preference System) preferential treatment for its exports. Furthermore, Cuba does not benefit from the ACP-EU Sugar Protocol but from a sugar quota granted by the EU (some 59,000 tonnes per year; duty paid on this quota is EUR 98/t).
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During Spanish Governor-general period, Cuba was offered for sale in 1837.
* Belgium has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in Brussels.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Cuba–France relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Paris.
* France has an embassy in Havana.
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| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Greece relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Athens.
* Greece has an embassy in Havana.
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| || <!-- Date started --> ||See Cuba–Holy See relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Rome accredited to the Holy See.
* Holy See has an apostolic nunciature in Havana.
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* Cuba is accredited to Iceland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.
* Iceland is accredited to Cuba from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations based in New York City.
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* Cuba has an embassy in Dublin.
* Ireland is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.
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* Cuba has an embassy in Rome.
* Italy has an embassy in Havana.
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| || <!-- Date started -->||
* Cuba has an embassy in The Hague and consulate-general in Rotterdam.
* the Netherlands has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started -->1933||See Cuba–Poland relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Warsaw.
* Poland has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||
* Cuba has an embassy in Lisbon.
* Portugal has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Russia relations
Relations between the two countries suffered somewhat during the Boris Yeltsin administration, as Cuba was forced to look for new major allies, such as China, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Relations improved when Vladimir Putin was elected as the new Russian President. Putin, and later Dmitry Medvedev, emphasized re-establishing strong relations with old Soviet allies. In 2008, Medvedev visited Havana and Raúl Castro made a week-long trip to Moscow. In that same year the two governments signed multiple economic agreements and Russia sent tons of humanitarian aid to Cuba. Cuba, meanwhile, gave staunch political support for Russia during the 2008 South Ossetia war. Relations between the two nations are currently at a post-Soviet high, and talks about potentially re-establishing a Russian military presence in Cuba are even beginning to surface.
* Cuba has an embassy in Moscow.
* Russia has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Serbia relations
Cuba and Serbia have a long history of diplomatic relations from the period of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia when both countries were members of Non-Aligned Movement. Cuba supports Serbia in its stance towards Kosovo considering Kosovo's independence an illegitimate act and a violation of international law and principles of the United Nations Charter. Serbia supports Cuba at the United Nations in condemning the United States embargo.
* Cuba has an embassy in Belgrade.
* Serbia has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started -->1899 || See Cuba–Spain relations
* Cuba has an embassy in Madrid with consulates-general in Barcelona, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Santiago de Compostela and Seville.
* Spain has an embassy in Havana.
|- valign="top"
| ||20 May 1902|| See Cuba–United Kingdom relations
Cuba established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 20 May 1902.
Both countries share common membership of the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have an Investment Agreement, and a Political Dialogue and Co-operation Agreement.
|}
Oceania
Cuba has two embassies in Oceania, located in Wellington (opened in November 2007) and also one in Canberra opened October 24, 2008. It also has a Consulate General in Sydney. However, Cuba has official diplomatic relations with Nauru since 2002 and the Solomon Islands since 2003, and maintains relations with other Pacific countries by providing aid.
In 2008, Cuba will reportedly be sending doctors to the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Tuvalu, Nauru and Papua New Guinea, while seventeen medical students from Vanuatu will study in Cuba. It may also provide training for Fiji doctors. Indeed, Fiji's ambassador to the United Nations, Berenado Vunibobo, has stated that his country may seek closer relations with Cuba, and in particular medical assistance, following a decline in Fiji's relations with New Zealand.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started -->1989 ||
Australia and Cuba have a growing relationship on positive terms. Relations began in 1989. Relations were given a rebirth in 2009 when the foreign minister Stephen Smith visited Cuba. In 2010, Cuba's foreign minister Bruno Rodríguez visited Australia. The ministers signed a memorandum of understanding in political cooperation between the foreign ministries and for closer bilateral relations. There is a Cuban embassy in Australia. It was opened on 24 October 2008. There are only two Australia–Cuba bilateral treaties, extended to Australia by the British Empire covering extradition.
* Australia is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.
* Cuba has an embassy in Canberra.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Kiribati relations
Relations between Cuba and Kiribati are nascent, having developed in the 2000s (decade). Like other countries in Oceania, Kiribati is a beneficiary of Cuban medical aid; bilateral relations between Tarawa and Havana should be viewed within the scope of Cuba's regional policy in Oceania.
There are currently sixteen Cuban doctors providing specialised medical care in Kiribati, with sixteen more scheduled to join them. Cubans have also offered training to I-Kiribati doctors. Cuban doctors have reportedly provided a dramatic improvement to the field of medical care in Kiribati, reducing the child mortality rate in that country by 80 percent, and winning the proverbial hearts and minds in the Pacific. In response, the Solomon Islands began recruiting Cuban doctors in July 2007, while Papua New Guinea and Fiji considered following suit. In October 2007, Nauruan Foreign Minister and Trade Minister David Adeang travelled to Cuba to strengthen relations between the two island nations. This led to the creation of a Cuba-Nauru Joint Intergovernmental Commission for Economic Cooperation. An unspecified number of Cuban doctors are serving in Nauru.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> ||
Regarding relations with New Zealand, Cuban ambassador José Luis Robaina García said his country had "admiration for New Zealand's independent foreign policy".
* New Zealand is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba – Solomon Islands relations
Relations between the Solomon Islands and Cuba have only a short history. The two countries moved to establish relations from the 2000s (decade), and particularly from 2007, within the context of Cuba's growing interest in the Pacific Islands region. Like other countries in Oceania, Solomon Islands is a beneficiary of Cuban medical aid; bilateral relations between Havana and Honiara must be viewed within the scope of Cuba's regional policy in Oceania.
In April 2007, the Solomon Star reported that the Solomon Islands' High Commissioner to the United Nations was soon to be sworn in as Ambassador to Cuba. In September 2007, it was announced that 40 Cuban doctors would be sent to the Solomon Islands. The Solomons' Minister of Foreign Affairs Patterson Oti said that Solomon Islander doctors would "learn from their Cuban colleagues in specialized areas". In addition to providing doctors, Cuba provided scholarships for 50 Solomon Islanders to study medicine in Cuba for free.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Tuvalu relations
Relations between Tuvalu and Cuba are recent, having developed in the 2000s (decade). Like other countries in Oceania, Tuvalu is a beneficiary of Cuban medical aid; bilateral relations between Funafuti and Havana must be viewed within the scope of Cuba's regional policy in Oceania.
|- valign="top"
| || <!-- Date started --> || See Cuba–Vanuatu relations
Relations between the Republic of Vanuatu and Cuba began shortly after the former gained its independence from France and the United Kingdom in 1980, and began establishing its own foreign policy as a newly independent state. Vanuatu and Cuba established official diplomatic relations in 1983.
|}
International organizations and groups
ACS • ALBA • AOSIS • CELAC • CTO • ECLAC • G33 • G77 • IAEA • ICAO • ICRM • IFAD • ILO • IMO • Interpol • IOC • ISO • ITU • LAES • NAM • OAS • OEI • OPANAL • OPCW • PAHO • Rio Group • UN • UNCTAD • UNESCO • UPU • WCO • WHO • WIPO • WMO
Caribbean Community (CARICOM)
Ties between the nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba have remained cordial over the course of the later half of the 20th century. Formal diplomatic relations between the CARICOM economic giants: Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago have existed since 1972, and have over time led to an increase in cooperation between the CARICOM Heads of Government and Cuba. At a summit meeting of sixteen Caribbean countries in 1998, Fidel Castro called for regional unity, saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy. Cuba, for many years regionally isolated, increased grants and scholarships to the Caribbean countries.
To celebrate ties between the Caribbean Community and Cuba in 2002 the Heads of Government of Cuba and CARICOM have designated the day of December 8 to be called 'CARICOM-Cuba Day'. The day is the exact date of the formal opening of diplomatic relations between the first CARICOM-four and Cuba.
In December 2005, during the second CARICOM/CUBA summit held in Barbados, heads of CARICOM and Cuba agreed to deepen their ties in the areas of socio-economic and political cooperation in addition to medical care assistance. Since the meeting, Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Suriname, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. This development makes Cuba the only nation to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community. CARICOM and Canadian politicians have jointly maintained that through the International inclusion of Cuba, a more positive change might indeed be brought about there (politically) as has been witnessed in the People's Republic of China.
Cuban cooperation with the Caribbean was extended by a joint health programme between Cuba and Venezuela named Operación Milagro, set up in 2004. The initiative is part of the Sandino commitment, which sees both countries coming together with the aim of offering free ophthalmology operations to an estimated 4.5 million people in Latin America and the Caribbean over a ten-year period. According to Denzil Douglas, the prime minister of St. Kitts and Nevis, more than 1,300 students from member nations are studying in Cuba while more than 1,000 Cuban doctors, nurses and other technicians are working throughout the region. In 1998 Trinidadian and Tobagonian Prime Minister Patrick Manning had a heart valve replacement surgery in Cuba and returned in 2004 to have a pacemaker implanted.
In December 2008 the CARICOM Heads of Government opened the third Cuba-CARICOM Summit in Cuba. The summit is to look at closer integration of the Caribbean Community and Cuba. During the summit the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) bestowed Fidel Castro with the highest honour of CARICOM, The Honorary Order of the Caribbean Community which is presented in exceptional circumstances to those who have offered their services in an outstanding way and have made significant contributions to the region.
In 2017 Cuba and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) bloc signed the "CARICOM-Cuba Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement" Organization of American States
Cuba was formerly excluded from participation in the Organization of American States under a decision adopted by the Eighth Meeting of Consultation in Punta del Este, Uruguay, on 21 January 1962. The resolution stated that as Cuba had officially identified itself as a Marxist–Leninist government, it was incompatible with "the principles and objectives of the inter-American system." This stance was frequently questioned by some member states. This situation came to an end on 3 June 2009, when foreign ministers assembled in San Pedro Sula, Honduras, for the OAS's 39th General Assembly, passed a vote to lift Cuba's suspension from the OAS. In its resolution ([http://www.oas.org/consejo/sp/AG/ag04632e01.doc AG/RES 2438]), the General Assembly decided that:
# Resolution VI, [...] which excluded the Government of Cuba from its participation in the Inter-American system, hereby ceases to have effect
# The participation of the Republic of Cuba in the OAS will be the result of a process of dialogue initiated at the request of the Government of Cuba, and in accordance with the practices, purposes, and principles of the OAS.
The reincorporation of Cuba as an active member had arisen regularly as a topic within the inter-American system (e.g., it was intimated by the outgoing ambassador of Mexico in 1998) but most observers did not see it as a serious possibility while the Socialist government remained in power. On 6 May 2005, President Fidel Castro reiterated that the island nation would not "be part of a disgraceful institution that has only humiliated the honor of Latin American nations".
In an editorial published by Granma, Fidel Castro applauded the Assembly's "rebellious" move and said that the date would "be recalled by future generations." However, a Declaration of the Revolutionary Government dated 8 June 2009 stated that while Cuba welcomed the Assembly's gesture, in light of the Organization's historical record "Cuba will not return to the OAS".
Cuba joined the Latin American Integration Association becoming the tenth member (out of 12) on 26 August 1999. The organization was set up in 1980 to encourage trade integration association. Its main objective is the establishment of a common market, in pursuit of the economic and social development of the region.
On September 15, 2006, Cuba officially took over leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement during the 14th summit of the organization in Havana.
Cuban intervention abroad: 1959 – Early 1990s
Cuba became a staunch ally of the USSR during the Cold War, modeling its political structure after that of the CPSU. Owing to the fundamental role Internationalism plays in Cuban socialist ideology, Cuba became a major supporter of liberation movements not only in Latin America, but across the globe.
Black Panthers
In the 1960s and 1970s, Cuba openly supported the black nationalist and Marxist-oriented Black Panther Party of the U.S. Many members found their way into Cuba for political asylum, where Cuba welcomed them as refugees after they had been convicted in the U.S. Palestine Cuba also lent support to Palestinian nationalist groups against Israel, namely the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and lesser-known Marxist–Leninist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). Fidel Castro called Israel practices "Zionist Fascism." The Palestinians received training from Cuba's General Intelligence Directorate, as well as financial and diplomatic support from the Cuban government. However, in 2010, Castro indicated that he also strongly supported Israel's right to exist.
Irish Republicans
The Irish Republican political party, Sinn Féin has political links to the Cuban government. Fidel Castro expressed support for the Irish Republican cause of a United Ireland.
Humanitarian aid
Since the establishment of the Revolutionary Government of Cuba in 1959, the country has sent more than 52,000 medical workers abroad to work in needy countries, including countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. There are currently about 20,000 Cuban doctors working in 68 countries across three continents, including a 135-strong medical team in Java, Indonesia.
'''Read more about Cuba's medical collaboration in Africa at:
* White Coats by the Gambia River
Cuba provides Medical Aid to Children Affected by Chernobyl Nuclear Accident:'
* The children of Chernobyl in My Memory
List of Foreign Ministers of Cuba
See also
* Censorship in Cuba
* Cocktail Wars
* Human rights in Cuba
* Intelligence Directorate
* List of diplomatic missions in Cuba
* List of diplomatic missions of Cuba
* Organization of Solidarity with the People of Asia, Africa and Latin America
References
Further reading
* Adams, Gordon. "Cuba and Africa: The International Politics of the Liberation Struggle: A Documentary Essay" Latin American Perspectives'' (1981) 8#1 pp:108-125.
* Bain, Mervyn J. "Russia and Cuba: 'doomed' comrades?." Communist and Post-Communist Studies 44.2 (2011): 111–118.
* Bain, Mervyn J. Soviet-Cuban Relations, 1985 to 1991: Changing Perceptions in Moscow and Havana (2007)
* Bernell, David. "The curious case of Cuba in American foreign policy." Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 36.2 (1994): 65–104. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/166174 online]
* Blue, Sarah. "Cuban Medical Internationalism: Domestic and International Impacts." Journal of Latin American Geography (2010) 9#1.
* Domínguez, Jorge I. ''To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy (Harvard UP, 1989) [https://www.amazon.com/Make-World-Safe-Revolution-International/dp/0674893255/ excerpt]
* Erisman, H. Michael, and John M. Kirk, eds. Redefining Cuban Foreign Policy: The Impact of the "Special Period" (2006)
* Falk, Pamela S. "Cuba in Africa." Foreign Affairs 65.5 (1987): 1077–1096. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20043202 online]
* Falk, Pamela S. Cuban Foreign Policy: Caribbean Tempest (1986).
* Fauriol, Georges, and Eva Loser, eds. Cuba: The International Dimension (1990)
* Feinsilver, Julie M. "Fifty Years of Cuba’s Medical Diplomacy: From Idealism to Pragmatism," Cuban Studies'' 41 (2010), 85–104;
* Gleijeses, Piero. "Moscow's Proxy? Cuba and Africa 1975–1988." Journal of Cold War Studies 8.4 (2006): 98–146. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170809075742/http://penultimosdias.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/10/82gleijeses.pdf online]
* Gleijeses, Piero. Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959-1976 (2002) [https://www.questia.com/library/120089380/conflicting-missions-havana-washington-and-africa online]
* Gleijeses, Piero. The Cuban Drumbeat. Castro’s Worldview: Cuban Foreign Policy in a Hostile World (2009)
* Harmer, Tanya. "Two, Three, Many Revolutions? Cuba and the Prospects for Revolutionary Change in Latin America, 1967–1975." Journal of Latin American Studies 45.1 (2013): 61–89.
* Hatzky, Christine. Cubans in Angola: South-South Cooperation and Transfer of Knowledge, 1976–1991. (U of Wisconsin Press, 2015).
* Krull, Catherine. ed. Cuba in a Global Context: International Relations, Internationalism, and Transnationalism (2014) [https://www.questia.com/library/120088910/cuba-in-a-global-context-international-relations online]
* Pérez-Stable, Marifeli. "The United States and Cuba since 2000." in Contemporary US-Latin American Relations (Routledge, 2010) pp. 64–83.
* Pérez-Stable, Marifeli. The United States and Cuba: Intimate Enemies (2011) recent history [https://www.questia.com/library/120092385/the-united-states-and-cuba-intimate-enemies online]
* Smith, Robert F. The United States and Cuba: Business and Diplomacy, 1917-1960 (1960) [https://www.questia.com/library/61721456/the-united-states-and-cuba-business-and-diplomacy online]
* Taylor, Frank F. "Revolution, race, and some aspects of foreign relations in Cuba since 1959." Cuban Studies (1988): 19–41.
External links
* [http://www.cubaminrex.cu/English/ Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://misiones.minrex.gob.cu/en/un Cuban Mission to the United Nations]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/cuba/cuba003.htm Text of U.S.- Cuban agreement on military bases]
* [http://www.miamiherald.com/news/americas/cuba/story/998681.html Fidel Castro's 'Reflection' on U.S. Travel Restrictions] Miami Herald, April 14, 2009
* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/visions-freedom-new-documents-the-closed-cuban-archives CWIHP e-Dossier No. 44], with an introduction by Piero Gleijeses (October 2013). The dossier features [http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/collection/173/cuba-and-southern-africa over 160 Cuban documents] pertaining to Havana's policy toward Southern Africa in the final fifteen years of the Cold War.
Representations of other countries in Cuba
* [http://cu.chineseembassy.org/ Chinese Embassy in Havana]
* [https://eoi.gov.in/havana/ Embassy of India in Havana]
* [https://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/cuba/ The Canadian Embassy in Cuba]
Cuban representations to other countries
* [http://misiones.minrex.gob.cu/en Cuban embassies around the world]
'''Aspects of Cuba's foreign policy'''
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/world_news_america/8537928.stm "Cuba's health diplomacy"], British Broadcasting Corporation, February 25, 2010. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Cuba | 2025-04-05T18:27:21.995214 |
5593 | Cyprus | | languages_type = Minority languages
| languages2_type = Vernaculars
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Cyprus
| native_name |}}
| image_flag = Flag of Cyprus.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Cyprus (2006).svg
| coa_size = 90
| common_name = Cyprus
| national_motto | national_anthem <br />(English: "Hymn to Liberty")<br />
| image_map = EU-Cyprus.svg
| map_caption =
| capital = Nicosia
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages =
| languages =
| languages2 =
| ethnic_groups
| ethnic_groups_year | demonym Cypriot
| religion
| religion_year = 2020; including Northern Cyprus
| government_type = Unitary presidential republic
| leader_title1 = President
| leader_name1 = Nikos Christodoulides
| leader_title2 = Vice-President
| leader_name2 Vacant
| population_density_rank = 82nd
| population_density_sq_mi = 319.5 <!-- Do not remove per WP:MOSNUM -->
| GDP_PPP $55.140 billion
| GDP_PPP_year = 2024
| GDP_PPP_rank = 124th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita $59,858
| Gini_rank | HDI 0.907 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref
| HDI_rank = 29th
| currency = Euro (€)
| currency_code = EUR
| time_zone = EET
| utc_offset = +02:00
| utc_offset_DST = +03:00
| time_zone_DST = EEST
| drives_on = left
| calling_code = +357
| cctld = .cy
| footnotes | today
}}
Cyprus ; }} (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , <small>lit:</small> Cypriot Republic; , , <small>lit:</small> Republic of Cyprus}} is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Although it is geographically located in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical make-up are overwhelmingly Southeast European. It is the third largest and third most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is located southeast of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon, northwest of Israel and Palestine, and north of Egypt. Its capital and largest city is Nicosia. Cyprus hosts the British-controlled military bases Akrotiri and Dhekelia, whilst the northeast portion of the island is de facto governed by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which is separated from the Republic of Cyprus by the United Nations Buffer Zone.
Cyprus was first settled by hunter-gatherers around 13,000 years ago, with farming settlements emerging a few thousand years later. During the late Bronze Age, Cyprus (then called Alashiya) developed an urbanised society closely connected to the wider Mediterranean world. Cyprus experienced waves of settlement by Mycenaean Greeks at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. It was subsequently occupied by several empires, including the Assyrians, Ancient Egyptians, and Persians, from whom the island was seized in 333 BC by Alexander the Great. Subsequent rule by Ptolemaic Egypt, the Classical and Eastern Roman Empire, Arab caliphates, the French Lusignans, and the Venetians was followed by over three centuries of Ottoman rule between 1571 and 1878 (de jure until 1914). Cyprus was placed under the United Kingdom's administration based on the Cyprus Convention in 1878, and was formally annexed by the UK in 1914.
The future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots. From the 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursued enosis (union with Greece), which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s. The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated for the continuation of British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey; in the 1950s, together with Turkey, they established a policy of taksim (the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in the north of the island). Following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. and elements of the Greek military junta. This action precipitated the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 20 July, which led to the capture of the present-day territory of Northern Cyprus and the displacement of over 150,000 Greek Cypriots and 50,000 Turkish Cypriots. A separate Turkish Cypriot state in the north was established by unilateral declaration in 1983, which was widely condemned by the international community and led to Turkey being the only country to recognise the new state. These events and the resulting political situation are matters of an ongoing dispute.
Cyprus is a major tourist destination with an advanced high-income economy. It has been a member of the Commonwealth of Nations since 1961 and was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement until it joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 1 January 2008, it joined the eurozone. Cyprus has long maintained good relations with NATO while refusing to join it, but confirmed in 2024 that it now intends to officially join.EtymologyThe earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek }}, ku-pi-ri-jo, meaning "Cypriot" (Greek: ), written in Linear B syllabic script.
The classical Greek form of the name is (Kýpros).
The etymology of the name is unknown.
Suggestions include:
* the Greek word for the Mediterranean cypress tree (Cupressus sempervirens), κυπάρισσος (kypárissos)
* the Greek name of the henna tree (Lawsonia alba), κύπρος (kýpros)
* an Eteocypriot word for copper. It has been suggested, for example, that it has roots in the Sumerian word for copper (zubar) or for bronze (kubar), from the large deposits of copper ore found on the island.
The standard demonym relating to Cyprus or its people or culture is Cypriot. The terms Cypriote and Cyprian (later a personal name) are also used, though less frequently.
The state's official name in Greek literally translates to "Cypriot Republic" in English, but this translation is not used officially; "Republic of Cyprus" is used instead.<!-- this can be added to the note in the first sentence of the lead -->
History
with early remains of human habitation during the Aceramic Neolithic period (reconstruction)]]
Prehistoric and ancient period
Hunter-gatherers first arrived on Cyprus around 13–12,000 years ago (11,000 to 10,000 BC), based on dating of sites like Aetokremnos on the south coast and the inland site of Vretsia Roudias. The arrival of the first humans coincides with the extinction of the high Cypriot pygmy hippopotamus and tall Cyprus dwarf elephant, the only large mammals native to the island. Neolithic farming communities emerged on the island by around 10,500 years ago (8500 BC).
Remains of an eight-month-old cat were discovered buried with a human body at a separate Neolithic site in Cyprus. The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old (7500 BC), predating ancient Egyptian civilisation and pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly. The remarkably well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, dating to approximately 6800 BC.
During the Late Bronze Age, from around 1650 BC Cyprus (identified in whole or part as Alashiya in contemporary texts) became more connected to the wider Mediterranean world driven by the trade in copper extracted from the Troodos Mountains, which stimulated the development of urbanised settlements across the island, with records suggesting that Cyprus at this time was ruled by "kings" who corresponded with the leaders of other Mediterranean states (like the pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt, as documented in the Amarna letters). The first recorded name of a Cypriot king is Kushmeshusha, as appears on letters sent to Ugarit in the 13th century BC.
At the end of the Bronze Age, the island experienced two waves of Greek settlement. The first wave consisted of Mycenaean Greek traders, who started visiting Cyprus around 1400 BC. A major wave of Greek settlement is believed to have taken place following the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece from 1100 to 1050 BC, with the island's predominantly Greek character dating from this period. Cyprus occupies an important role in Greek mythology, being the birthplace of Aphrodite and Adonis, and home to King Cinyras, Teucer and Pygmalion. Literary evidence suggests an early Phoenician presence at Kition, which was under Tyrian rule at the beginning of the 10th century BC. Some Phoenician merchants who were believed to come from Tyre colonised the area and expanded the political influence of Kition. After c. 850 BC, the sanctuaries [at the Kathari site] were rebuilt and reused by the Phoenicians.
Cyprus is at a strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian Empire for a century starting in 708 BC, before a brief spell under Egyptian rule and eventually Achaemenid rule in 545 BC. The Kingdoms of Cyprus enjoyed special privileges and a semi-autonomous status, but they were still considered vassal subjects of the Great King. In addition, Alexander had two Cypriot generals Stasander and Stasanor both from the Soli and later both became satraps in Alexander's empire.
Following Alexander's death, the division of his empire, and the subsequent Wars of the Diadochi, Cyprus became part of the Hellenistic empire of Ptolemaic Egypt. It was during this period that the island was fully Hellenised. In 58 BC Cyprus was acquired by the Roman Republic and became Roman Cyprus in 22 BC.
Beginning in 649, Cyprus endured repeated attacks and raids launched by Umayyad Caliphate. Many were quick raids, but others were large-scale attacks in which many Cypriots were killed and great wealth carried off or destroyed. Full Byzantine rule was restored in 965, when Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas scored decisive victories on land and sea.
In 1185 Isaac Komnenos, a member of the Byzantine imperial family, took over Cyprus and declared it independent of the Empire. In 1191, during the Third Crusade, Richard I of England captured the island from Isaac. He used it as a major supply base that was relatively safe from the Saracens. A year later Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar, who, following a bloody revolt, in turn sold it to Guy of Lusignan. His brother and successor Aimery was recognised as King of Cyprus by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor. and the Lusignan royal household even marrying Greeks. This included King John II of Cyprus who married Helena Palaiologina.Ottoman Cyprus
In 1570, a full-scale Ottoman assault with 60,000 troops brought the island under Ottoman control, despite stiff resistance by the inhabitants of Nicosia and Famagusta. Ottoman forces capturing Cyprus massacred many Greek and Armenian Christian inhabitants. The previous Latin elite were destroyed and the first significant demographic change since antiquity took place with the formation of a Muslim community. Soldiers who fought in the conquest settled on the island and Turkish peasants and craftsmen were brought to the island from Anatolia. This new community also included banished Anatolian tribes, "undesirable" persons and members of various "troublesome" Muslim sects, as well as a number of new converts on the island.
, a caravanserai in Nicosia, is an example of the surviving Ottoman architecture in Cyprus]]
The Ottomans abolished the feudal system previously in place and applied the millet system to Cyprus, under which non-Muslim peoples were governed by their own religious authorities. In a reversal from the days of Latin rule, the head of the Church of Cyprus was invested as leader of the Greek Cypriot population and acted as mediator between Christian Greek Cypriots and the Ottoman authorities. This status ensured that the Church of Cyprus was in a position to end the Catholic Church's constant expansion efforts on the island. Ottoman rule of Cyprus was at times indifferent, at times oppressive, depending on the temperaments of the sultans and local officials.
The ratio of Muslims to Christians fluctuated throughout the period of Ottoman domination. In 1777–78, 47,000 Muslims constituted a majority over the island's 37,000 Christians. By 1872, the population of the island had risen to 144,000, comprising 44,000 Muslims and 100,000 Christians. The Muslim population included numerous crypto-Christians, including the Linobambaki, a crypto-Catholic community that arose due to religious persecution of the Catholic community by the Ottoman authorities; this community would assimilate into the Turkish Cypriot community during British rule.
As soon as the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, several Greek Cypriots left for Greece to join the Greek forces. In response, the Ottoman governor of Cyprus arrested and executed 486 prominent Greek Cypriots, including the Archbishop of Cyprus, Kyprianos, and four other bishops. In 1828, modern Greece's first president Ioannis Kapodistrias called for union of Cyprus with Greece, and numerous minor uprisings took place. Reaction to Ottoman misrule led to uprisings by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots, although none were successful. After centuries of neglect by the Ottoman Empire, the poverty of most of the people and the ever-present tax collectors fueled Greek nationalism, and by the 20th century the idea of union with newly independent Greece was firmly rooted among Greek Cypriots.
British Cyprus
In the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and the Congress of Berlin, Cyprus was leased to the British Empire which de facto took over its administration in 1878 (though, in terms of sovereignty, Cyprus remained a de jure Ottoman territory until 5 November 1914, together with Egypt and Sudan) It gave Greece a golden
“opportunity” in achieving enosis with Cyprus. and in 1925 it was declared a British crown colony. The Greek Cypriots viewed the island as historically Greek and believed that union with Greece was a natural right.
Initially, the Turkish Cypriots favoured the continuation of the British rule. However, they were alarmed by the Greek Cypriot calls for enosis, as they saw the union of Crete with Greece, which led to the exodus of Cretan Turks, as a precedent to be avoided, and they took a pro-partition stance in response to the militant activity of EOKA. The Turkish Cypriots also viewed themselves as a distinct ethnic group of the island and believed in their having a separate right to self-determination from Greek Cypriots. Meanwhile, in the 1950s, Turkish leader Menderes considered Cyprus an "extension of Anatolia", rejected the partition of Cyprus along ethnic lines and favoured the annexation of the whole island to Turkey. Nationalistic slogans centred on the idea that "Cyprus is Turkish" and the ruling party declared Cyprus to be a part of the Turkish homeland that was vital to its security. Upon realising that the fact that the Turkish Cypriot population was only 20% of the islanders made annexation unfeasible, the national policy was changed to favour partition. The slogan "Partition or Death" was frequently used in Turkish Cypriot and Turkish protests starting in the late 1950s and continuing throughout the 1960s. Although after the Zürich and London conferences Turkey seemed to accept the existence of the Cypriot state and to distance itself from its policy of favouring the partition of the island, the goal of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot leaders remained that of creating an independent Turkish state in the northern part of the island.
In January 1950, the Church of Cyprus organised a referendum under the supervision of clerics and with no Turkish Cypriot participation, where 96% of the participating Greek Cypriots voted in favour of enosis. British officials also tolerated the creation of the Turkish underground organisation TMT The Secretary of State for the Colonies in a letter dated 15 July 1958 had advised the Governor of Cyprus not to act against TMT despite its illegal actions so as not to harm British relations with the Turkish government. The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of taksim, the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in the north.
Cyprus was granted independence in 1960, following an armed campaign spearheaded by EOKA. As per the Zürich and London Agreement, Cyprus officially attained independence on 16 August 1960, and at the time had a total population of 573,566; of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others. The UK retained the two Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, while government posts and public offices were allocated by ethnic quotas, giving the minority Turkish Cypriots a permanent veto, 30% in parliament and administration, and granting the three mother-states guarantor rights.
However, the division of power as foreseen by the constitution soon resulted in legal impasses and discontent on both sides, and nationalist militants started training again, with the military support of Greece and Turkey respectively. The Greek Cypriot leadership believed that the rights given to Turkish Cypriots under the 1960 constitution were too extensive and designed the Akritas plan, which was aimed at reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots, persuading the international community about the correctness of the changes and violently subjugating Turkish Cypriots in a few days should they not accept the plan. Tensions were heightened when Cypriot President Archbishop Makarios III called for constitutional changes, which were rejected by Turkey and opposed by Turkish Cypriots. destruction of 109 Turkish Cypriot or mixed villages and displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots. The crisis resulted in the end of the Turkish Cypriot involvement in the administration and their claiming that it had lost its legitimacy; Turkish Cypriots started living in enclaves. The republic's structure was changed, unilaterally, by Makarios, and Nicosia was divided by the Green Line, with the deployment of UNFICYP troops. in response to the continuing Cypriot intercommunal violence, but this was stopped by a strongly worded telegram from the US President Lyndon B. Johnson on 5 June, warning that the US would not stand beside Turkey in case of a consequential Soviet invasion of Turkish territory. Meanwhile, by 1964, enosis was a Greek policy and would not be abandoned; Makarios and the Greek prime minister Georgios Papandreou agreed that enosis should be the ultimate aim and King Constantine wished Cyprus "a speedy union with the mother country". Greece dispatched 10,000 troops to Cyprus to counter a possible Turkish invasion.
The crisis of 1963–64 had brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic.
1974 coup d'état, invasion, and division
, a suburb of Famagusta, was abandoned when its inhabitants fled in 1974 and remains under Turkish military control]]
On 15 July 1974, the Greek military junta under Dimitrios Ioannides carried out a coup d'état in Cyprus, to unite the island with Greece. The coup ousted president Makarios III and replaced him with pro-enosis nationalist Nikos Sampson. In response to the coup, five days later, on 20 July 1974, the Turkish army invaded the island, citing a right to intervene to restore the constitutional order from the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee. This justification has been rejected by the United Nations and the international community.
The Turkish air force began bombing Greek positions in Cyprus, and hundreds of paratroopers were dropped in the area between Nicosia and Kyrenia, where well-armed Turkish Cypriot enclaves had been long-established; while off the Kyrenia coast, Turkish troop ships landed 6,000 men as well as tanks, trucks and armoured vehicles.
Three days later, when a ceasefire had been agreed, Turkey had landed 30,000 troops on the island and captured Kyrenia, the corridor linking Kyrenia to Nicosia, and the Turkish Cypriot quarter of Nicosia itself. The invasion resulted in Morphou, Karpass, Famagusta and the Mesaoria coming under Turkish control.
International pressure led to a ceasefire, and by then 36% of the island had been taken over by the Turks and 180,000 Greek Cypriots had been evicted from their homes in the north. At the same time, around 50,000 Turkish Cypriots were displaced to the north and settled in the properties of the displaced Greek Cypriots. Among a variety of sanctions against Turkey, in mid-1975 the US Congress imposed an arms embargo on Turkey for using US-supplied equipment during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974. There were 1,534 Greek Cypriots and 502 Turkish Cypriots missing as a result of the fighting from 1963 to 1974.
The Republic of Cyprus has de jure sovereignty over the entire island, including its territorial waters and exclusive economic zone, with the exception of the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, which remain under the UK's control according to the London and Zürich Agreements. However, the Republic of Cyprus is de facto partitioned into two main parts: the area under the effective control of the Republic, in the south and west and comprising about 59% of the island's area, and the north, administered by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, covering about 36% of the island's area. Another nearly 4% of the island's area is covered by the UN buffer zone. The international community considers the northern part of the island to be territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law and amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of the European Union.Post-divisionAfter the restoration of constitutional order and the return of Archbishop Makarios III to Cyprus in December 1974, Turkish troops remained, occupying the northeastern portion of the island. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriot parliament, led by the Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktaş, proclaimed the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which is recognised only by Turkey.
The Turkish invasion, the ensuing occupation and the declaration of independence by the TRNC have been condemned by United Nations resolutions, which are reaffirmed by the Security Council every year.21st centuryAttempts to resolve the Cyprus dispute have continued. In 2004, the Annan Plan, drafted by then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, was put to a referendum in both Cypriot administrations. 65% of Turkish Cypriots voted in support of the plan and 74% Greek Cypriots voted against the plan, saying that it disproportionately favoured Turkish Cypriots and gave unreasonable influence over the nation to Turkey. In total, 66.7% of the voters rejected the Annan Plan.
On 1 May 2004 Cyprus joined the European Union, together with nine other countries. Cyprus was accepted into the EU as a whole, although the EU legislation is suspended in Northern Cyprus until a final settlement of the Cyprus problem.
Efforts have been made to enhance freedom of movement between the two sides. In April 2003, Northern Cyprus unilaterally eased checkpoint restrictions, permitting Cypriots to cross between the two sides for the first time in 30 years. In March 2008, a wall that had stood for decades at the boundary between the Republic of Cyprus and the UN buffer zone was demolished. The wall had cut across Ledra Street in the heart of Nicosia and was seen as a strong symbol of the island's 32-year division. On 3 April 2008, Ledra Street was reopened in the presence of Greek and Turkish Cypriot officials. The two sides relaunched reunification talks in 2015, but these collapsed in 2017.
The European Union warned in February 2019 that Cyprus was selling EU passports to Russian oligarchs, and thus would allow organised crime syndicates to infiltrate the EU. In 2020, leaked documents revealed a wider range of former and current officials from Afghanistan, China, Dubai, Lebanon, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Ukraine and Vietnam who bought a Cypriot citizenship prior to a change of the law in July 2019. Since 2020 Cyprus and Turkey have been engaged in a dispute over the extent of their exclusive economic zones, ostensibly sparked by oil and gas exploration in the area.
In November 2023, the Cyprus Confidential data leak published by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists showed the country's financial network entertaining strong links with Russian oligarchs and high-up figures in the Kremlin, supporting the regime of Vladimir Putin.
In July 2024, on the 50th anniversary of the Turkish invasion of Northern Cyprus, Turkish President Erdoğan rejected a United Nations-endorsed plan for a federal government and supported the idea of having two separate states within Cyprus. Greek Cypriots immediately rejected Erdoğan's two-state proposal, calling it a "non-starter".Geography
image of Cyprus taken in 2022]]
]]
Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after the Italian islands of Sicily and Sardinia, both in terms of area and population. and some sources placing Cyprus in Western Asia and the Middle East.
Cyprus contains the Cyprus Mediterranean forests ecoregion. It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.06/10, ranking it 59th globally out of 172 countries.
Geopolitically, the island is subdivided into four main segments. The Republic of Cyprus occupies the southern two-thirds of the island (59.74%). The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus occupies the northern third (34.85%), and the United Nations-controlled Green Line provides a buffer zone that separates the two and covers 2.67% of the island. Lastly, there are two bases under British sovereignty on the island: Akrotiri and Dhekelia, covering the remaining 2.74%.
Climate
experience heavy snowfall in winter]]
Cyprus has a subtropical climate – Mediterranean and semi-arid type (in the north-eastern part of the island) – Köppen climate classifications Csa and BSh, with very mild winters (on the coast) and warm to hot summers. Snow is possible only in the Troodos Mountains in the central part of island. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry.
Cyprus has one of the warmest climates in the Mediterranean part of the European Union. The average annual temperature on the coast is around during the day and at night. Generally, summers last about eight months, beginning in April with average temperatures of during the day and at night, and ending in November with average temperatures of during the day and at night, although in the remaining four months temperatures sometimes exceed .
Sunshine hours on the coast are around 3,200 per year, from an average of 5–6 hours of sunshine per day in December to an average of 12–13 hours in July. This is about double that of cities in the northern half of Europe; for comparison, London receives about 1,540 per year. In December, London receives about 50 hours of sunshine Between 2001 and 2004, exceptionally heavy annual rainfall pushed water reserves up, with supply exceeding demand, allowing total storage in the island's reservoirs to rise to an all-time high by the start of 2005.
However, since then demand has increased annually – a result of local population growth, foreigners moving to Cyprus and the number of visiting tourists – while supply has fallen as a result of more frequent droughts Water desalination plants are gradually being constructed to deal with recent years of prolonged drought.
The Government has invested heavily in the creation of water desalination plants which have supplied almost 50 per cent of domestic water since 2001. Efforts have also been made to raise public awareness of the situation and to encourage domestic water users to take more responsibility for the conservation of this increasingly scarce commodity.
Turkey has built a water pipeline under the Mediterranean Sea from Anamur on its southern coast to the northern coast of Cyprus, to supply Northern Cyprus with potable and irrigation water (see Northern Cyprus Water Supply Project).
Flora and fauna
Cyprus is home to a number of endemic species, including the Cypriot mouse, the golden oak and the Cyprus cedar.
Government and politics
, President since 2023]]
Cyprus is a presidential republic. The head of state and of the government is elected by a process of universal suffrage for a five-year term. Executive power is exercised by the government with legislative power vested in the House of Representatives whilst the Judiciary is independent of both the executive and the legislature.
The 1960 Constitution provided for a presidential system of government with independent executive, legislative and judicial branches as well as a complex system of checks and balances including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots. The executive was led by a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice-president elected by their respective communities for five-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of legislation and executive decisions. Legislative power rested on the House of Representatives who were also elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls.
]]
Since 1965, following clashes between the two communities, the Turkish Cypriot seats in the House have remained vacant. In 1974 Cyprus was divided de facto when the Turkish army occupied the northern third of the island. The Turkish Cypriots subsequently declared independence in 1983 as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus but were recognised only by Turkey. In 1985 the TRNC adopted a constitution and held its first elections. The United Nations recognises the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus over the entire island of Cyprus.
As of 2007, the House of Representatives had 56 members elected for a five-year term by proportional representation, and three observer members representing the Armenian, Latin and Maronite minorities. Twenty-four seats were allocated to the Turkish community but have remained vacant since 1964. The political environment was dominated by the communist AKEL, the liberal conservative Democratic Rally, the centrist Democratic Party, and the social-democratic EDEK.
In 2008, Dimitris Christofias became the country's first Communist head of state. Due to his involvement in the 2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis, Christofias did not run for re-election in 2013. The Presidential election in 2013 resulted in Democratic Rally candidate Nicos Anastasiades winning 57.48% of the vote. As a result, Anastasiades was sworn in on 28 February 2013. Anastasiades was re-elected with 56% of the vote in the 2018 presidential election. On 28 February 2023, Nikos Christodoulides, the winner of the 2023 presidential election run-off, was sworn in as the eighth president of the Republic of Cyprus.
Administrative divisions
The Republic of Cyprus is divided into six districts: Nicosia, Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol and Paphos.
}}
<!--
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan"3" | District !! rowspan"2" | Capital !! rowspan="2" | Population
|-
! !! !!
|-
| Nicosia || || || Nicosia || 326,980
|-
| Limassol || || || Limassol || 235,330
|-
| Larnaca || || || Larnaca || 143,192
|-
| Paphos || || || Paphos || 88,276
|-
| Famagusta || || || Famagusta || 46,629
|-
| Kyrenia || || || Kyrenia ||
|}
-->
Exclaves and enclaves
]]
Cyprus has four exclaves, all in territory that belongs to the British Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia. The first two are the villages of Ormidhia and Xylotymvou. The third is the Dhekelia Power Station, which is divided by a British road into two parts. The northern part is the EAC refugee settlement. The southern part, even though located by the sea, is also an exclave because it has no territorial waters of its own, those being UK waters.
The UN buffer zone runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side off Ayios Nikolaos and is connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor. In that sense the buffer zone turns the Paralimni area on the southeast corner of the island into a de facto, though not de jure, exclave.
Foreign relations
The Republic of Cyprus is a member of the following international groups: Australia Group, CN, CE, CFSP, EBRD, EIB, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ITUC, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ITU, MIGA, NAM, NSG, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO.
Cyprus is the 88th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.
Military
Dmitry Medvedev by the soldiers of the Cypriot National Guard]]
The Cypriot National Guard is the main military institution of the Republic of Cyprus. It is a combined arms force, with land, air and naval elements. Historically all male citizens were required to spend 24 months serving in the National Guard after their 17th birthday, but in 2016 this period of compulsory service was reduced to 14 months.
Annually, approximately 10,000 persons are trained in recruit centres. Depending on their awarded speciality the conscript recruits are then transferred to speciality training camps or to operational units.
While until 2016 the armed forces were mainly conscript based, since then a large professional enlisted institution has been adopted (ΣΥΟΠ), which combined with the reduction of conscript service produces an approximate 3:1 ratio between conscript and professional enlisted.
Law, justice and human rights
The Cyprus Police (Greek: , ) is the only National Police Service of the Republic of Cyprus and is under the Ministry of Justice and Public Order since 1993.
In "Freedom in the World 2011", Freedom House rated Cyprus as "free". In January 2011, the Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the question of Human Rights in Cyprus noted that the ongoing division of Cyprus continues to affect human rights throughout the island "including freedom of movement, human rights pertaining to the question of missing persons, discrimination, the right to life, freedom of religion, and economic, social and cultural rights". The constant focus on the division of the island can sometimes mask other human rights issues. Prostitution is rife, and the island has been criticised for its role in the sex trade as one of the main routes of human trafficking from Eastern Europe.
In 2014, Turkey was ordered by the European Court of Human Rights to pay well over $100m in compensation to Cyprus for the invasion; Ankara announced that it would ignore the judgment. In 2014, a group of Cypriot refugees and a European parliamentarian, later joined by the Cypriot government, filed a complaint to the International Court of Justice, accusing Turkey of violating the Geneva Conventions by directly or indirectly transferring its civilian population into occupied territory. Other violations of the Geneva and the Hague Conventions—both ratified by Turkey—amount to what archaeologist Sophocles Hadjisavvas called "the organised destruction of Greek and Christian heritage in the north". Art law expert Alessandro Chechi has classified the connection of cultural heritage destruction to ethnic cleansing as the "Greek Cypriot viewpoint", which he reports as having been dismissed by two PACE reports. Chechi asserts joint Greek and Turkish Cypriot responsibility for the destruction of cultural heritage in Cyprus, noting the destruction of Turkish Cypriot heritage in the hands of Greek Cypriot extremists.
Economy
]]
In the early 21st century, Cyprus boasted a prosperous service-based economy that made it the wealthiest of the ten countries that joined the European Union in 2004. Fitch stated Cyprus would need an additional € to support its banks and the downgrade was mainly due to the exposure of Bank of Cyprus, Cyprus Popular Bank, and Hellenic Bank, Cyprus's three largest banks, to the Greek financial crisis.
Cyprus made a staggering economic recovery in the 2010s, and according to the 2023 International Monetary Fund estimates, Cyprus' per capita GDP at $54,611 is the highest in Southern Europe, though slightly below the European Union average. Tourism, financial services and shipping are significant parts of the economy, and Cyprus has been sought as a base for several offshore businesses due its low tax rates and ease of doing business. Robust growth was achieved in the 1980s and 1990s, due to the focus placed by Cypriot governments on meeting the criteria for admission to the European Union. The Cypriot government adopted the euro as the national currency on 1 January 2008, replacing the Cypriot pound.
Cyprus is the last EU member fully isolated from energy interconnections and it is expected that it will be connected to European network via the EuroAsia Interconnector, a 2000 MW high-voltage direct current undersea power cable. EuroAsia Interconnector will connect Greek, Cypriot, and Israeli power grids. It is a leading Project of Common Interest of the European Union and also priority Electricity Highway Interconnector Project.
In recent years significant quantities of offshore natural gas have been discovered in the area known as Aphrodite (at the exploratory drilling block 12) in Cyprus's exclusive economic zone (EEZ), about south of Limassol at 33°5'40″N and 32°59'0″E. However, Turkey's offshore drilling companies have accessed both natural gas and oil resources since 2013. Cyprus demarcated its maritime border with Egypt in 2003, with Lebanon in 2007, and with Israel in 2010. In August 2011, the US-based firm Noble Energy entered into a production-sharing agreement with the Cypriot government regarding the block's commercial development.
Turkey, which does not recognise the border agreements of Cyprus with its neighbours, threatened to mobilise its naval forces if Cyprus proceeded with plans to begin drilling at Block 12. Cyprus's drilling efforts have the support of the US, EU, and UN, and on 19 September 2011 drilling in Block 12 began without any incidents being reported.
Infrastructure
Cyprus is one of only three EU nations in which vehicles drive on the left-hand side of the road, a remnant of British rule. A series of motorways runs along the coast from Paphos to Ayia Napa, with two motorways running inland to Nicosia, one from Limassol and one from Larnaca.
Per capita private car ownership is the 29th-highest in the world. There were approximately 344,000 privately owned vehicles, and a total of 517,000 registered motor vehicles in the Republic of Cyprus in 2006. In 2006, plans were announced to improve and expand bus services and other public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank. In 2010 the new bus network was implemented.
Cyprus has two international airports in the government-controlled areas, the busier one being in Larnaca and the other in Paphos. The Ercan International Airport is the only active one in the non-government-controlled areas, but all international flights there must have a stopover in Turkey.
The main harbours of the island are Limassol and Larnaca, which serve cargo, passenger and cruise ships.
Cyta, the state-owned telecommunications company, manages most telecommunications and Internet connections on the island. However, following deregulation of the sector, a few private telecommunications companies emerged, including epic, Cablenet, OTEnet Telecom, Omega Telecom and PrimeTel. In the non-government-controlled areas of Cyprus, two different companies administer the mobile phone network: Turkcell and KKTC Telsim.Demographics
According to the Republic of Cyprus' website, the population in the government controlled areas was 918,100 at the 2021 Census, with the most populous district being Nicosia (38%), followed by Limassol (28%). The Nicosia Metropolitan area, consisting of seven municipalities, is the largest urban area on the island with a population of 255,309.
As per the first population census after independence, carried out in December 1960 and covering the entire island, Cyprus had a total population of 573,566, of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others. The CIA World Factbook calculated that in 2001, Greek Cypriots comprised 77%, Turkish Cypriots 18%, and others 5% of the total Cypriot population.
Due to the inter-communal ethnic tensions between 1963 and 1974, an island-wide census was regarded as impossible. Nevertheless, the Cypriot government conducted one in 1973, without the Turkish Cypriot populace. According to this census, the Greek Cypriot population was 482,000. One year later, in 1974, the Cypriot government's Department of Statistics and Research estimated the total population of Cyprus at 641,000; of whom 506,000 (78.9%) were Greeks, and 118,000 (18.4%) Turkish. After the military occupation of part of the island in 1974, the government of Cyprus conducted six more censuses: in 1976, 1982, 1992, 2001, 2011 and 2021; these excluded the Turkish population which was resident in non-government-controlled areas of the island. and an estimated 10,000–30,000 undocumented illegal immigrants.
{| class"wikitable" style"float:right;"
|+Largest groups of foreign residents
|-
! scope="column | Nationality
! scope="column" | Population (2011)
|-
! scope="row" |
| 29,321
|-
! scope="row" |
| 24,046
|-
! scope="row" |
| 23,706
|-
! scope="row" |
| 18,536
|-
! scope="row" |
| 9,413
|-
! scope="row" |
| 8,164
|-
! scope="row" |
| 7,269
|-
! scope="row" |
| 7,028
|-
! scope="row" |
| 3,054
|-
! scope="row" |
| 2,933
|}
According to the 2006 census carried out by Northern Cyprus, there were 256,644 (de jure) people living in Northern Cyprus. 178,031 were citizens of Northern Cyprus, of whom 147,405 were born in Cyprus (112,534 from the north; 32,538 from the south; 371 did not indicate what region of Cyprus they were from); 27,333 born in Turkey; 2,482 born in the UK and 913 born in Bulgaria. Of the 147,405 citizens born in Cyprus, 120,031 say both parents were born in Cyprus; 16,824 say both parents born in Turkey; 10,361 have one parent born in Turkey and one parent born in Cyprus.
In 2010, the International Crisis Group estimated that the total population of the island was 1.1 million, of which there were an estimated 300,000 residents in the north, perhaps half of whom were either born in Turkey or are children of such settlers.
The villages of Rizokarpaso (in Northern Cyprus), Potamia (in Nicosia district) and Pyla (in Larnaca District) are the only settlements remaining with a mixed Greek and Turkish Cypriot population.
Y-Dna haplogroups are found at the following frequencies in Cyprus: J (43.07% including 6.20% J1), E1b1b (20.00%), R1 (12.30% including 9.2% R1b), F (9.20%), I (7.70%), K (4.60%), A (3.10%). J, K, F and E1b1b haplogroups consist of lineages with differential distribution within Middle East, North Africa and Europe.
Outside Cyprus there are significant and thriving diasporas – both a Greek Cypriot diaspora and a Turkish Cypriot diaspora – in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, the United States, Greece and Turkey. According to Council of Europe, approximately 1,250 Romani people live in Cyprus.
Religion
}}
The majority of Greek Cypriots identify as Christians, specifically Greek Orthodox, whereas most Turkish Cypriots are adherents of Sunni Islam. The first President of Cyprus, Makarios III, was an archbishop.
Hala Sultan Tekke, situated near the Larnaca Salt Lake is an object of pilgrimage for Muslims.
According to the 2001 census carried out in the government-controlled areas, 94.8% of the population was Eastern Orthodox, 0.9% Armenian and Maronite, 1.5% Roman Catholic, 1.0% Church of England, and 0.6% Muslim. There is also a Jewish community on Cyprus. The remaining 1.3% adhered to other religious denominations or did not state their religion. The Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic Church, and both the Maronite and Latin Catholics are constitutionally recognised denominations and exempt from taxes.
Languages
. Armenian is recognised as a minority language in Cyprus]]
Cyprus has two official languages, Greek and Turkish. Armenian and Cypriot Maronite Arabic are recognised as minority languages. Although without official status, English is widely spoken and features widely on road signs and in public notices and advertisements. English was the sole official language during British colonial rule and the lingua franca until 1960, and continued to be used (de facto) in courts of law until 1989 and in legislation until 1996. In 2010, 80.4% of Cypriots were proficient in English as a second language. Russian is widely spoken among the country's minorities, residents and citizens of post-Soviet countries, and Pontic Greeks. Russian, after English and Greek, is the third language used on many signs of shops and restaurants, particularly in Limassol and Paphos. In addition, in 2006, 12% of the population spoke French and 5% spoke German.
The everyday spoken language of Greek Cypriots is Cypriot Greek, and that of Turkish Cypriots is Cypriot Turkish. Cyprus was ranked 27th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.
State schools are generally seen as equivalent in quality of education to private-sector institutions. However, the value of a state high-school diploma is limited by the fact that the grades obtained account for only around 25% of the final grade for each topic, with the remaining 75% assigned by the teacher during the semester, in a minimally transparent way. Cypriot universities (like universities in Greece) ignore high school grades almost entirely for admissions purposes. While a high-school diploma is mandatory for university attendance, admissions are decided almost exclusively on the basis of scores at centrally administered university entrance examinations that all university candidates are required to take.
The majority of Cypriots receive their higher education at Greek, British, Turkish, other European and North American universities. Cyprus currently has the highest percentage of citizens of working age who have higher-level education in the EU at 30% which is ahead of Finland's 29.5%. In addition, 47% of its population aged 25–34 have tertiary education, which is the highest in the EU. The body of Cypriot students is highly mobile, with 78.7% studying in a university outside Cyprus.Culture
]]
Greek and Turkish Cypriots share many cultural traits, while also possessing some differences. Several traditional food (such as souvla and halloumi) and beverages are similar, as well as expressions and ways of life. Hospitality and buying or offering food and drinks for guests or others are common among both. In both communities, music, dance and art are integral parts of social life and many artistic, verbal and nonverbal expressions, traditional dances such as tsifteteli, similarities in dance costumes and importance placed on social activities are shared between the communities. However, the two communities have distinct religions and religious cultures, with the Greek Cypriots traditionally being Greek Orthodox and Turkish Cypriots traditionally being Sunni Muslims, which has partly hindered cultural exchange. Greek Cypriots have influences from Greece and Christianity, while Turkish Cypriots have influences from Turkey and Islam.
The Limassol Carnival Festival is an annual carnival which is held at Limassol, in Cyprus. The event which is very popular in Cyprus was introduced in the 20th century.Arts
, Cyprus]]
The art history of Cyprus can be said to stretch back up to 10,000 years, following the discovery of a series of Chalcolithic period carved figures in the villages of Khoirokoitia and Lempa. The island is the home to numerous examples of high quality religious icon painting from the Middle Ages as well as many painted churches. Cypriot architecture was heavily influenced by French Gothic and Italian renaissance introduced in the island during the era of Latin domination (1191–1571).
A well known traditional art that dates at least from the 14th century is the Lefkara lace, which originates from the village of Lefkara. Lefkara lace is recognised as an intangible cultural heritage (ICH) by UNESCO, and it is characterised by distinct design patterns, and its intricate, time-consuming production process. Another local form of art that originated from Lefkara is the production of Cypriot Filigree (locally known as Trifourenio), a type of jewellery that is made with twisted threads of silver.
In modern times Cypriot art history begins with the painter Vassilis Vryonides (1883–1958) who studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Venice. Arguably the two founding fathers of modern Cypriot art were Adamantios Diamantis (1900–1994) who studied at London's Royal College of Art and
Christophoros Savva (1924–1968) who also studied in London, at Saint Martin's School of Art. In 1960, Savva founded, together with Welsh artist Glyn Hughes, Apophasis [Decision], the first independent cultural centre of the newly established Republic of Cyprus. In 1968, Savva was among the artists representing Cyprus in its inaugural Pavilion at the 34th Venice Biennale. English Cypriot Artist [http://glynhughesart.com/ Glyn HUGHES] 1931–2014. In many ways these two artists set the template for subsequent Cypriot art and both their artistic styles and the patterns of their education remain influential to this day. In particular the majority of Cypriot artists still train in England while others train at art schools in Greece and local art institutions such as the Cyprus College of Art, University of Nicosia and the Frederick Institute of Technology.
One of the features of Cypriot art is a tendency towards figurative painting although conceptual art is being rigorously promoted by a number of art "institutions" and most notably the Nicosia Municipal Art Centre. Municipal art galleries exist in all the main towns and there is a large and lively commercial art scene.
Other notable Greek Cypriot artists include Panayiotis Kalorkoti, Nicos Nicolaides, Stass Paraskos, Telemachos Kanthos, and Chris Achilleos; and Turkish Cypriot artists include İsmet Güney, Ruzen Atakan and Mutlu Çerkez.
Music
, dominant instrument of the Cypriot traditional music]]
The traditional folk music of Cyprus has several common elements with Greek, Turkish, and Arabic Music, all of which have descended from Byzantine music, including Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot dances such as the tillirkotissa, as well as the Middle Eastern-inspired tsifteteli and arapies. There is also a form of musical poetry known as chattista which is often performed at traditional feasts and celebrations. The instruments commonly associated with Cyprus folk music are the violin ("fkiolin"), lute ("laouto"), Cyprus flute (pithkiavlin), oud ("outi"), kanonaki and percussions (including the "tamboutsia"). Composers associated with traditional Cypriot music include Solon Michaelides, Marios Tokas, Evagoras Karageorgis and Savvas Salides. Among musicians is also the acclaimed pianist Cyprien Katsaris, composer Andreas G. Orphanides, and composer and artistic director of the European Capital of Culture initiative Marios Joannou Elia.
Popular music in Cyprus is generally influenced by the Greek Laïka scene; artists who play in this genre include international platinum star Anna Vissi, Evridiki, and Sarbel. Hip hop and R&B have been supported by the emergence of Cypriot rap and the urban music scene at Ayia Napa, while in the last years the reggae scene is growing, especially through the participation of many Cypriot artists at the annual Reggae Sunjam festival. Is also noted Cypriot rock music and Éntekhno rock is often associated with artists such as Michalis Hatzigiannis and Alkinoos Ioannidis. Metal also has a small following in Cyprus represented by bands such as Armageddon (rev.16:16), Blynd, Winter's Verge, Methysos and Quadraphonic.
Literature
, founder of the Stoic school of philosophy]]
Literary production of the antiquity includes the Cypria, an epic poem, probably composed in the late 7th century BC and attributed to Stasinus. The Cypria is one of the first specimens of Greek and European poetry. The Cypriot Zeno of Citium was the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy.
Epic poetry, notably the "acritic songs", flourished during the Middle Ages. Two chronicles, one written by Leontios Machairas and the other by Georgios Boustronios, cover the entire Middle Ages until the end of Frankish rule (4th century–1489). ''Poèmes d'amour'' written in medieval Greek Cypriot date back from the 16th century. Some of them are actual translations of poems written by Petrarch, Bembo, Ariosto and G. Sannazzaro. Many Cypriot scholars fled Cyprus at troubled times, such as Ioannis Kigalas (c. 1622–1687) who migrated from Cyprus to Italy in the 17th century, several of his works have survived in books of other scholars.
(–1687) was a Nicosia born Greek Cypriot scholar and professor of philosophy who was largely active in the 17th century]]
Hasan Hilmi Efendi, a Turkish Cypriot poet, was rewarded by the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II and said to be the "sultan of the poems".
Modern Greek Cypriot literary figures include the poet and writer Costas Montis, poet Kyriakos Charalambides, poet Michalis Pasiardis, writer Nicos Nicolaides, Stylianos Atteshlis, Altheides, Loukis Akritas and Demetris Th. Gotsis. Dimitris Lipertis, Vasilis Michaelides and Pavlos Liasides are folk poets who wrote poems mainly in the Cypriot-Greek dialect. Among leading Turkish Cypriot writers are Osman Türkay, twice nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature, Özker Yaşın, Neriman Cahit, Urkiye Mine Balman, Mehmet Yaşın and Neşe Yaşın.
There is an increasingly strong presence of both temporary and permanent emigre Cypriot writers in world literature, as well as writings by second and third-generation Cypriot writers born or raised abroad, often writing in English. This includes writers such as Michael Paraskos and Stephanos Stephanides.
Examples of Cyprus in foreign literature include the works of Shakespeare, with most of the play Othello by William Shakespeare set on the island of Cyprus. British writer Lawrence Durrell lived in Cyprus from 1952 until 1956, during his time working for the British colonial government on the island, and wrote the book Bitter Lemons about his time in Cyprus which won the second Duff Cooper Prize in 1957.
Mass media
In the 2015 Freedom of the Press report of Freedom House, the Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus were ranked "free". The Republic of Cyprus scored 25/100 in press freedom, 5/30 in Legal Environment, 11/40 in Political Environment, and 9/30 in Economic Environment (the lower scores the better). Reporters Without Borders rank the Republic of Cyprus 24th out of 180 countries in the 2015 World Press Freedom Index, with a score of 15.62.
The law provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combine to ensure freedom of speech and of the press. The law prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.
Local television companies in Cyprus include the state owned Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation which runs two television channels. In addition on the Greek side of the island there are the private channels ANT1 Cyprus, Plus TV, Mega Channel, Sigma TV, Nimonia TV (NTV) and New Extra. In Northern Cyprus, the local channels are BRT, the Turkish Cypriot equivalent to the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation, and a number of private channels. The majority of local arts and cultural programming is produced by the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation and BRT, with local arts documentaries, review programmes and filmed drama series.
Cinema
The most worldwide known Cypriot director, to have worked abroad, is Michael Cacoyannis.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, George Filis produced and directed Gregoris Afxentiou, Etsi Prodothike i Kypros, and The Mega Document. In 1994, Cypriot film production received a boost with the establishment of the Cinema Advisory Committee. In 2000, the annual amount set aside for filmmaking in the national budget was CYP£500,000 (about €850,000). In addition to government grants, Cypriot co-productions are eligible for funding from the Council of Europe's Eurimages Fund, which finances European film co-productions. To date, four feature films on which a Cypriot was an executive producer have received funding from Eurimages. The first was I Sphagi tou Kokora (1996), followed by Hellados (unreleased), To Tama (1999), and O Dromos gia tin Ithaki (2000).
Cuisine
]]
During the medieval period, under the French Lusignan monarchs of Cyprus an elaborate form of courtly cuisine developed, fusing French, Byzantine and Middle Eastern forms. The Lusignan kings were known for importing Syrian cooks to Cyprus, and it has been suggested that one of the key routes for the importation of Middle Eastern recipes into France and other Western European countries, such as blancmange, was via the Lusignan Kingdom of Cyprus. These recipes became known in the West as vyands de Chypre, or foods of Cyprus, and the food historian William Woys Weaver has identified over one hundred of them in English, French, Italian and German recipe books of the Middle Ages. One that became particularly popular across Europe in the medieval and early modern periods was a stew made with chicken or fish called malmonia'', which in English became mawmeny.
Another example of a Cypriot food ingredient entering the Western European canon is the cauliflower, still popular and used in a variety of ways on the island today, which was associated with Cyprus from the early Middle Ages. Writing in the 12th and 13th centuries the Arab botanists Ibn al-'Awwam and Ibn al-Baitar claimed the vegetable had its origins in Cyprus, and this association with the island was echoed in Western Europe, where cauliflowers were originally known as Cyprus cabbage or Cyprus colewart. There was also a long and extensive trade in cauliflower seeds from Cyprus, until well into the sixteenth century.
]]
]]
Although much of the Lusignan food culture was lost after the fall of Cyprus to the Ottomans in 1571, a number of dishes that would have been familiar to the Lusignans survive today, including various forms of tahini and houmous, zalatina, skordalia and pickled wild song birds called ambelopoulia. Ambelopoulia, which is today highly controversial, and illegal, was exported in vast quantities from Cyprus during the Lusignan and Venetian periods, particularly to Italy and France. In 1533 the English traveller to Cyprus, John Locke, claimed to have seen the pickled wild birds packed into large jars, of which 1200 jars were exported from Cyprus annually.
Also familiar to the Lusignans would have been Halloumi cheese, which some food writers today claim originated in Cyprus during the Byzantine period although the name of the cheese itself is thought by academics to be of Arabic origin. There is no surviving written documentary evidence of the cheese being associated with Cyprus before the year 1554, when the Italian historian Florio Bustron wrote of a sheep-milk cheese from Cyprus he called calumi. This island has protected geographical indication (PGI) for its lokum produced in the village of Geroskipou.
Sports
in Limassol]]
Sport governing bodies include the Cyprus Football Association, Cyprus Basketball Federation, Cyprus Volleyball Federation, Cyprus Automobile Association, Cyprus Badminton Federation, Cyprus Cricket Association, Cyprus Rugby Federation and the Cyprus Pool Association.
Notable sports teams in the Cyprus leagues include APOEL FC, Anorthosis Famagusta FC, AC Omonia, AEL Limassol FC, Apollon Limassol FC, Nea Salamis Famagusta FC, Olympiakos Nicosia, AEK Larnaca FC, Aris Limassol FC, AEL Limassol B.C., Keravnos B.C. and Apollon Limassol B.C. Stadiums or sports venues include the GSP Stadium (the largest in the Republic of Cyprus-controlled areas), Tsirion Stadium (second largest), Neo GSZ Stadium, Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium, Ammochostos Stadium. Makario Stadium and Alphamega Stadium.
In the 2008–09 season, Anorthosis Famagusta FC was the first Cypriot team to qualify for the UEFA Champions League Group stage. Next season, APOEL FC qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stage, and reached the last 8 of the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League after finishing top of its group and beating French Olympique Lyonnais in the Round of 16.
The Cyprus national rugby union team known as The Moufflons currently holds the record for most consecutive international wins, which is especially notable as the Cyprus Rugby Federation was only formed in 2006.
Footballer Sotiris Kaiafas won the European Golden Shoe in the 1975–76 season; Cyprus is the smallest country by population to have one of its players win the award. Tennis player Marcos Baghdatis was ranked 8th in the world, was a finalist at the Australian Open, and reached the Wimbledon semi-final, all in 2006. High jumper Kyriakos Ioannou achieved a jump of 2.35m at the 11th IAAF World Championships in Athletics in Osaka, Japan, in 2007, winning the bronze medal. He has been ranked third in the world. In motorsports, Tio Ellinas is a successful race car driver, currently racing in the GP3 Series for Marussia Manor Motorsport. There is also mixed martial artist Costas Philippou, who competed in UFC's middleweight division from 2011 until 2015. Costas holds a 6–4 record in UFC bouts.
Also notable for a Mediterranean island, the siblings Christopher and Sophia Papamichalopoulou qualified for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. They were the only athletes who managed to qualify and thus represented Cyprus at the 2010 Winter Olympics.
The country's first ever Olympic medal, a silver medal, was won by the sailor Pavlos Kontides, at the 2012 Summer Olympics in the Men's Laser class.
See also
*Ancient regions of Anatolia
*Index of Cyprus-related articles
*Outline of Cyprus
*List of notable Cypriots
References
Informational notes
Citations
Further reading
*
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* Clark, Tommy. A Brief History of Cyprus (2020) [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Brief-History-Cyprus-Tommy-Clark/dp/1527268527/ excerpt]
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* Sacopoulo, Marina (1966). ''Chypre d'aujourd'hui. Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose. 406 p., ill. with b&w photos. and fold. maps.
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External links
General Information
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cyprus/ Cyprus]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1021835.stm Timeline of Cyprus by BBC]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080727022814/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/cyprus.htm Cyprus] from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* [https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/eur/ci/cy/ Cyprus] information from the United States Department of State includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17217956 Cyprus profile] from the BBC News
* [http://www.unficyp.org/ The UN in Cyprus]
Government
* [http://www.cyprustrade.co.uk/ Cyprus High Commission Trade Centre – London]
* [http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/portal/portal.nsf/citizen_en?OpenForm&access0&SectionIdcitizen&CategoryIdnone&SelectionIdhome&print0&langen Republic of Cyprus – English Language]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061003102510/http://www.kypros.org/Constitution/English/index.htm Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus]
* [https://www.pio.gov.cy/en/ Press and Information Office – Ministry of Interior]
* [https://www.cystat.gov.cy/en/ Cyprus Statistical Service]
Tourism
* [http://www.visitcyprus.com/ Read about Cyprus on visitcyprus.com] – the official travel portal for Cyprus
* [http://www.cyprus.com/ Cyprus informational portal and open platform for contribution of Cyprus-related content] – www.Cyprus.com
*
Cuisine
* [https://publications.gov.cy/assets/user/publications/2022/2022_040/HTML/ Gastronomical map of Cyprus]
Archaeology
* [http://triarte.brynmawr.edu/PRT212?sid336967&x32613387&x=32613388 Cypriot Pottery, Bryn Mawr College Art and Artifact Collections]
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/162840 The Cesnola collection of Cypriot art : stone sculpture''], a fully digitised text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries
* [http://cypernochkreta.dinstudio.se The Mosaics of Khirbat al-Ma]
Official publications
* [https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200405/cmselect/cmfaff/113/11302.htm The British government's Foreign Affairs Committee report on Cyprus].
* [http://www.moi.gov.cy/moi/pio/pio.nsf/All/BD477C55623013C5C2256D740027CF98?OpenDocument Legal Issues arising from certain population transfers and displacements on the territory of the Republic of Cyprus in the period since 20 July 1974]
* [http://www.hri.org/news/cyprus/cna/2004/04-04-08.cna.html#01 Address to Cypriots by President Papadopoulos (FULL TEXT)]
* [http://www.hri.org/docs/annan/ Annan Plan]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041217052134/http://www.greekembassy.org/Embassy/content/en/Article.aspx?office1&folder44&article=86 Embassy of Greece, USA – Cyprus: Geographical and Historical Background]
}}
Category:Countries in Europe
Category:Countries in Asia
Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations
Category:Member states of the European Union
Category:Eastern Mediterranean
Category:Islands of Europe
Category:International islands
Category:Island countries
Category:Mediterranean islands
Category:Islands of Asia
Category:West Asian countries
Category:Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean
Category:Member states of the United Nations
Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
Category:States and territories established in 1960
Category:Countries and territories where Greek is an official language
Category:Countries and territories where Turkish is an official language
Category:States with limited recognition | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus | 2025-04-05T18:27:22.126002 |
5595 | Geography of Cyprus | |}}
| native_name_link | nickname
| location = Mediterranean Sea
| coordinates <div></div>
| archipelago | total_islands
| major_islands | area_km2 9,251
| length_km | width_km
| coastline_km = 648
| highest_mount = Mount Olympus
| elevation_m = 1,952
| country = Republic of Cyprus
| country_capital_and_largest_city = Nicosia
| country_area_km2 = 5896
| country1 = Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus<br />}}
| country1_capital_and_largest_city = North Nicosia
| country1_area_km2 = 3,355
| country2 = Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia<br />
| country2_capital_and_largest_city = Episkopi Cantonment
| country2_capital_type = settlement
| country2_area_km2 = 254
| population = 1,278,686
| population_as_of = 2021
| density_km2 = 138
| ethnic_groups =
}}
Cyprus is an island in the Eastern Basin of the Mediterranean Sea. It is the third-largest island in the Mediterranean, after the Italian islands of Sicily and Sardinia, and the 80th-largest island in the world by area. It is located south of the Anatolian Peninsula, yet it belongs to the Cyprus Arc. Geographically, Cyprus is located in West Asia, but the country is considered a European country in political geography. Cyprus also had lengthy periods of mainly Greek and intermittent Anatolian, Levantine, Byzantine, Turkish, and Western European influence.
The island is dominated by two mountain ranges, the Troodos Mountains and the Kyrenia Mountains or Pentadaktylos, and the central plain, the Mesaoria, between them. The Troodos Mountains cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half its area.Terrainin 2013, shows the three distinct geologic regions of the island. In the central and western part of the island is the Troodos Massif, a mountain range whose surface layer is mostly basaltic lava rock, and whose maximum elevation is . Running in a thin arc along the northeast margin of the island is Cyprus's second mountain range, a limestone formation called the Kyrenia Range. The space between these ranges is home to the capital Nicosia, visible as a grayish-brown patch near the image's centre.]]
The rugged Troodos Mountains, whose principal range stretches from Pomos Point in the northwest almost to Larnaca Bay on the east, are the single most conspicuous feature of the landscape. but their seemingly inaccessible, jagged slopes make them considerably more spectacular.DrainageIn much of the island, access to a year-round supply of water is difficult. A network of winter rivers rises in the Troodos Mountains and flows out from them in all directions.<ref name":0" /> The Yialias River and the Pedhieos River flow eastward across the Mesaoria into Famagusta Bay; the Serraghis River flows northwest through the Morphou plain.<ref name":0" /> All of the island's rivers, however, are dry in the summer.<ref name":0" /> An extensive system of dams and waterways has been constructed to bring water to farming areas.<ref name=":0" />
The central Mesaoria plain is the agricultural heartland of the island, but its productiveness for wheat and barley depends very much on winter rainfall; other crops are grown under irrigation.<ref name":0" />This broad, central plain, open to the sea at either end, was once covered with rich forests. However, the timber was needed by ancient conquerors for their sailing vessels, so little evidence of the woodland remains .<ref name":0" /> The now-divided capital of the island, Nicosia, lies in the middle of this central plain.<ref name":0" /> Natural vegetation Despite its small size, Cyprus has a variety of natural vegetation. This includes forests of conifers and broadleaved trees such as pine (Pinus brutia), cedar, cypresses, and oaks. Ancient authors write that most of Cyprus, even Messaoria, was heavily forested, and there are still considerable forests on the Troodos and Kyrenia ranges, and locally at lower altitudes. About 17% of the whole island is classified as woodland. Where there is no forest, tall shrub communities of golden oak (Quercus alnifolia), strawberry tree (Arbutus andrachne), terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus), olive (Olea europaea), kermes oak (Quercus coccifera), and styrax (Styrax officinalis) are found, but such maquis is uncommon. Over most of the island untilled ground bears a grazed covering of garrigue, largely composed of low bushes of Cistus, Genista sphacelata, Calicotome villosa, Lithospermum hispidulum, Phagnalon rupestre, and, locally, Pistacia lentiscus. Where grazing is excessive this covering is soon reduced, and an impoverished batha remains, consisting principally of Thymus capitatus, Sarcopoterium spinosum, and a few stunted herbs.Climate
in the Levant, October 19, 2002]]
The Mediterranean climate, warm and rather dry, with rainfall mainly between November and March, favours agriculture.<ref name":0" /> In general, the island experiences mild wet winters and dry hot summers.<ref name":0" /> Variations in temperature and rainfall are governed by altitude and, to a lesser extent, distance from the coast.<ref name":0" /> Hot, dry summers from mid-May to mid-September and rainy, rather changeable winters from November to mid-March are separated by short autumn and spring seasons.Area and boundaries
Area:
<br />Total:
9,251 km<sup>2</sup> (of which are under the control of the Republic of Cyprus and of which are under military occupation by Turkey)
<br />Land:
9,241 km<sup>2</sup>
<br />Water:
10 km<sup>2</sup>
Land boundaries:
0 km
Coastline:
648 km
Maritime claims:
<br />Territorial sea:
<br />Continental shelf:
200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation
<br />Exclusive Economic Zone:
Elevation extremes:
<br />Lowest point:
Mediterranean Sea 0 m
<br />Highest point:
Olympus 1,952 m<ref name"Embassy climate"/>Resource and land use
Natural resources:
copper, pyrite, asbestos, gypsum, timber, salt, marble, clay earth pigment
Land use:
<br />arable land:
9.90%
<br />permanent crops:
3.24%
<br />other:
86.86% (2012)
Irrigated land:
457.9 km<sup>2</sup> (2007)
Total renewable water resources:
0.78 km<sup>3</sup> (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
<br />total:
0.18 km<sup>3</sup>/yr (10%/3%/86%)
<br />per capital:
164.7 m<sup>3</sup>/yr (2009)
<gallery>
File:Administrative map of Cyprus.jpg|Administrative map of Cyprus
File:Population map of Cyprus.jpg|Population map of the Republic of Cyprus
File:Cyprus density.jpg|Population density map of the Republic of Cyprus
File:Cyprus administrative.jpg|Municipalities and communities map of Cyprus
File:Cyprus districts.jpg|District map of Cyprus
File:Ethnographic distribution in Cyprus 1960.jpg|Population distribution of Cyprus in 1960
</gallery>
Environmental concerns
Natural hazards:
moderate earthquake activity; droughts
Environment – current issues:
water resource problems (no natural reservoir catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall, sea water intrusion to island's largest aquifer, increased salination in the north); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from urbanization.
Environment – international agreements:
<br />party to:
Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
<br />signed, but not ratified: none
See also
*Geology of Cyprus
*List of Cyprus islets
*List of dams and reservoirs in Cyprus
*List of rivers of Cyprus
References
*[http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/cyphome/govhome.nsf/LookupIDs/300D6935EC884FBCC2256A71003972F4?OpenDocument&languageNo1 Official Cyprus Government Web Site]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041217052134/http://www.greekembassy.org/Embassy/content/en/Article.aspx?office1&folder44&article=86 Embassy of Greece, USA – Cyprus: Geographical and Historical Background]
Attribution:
* | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Cyprus | 2025-04-05T18:27:22.138828 |
5596 | Demographics of Cyprus | The people of Cyprus are broadly divided into two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, who share many cultural traits but maintain distinct identities based on ethnicity, religion, language, and close ties with Greece and Turkey respectively. Before the dispute started in 1964 the peoples of Cyprus (then 77.1% Greek Cypriots, 18.2% Turkish Cypriots, <5% other communities, primarily Armenians, Maronites, and other Lebanese) were dispersed over the entire island.
The Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 de facto partitioned the island into two political areas: 99.5% of Greek Cypriots now live in the south part of the Republic of Cyprus while 98.7% of Turkish Cypriots live in northern areas. (99.2% of other nationalities live in the Greek Cypriot areas in the center, west, east and south). Greek and Cypriot dialect are predominantly spoken in the east, west, south and centre, where the majority are Greek Cypriots, and Turkish in the north, where the majority are Turkish Cypriots<!-- and immigrants from Turkey : see chat -->. English is widely used throughout the island, as a common language.
The total population of Cyprus as of the end of 2006 was slightly over 1 million, comprising 789,300 in the territory controlled by the government of the Republic of Cyprus and 294,406 in the northern areas of Cyprus. The population of the northern areas of Cyprus has increased following the immigration of 150,000–160,000 Turkish mainlanders, which the UN confirmed to have arrived illegally. On this basis, the Republic of Cyprus government does not include this group in the population statistics of the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service.
Population
]]
:838,897 in Republic of Cyprus controlled area (October 2011 census preliminary result)
:294,906 in northern Cyprus (2011 population census).
:1,133,803 total population of Cyprus (sum of population in Government controlled area and northern Cyprus, 2011 data)
Population by citizenship
Republic of Cyprus government controlled area:
:1992 census: 95.8% Cypriot, 4.2% Non-Cypriot
:2001 census: 90.6% Cypriot, 9.4% Non-Cypriot
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Year
! width="80pt"|Total population
! width="80pt"|Live births<sup>1</sup>
! width="80pt"|Deaths<sup>1</sup>
! width="80pt"|Natural change
! width="80pt"|Crude birth rate (per 1000)
! width="80pt"|Crude death rate (per 1000)
! width="80pt"|Natural change (per 1000)
|-
| 1901
| align="right" | 238,000
| align="right" | 7,300
| align="right" | 4,300
| align="right" | 3,000
| align="right" | 30.6
| align="right" | 18.1
| align="right" | 12.5
|-
| 1902
| align="right" | 241,000
| align="right" | 6,700
| align="right" | 3,500
| align="right" | 3,200
| align="right" | 28.0
| align="right" | 14.6
| align="right" | 13.4
|-
| 1903
| align="right" | 245,000
| align="right" | 7,000
| align="right" | 3,600
| align="right" | 3,400
| align="right" | 28.6
| align="right" | 14.6
| align="right" | 14.0
|-
| 1904
| align="right" | 249,000
| align="right" | 7,600
| align="right" | 3,700
| align="right" | 3,900
| align="right" | 30.4
| align="right" | 14.8
| align="right" | 15.6
|-
| 1905
| align="right" | 253,000
| align="right" | 7,500
| align="right" | 4,500
| align="right" | 3,000
| align="right" | 29.6
| align="right" | 17.7
| align="right" | 11.9
|-
| 1906
| align="right" | 257,000
| align="right" | 7,900
| align="right" | 4,100
| align="right" | 3,800
| align="right" | 30.7
| align="right" | 15.8
| align="right" | 14.9
|-
| 1907
| align="right" | 260,000
| align="right" | 8,200
| align="right" | 4,600
| align="right" | 3,600
| align="right" | 31.4
| align="right" | 17.7
| align="right" | 13.7
|-
| 1908
| align="right" | 264,000
| align="right" | 8,700
| align="right" | 5,200
| align="right" | 3,500
| align="right" | 32.9
| align="right" | 19.7
| align="right" | 13.2
|-
| 1909
| align="right" | 268,000
| align="right" | 8,000
| align="right" | 4,500
| align="right" | 3,500
| align="right" | 29.8
| align="right" | 16.9
| align="right" | 12.9
|-
| 1910
| align="right" | 271,000
| align="right" | 8,700
| align="right" | 4,100
| align="right" | 4,600
| align="right" | 32.1
| align="right" | 15.2
| align="right" | 16.9
|-
| 1911
| align="right" | 275,000
| align="right" | 8,700
| align="right" | 4,500
| align="right" | 4,200
| align="right" | 31.6
| align="right" | 16.2
| align="right" | 15.4
|-
| 1912
| align="right" | 279,000
| align="right" | 8,000
| align="right" | 4,900
| align="right" | 3,100
| align="right" | 28.5
| align="right" | 17.7
| align="right" | 10.8
|-
| 1913
| align="right" | 283,000
| align="right" | 8,700
| align="right" | 5,300
| align="right" | 3,400
| align="right" | 30.7
| align="right" | 18.8
| align="right" | 11.9
|-
| 1914
| align="right" | 287,000
| align="right" | 9,500
| align="right" | 5,100
| align="right" | 4,400
| align="right" | 33.1
| align="right" | 17.6
| align="right" | 15.5
|-
| 1915
| align="right" | 291,000
| align="right" | 10,000
| align="right" | 5,800
| align="right" | 4,200
| align="right" | 34.3
| align="right" | 19.8
| align="right" | 14.5
|-
| 1916
| align="right" | 294,000
| align="right" | 5,900
| align="right" | 5,300
| align="right" | 600
| align="right" | 20.0
| align="right" | 17.9
| align="right" | 2.1
|-
| 1917
| align="right" | 297,000
| align="right" | 8,800
| align="right" | 5,400
| align="right" | 3,400
| align="right" | 29.5
| align="right" | 18.2
| align="right" | 11.3
|-
| 1918
| align="right" | 301,000
| align="right" | 9,900
| align="right" | 6,900
| align="right" | 3,000
| align="right" | 32.9
| align="right" | 22.9
| align="right" | 10.0
|-
| 1919
| align="right" | 305,000
| align="right" | 8,900
| align="right" | 5,200
| align="right" | 3,700
| align="right" | 29.2
| align="right" | 17.2
| align="right" | 12.0
|-
| 1920
| align="right" | 309,000
| align="right" | 9,100
| align="right" | 7,400
| align="right" | 1,700
| align="right" | 29.5
| align="right" | 23.9
| align="right" | 5.6
|-
| 1921
| align="right" | 312,000
| align="right" | 8,400
| align="right" | 6,200
| align="right" | 2,200
| align="right" | 26.8
| align="right" | 20.0
| align="right" | 6.8
|-
| 1922
| align="right" | 315,000
| align="right" | 9,000
| align="right" | 6,200
| align="right" | 2,800
| align="right" | 28.6
| align="right" | 19.6
| align="right" | 9.0
|-
| 1923
| align="right" | 318,000
| align="right" | 8,100
| align="right" | 5,700
| align="right" | 2,400
| align="right" | 25.5
| align="right" | 18.0
| align="right" | 7.5
|-
| 1924
| align="right" | 322,000
| align="right" | 8,800
| align="right" | 5,600
| align="right" | 3,200
| align="right" | 27.3
| align="right" | 17.4
| align="right" | 9.9
|-
| 1925
| align="right" | 326,000
| align="right" | 8,300
| align="right" | 4,700
| align="right" | 3,600
| align="right" | 25.6
| align="right" | 14.4
| align="right" | 11.2
|-
| 1926
| align="right" | 330,000
| align="right" | 8,500
| align="right" | 5,600
| align="right" | 2,900
| align="right" | 25.9
| align="right" | 17.1
| align="right" | 8.8
|-
| 1927
| align="right" | 333,000
| align="right" | 8,400
| align="right" | 5,200
| align="right" | 3,200
| align="right" | 25.2
| align="right" | 15.6
| align="right" | 9.6
|-
| 1928
| align="right" | 337,000
| align="right" | 9,700
| align="right" | 5,100
| align="right" | 4,600
| align="right" | 28.9
| align="right" | 15.2
| align="right" | 13.7
|-
| 1929
| align="right" | 341,000
| align="right" | 10,400
| align="right" | 4,600
| align="right" | 5,800
| align="right" | 30.4
| align="right" | 13.5
| align="right" | 16.9
|-
| 1930
| align="right" | 345,000
| align="right" | 11,100
| align="right" | 5,700
| align="right" | 5,400
| align="right" | 32.1
| align="right" | 16.4
| align="right" | 15.7
|-
| 1931
| align="right" | 349,000
| align="right" | 10,500
| align="right" | 5,900
| align="right" | 4,600
| align="right" | 30.2
| align="right" | 17.0
| align="right" | 13.2
|-
| 1932
| align="right" | 352,000
| align="right" | 10,100
| align="right" | 5,740
| align="right" | 4,360
| align="right" | 28.7
| align="right" | 16.3
| align="right" | 12.4
|-
| 1933
| align="right" | 356,000
| align="right" | 9,750
| align="right" | 4,910
| align="right" | 4,840
| align="right" | 27.4
| align="right" | 13.8
| align="right" | 13.6
|-
| 1934
| align="right" | 360,000
| align="right" | 10,852
| align="right" | 4,757
| align="right" | 6,095
| align="right" | 30.1
| align="right" | 13.2
| align="right" | 16.9
|-
| 1935
| align="right" | 363,000
| align="right" | 11,735
| align="right" | 4,976
| align="right" | 6,759
| align="right" | 32.3
| align="right" | 13.7
| align="right" | 18.6
|-
| 1936
| align="right" | 367,000
| align="right" | 12,727
| align="right" | 4,656
| align="right" | 8,071
| align="right" | 34.7
| align="right" | 12.7
| align="right" | 22.0
|-
| 1937
| align="right" | 371,000
| align="right" | 10,954
| align="right" | 6,334
| align="right" | 4,620
| align="right" | 29.5
| align="right" | 17.1
| align="right" | 12.5
|-
| 1938
| align="right" | 376,000
| align="right" | 11,804
| align="right" | 5,445
| align="right" | 6,359
| align="right" | 31.4
| align="right" | 14.5
| align="right" | 16.9
|-
| 1939
| align="right" | 393,000
| align="right" | 12,214
| align="right" | 5,519
| align="right" | 6,695
| align="right" | 31.1
| align="right" | 14.0
| align="right" | 17.0
|-
| 1940
| align="right" | 401,000
| align="right" | 13,254
| align="right" | 4,678
| align="right" | 8,576
| align="right" | 33.1
| align="right" | 11.7
| align="right" | 21.4
|-
| 1941
| align="right" | 409,000
| align="right" | 11,402
| align="right" | 5,058
| align="right" | 6,344
| align="right" | 27.9
| align="right" | 12.4
| align="right" | 15.5
|-
| 1942
| align="right" | 412,000
| align="right" | 9,221
| align="right" | 6,747
| align="right" | 2,474
| align="right" | 22.4
| align="right" | 16.4
| align="right" | 6.0
|-
| 1943
| align="right" | 416,000
| align="right" | 12,405
| align="right" | 5,155
| align="right" | 7,250
| align="right" | 29.8
| align="right" | 12.4
| align="right" | 17.4
|-
| 1944
| align="right" | 425,000
| align="right" | 14,330
| align="right" | 4,263
| align="right" | 10,067
| align="right" | 33.7
| align="right" | 10.0
| align="right" | 23.7
|-
| 1945
| align="right" | 435,000
| align="right" | 13,269
| align="right" | 4,111
| align="right" | 9,158
| align="right" | 30.5
| align="right" | 9.5
| align="right" | 21.1
|-
| 1946
| align="right" | 447,000
| align="right" | 14,482
| align="right" | 3,793
| align="right" | 10,689
| align="right" | 32.4
| align="right" | 11.0
| align="right" | 23.9
|-
| 1947
| align="right" | 458,000
| align="right" | 15,158
| align="right" | 3,875
| align="right" | 11,283
| align="right" | 33.1
| align="right" | 11.0
| align="right" | 24.6
|-
| 1948
| align="right" | 477,000
| align="right" | 15,078
| align="right" | 5,250
| align="right" | 9,828
| align="right" | 31.6
| align="right" | 11.0
| align="right" | 20.6
|-
| 1949
| align="right" | 485,000
| align="right" | 13,234
| align="right" | 5,290
| align="right" | 7,944
| align="right" | 27.3
| align="right" | 11.0
| align="right" | 16.4
|-
| 1950
| align="right" | 494,000
| align="right" | 14,517
| align="right" | 5,340
| align="right" | 9,187
| align="right" | 29.4
| align="right" | 11.0
| align="right" | 18.6
|-
| 1951
| align="right" | 502,000
| align="right" | 14,403
| align="right" | 5,370
| align="right" | 9,043
| align="right" | 28.7
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 18.0
|-
| 1952
| align="right" | 508,000
| align="right" | 13,358
| align="right" | 5,380
| align="right" | 7,968
| align="right" | 26.3
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 15.7
|-
| 1953
| align="right" | 515,000
| align="right" | 13,446
| align="right" | 5,410
| align="right" | 8,036
| align="right" | 26.1
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 15.6
|-
| 1954
| align="right" | 523,000
| align="right" | 13,893
| align="right" | 5,490
| align="right" | 8,403
| align="right" | 26.6
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 16.1
|-
| 1955
| align="right" | 530,000
| align="right" | 13,747
| align="right" | 5,570
| align="right" | 8,177
| align="right" | 25.9
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 15.4
|-
| 1956
| align="right" | 536,000
| align="right" | 13,875
| align="right" | 5,630
| align="right" | 8,215
| align="right" | 25.9
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 15.3
|-
| 1957
| align="right" | 546,000
| align="right" | 14,100
| align="right" | 5,730
| align="right" | 8,350
| align="right" | 25.8
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 15.3
|-
| 1958
| align="right" | 558,000
| align="right" | 14,320
| align="right" | 5,860
| align="right" | 8,480
| align="right" | 25.7
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 15.2
|-
| 1959
| align="right" | 567,000
| align="right" | 14,411
| align="right" | 5,950
| align="right" | 8,491
| align="right" | 25.4
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 15.0
|-
| 1960
| align="right" | 573,000
| align="right" | 14,500
| align="right" | 6,020
| align="right" | 8,510
| align="right" | 25.3
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" | 14.9
|-
| 1961
| align="right" | 575,000
| align="right" | 15,059
| align="right" | 6,206
| align="right" | 8,853
| align="right" | 26.2
| align="right" | 10.8
| align="right" | 15.4
|-
| 1962
| align="right" | 577,000
| align="right" | 14,787
| align="right" | 6,101
| align="right" | 8,686
| align="right" | 25.6
| align="right" | 10.6
| align="right" | 15.0
|-
| 1963
| align="right" | 582,000
| align="right" | 14,602
| align="right" | 6,079
| align="right" | 8,523
| align="right" | 25.1
| align="right" | 10.4
| align="right" | 14.6
|-
| 1964
| align="right" | 587,000
| align="right" | 14,224
| align="right" | 6,206
| align="right" | 8,018
| align="right" | 24.2
| align="right" | 10.6
| align="right" | 13.7
|-
| 1965
| align="right" | 591,000
| align="right" | 13,707
| align="right" | 6,061
| align="right" | 7,646
| align="right" | 23.2
| align="right" | 10.3
| align="right" | 12.9
|-
| 1966
| align="right" | 595,000
| align="right" | 13,250
| align="right" | 5,991
| align="right" | 7,259
| align="right" | 22.3
| align="right" | 10.1
| align="right" | 12.2
|-
| 1967
| align="right" | 599,000
| align="right" | 12,788
| align="right" | 5,971
| align="right" | 6,817
| align="right" | 21.3
| align="right" | 10.0
| align="right" | 11.4
|-
| 1968
| align="right" | 604,000
| align="right" | 12,403
| align="right" | 5,958
| align="right" | 6,445
| align="right" | 20.5
| align="right" | 9.9
| align="right" | 10.7
|-
| 1969
| align="right" | 609,000
| align="right" | 12,046
| align="right" | 5,946
| align="right" | 6,100
| align="right" | 19.8
| align="right" | 9.8
| align="right" | 10.0
|-
| 1970
| align="right" | 614,000
| align="right" | 11,801
| align="right" | 5,998
| align="right" | 5,803
| align="right" | 19.2
| align="right" | 9.8
| align="right" | 9.4
|-
| 1971
| align="right" | 620,000
| align="right" | 11,641
| align="right" | 5,983
| align="right" | 5,658
| align="right" | 18.8
| align="right" | 9.7
| align="right" | 9.1
|-
| 1972
| align="right" | 627,000
| align="right" | 11,620
| align="right" | 6,043
| align="right" | 5,577
| align="right" | 18.5
| align="right" | 9.6
| align="right" | 8.9
|-
| 1973
| align="right" | 634,000
| align="right" | 11,600
| align="right" | 6,047
| align="right" | 5,553
| align="right" | 18.3
| align="right" | 9.5
| align="right" | 8.8
|-
| 1974
| align="right" | 630,000
| align="right" | 10,578
| align="right" | 6,900
| align="right" | 3,678
| align="right" | 16.8
| align="right" | 11.0
| align="right" | 5.8
|-
| 1975
| align="right" | 610,000
| align="right" | 9,768
| align="right" | 4,823
| align="right" | 4,945
| align="right" | 16.0
| align="right" | 7.9
| align="right" | 8.1
|-
| 1976
| align="right" | 599,000
| align="right" | 11,194
| align="right" | 5,148
| align="right" | 6,046
| align="right" | 18.7
| align="right" | 8.6
| align="right" | 10.1
|-
| 1977
| align="right" | 599,000
| align="right" | 10,951
| align="right" | 5,445
| align="right" | 5,506
| align="right" | 18.3
| align="right" | 9.1
| align="right" | 9.2
|-
| 1978
| align="right" | 601,000
| align="right" | 11,299
| align="right" | 5,048
| align="right" | 6,251
| align="right" | 18.8
| align="right" | 8.4
| align="right" | 10.4
|-
| 1979
| align="right" | 605,000
| align="right" | 11,920
| align="right" | 5,083
| align="right" | 6,837
| align="right" | 19.7
| align="right" | 8.4
| align="right" | 11.3
|-
| 1980
| align="right" | 611,000
| align="right" | 12,464
| align="right" | 5,682
| align="right" | 6,782
| align="right" | 20.4
| align="right" | 9.3
| align="right" | 11.1
|-
| 1981
| align="right" | 618,000
| align="right" | 12,111
| align="right" | 5,190
| align="right" | 6,921
| align="right" | 19.6
| align="right" | 8.4
| align="right" | 11.2
|-
| 1982
| align="right" | 625,000
| align="right" | 12,985
| align="right" | 5,307
| align="right" | 7,678
| align="right" | 20.8
| align="right" | 8.5
| align="right" | 12.3
|-
| 1983
| align="right" | 632,000
| align="right" | 13,078
| align="right" | 5,433
| align="right" | 7,645
| align="right" | 20.7
| align="right" | 8.6
| align="right" | 12.1
|-
| 1984
| align="right" | 640,000
| align="right" | 13,182
| align="right" | 5,119
| align="right" | 8,063
| align="right" | 20.6
| align="right" | 8.0
| align="right" | 12.6
|-
| 1985
| align="right" | 648,000
| align="right" | 12,622
| align="right" | 5,502
| align="right" | 7,120
| align="right" | 19.5
| align="right" | 8.5
| align="right" | 11.0
|-
| 1986
| align="right" | 654,000
| align="right" | 12,753
| align="right" | 5,494
| align="right" | 7,259
| align="right" | 19.5
| align="right" | 8.4
| align="right" | 11.1
|-
| 1987
| align="right" | 660,000
| align="right" | 12,331
| align="right" | 5,869
| align="right" | 6,462
| align="right" | 18.7
| align="right" | 8.9
| align="right" | 9.8
|-
| 1988
| align="right" | 665,000
| align="right" | 12,753
| align="right" | 5,845
| align="right" | 6,908
| align="right" | 19.2
| align="right" | 8.8
| align="right" | 10.4
|-
| 1989
| align="right" | 671,000
| align="right" | 12,141
| align="right" | 5,702
| align="right" | 6,439
| align="right" | 18.1
| align="right" | 8.5
| align="right" | 9.6
|}
<sup>1</sup> The numbers of births and deaths 1901–1932 are estimates calculated from the birth and death rates.
Area under the effective control of the Republic of Cyprus
Historical data about main demographic indicators from 1990 to 2022, for the southern part of the island:
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+
|-
! Period
! Live births
! Deaths
! Natural increase
|-
| January - June 2022
| 4,667
| 3,819
| +848
|-
| January - June 2023
| 4,849
| 3,516
| +1,333
|-
| Difference
| +182 (+3.90%)
| -303 (−7.93%)
| +485
|}
Life expectancy
in Cyprus since 1895]]
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
!Period
!Life expectancy in<br />Years
!Period
!Life expectancy in<br />Years
|-
|1950–1955
|66.7
|1985–1990
|76.1
|-
|1955–1960
|70.4
|1990–1995
|76.9
|-
|1960–1965
|71.9
|1995–2000
|77.7
|-
|1965–1970
|73.1
|2000–2005
|78.3
|-
|1970–1975
|74.3
|2005–2010
|79.0
|-
|1975–1980
|75.3
|2010–2015
|79.9
|-
|1980–1985
|76.1
|
|
|}
Source: UN World Population Prospects
Structure of the population
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 408 780
| align="right" | 431 627
| align="right" | 840 407
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 23 061
| align="right" | 21 954
| align="right" | 45 015
| align="right" | 5.36
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 21 921
| align="right" | 20 714
| align="right" | 42 635
| align="right" | 5.07
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 24 179
| align="right" | 23 119
| align="right" | 47 298
| align="right" | 5.63
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 28 683
| align="right" | 27 135
| align="right" | 55 818
| align="right" | 6.64
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 33 891
| align="right" | 32 182
| align="right" | 66 073
| align="right" | 7.86
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 36 992
| align="right" | 37 122
| align="right" | 74 114
| align="right" | 8.82
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 33 149
| align="right" | 36 685
| align="right" | 69 834
| align="right" | 8.31
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 27 754
| align="right" | 34 108
| align="right" | 61 862
| align="right" | 7.36
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 27 031
| align="right" | 32 697
| align="right" | 59 728
| align="right" | 7.11
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 27 059
| align="right" | 30 181
| align="right" | 57 240
| align="right" | 6.81
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 27 517
| align="right" | 28 611
| align="right" | 56 128
| align="right" | 6.68
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 23 771
| align="right" | 23 991
| align="right" | 47 762
| align="right" | 5.68
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 22 057
| align="right" | 22 977
| align="right" | 45 034
| align="right" | 5.36
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 17 656
| align="right" | 18 672
| align="right" | 36 328
| align="right" | 4.32
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 14 044
| align="right" | 15 389
| align="right" | 29 433
| align="right" | 3.50
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 9 647
| align="right" | 11 411
| align="right" | 21 058
| align="right" | 2.51
|-
| align="right" | 80+
| align="right" | 10 342
| align="right" | 14 606
| align="right" | 24 948
| align="right" | 2.97
|-
| align="right" | unknown
| align="right" | 26
| align="right" | 73
| align="right" | 99
| align="right" | 0.01
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 69 161
| align="right" | 65 787
| align="right" | 134 948
| align="right" | 16.06
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 287 904
| align="right" | 305 689
| align="right" | 593 593
| align="right" | 70.63
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 51 689
| align="right" | 60 078
| align="right" | 111 767
| align="right" | 13.30
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 437 650
| align="right" | 458 357
| align="right" | 896 007
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 24 397
| align="right" | 23 215
| align="right" | 47 612
| align="right" | 5.31
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 25 158
| align="right" | 23 494
| align="right" | 48 652
| align="right" | 5.43
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 24 346
| align="right" | 23 093
| align="right" | 47 439
| align="right" | 5.29
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 24 300
| align="right" | 23 883
| align="right" | 48 183
| align="right" | 5.38
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 30 113
| align="right" | 31 925
| align="right" | 62 038
| align="right" | 6.92
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 36 723
| align="right" | 38 452
| align="right" | 75 175
| align="right" | 8.39
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 37 166
| align="right" | 38 393
| align="right" | 75 559
| align="right" | 8.43
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 33 894
| align="right" | 36 196
| align="right" | 70 090
| align="right" | 7.82
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 28 988
| align="right" | 32 142
| align="right" | 61 130
| align="right" | 6.82
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 25 801
| align="right" | 27 736
| align="right" | 53 537
| align="right" | 5.98
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 26 249
| align="right" | 27 426
| align="right" | 53 675
| align="right" | 5.99
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 27 023
| align="right" | 27 722
| align="right" | 54 745
| align="right" | 6.11
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 25 117
| align="right" | 25 751
| align="right" | 50 868
| align="right" | 5.68
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 21 930
| align="right" | 22 897
| align="right" | 44 827
| align="right" | 5.00
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 19 071
| align="right" | 20 847
| align="right" | 39 918
| align="right" | 4.46
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 12 852
| align="right" | 15 139
| align="right" | 27 991
| align="right" | 3.12
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 8 708
| align="right" | 11 190
| align="right" | 19 898
| align="right" | 2.22
|-
| align="right" | 85–89
| align="right" | 4 101
| align="right" | 6 295
| align="right" | 10 396
| align="right" | 1.16
|-
| align="right" | 90–94
| align="right" | 1 327
| align="right" | 1 964
| align="right" | 3 291
| align="right" | 0.37
|-
| align="right" | 95–99
| align="right" | 327
| align="right" | 507
| align="right" | 834
| align="right" | 0.09
|-
| align="right" | 100+
| align="right" | 59
| align="right" | 90
| align="right" | 149
| align="right" | 0.02
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 73 901
| align="right" | 69 802
| align="right" | 143 703
| align="right" | 16.04
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 295 374
| align="right" | 309 626
| align="right" | 605 000
| align="right" | 67.52
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 68 375
| align="right" | 78 929
| align="right" | 147 304
| align="right" | 16.44
|-
|}
Historical population
Turkish Cypriots were the majority of the population registered for taxation between 1777 and 1800. However, it is likely that the Muslim population never exceeded 35-40 per cent of the total population of Cyprus. Rather, many Orthodox Christians registered as Muslims in order to reduce taxation from the government.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Tax Registered Population of Cyprus by ethnicity 1777–1800
|-
! rowspan="2" | census year
! colspan="2" | Greeks
! colspan="2" | Turks
! colspan="2" | Armenians
! colspan="2" | Maronites
! colspan="2" | Others
! rowspan="2" | Total
|-
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
|-
| 1777
| 37,000 ||
| 47,000 ||
| ||
| ||
| ||
| 84,000
|-
| 1790
| 47,500 ||
| 67,000 ||
| ||
| ||
| ||
| 114,500
|-
| 1793
| 46,392 ||
| 67,000 ||
| ||
| ||
| 4,608 ||
| 118,000
|-
| 1800
| 30,524 ||
| 67,000 ||
| ||
| ||
| ||
| 97,524
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Population of Cyprus according to ethnicity (1881–2011)
|-
! rowspan="2" | census year
! colspan="2" | Greeks
! colspan="2" | Turks
! colspan="2" | Armenians
! colspan="2" | Maronites
! colspan="2" | Others
! rowspan="2" | Total
|-
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
|-
| 1881
| 137,631 ||
| 45,458 ||
| 174 ||
| 830 ||
| 1,738 ||
| 186,173
|-
| 1891
| 659,115 ||
| 1,128 ||
| 1,831 ||
| 3,656 ||
| 1,460 ||
| 667,398
|}
In the census from 1881 to 1960, all Muslims are counted as Turks, only Greek Orthodox are counted as Greeks. There were small populations of Greek-speaking Muslims and Turkish-speaking Greek Orthodox.
In total, between 1955 and 1973, 16,519 Turks and 71,036 Greeks emigrated from the country. Of the emigrated Turkish Cypriots in this period, only 290 went to Turkey. In the 2011 census, 208 people stated their ethnic origin as being Latin.
Immigration
Large-scale demographic changes have been caused since 1964 by the movements of peoples across the island and the later influx of settlers from Turkey to northern Cyprus. According to the 2011 Census there are 170,383 non-citizens living in Cyprus, of whom 106,270 are EU citizens and 64,113 are from third countries. The largest EU groups by nationality are Greeks (29,321), Romanians (23,706) and Bulgarians (18,536). The largest non-EU groups are British (24,046), Filipinos (9,413), Russians (8,164), Sri Lankans (7,269) and Vietnamese (7,028). There are an estimated 20–25,000 undocumented migrants from third countries also living in the Republic, though migrant rights groups dispute these figures. The demographic changes in society have led to some racist incidents, and the formation of the charity KISA in response.
The demographic character of northern Cyprus changed after the Turkish invasion in 1974 and especially during the last 10–15 years. TRNC census carried out in April 2006 showed that out of a total population of 256,644 in northern Cyprus, 132,635, or 52%, were Turkish Cypriots in the sense that they were born in Cyprus of at least one Cyprus-born parent (for 120,007 of these both parents were Cyprus-born). In addition, 43,062 so called TRNC citizens (17%) had at least one non-Cypriot Turkish-born parent, 2,334 so called TRNC citizens (1%) had parents born in other countries, 70,525 residents (27%) had Turkish citizenship, and 8,088 (3%) were citizens of other countries (mainly UK, Bulgaria, and Iran). contrary to the picture presented by the 2006 so called TRNC census.
Settlement in northern Cyprus, especially if accompanied by naturalization, is in violation of article 49 of the Geneva Conventions Protocol of 1977, since the Turkish occupation has been declared illegal by the UN. The UN General Assembly have stated the settlement of Turkish mainlanders, "constitute[s] a form of colonialism and attempt to change illegally the demographic structure of Cyprus".Emigration Nationality group
According to the 2021 census, 74.6% of the population in the area under the control of the Republic of Cyprus were born in Cyprus, with 77.9% holding Cypriot citizenship.[https://cystatdb.cystat.gov.cy/pxweb/en/8.CYSTAT-DB/8.CYSTAT-DB__Population__Census%20of%20Population%20and%20Housing%202021__Population__Population%20-%20Country%20of%20Citizenship,%20Country%20of%20Birth/1891210E.px/table/tableViewLayout1/][https://cystatdb.cystat.gov.cy/pxweb/en/8.CYSTAT-DB/8.CYSTAT-DB__Population__Census%20of%20Population%20and%20Housing%202021__Population__Population%20-%20Country%20of%20Citizenship,%20Country%20of%20Birth/1891221E.px/table/tableViewLayout1/]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Largest foreign nationalities (2021)
*1%: other, including Maronite, Other Lebanese, Armenian, Turkish Cypriot
*0.2%: unspecified
Languages
Cyprus has a well-developed system of primary and secondary education. The majority of Cypriots earn their higher education at Greek, British, or American universities, while there are also sizeable emigrant communities in the United Kingdom and Australia. Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed by both the Turkish and Greek communities.
Demographic statistics
The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.
The data in subsections Age structure through Divorce rate are for the area controlled by the Republic of Cyprus government only. The estimates are for 2007 from the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Abstract 2007 (pp. 63–88) Net migration rate
:Total immigrants: 19,143
:Total emigrants: 11,753
:Net migration: +7,390
:Net migration rate: 9.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population
Sex ratio
:At birth: 1.086 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
:15–64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.83 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female
Marriage rates
:Estimates for 2006
Number of marriages:
:Marriages of residents of Cyprus: 5,252
:Total marriages (including tourists): 12,617
Marriage rates:
:Residents of Cyprus: 6.8/1,000 population
:Total marriages (including tourists): 16.4/1,000 population
Mean age at marriage:
:Groom 33.7
:Bride 30.5
Divorce rates
:Total Divorces: 2,000
:Divorce Rate: 2.27/1,000 population
Nationality
:Noun: Cypriot(s)
:Adjective: Cypriot
HIV/AIDS
:Adult prevalence rate: 0.1% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: fewer than 1,000 (1999 est.); 518 cases reported between 1986 and 2006 (58% Cypriots, 42% foreigners/visitors);
<!--TOO DETAILED FOR STATISTICS SUMMARY: MOVE TO ANOTHER ARTICLE (HEALTH?) OR CREATE SEPARATE SECTION (INCL. REFERENCE)
:Total Cases Reported 1986-31/6/2008: 583
::Residents of Cyprus: 339 58%
::Foreign Residents: 244 42% (Repatriated)
:Total Deaths 1986-2006: 93
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 339 (June 2008 est.)
::Cypriot Citizens: 282 or 83%
::Foreigners with Permanent Residence: 57 or 17%
:New HIV cases: 36 (2006 est.)
:Deaths: N/A (2006 est.)
:Adult prevalence rate: 0.0004% (2006 est.)
::Men: 271 or 80%(56.3% Through Homosexual Intercourse)
::Women: 68 or 20% (92.6% Through Heterosexual Intercourse)
:Main Modes of Transmission 1986–2006 (Known Mode of 98% of Total):
::Sexual Contact: 96%
:::Heterosexually: 63%
:::MSM: 33%
::Injection of Drugs: 1%
::Blood Transfusions: 2% (No new cases since 1991)
::Mother-to-Child: < 1%
:Age Groups of Patients:
::Age 20–39: 77%
::Age < 25: 21% (2006 est.)
-->
References
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080908141253/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008_MONTH_08/3-26082008-EN-AP.PDF EU27 population projections 2008–2060], Eurostat Newsrelease 119/2008, 26 August 2008.
Category:Society of Cyprus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Cyprus | 2025-04-05T18:27:22.269778 |
5597 | Politics of Cyprus | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
Ministries
The Ministers form the Council of Ministers, including other members who may not be listed, which is an independent collective body with independent powers. In bold is listed a Ministry that was not an original ministry, but created after London and Zürich Agreements.
# Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Environment, Minister: Petros Xenophontos
# Ministry of Energy, Commerce and Industry, Minister: Giorgos Papanastasiou
# Ministry of Transport, Communications and Works, Minister: Alexis Vafiades
# Ministry of Defence, Minister: Vasilis Palmas
# 'Ministry of Education, Sports and youth, Minister: Dr Athena Michaelidou'''
# Ministry of Finance, Minister: Makis Keravnos
# Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Minister: Constantinos Kombos
# Ministry of Health, Minister: Popi Kanari
# Ministry of Interior, Minister: Constantinos Ioannou
# Ministry of Justice and Public Order, Minister: Anna Prokopiou
# Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, Minister: Yiannis Panayiotou Deputy Ministries
# Deputy Ministry of Shipping, Deputy Minister: Marina Hadjimanoli
# Deputy Ministry of Tourism, Deputy Minister: Costas Koumis
# Deputy Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digital Policy, Deputy Minister: Nicodemos Damianou
# Deputy Ministry of Social Welfare, Deputy Minister: Marilena Evangelou
# Deputy Ministry of Culture, Deputy Minister: Vasiliki Kassianidou
# Deputy Ministry of Migration and International Asylum, Depute Minister: Nicholas A Ioannides
Political parties
Democratic Rally (DISY)
The centre-right Democratic Rally (DISY) is the largest political party in Cyprus, currently holding 17 of the 56 seats in the House of Representatives. Founded on July 4, 1976, by veteran politician Glafcos Clerides, DISY emerged from the split of the right-wing "Eniaion" into two opposing parties: DISY and DIKO.
DISY is a Christian democratic and liberal-conservative party, often described as the most Atlanticist, pro-NATO and pro-EU party in Cyprus. The party is currently led by Annita Demetriou, who also serves as the President of the Cypriot House of Representatives, making her the first woman to hold this office. Two former leaders of the party have served as Presidents of Cyprus, Glafcos Clerides (1993–2003) and Nicos Anastasiades (2013–2023). DISY is a member of the European People's Party.
Over the years, internal disagreements, particularly regarding the Cyprus issue, have led to the formation of three splinter parties: the European Party (EvroKo), European Democracy (EvroDi) and Solidarity Movement. The current President of Cyprus, Nikos Christodoulides, was previously a member of DISY and served as Government Spokesman (2014–2018) and Minister of Foreign Affairs (2018–2022) under Anastasiades. Christodoulides sought DISY's nomination for the 2023 presidential election, but following accusations of undermining his campaign, he resigned from his ministerial role and launched an independent candidacy.
Notable Figures
<gallery widths"150" heights"150" class="center">
File:Kliridis.jpg|Glafkos Clerides, founder and former leader of DISY (1976-1993) and former President of Cyprus (1993-2003).
File:Nicos Anastasiades, November 2022 (ABG GPO1).jpeg|Nikos Anastasiades, former MP, President of DISY (1997-2013) and President of Cyprus (2013-2023).
File:Averof Neofytou 2022 cropped.jpg|MP Averof Neofytou, former President of DISY (2013-2023) and DISY<nowiki/>'s candidate for the 2023 presidential election.
File:Annita Demetriou visits Ireland, June 2023 01 (cropped).jpg|MP Annita Demetriou, President of DISY (2023-present) and President of the House of Representatives (2021-present).
File:Иоаннис Касулидис.jpg|Ioannis Kasoulidis, former Minister of Foreign Affairs, MEP and DISY<nowiki/>'s candidate for the 2008 presidential election.
File:MEP Loukas Fourlas.jpg|MEP Loukas Fourlas, DISY Member of the European Parliament since 2019.
File:Stella Kyriakides, 2020.jpg|Stella Kyriakides, former DISY MP, former President of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (2017-2018) and European Commissioner for Health and Food Safety (2019-present).
File:Λευτέρης Χριστοφόρου Ευρωκοινοβούλιο.jpg|Lefteris Christoforou, former DISY MP (1996-2014) and MEP (2014-2022), Member of the European Court of Auditors (2022-present).
File:Phedon Phedonos.jpg|Phedonas Phedonos, Member of DISY, Mayor of Paphos since 2015.
File:Meeting with Finance Minister Harris Georgiades, Nicosia, 19 June 2019 (48102064587) (cropped).jpg|MP Harris Georgiades, former Minister of Finance (2013-2019) and Deputy Leader of DISY.
</gallery>
Notable Former Party Members
<gallery widths"150" heights"150" class="center">
File:Christodoulides2019a.jpg|President Nikos Christodoulides, former Spokesman of Anastasiades' Government (2014-2018) and Minister of Foreign Affairs (2018-2022), and Independent President of Cyprus (2023 - present)
File:Matsis.jpg|Yiannakis Matsis, former President of DISY (1993-1997) founder of For Europe alliance (2004) and former MEP for the splinter party EvroDi (2004-2009).
File:Eleni Theocharous (cropped).jpg|Eleni Theocharous, former DISY MP and MEP, founder and president of the DISY splinter party Solidarity Movement.
File:Dimitris Syllouris - 2017 (37947273235) (cropped).jpg|Demetris Syllouris, expelled DISY MP (2001-2004), president of the DISY splinter party EVROKO (2005-2016) and former President of the House of Representatives (2016-2020).
</gallery>
Progressive Party of Working People (AKEL)
The left-wing Progressive Party of Working People (AKEL) is the second largest political party in Cyprus, currently holding 15 of the 56 seats in the House of Representatives.
AKEL is a Marxist–Leninist, eurosceptic and communist party, classified as left-wing to far-left. It is currently led by MP Stefanos Stefanou and it is a member of The Left in the European Parliament. One party leader, Demetris Christofias, served as the President of Cyprus (2008-2013) for one term, without seeking re-election. Other presidents that were supported by AKEL were Archbishop Makarios III, Spyros Kyprianou, George Vassiliou and Tassos Papadopoulos.
Notable Figures
<gallery widths"150" heights"150" class="center">
File:Demetris Christofias in February 2011.jpg|Demetris Christofias, former General Secretary of AKEL (1988-2009), President of the House of Representatives (2001-2008) and President of Cyprus (2008-2013).
File:Andros-Kyprianou-2011.jpg|MP Andros Kyprianou, former General Secretary of AKEL (2009-2021).
File:Συνάντηση Υπουργού Εξωτερικών, Νίκου Δένδια, με τον Γενικό Γραμματέα του ΑΚΕΛ, Σ. Στεφάνου (Αθήνα, 15.09.2021) cropped.jpg|MP Stefanos Stefanou, General Secretary of AKEL since 2021.
File:Irene Charalambides, Special Representative on Fighting Corruption, Marrakech, 4 October 2019 (cropped).jpg|MP Irene Charalambidou, vice-president of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.
File:Stavros Malas (cropped).png|Stavros Malas, former Minister of Health (2011-2013) and AKEL-backed independent candidate in the 2013 and 2018 presidential elections.
File:Mayor of Nicosia Eleni Mavrou at her office Republic of Cyprus.jpg|Eleni Mavrou, former AKEL MP (2001–2006), Minister of Interior (2012-2013) and Mayor of Nicosia (2007–2011).
File:Andreas Christou (cropped).jpg|Andreas Christou, former AKEL MP (1991-2003), Interior Minister (2003-2006), Minister of Health (2004-2005) and Mayor of Limassol (2007-2016).
</gallery>
Notable Former Party Members
<gallery widths"150" heights"150" class="center">
File:Giorgos Lillikas Senate of Poland.JPG|Giorgos Lillikas, former AKEL MP (1996–2003), founder of the splinter party Citizens' Alliance, and independent candidate at the 2013 Cypriot presidential election.
</gallery>
Democratic Party (DIKO)
The Democratic Party (DIKO) is the largest centrist political party in Cyprus, currently holding 9 out of the 56 seats in the House of Representatives. centre-left or centre-right; internationally, it is a member of the Progressive Alliance, which groups together mainly centre-left parties. DIKO claims to be the most loyal follower of the policies of Archbishop Makarios, the founding father of the Republic of Cyprus. It is currently led by Nikolas Papadopoulos, son of Tassos Papadopoulos, former President of Cyprus and of DIKO.
At its inception in 1976, DIKO maintained the right-wing ideology of its parent-party, Eniaion. The party has adopted a firm and hardline stance on the Cyprus problem, particularly in its strong opposition to the Annan Plan in 2004. While DIKO supports European integration and advocates a non-aligned foreign policy, it has also expressed support for Cyprus joining NATO's Partnership for Peace.
Two former leaders of the party have served as Presidents of Cyprus, Spyros Kyprianou (1977-1988) and Tassos Papadopoulos (2003-2008). The current President of Cyprus, Nikos Christodoulides, although running as an independent, was supported by DIKO, making the party the largest in the current government.
Internal disagreements over the Cyprus problem led to the creation of the splinter party Democratic Alignment (DIPA), in 2018, led by the former president of DIKO, Marios Garoyian.
Notable Figures
<gallery widths"150" heights"150" class="center">
File:Spyros Kyprianou UN (cropped).jpg|Spyros Kyprianou, former President of DIKO (1976–2000), President of the House of Representatives (1976-1977, 1996-2001) and President of Cyprus (1977-1988).
File:Tassos Papadopoulos.jpg|Tassos Papadopoulos, former President of DIKO (200-2006), President of the House of Representatives (1976) and President of Cyprus (2003-2008).
File:Nikolas papadopoulos 2020.jpg|MP Nikolas Papadopoulos, President of DIKO since 2013 and DIKO<nowiki/>'s candidate in the 2018 presidential election.
File:MEP Costas Mavrides.jpg|MEP Costas Mavrides, DIKO<nowiki/>'s Member of the European Parliament since 2014.
File:Makis KERAVNOS.jpg|Makis Keravnos, member of DIKO, former Minister of Labor and Social Security (2003-2004), and Minister of Finance since 2023.
File:Antigoni Papadopoulou Photo.jpg|Antigoni Papadopoulou, former MP (2001-2009), MEP (2009-2014), Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (2001-2009) and Mayor of Morphou (1996-2001).
File:Vasilis PALMAS.jpg|Vasilis Palmas, member of DIKO, former Government Spokesperson (2007-2008), Deputy Minister to the President (2017-2022), and Minister of Defence since 2024.
</gallery>
Notable Former Party Members
<gallery widths"150" heights"150" class="center">
File:Marios Garoyian (cropped).jpg|MP Marios Garoyian, former President of DIKO (2006-2013), President of the House of Representatives (2008-2011), and founder and leader of the splinter party DIPA.
</gallery>
Latest elections
President
|party10Independent|party11Independent|party12United Cyprus Republican Party|party13Independent|party14National Communitarian Reconstruction|party2Independent|party3Democratic Rally|party4National Popular Front|party5Independent|party6New Wave – The Other Cyprus|party7Independent|party8Independent|party9Independent|source[http://results.elections.moi.gov.cy/English/PRESIDENTIAL_ELECTIONS_2023/Islandwide Central Electoral Service], [http://live.elections.moi.gov.cy/English/PRESIDENTIAL__RUNOFF_ELECTIONS_2023/Islandwide Central Electoral Service]|votes1127309|votes1_2204867|votes10575|votes11341|votes12330|votes13299|votes14165|votes2_2189335|votes2117551|votes3103748|votes423988|votes58137|votes66326|votes75287|votes82395|votes9866}} Parliament
European
|party4National Popular Front|votes441215|seats41|sc4+1|party5Democratic Party|votes535815|seats51|sc50|party6EDEK Socialist Party|votes618681|seats60|sc6–1|party7Volt Cyprus|votes710777|seats70|sc70|party8Democratic Alignment|votes87988|seats80|sc80|party9Movement of Ecologists – Citizens' Cooperation|votes94742|seats90|sc9New|party10Movement of Cypriot United Hunters|votes104603|seats100|sc10New|party11Animal Party Cyprus|votes111013|seats110|sc110|party12National Action Movement|votes12979|seats120|sc12New|party13Independent – Andronikos Zervides|votes13444|seats1300|sc13New|color13|party14Victory Movement|votes14389|seats140|sc14New|total_sc0|invalid<!--TBD -->|blank<!--TBD -->|electorate<!--TBD -->|sourcehttps://live.elections.moi.gov.cy/}}</onlyinclude>
Political pressure groups and leaders
# Cypriot Workers Union ()
# Union of Cypriots (; )
# Revolutionary Trade Unions Federation (DEV-İŞ)
# Pan-Cyprian Labour Federation or PEO ()
# Eleftheria Citizens Initiative ()
Administrative divisions
in Cyprus]]
The island is divided into 6 administrative divisions: Nicosia (Lefkosia), Limassol (Lemesos), Larnaca, Paphos, Famagusta (Ammochostos), and Kyrenia.
Exclaves and enclaves
Cyprus has four exclaves, all in territory that belongs to the British Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia. The first two are the villages of Ormidhia and Xylotymvou. Additionally there is the Dhekelia Power Station, which is divided by a British road into two parts. The northern part is an enclave, like the two villages, whereas the southern part is located by the sea and therefore not an enclave —although it has no territorial waters of its own.
The UN buffer zone separating the territory controlled by the Turkish Cypriot administration from the rest of Cyprus runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side, off of Ayios Nikolaos (connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor). In that sense, the buffer zone turns the south-east corner of the island, the Paralimni area, into a de facto, though not de jure, exclave.
See also
*Cyprus
*Northern Cyprus
*List of ministers of communications and works of Cyprus
*List of ministers of labour and social insurance of Cyprus
*Corruption in Cyprus
Notes
References
Further reading
*
External links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090527075708/http://www.kyproekloges.com/ Cyprus Elections by KyproEkloges.com]
Category:Government of Cyprus
bn:সাইপ্রাস#রাজনীতি | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Cyprus | 2025-04-05T18:27:22.293305 |
5598 | Economy of Cyprus | $34.790 billion (nominal, 2024 est.)
* 3.4% (2024 est.)
* 2.6% (2023)
}}
| per capita = $40,557 (nominal, 2025 est.)
* 2.2%
| gini 29.4 (2022)
| hdi = 0.907 (2022) (29th)
* 0.827 (2022) (IHDI, 25th)}}
| edbr 54th (easy, 2020)
| labor = 655,118 (2021)
* 78.9% employment rate (2023)}}
| occupations = 5.3%
| average net salary €17,582 (2018; annual, equivalised)
|industries tourism, food and beverage processing, cement and gypsum, ship repair and refurbishment, textiles, light chemicals, metal products, wood, paper, stone and clay products
|export-goods citrus, potatoes, pharmaceuticals, cement, clothing
|FDI |gross external debt $95.28 billion (31 December 2013 est.)
|debt €23.0759 billion ( 73.6% of GDP, 2023 est.)
|balance €1.5078 billion ( 4.5% of GDP, 2024 est.)
|expenses 41.9% of GDP (2023 est.)
*BBB (high)
*Trend: Positive
*Fitch:
*A-
*Outlook: Stable
*Moody's:
*A3
*Outlook: Stable
*S&P:
*A-
*AAA (T&C Assessment)
*Outlook: Stable
*Scope:
*A-
*Outlook: Stable}}
|reserves $888.2 million (31 December 2017 est.)
*€874 million from European Structural and Investment Funds (2014–2020)}}
|cianame = cyprus
|spelling =
}}
The economy of Cyprus is a high-income economy as classified by the World Bank, and was included by the International Monetary Fund in its list of advanced economies in 2001. Cyprus adopted the euro as its official currency on 1 January 2008, replacing the Cypriot pound at an irrevocable fixed exchange rate of CYP 0.585274 per €1.
The Cypriot financial crisis, part of the wider European debt crisis, dominated the country's economic affairs in the 2010s. In March 2013, the Cypriot government reached an agreement with its eurozone partners to split the country's second biggest bank, the Cyprus Popular Bank (also known as Laiki Bank), into a "bad" bank which would be wound down over time and a "good" bank which would be absorbed by the larger Bank of Cyprus. In return for a €10 billion bailout from the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund, the Cypriot government would be required to impose a significant haircut on uninsured deposits. Insured deposits of €100,000 or less would not be affected. After a three-and-a-half-year recession, Cyprus returned to growth in the first quarter of 2015. Cyprus successfully concluded its three-year financial assistance programme at the end of March 2016, having borrowed a total of €6.3 billion from the European Stability Mechanism and €1 billion from the IMF. The remaining €2.7 billion of the ESM bailout was never dispensed, due to the Cypriot government's better than expected finances over the course of the programme.
Their standard of living is reflected in the country's "very high" Human Development Index, by which it ranks 29th out of 191 countries in the world.
However, after more than three decades of unbroken growth, the Cypriot economy contracted in 2009. This reflected the exposure of Cyprus to the Great Recession and European debt crisis. Furthermore, Cyprus was dealt a severe blow by the Evangelos Florakis Naval Base explosion in July 2011, with the cost to the economy estimated at €1–3 billion, or up to 17% of GDP.
The economic achievements of Cyprus during the preceding decades have been significant, bearing in mind the severe economic and social dislocation created by the Turkish invasion of 1974 and the continuing occupation of the northern part of the island by Turkey. The Turkish invasion inflicted a serious blow to the Cyprus economy and in particular to agriculture, tourism, mining and Quarrying: 70 percent of the island's wealth-producing resources were lost, the tourist industry lost 65 percent of its hotels and tourist accommodation, the industrial sector lost 46 percent, and mining and quarrying lost 56 percent of production. The loss of the port of Famagusta, which handled 83 percent of the general cargo, and the closure of Nicosia International Airport, in the buffer zone, were additional setbacks.
The success of Cyprus in the economic sphere has been attributed, inter alia, to the adoption of a market-oriented economic system, the pursuance of sound macroeconomic policies by the government as well as the existence of a dynamic and flexible entrepreneurship and a highly educated labor force. Moreover, the economy benefited from the close cooperation between the public and private sectors.
In the past 30 years, the economy has shifted from agriculture to light manufacturing and services. The services sector, including tourism, contributes almost 80% to GDP and employs more than 70% of the labor force. Industry and construction account for approximately one-fifth of GDP and labor, while agriculture is responsible for 2.1% of GDP and 8.5% of the labor force. Potatoes and citrus are the principal export crops. After robust growth rates in the 1980s (average annual growth was 6.1%), economic performance in the 1990s was mixed: real GDP growth was 9.7% in 1992, 1.7% in 1993, 6.0% in 1994, 6.0% in 1995, 1.9% in 1996 and 2.3% in 1997. This pattern underlined the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals (i.e., to economic and political conditions in Cyprus, Western Europe, and the Middle East) and the need to diversify the economy. Declining competitiveness in tourism and especially in manufacturing are expected to act as a drag on growth until structural changes are effected. Overvaluation of the Cypriot pound prior to the adoption of the euro in 2008 had kept inflation in check.
Trade is vital to the Cypriot economy — the island is not self-sufficient in food and until the recent offshore gas discoveries had few known natural resources – and the trade deficit continues to grow. Cyprus must import fuels, most raw materials, heavy machinery, and transportation equipment. More than 50% of its trade is with the rest of the European Union, especially Greece and the United Kingdom, while the Middle East receives 20% of exports. In 1991, Cyprus introduced a value-added tax (VAT), which is at 19% as of 13 January 2014. Cyprus ratified the new world trade agreement (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATT) in 1995 and began implementing it fully on 1 January 1996. European Union accession negotiations started on 31 March 1998, and concluded when Cyprus joined the European Union as a full member in 2004.
Investment climate
The Cyprus legal system is founded on English law, and is therefore familiar to most international financiers. Cyprus's legislation was aligned with EU norms in the period leading up to EU accession in 2004. Restrictions on foreign direct investment were removed, permitting 100% foreign ownership in many cases. Foreign portfolio investment in the Cyprus Stock Exchange was also liberalized. In 2002 a modern, business-friendly tax system was put in place with a 12.5% corporate tax rate, one of the lowest in the EU. Cyprus has concluded treaties on double taxation with more than 40 countries, and, as a member of the Eurozone, has no exchange restrictions. Non-residents and foreign investors may freely repatriate proceeds from investments in Cyprus. becoming for companies of that origin the most common tax haven. More recently, there have been increasing investment flows from the West through Cyprus into Asia, particularly China and India, South America and the Middle East. In addition, businesses from outside the EU use Cyprus as their entry-point for investment into Europe. The business services sector remains the fastest growing sector of the economy, and had overtaken all other sectors in importance. CIPA has been fundamental towards this trend.
Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Cyprus businesses and individuals have come under scrutiny and criticism for allowing EU and US sanctions to be breached with belated attempts to stop them or bring the culprits to justice. A number of professional law and accounting firms have been identified as helping Russian Oligarchs evade sanctions.
In January 2024, during a Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly, Cypriot President Nikos Christodoulides maintained that Cyprus had fully implemented all European Union sanctions against Russia. Around the same time of his speech, it was reported that Russian deposits held in Cypriot banks had fallen 76% from 2014 to 2022. The number of Russian clients using Cypriot banks also dropped 82% in the same period.Agriculture
in the Troodos Mountains. The agricultural sector continues to employ a significant proportion of the labor force.]]
Cyprus produced in 2018:
* 106 thousand tons of potato;
* 37 thousand tons of tangerine;
* 23 thousand tons of grape;
* 20 thousand tons of orange;
* 19 thousand tons of grapefruit;
* 19 thousand tons of olive;
* 18 thousand tons of wheat;
* 18 thousand tons of barley;
* 15 thousand tons of tomato;
* 13 thousand tons of watermelon;
* 10 thousand tons of melon,
in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.
Oil and gas
Surveys suggest more than 100 trillion cubic feet (2.831 trillion cubic metres) of reserves lie untapped in the eastern Mediterranean basin between Cyprus and Israel – almost equal to the world's total annual consumption of natural gas. In 2011, Noble Energy estimated that a pipeline to Leviathan gas field could be in operation as soon as 2014 or 2015. In January 2012, Noble Energy announced a natural gas field discovery. It attracted Shell, Delek and Avner as partners. Its geographical position at the crossroads of three continents and its proximity to the Suez Canal has promoted merchant shipping as an important industry for the island nation. Cyprus has the tenth-largest registered fleet in the world, with 1,030 vessels accounting for 31,706,000 dwt as of 1 January 2013.
Tourism
Tourism is an important factor of the island state's economy, culture, and overall brand development. With over 2 million tourist arrivals per year, it is the 40th most popular destination in the world. However, per capita of local population, it ranks 17th. The industry has been honored with various international awards, spanning from the Sustainable Destinations Global Top 100, VISION on Sustainable Tourism, Totem Tourism and Green Destination titles bestowed to Limassol and Paphos in December 2014. The island beaches have been awarded with 57 Blue Flags. Cyprus became a full member of the World Tourism Organization when it was created in 1975. According to the World Economic Forum's 2013 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index, Cyprus' tourism industry ranks 29th in the world in terms of overall competitiveness. In terms of Tourism Infrastructure, in relation to the tourism industry Cyprus ranks 1st in the world. The Cyprus Tourism Organization has a status of a semi-governmental organisation charged with overseeing the industry practices and promoting the island worldwide.TradeIn 2008 fiscal aggregate value of goods and services exported by Cyprus was in the region of $1.53 billion. It primarily exported goods and services such as citrus fruits, cement, potatoes, clothing and pharmaceuticals. At that same period total financial value of goods and services imported by Cyprus was about $8.689 billion. Prominent goods and services imported by Cyprus in 2008 were consumer goods, machinery, petroleum and other lubricants, transport equipment and intermediate goods.Cypriot trade partnersTraditionally Greece has been a major export and import partner of Cyprus. In fiscal 2007, it amounted for 21.1 percent of total exports of Cyprus. At that same period it was responsible for 17.7 percent of goods and services imported by Cyprus. Some other important names in this regard are UK and Italy.Eurozone crisis
In 2012, Cyprus became affected by the Eurozone financial and banking crisis. In June 2012, the Cypriot government announced it would need € of foreign aid to support the Cyprus Popular Bank, and this was followed by Fitch down-grading Cyprus's credit rating to junk status. Fitch said Cyprus would need an additional € to support its banks and the downgrade was mainly due to the exposure of Bank of Cyprus, Cyprus Popular Bank and Hellenic Bank (Cyprus's 3 largest banks) to the Greek financial crisis.
In November 2012 international lenders negotiating a bailout with the Cypriot government have agreed on a key capital ratio for banks and a system for the sector's supervision. Both commercial banks and cooperatives will be overseen by the Central Bank and the Ministry of Finance. They also set a core Tier 1 ratio – a measure of financial strength – of 9% by the end of 2013 for banks, which could then rise to 10% in 2014.
In 2014, Harris Georgiades pointed that exiting the Memorandum with the European troika required a return to the markets. This he said, required "timely, effective and full implementation of the program." The Finance Minister stressed the need to implement the Memorandum of understanding without an additional loan.
In 2015, Cyprus was praised by the President of the European Commission for adopting the austerity measures and not hesitating to follow a tough reform program.
In 2016, Moody's Investors Service changed its outlook on the Cypriot banking system to positive from stable, reflecting the view that the recovery will restore banks to profitability and improve asset quality. The quick economic recovery was driven by tourism, business services and increased consumer spending. Creditor confidence was also strengthened, allowing Bank of Cyprus to reduce its Emergency Liquidity Assistance to €2.0 billion (from €9.4 billion in 2013). Within the same period, Bank of Cyprus chairman Josef Ackermann urged the European Union to pledge financial support for a permanent solution to the Cyprus dispute.
Statistics
{| class="wikitable"
|+GDP per year (Source: World Bank)
!Year
!GDP (Billions in US dollars)
!% Growth
|-
|2017
|22.87 || 5.9
|-
|2018
|25.52 || 5.7
|-
|2019
|25.95 || 5.8
|-
|2020
|25.23 || 3.4
|-
|2021
|29.48 || 9.9
|-
|2022
|29.25 || 3.1
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Unemployment (Source: World Bank)
!Year
!Unemployed (%)
!Change
|-
|2017
|11.1 || 1.8
|-
|2018
|8.4 || 2.7
|-
|2019
|7.1 || 1.3
|-
|2020
|7.6 || 0.5
|-
|2021
|7.5 || 0.1
|-
|2022
|7.0 || 0.5
|}
Economy of Northern Cyprus
The economy of Turkish-occupied northern Cyprus is about one-fifth the size of the economy of the government-controlled area, while GDP per capita is around half. Because the de facto administration is recognized only by Turkey, it has had much difficulty arranging foreign financing, and foreign firms have hesitated to invest there. The economy mainly revolves around the agricultural sector and government service, which together employ about half of the work force.
The tourism sector also contributes substantially into the economy. Moreover, the small economy has seen some downfalls because the Turkish lira is legal tender. To compensate for the economy's weakness, Turkey has been known to provide significant financial aid. In both parts of the island, water shortage is a growing problem, and several desalination plants are planned.
The economic disparity between the two communities is pronounced. Although the economy operates on a free-market basis, the lack of private and government investment, shortages of skilled labor and experienced managers, and inflation and the devaluation of the Turkish lira continue to plague the economy.
Trade with Turkey
Turkey is by far the main trading partner of Northern Cyprus, supplying 55% of imports and absorbing 48% of exports. In a landmark case, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled on 5 July 1994 against the British practice of importing produce from Northern Cyprus based on certificates of origin and phytosanitary certificates granted by the de facto authorities. The ECJ decided that only goods bearing certificates of origin from the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus could be imported by EU member states. The decision resulted in a considerable decrease of Turkish Cypriot exports to the EU: from $36.4 million (or 66.7% of total Turkish Cypriot exports) in 1993 to $24.7 million in 1996 (or 35% of total exports) in 1996. Even so, the EU continues to be the second-largest trading partner of Northern Cyprus, with a 24.7% share of total imports and 35% share of total exports.
The most important exports of Northern Cyprus are citrus and dairy products. These are followed by rakı, scrap and clothing.
Assistance from Turkey is the mainstay of the Turkish Cypriot economy. Under the latest economic protocol (signed 3 January 1997), Turkey has undertaken to provide loans totalling $250 million for the purpose of implementing projects included in the protocol related to public finance, tourism, banking, and privatization. Fluctuation in the Turkish lira, which suffered from hyperinflation every year until its replacement by the Turkish new lira in 2005, exerted downward pressure on the Turkish Cypriot standard of living for many years.
The de facto authorities have instituted a free market in foreign exchange and permit residents to hold foreign-currency denominated bank accounts. This encourages transfers from Turkish Cypriots living abroad.
Happiness
Economic factors such as the GDP and national income strongly correlate with the happiness of a nation's citizens. In a study published in 2005, citizens from a sample of countries were asked to rate how happy or unhappy they were as a whole on a scale of 1 to 7 (Ranking: 1. Completely happy, 2. Very happy, 3. Fairly happy,4. Neither happy nor unhappy, 5. Fairly unhappy, 6. Very unhappy, 7. Completely unhappy.) Cyprus had a score of 5.29. On the question of how satisfied citizens were with their main job, Cyprus scored 5.36 on a scale of 1 to 7 (Ranking: 1. Completely satisfied, 2. Very satisfied, 3. Fairly satisfied, 4. Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, 5. Fairly dissatisfied, 6. Very dissatisfied, 7. Completely dissatisfied.) In another ranking of happiness, Northern Cyprus ranks 58 and Cyprus ranks 61, according to the 2018 World Happiness Report. The report rates 156 countries based on variables including income, healthy life expectancy, social support, freedom, trust, and generosity.
Economic factors play a significant role in the general life satisfaction of Cyprus citizens, especially with women who participate in the labor force at a lower rate, work in lower ranks, and work in more public and service sector jobs than the men. Women of different skill-sets and "differing economic objectives and constraints" participate in the tourism industry. Women participate in this industry through jobs like hotel work to serve and/or bring pride to their family, not necessarily to satisfy their own selves. In this study, women with income higher than the mean household income reported higher levels of satisfaction with their lives while those with lower income reported the opposite. When asked who they compare themselves with (those with lower, same, or higher economic status), results showed that those that compared themselves with people of higher economic statuses than them had the lowest level of life satisfaction. While the correlation of income and happiness is positive, it is significantly low; there is stronger correlation between comparison and happiness. This indicates that not only income level but income level in relation to that of others affects their amount of life satisfaction.
Classified as a Mediterranean welfare regime, Cyprus has a weak public Welfare system. This means there is a strong reliance on the family, instead of the state, for both familial and economic support. Another finding is that being a full-time housewife has a stronger negative effect on happiness for women of Northern Cyprus than being unemployed, showing how the combination of gender and the economic factor of participating in the labor force affects life satisfaction. Economic factors also negatively correlate with the happiness levels of those that live in the capital city: citizens living in the capital express lower levels of happiness. As found in this study, citizens of Cyprus that live in its capital, Nicosia, are significantly less happy than others whether or not socio-economic variables are controlled for. Another finding was that the young people in the capital are unhappier than the rest of Cyprus; the old are not.See also
*Cypriot pound
*Economy of Europe
References
*[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cyprus/ Cyprus]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Cyprus
Cyprus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Cyprus | 2025-04-05T18:27:22.321735 |
5600 | Transport in Cyprus | <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
Transport in Cyprus consists of transport by land, water and air. Road transport is the primary mode of transport for most Cypriot citizens, and Cyprus's road transport systems are well-developed and extensively used across the island.
Because Cyprus no longer has a working railway system, various other methods of transport are needed to ensure the proper delivery of any cargo, be it human or freight. As the last passenger railway was dismantled in 1952, the only remaining modes of transport are by road, sea, and air.
Roads
]]
From the of roads in the areas controlled by the Republic of Cyprus in 2006, were paved, while were unpaved. In 1996, the Turkish Cypriot area showed a close, but smaller ratio of paved to unpaved with about out of paved and unpaved. As a legacy of British rule, Cyprus is one of only three EU nations in which vehicles drive on the left.
Motorways
* A1 Nicosia to Limassol
* A2 connects A1 near Pera Chorio with A3 by Larnaca
* A3 Larnaca Airport to Agia Napa, also serves as a circular road for Larnaca.
* A5 connects A1 near Kofinou with A3 by Larnaca
* A6 Pafos to Limassol
* A7 Paphos to Polis (final plans)
* A9 Nicosia to Astromeritis
* A22 Dali industrial area to Anthoupolis, Lakatamia (Nicosia 3rd ring road, final plans)
Public Transportation
Nicosia's residents rely on private cars to go around the city. With more than 658 automobiles per 1,000 people, Cyprus has one of the highest car ownership rates in the world and the country uses very little public transportation. Only 3% of journeys in the Greater Nicosia urban region are made by public transportation. Cycling is considerably less common at 2%. The government of Cyprus and authorities of Nicosia have developed a public transportation plan to ensure access to more areas and provide more options, apart from private cars.
In 2020, the transport companies for the districts of Nicosia and Larnaca were changed from OSEL (Nicosia District Transport Organisation) to NPT (Nicosia Public Transport) and from ZENON Larnaca Buses to LPT (Larnaca Public Transport) respectively.
In 2022, Cyprus Public Transport made new plans for Nicosia's Public Transport by changing route numbers, adding new bus hubs and modernising buses and the all-out feel of the transport system. The plan has been introduced in two phases and is currently completed.
Rail
Cyprus currently has no functioning railway systems. The last of the narrow gauge systems in the country closed in 1974. There had been studies and preparatory work done to establish a modern system between the major cities, motivated by worsening traffic issues. Ιn October 2024, a company in England showed their interest to construct a new railway system in Cyprus.
In 2018, Nicosia municipal authorities requested an opinion on the construction of a tram network in the city to the European Investment Bank's JASPERS strategists, who concluded a need for a phased approach.Licensed Vehicles
, Nicosia]]
Road transport is the dominant form of transport on the island. Figures released by the International Road Federation in 2007 show that Cyprus holds the highest car ownership rate in the world with 742 cars per 1,000 people.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Number of licensed vehicles
|-
! Vehicle Category
! 2016
! 2017
! 2018
! 2019
! 2020
! 2021
! 2022
! 2023
! 2024
|-
|TOTAL OF CARS
|12,643.00
|13,127.00
|13,135.00
|15,200.00
|14,500.00
|14,565.00
|33,795.00
|2,994.00
|4,369.00
|}
Public transport in Cyprus is limited to privately run bus services (except in Nicosia and Larnaca), taxis, and interurban 'shared' taxi services (locally referred to as service taxis). Thus, private car ownership in the country is the fifth highest per capita in the world. However, in 2006 extensive plans were announced to expand and improve bus services and restructure public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank
Sea Harbours and Ports
The ports of Cyprus are operated and maintained by the Cyprus Ports Authority. Major harbours of the island are Limassol Harbour, and Larnaca Harbour, which service cargo, passenger, and cruise ships. Limassol is the larger of the two, and handles a large volume of both cargo and cruise vessels. Larnaca is primarily a cargo port but played a big part in the evacuation of foreign nationals from Lebanon in 2006, and in the subsequent humanitarian aid effort. A smaller cargo dock also exists at Vasilikos, near Zygi (a small town between Larnaca and Limassol). Smaller vessels and private yachts can dock at Marinas in Cyprus.
Public Bicycle Sharing System
Nextbike is the latest transportation system in Cyprus, similar to programs employed successfully in various cities around the world. Bicycles can be found at stations in Nicosia and Limassol, as well as with 1 station in Larnaca.
Merchant Marine
:See full article on Cyprus Merchant Marine
Total: 1,414 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling /
Ships by Type: barge carrier 2, bulk carrier 442, cargo ship 495, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 40, combination ore/oil 8, container ship 144, Liquified Gas Carrier 6, passenger ship 8, petroleum tanker 142, refrigerated cargo 41, roll-on/roll-off 45, short-sea passenger 13, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
Airports
In 1999, Cyprus had 12 airports with paved runways. Of them, seven had runways of lengths between 2,438 and 3,047 metres, one had a length between 1,524 and 2,437 metres, three had lengths between 914 and 1524 metres, and one had a length less than 914 metres.
Of the three airports with unpaved runways, two had lengths less than 914 metres and one had a length between 914 and 1524 metres.
International airports
Larnaca International Airport is the island's main airport and flies to many locations worldwide.
Paphos International Airport is the 2nd largest airport and mostly flies to Europe, via Ryanair; with occasional flights to other continents.
Nicosia International Airport is an abandoned airport. It used to be the island's main airport until 1974. It remains closed to the public.
Ercan International Airport is the main airport in the de facto state of Northern Cyprus. The airport's only destination is Turkey, serviced only by a few flight companies from Turkey. Flights to and from Ercan Airport are embargoed.
References
External links | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Cyprus | 2025-04-05T18:27:22.333289 |
5602 | Foreign relations of Cyprus | Cyprus is a member of the United Nations along with most of its agencies as well as the Commonwealth of Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund and Council of Europe. In addition, the country has signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency Agreement (MIGA). Cyprus has been a member of the European Union since 2004 and in the second half of 2012 it held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union.
Historical non-alignment
Cyprus has historically followed a non-aligned foreign policy, although it increasingly identifies with the West in its cultural affinities and trade patterns, and maintains close relations with the European Union, Greece, Armenia, Lebanon, Israel and the United States.
thumb|left|Cyprus former President Makarios III at a state visit in Munich with the German Chancellor in 1962
The prime originator of Cypriot non-alignment was Archbishop of Cyprus Makarios III, the first President (1960–1977) of the independent republic of Cyprus. Prior to independence, Makarios - by virtue of his post as Archbishop of Cyprus and head of the Cypriot Orthodox Church - was the Greek Cypriot Ethnarch, or de facto leader of the community. A highly influential figure well before independence, he participated in the 1955 Bandung Conference. After independence, Makarios took part in the 1961 founding meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement in Belgrade.
thumb|right|350px|Cyprus representations abroad
Reasons for this neutrality may lie in the extreme pressures exerted on the infant Republic by its larger neighbours, Turkey and Greece. Intercommunal rivalries and movements for union with Greece or partial union with Turkey may have persuaded Makarios to steer clear of close affiliation with either side. In any case Cyprus became a high-profile member of the Non-Aligned Movement and retained its membership until its entry into the European Union in 2004. At the non-governmental level, Cyprus has also been a member of the popular extension of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organisation hosting several high-level meetings.
Immediately after the 1974 Greek-sponsored coup d'état and the Turkish invasion, Makarios secured international recognition of his administration as the legitimate government of the whole island. This was disputed only by Turkey, which currently recognizes only the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, established in 1983.
Since the 1974 crisis, the chief aim of the foreign policy of the Republic of Cyprus has been to secure the withdrawal of Turkish forces and the reunification of the island under the most favorable constitutional and territorial settlement possible. This campaign has been pursued primarily through international forums such as the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement, and in recent years through the European Union.
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Cyprus maintains diplomatic relations with:
frameless|425x425px#CountryDate12— (suspended)4567891011121315161719202021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445474849505152–535455565758596061197562636465666768697071727374757677787980818384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170—171—172173174175176177178179Unknown (before December 2002)180Unknown (before October 2006)
Bilateral relations
Multilateral
Organization Formal Relations BeganNotes Cyprus joined the Council of Europe as a full member on 24 May 1961.See Cyprus in the European UnionCyprus joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004. See Cyprus–NATO relationsCyprus is not a member of NATO.
Africa
Country Formal relations beganNotes3 April 1979See Algeria–Cyprus relations
Algeria is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Beirut (Lebanon).
Cyprus is represented in Algeria through its embassy in Paris (France).
Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Relations are normal.Burundi is represented in Cyprus by its embassy in Geneva and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.
Cyprus is represented in Burundi by its embassy in Doha and an honorary consulate in Bujumbura.
Both countries are full members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.Cyprus is represented in Comoros by its embassy in Pretoria.30 September 1960, severed diplomatic relations 21 February 1978, restored 30 May 1984See Cyprus–Egypt relationsEgypt is a close ally of Cyprus as both countries share an oilfield. Egypt conquered Cyprus many times in ancient, medieval and modern eras and it was ruled by Egyptians which added Egyptian culture to the local culture and supported increasing the relationship between both countries. The relationship between the two countries was strained in February 1978 when Cypriot National Guardsmen shot dead Egyptian Commandos at Larnaca International Airport when the commandos attempted to intervene in a hostage situation.
Cyprus has an embassy in Cairo.
Egypt has an embassy in Nicosia.Cyprus is represented in Swaziland through its High Commission in Pretoria, South Africa
Swaziland is represented in Cyprus through its High Commission in London.
Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.25 February 2004Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 February 2004.
Cyprus is represented in Lesotho through its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.
Lesotho is represented in Cyprus via parallel accreditation of its embassy in London.
Both countries are full members of Commonwealth of Nations.8 November 1973See Cyprus–Libya relations
Cyprus is accredited to Libya from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Nicosia.
Libya has an embassy in Nicosia.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Libya Cyprus is represented in Madagascar through its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.
Cyprus also has an honorary consulate in Antananarivo. 22 June 2000 Both countries established diplomatic relations on June 22, 2000.
Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Cyprus is represented in Mauritania by its embassy in Tripoli.
Mauritania is represented in Cyprus by its embassy in Rome. February 1, 2001 Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations
List of biliteral agreements.1979 Cyprus is represented in Morocco through its embassy in Lisbon (Portugal).
Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Cyprus is represented in Namibia through its High Commission in Pretoria, South Africa.
Both countries are full members of Commonwealth of Nations. 1 July 1976 Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations
List of bilateral agreements.
Cyprus is represented in Seychelles through its embassy in Muscat, Oman.
Seychelles is represented in Cyprus through its High Commission in London, United Kingdom. December 10, 1993 Both countries established diplomatic relations on December 10, 1993.
Cyprus has a High Commission in Pretoria.5 November 1999 Cyprus is represented in Tunisia through its embassy in Paris (France).
Tunisia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and an honorary consulate in Larnaca.
Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean.
Tunisian Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Cyprus (in French only)1 February 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 February 1977 when accredited first High Commissioner of Cyprus to Uganda with residence in Nairobi Mr. F. A. Grammenopoulos
Both countries have established diplomatic relations and have signed an Agreement for Cooperation in the Field of Tourism.
Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.Cyprus is represented in Zambia by its High Commission in Pretoria, South Africa and an honorary consulate in Lusaka. and an honorary consulate in Limassol.
Both countries have a bilateral agreement on Air Service between both countries.
Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Americas
Country Formal relations beganNotes20 May 1968 and 3 June 1968 Argentina is accredited to Cyprus from its embassy in Tel Aviv, Israel and has an honorary consulate in Nicosia.
Cyprus is accredited to Argentina from its embassy in Madrid, Spain and has an honorary consulate in Buenos Aires.
List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and Cyprus (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Argentina 21 July 2000 Both countries established diplomatic relations on July 21, 2000.
Cyprus is represented in Belize through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.
Cyprus has an embassy in Brasília.
Brazil has an embassy in Nicosia.See Canada–Cyprus relations
Canadian bilateral political relations with Cyprus stemmed initially from Cypriot Commonwealth membership at independence in 1960 (that had followed a guerrilla struggle with Britain). These relations quickly expanded in 1964 when Canada became a major troop contributor to UNFICYP. The participation lasted for the next 29 years, during which 50,000 Canadian soldiers served and 28 were killed. In large measure Canadian relations with Cyprus continue to revolve around support for the ongoing efforts of the United Nations, G8 and others to resolve the Island's divided status. Contacts with Cyprus on other issues also take place in international organizations such as the UN, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and the Commonwealth of Nations.
Canada is accredited to Cyprus from its embassy in Athens, Greece and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.
Cyprus has a High Commission in Ottawa and an honorary consulate in Vancouver.25 January 1966 and 14 May 1970 Colombia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome, Italy.
Cyprus is represented in Colombia through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.
In 2010, both Ministers of Foreign Affairs signed a cooperation agreement regarding tourism and the war on drugs.13 June 2001Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. A Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of Cyprus and the Commonwealth of Dominica was signed on the 13 June 2001 in New York11 February 1972Both countries established diplomatic relation on May 11, 2011.
Cyprus is represented in Guyana by its embassy in Brasília, Brazil. 19 September 1966Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1966.
Cyprus is represented in Peru through its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.
Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Cyprus is represented in Trinidad and Tobago by its embassy in New York.
Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.16 August 1960See Cyprus–United States relations
thumb|right|200px|Cyprus president Dimitris Christofias and Cyprus first lady with U.S. President Barack Obama and Michelle Obama
Cyprus has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and a consulate-general in New York City.
United States has an embassy in Nicosia.
Asia
Country Formal relations beganNotes18 March 1992See Armenia–Cyprus relations
Armenia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece).
Cyprus has an embassy in Yerevan.
There are over 3,500 people of Armenian descent living in Cyprus.
Cyprus was the second country to recognize the Armenian genocide on 24 April 1975.
Cyprus supports Armenia's EU membership.
Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties with Armenia14 December 1971See China–Cyprus relations
China has an embassy in Nicosia.
Cyprus has an embassy in Beijing.9 July 1992See Cyprus–Georgia relations
Cyprus is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Athens (Greece).
Georgia has an embassy in Nicosia.
Cyprus Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Georgia
Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Cyprus10 February 1962See Cyprus–India relations
Cyprus has a High Commission in New Delhi and 2 honorary consulates (in Mumbai and Kolkata).
India has a High Commission in Nicosia.
Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with India 4 December 1987See Cyprus–Indonesia relations
Diplomatic relations were established on December 4, 1987
Cyprus reopened its embassy in Jakarta in October 2023.
Indonesia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome, Italy.1960s Cyprus has an embassy in Tehran.
Iran has an embassy in Nicosia.
Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Iran17 August 1960See Cyprus–Israel relations
In the case of Israel, Cyprus has occasionally outwardly backed the Palestinians in the Arab–Israeli conflict, to the annoyance of some in the Israeli government. Cyprus, like over 100 other countries, officially recognizes Palestine as a de facto state.
The island is also host to a number of Palestinian and Lebanese refugees.
Relations between the two countries continued to suffer when Cypriot first lady Antroulla Vasiliou, the wife of the then President George Vasiliou, was declared persona non grata in Israel when a delegation she was leading attempted to meet with Yasser Arafat, who was under house arrest.
Controversy and public outcry arose in the early 2000s, when members of the Cypriot branch of the Greek Orthodox Church were accused of selling church-owned land in the West Bank to Israeli developers, putting Cypriot commitment to the Palestinian cause at question.
The expulsion of two alleged Israeli spies from the island in 1998 also caused tension between the two governments.
The two countries now appear to be on improving terms, there has been coopertation on numerous areas but mostly on agriculture, military and tourism. The Cypriot government has also been reported to be making deals with both Israel and Egypt in exploring for oil off the southern Cyprus coast.
Israeli foreign minister Avigdor Lieberman visited Cyprus at the invitation of his Cypriot counterpart when Netanyahu was in Washington for the direct talks with the Palestinian leader. Lieberman and Cypriot foreign minister Kyprianou have met several times this year in an effort to strengthen relations between their countries.
Cyprus has an embassy in Tel Aviv.
Israel has an embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Israel11 May 1962 Cypriot president Makarios made a state visit to Japan in 1970. Subsequently, Cypriot president Spyros Kyprianou visited in 1984 and president George Vasiliou visited in 1989 and 1990.
The balance of trade between Cyprus and Japan is heavily weighed in favor of Japan, with Japan exporting automobiles and electrical products and importing clothing and food products.
Cyprus is represented in Japan through its resident ambassador with its embassy housed inside the EU Delegation to Japan.
Japan is represented in Cyprus through its resident ambassador in Nicosia.
Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Japan
Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs on relations with Cyprus11 January 1962 Cyprus has an embassy in Amman.
Jordan has an embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Jordan2 April 1992 Cyprus has an embassy in Astana.
Kazakhstan has honorary consultates in Nicosia and Limassol. In 2025, Kazakhstan has announced plans to open an embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are members of the United Nations.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Kazakhstan20 February 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on February 20, 1992.
Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 3 May 2005See Cyprus–Kuwait relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Kuwait City.
Kuwait has an embassy in Nicosia.20 September 1960 Cyprus has an embassy in Beirut.
Lebanon has an embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Lebanon1 November 1987Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 November 1997.
Cyprus is represented in the Maldives by its High Commission in New Delhi, India.
Cyprus is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in Beijing, China. 1978 Oman has an embassy in Nicosia.
Cyprus is represented in Oman through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt) and through an honorary consulate in Muscat.
Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Oman
Oman Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Cyprus 1988See Cyprus–Palestine relations
Cyprus has a representative office in Ramallah.
Palestine has an embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.21 February 2001See Cyprus–Qatar relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Doha.
Qatar has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate in Limassol.
Both countries are members of the United Nations.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Qatar See Cyprus–Saudi Arabia relations
Cyprus is represented through its honorary consulate in Jeddah.
Saudi Arabia is represented through its embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are members of the United Nations.
March 1981 Cyprus is represented in Sri Lanka by its High Commission in New Delhi, India
Sri Lanka is represented in Cyprus by its embassy in Rome, Italy and an honorary consulate in Larnaca.
Both countries have agreed on bilateral treaties in various fields.
Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.See Cyprus–Syria relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Damascus.
Syria has an embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Syria27 February 1992Both countries have a bilateral agreements on Cooperation in the Fields of Public Health and Medical Science.
Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. 5 May 1980 Cyprus is represented in Thailand through its High Commission in New Delhi, India.
Thailand is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome, Italy.
Cyprus takes the view that the TRNC government is a puppet administration, and thus prefers to negotiate with Turkey over the resolution of the Cyprus Problem. Turkey insists that the TRNC government is the institution that the RoC government must refer to in negotiations.
Cyprus' accession to the European Union has had a negative impact on Turkey in regards to its own accession negotiations. The refusal of Turkey to allow Cypriot-flagged ships to access Turkish ports has resulted in a partial suspension of its accession negotiations.
Cyprus opposes Turkey's EU membership.12 April 1978 and 6 June 2007See Cyprus–United Arab Emirates relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Abu Dhabi
United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Nicosia29 November 1975Cyprus is represented in Vietnam through its embassy in New Delhi, India. Vietnam is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Tripoli, Libya.
Europe
thumb|Cyprus embassy in Stockholm
thumb|left|Cyprus embassy in Moscow
Cyprus' 1990 application for full EU membership caused a storm in the Turkish Cypriot community, which argued that the move required their consent. Following the December 1997 EU Summit decisions on EU enlargement, accession negotiations began 31 March 1998. Cyprus joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. To fulfil its commitment as a member of the European Union, Cyprus withdrew from the Non-Aligned Movement on accession, retaining observer status.
Country Formal relations beganNotes28 August 1991Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 August 1991.
Albania is represented in Cyprus by its embassy in Athens, Greece and an honorary consulate in Larnaca.
Cyprus is represented in Albania by its embassy in Athens, Greece and an honorary consulate in Tirana.
Both countries have a number of bilateral agreements.
The Czech Republic has an embassy in Nicosia and 2 honorary consulates (in Limassol and Nicosia).
Both countries became members of the European Union on 1 May 2004.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with the Czech Republic2 November 1960 See Cyprus–Denmark relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Copenhagen and an honorary consulate in Århus.
Denmark has an embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are full members of the European Union.
Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Denmark20 December 1991 Cyprus recognized the Republic of Estonia on 12 September 1991.
Cyprus is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Helsinki (Finland).
Estonia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through 2 honorary consulates in Nicosia.
Both countries became members of the European Union on 1 May 2004.
By the late 2005, in Nicosia the first session of the Estonia-Cyprus Intergovernmental Commission established under the Agreement on Economic, Scientific, Technical and Industrial Co-operation took place.
Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Estonia
Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Cyprus29 September 1961See Cyprus–Finland relations
Finland recognized Cyprus on 16 August 1960.
Cyprus has an embassy in Helsinki and an honorary consulate in Vantaa.
Finland has an embassy and 2 honorary consulates in Nicosia.
Finland joined the European Union as a full member on 1 January 1995, while Cyprus joined on 1 May 2004.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Finland16 August 1960See Cyprus–France relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Paris.
France has an embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.
Cyprus is an associate member of the Francophonie organization since 2006. About 12% of Cyprus population speaks and understands French.
France is a supporter of Cyprus in the different (sicsic) that oppose the European Union against Turkey's refusal to recognize and admit Cypriot ships and planes.
France contributes significantly in the military equipment of Cypriot National Guard.
In 2019 it was decided the establishment of a French military marine base on the island.
List of Treaties between the 2 countries by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cyprus
French embassy in Cyprus20 August 1960See Cyprus–Germany relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Hamburg.
Germany has an embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.
In 2004, an agreement on mutual recognition of university degrees was signed, designed to facilitate Cypriot and German students' admission to German and Cypriot universities.
There is a close and trustful cooperation at a government level. Minister of State Hoyer visited Cyprus on 11 and 12 February 2010. Federal Foreign Minister Westerwelle met with his Cypriot counterpart Marcos Kyprianou in Berlin on 2 March
Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties between Cyprus and Germany
German Foreign Ministry about relations with Cyprus16 August 1960 See Cyprus–Greece relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Athens and a consulate-general in Thessaloniki.
Greece has an embassy in Nicosia.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.
The Greek Cypriot majority in Cyprus and the ethnic Greek population of Greece share a common ethnicity, heritage, language, and religion, leading to an exceptionally close relationship between the two countries.18 October 1960 Cyprus has an embassy in Budapest.
Hungary has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.
Both countries became members of the European Union on 1 May 2004.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with HungaryIceland 4 September 1979Cyprus is represented in Iceland by its embassy in Copenhagen, Denmark.
Both Cyprus and Ireland were part of the British Empire.1960 Cyprus has an embassy in Rome and 5 honorary consulates (in Genoa, Milan, Naples, Perugia and Augusta).
Italy has an embassy in Nicosia and 2 honorary consulates (in Limassol and Larnaca).
Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Union for the Mediterranean.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Italy Cyprus is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden).
Latvia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece). and an honorary consulates in Limassol.
Both countries became members of the European Union on 1 May 2004.3 December 1992 Cyprus is represented in Lithuania through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland).
Lithuania is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through an honorary consulates in Nicosia and Larnaca.
Both countries became members of the European Union on 1 May 2004.
Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties with Lithuania
Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Cyprus (in Lithuanian only) Cyprus is represented to Luxembourg through its accredited embassy in The Hague (Netherlands).
Luxembourg is represented to Cyprus through its accredited embassy in Athens (Greece).
Both countries are full members of the European Union.13 September 1972See Cyprus–Malta relations
Cyprus is represented to Malta through its accredited embassy in Rome (Italy).
Malta is represented to Cyprus through its accredited embassy in Athens (Greece).
The two countries are members of the European Union and the Commonwealth of Nations.
List of Treaties between the 2 countries by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cyprus21 February 1992 Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Moldova
Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration about relations with Cyprus 24 February 2011 2011...February 24, date which is officially regarded as the date of establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries
Ambassador designate12 March 2007See Cyprus–Montenegro relations
Cyprus recognized the Republic of Montenegro on 16 June 2006.
Cyprus is represented in Montenegro through its embassy in Belgrade (Serbia).
Cyprus is an EU member and Montenegro is an candidate.
Establishment of diplomatic relations (Cyprus Ministry Foreign Affairs)
Cyprus recognition official recognition of Montenegro (in Montenegrin)
Cyprus recognition official recognition of Montenegro 1960See Cyprus–Netherlands relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1960, after Cyprus's independence.
Cyprus has an embassy in The Hague.
The Netherlands have an embassy in Nicosia and 2 honorary consulates in Limassol.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with the Netherlands
Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Cyprus (in Dutch) 22 March 1963See Cyprus–Norway relations
Cyprus–Norway relations are foreign relations between Cyprus and Norway. Diplomatic relations were established on 22 March 1963. The government in Cyprus considers that "bilateral relations between Cyprus and Norway are excellent in all fields". Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe. Diplomatic relations were established on 22 March 1963.
On 21 August 1951, there was a Consular Convention and an Exchange of Letters relating to establishing diplomatic relations. On 2 May 1951, there was a Convention for the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the Prevention of Fiscal Evasion with respect to Taxes on Income. On 17 May 1962, there was an Exchange of Letters constituting an Agreement on the Abolition of Visa Requirement in Nicosia. On 5 March 1963, there was an Agreement on Commercial Scheduled Air Transport signed in London.
The taxation levels in Cyprus are considerably lower than in Norway, and Cyprus has actively courted Norwegians to move to Cyprus. Among the Norwegians who moved to Cyprus is the shipping billionaire John Fredriksen, who was the richest man in Norway.
In 1996 tax rules in Norway were changed to keep shipping companies competitive and under the Norwegian flag. By 2008 changes to the tonnage tax regime to harmonize them with the European Union forced some companies to register in Cyprus. Norwegian Service rig company Prosafe moved their headquarters to Cyprus.
Several Norwegian retirees also moved to Cyprus; this too is largely to benefit from the lower tax rate on Cyprus and the minimal crime.
Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Norway
Cyprus embassy in Stockholm (also accredited to Norway)
Norway embassy in Athens (also accredited to Cyprus) 15 January 1961See Cyprus–Poland relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Warsaw and 2 honorary consulates (in Gdynia and Szczecin).
Poland has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate general in Limassol.
Both countries became members of the European Union on 1 May 2004.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Poland5 March 1975 Cyprus has an embassy in Lisbon (since 1999) and an honorary consulate in Porto.
Portugal has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate in Larnaca.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Union for the Mediterranean.15 November 1960 Romania has an embassy in Nicosia since November 1960.
Cyprus has an embassy in Bucharest.
Cyprus joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004, while Romania joined on 1 January 2007.
Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties between Cyprus and Romania
Romanian Foreign Ministry about relations with Cyprus18 August 1960See Cyprus–Russia relations
thumb|right|200px|Presidents of Russia and Cyprus meet at least once every year.
The USSR established diplomatic relations with the newly independent Republic of Cyprus on 18 August 1960.
Cooperation between both countries has increased since the 1990s and the fall of the USSR.
Cyprus has an embassy in Moscow and consulates-general in Krasnodar, Saint Petersburg, Samara and in Yekaterinburg.
Russia has an embassy in Nicosia.7 October 1960See Cyprus–Serbia relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Belgrade.
Serbia has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.
Cyprus is an EU member and Serbia is an candidate.
The two countries share common cultural and religious ascpects as both have major Orthodox Christian populations.
Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Serbia1 January 1993 Cyprus is represented in Slovakia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).
Slovakia has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate in Limassol.
Both countries became members of the European Union on 1 May 2004.
Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treatis with Slovakia10 December 1992See Cyprus–Slovenia relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Ljubljana.
Slovenia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens, Greece, and through an honorary consulate in Limassol.
Both countries are members of the European Union and the Union for the Mediterranean.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs Ministry: List of bilateral treaties with Slovenia25 December 1967See Cyprus–Spain relations
Cyprus has an embassy in Madrid and 2 honorary consulates (in Bilbao and Granada).
Spain has an embassy Nicosia.
Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Union for the Mediterranean.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Spain12 December 1960See Cyprus–Sweden relations
Sweden was one of the first countries that sent UN peacekeepers to Cyprus in 1964.
Since 1994, Cyprus has an embassy in Stockholm.
Sweden has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.
Sweden joined the European Union as a full member on 1 January 1995, while Cyprus joined on 1 May 2004.
Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Sweden
Cyprus is represented in Switzerland through its embassy in Rome (Italy).
Switzerland has an embassy in Nicosia.19 February 1992 The Cypriot embassy in Kyiv (since 2011) and an honorary consulate in Mariupol.
Ukraine has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate in Limassol.
Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Ukraine16 August 1960See Cyprus–United Kingdom relationsCyprus established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 16 August 1960. The UK is a "guarantor power" of Cyprus's independence.
Cyprus maintains a high commission in London, and honorary consulates in Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Dunblane, Glasgow, and Leeds.
The United Kingdom is accredited to Cyprus through its high commission in Nicosia.
The UK governed Cyprus from 1878 until 1960, when it achieved full independence.
Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth, the Council of Europe, European Court of Human Rights, the International Criminal Court, the OSCE, and the World Trade Organization. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Agreement.
Oceania
Country Formal relations beganNotes Australia has a High Commission in Nicosia.
Cyprus has a High Commission in Canberra.1978Cyprus is represented in Fiji by its High Commission in Canberra, Australia.
Both countries a full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.May 5, 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on May 5, 2010.
Cyprus is represented in the Solomon Islands via parallel accreditation of its High Commission in Canberra, Australia. UDI of Turkish Cypriots in 1983, contrary to multiple United Nations Security Council Resolutions. The two territories of the Republic are separated by a United Nations Buffer Zone (4% of the island); there are two UK sovereign base areas mostly within the Greek Cypriot portion of the island.
See also
List of diplomatic missions of Cyprus
List of diplomatic missions in Cyprus
List of ministers of foreign affairs of Cyprus
Foreign relations of Northern Cyprus
References
External links
Category:Cyprus and the Commonwealth of Nations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Cyprus | 2025-04-05T18:27:23.427633 |
5615 | Cretaceous | | upper_gssp_accept_date = 1991
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The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 143.1 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 77.1 million years, it is the ninth and longest geological period of the entire Phanerozoic. The name is derived from the Latin , 'chalk', which is abundant in the latter half of the period. It is usually abbreviated K, for its German translation .
The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate, resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas. These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles, ammonites, and rudists, while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land. The world was largely ice-free, although there is some evidence of brief periods of glaciation during the cooler first half, and forests extended to the poles.
Many of the dominant taxonomic groups present in modern times can be ultimately traced back to origins in the Cretaceous. During this time, new groups of mammals and birds appeared, including the earliest relatives of placentals & marsupials (Eutheria and Metatheria respectively), with the earliest crown group birds appearing towards to the end of the Cretaceous. Teleost fish, the most diverse group of modern vertebrates continued to diversify during the Cretaceous with the appearance of their most diverse subgroup Acanthomorpha during this period. During the Early Cretaceous, flowering plants appeared and began to rapidly diversify, becoming the dominant group of plants across the Earth by the end of the Cretaceous, coincident with the decline and extinction of previously widespread gymnosperm groups.
The Cretaceous (along with the Mesozoic) ended with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, a large mass extinction in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and large marine reptiles, died out, widely thought to have been caused by the impact of a large asteroid that formed the Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction that lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras.
Etymology and history
The Cretaceous as a separate period was first defined by Belgian geologist Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1822 as the Terrain Crétacé, using strata in the Paris Basin and named for the extensive beds of chalk (calcium carbonate deposited by the shells of marine invertebrates, principally coccoliths), found in the upper Cretaceous of Western Europe. The name Cretaceous was derived from the Latin creta, meaning chalk. The twofold division of the Cretaceous was implemented by Conybeare and Phillips in 1822. Alcide d'Orbigny in 1840 divided the French Cretaceous into five étages (stages): the Neocomian, Aptian, Albian, Turonian, and Senonian, later adding the Urgonian between Neocomian and Aptian and the Cenomanian between the Albian and Turonian.
Geology
Subdivisions
The Cretaceous is divided into Early and Late Cretaceous epochs, or Lower and Upper Cretaceous series. In older literature, the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series: Neocomian (lower/early), Gallic (middle) and Senonian (upper/late). A subdivision into 12 stages, all originating from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide. In many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use.
From youngest to oldest, the subdivisions of the Cretaceous period are:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Subdivisions of the Cretaceous
|-
! rowspan2|Epoch !! rowspan2|Age/Stage !! Start<br>(base) !! rowspan"2" |Definition !!rowspan2|Etymology
|-
! align="center" |(Mya)
|-
|Paleocene
|Danian
|66
|
|
|-
| rowspan"6" style"background-color: ;" | Late Cretaceous|| style"background-color: ;" | Maastrichtian|| align"center" | 72.2 ± 0.2 || top: iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary<br>base:first occurrence of Pachydiscus neubergicus
| Maastricht Formation, Maastricht, Netherlands
|-
| style"background-color: ;" | Campanian|| align"center" | 83.6 ± 0.2 || base: last occurrence of Marsupites testudinarius|| Champagne, France
|-
| style"background-color: ;" | Santonian|| align"center" | 85.7 ± 0.2 || base: first occurrence of Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus|| Saintes, France
|-
| style"background-color: ;" | Coniacian|| align"center" | 89.8 ± 0.3 || base: first occurrence of Cremnoceramus rotundatus|| Cognac, France
|-
| style"background-color: ;" | Turonian|| align"center" | 93.9 ± 0.2 || base: first occurrence of Watinoceras devonense|| Tours, France
|-
| style"background-color: ;" | Cenomanian|| align"center" | 100.5 ± 0.1 || base: first occurrence of Rotalipora globotruncanoides|| Cenomanum; Le Mans, France
|-
| rowspan"6" style"background-color: ;" | Early Cretaceous|| style"background-color: ;" | Albian|| align"center" | 113.2 ± 0.3 || base: first occurrence of Praediscosphaera columnata|| Aube, France
|-
| style"background-color: ;" | Aptian|| align"center" | 121.4 ± 0.6 || base: magnetic anomaly M0r || Apt, France
|-
| style"background-color: ;" | Barremian|| align"center" | 125.77 ± 1.5 || base: first occurrence of Spitidiscus hugii and S. vandeckii|| Barrême, France
|-
| style"background-color: ;" | Hauterivian|| align"center" | 132.6 ± 0.6 || base: first occurrence of Acanthodiscus|| Hauterive, Switzerland
|-
| style"background-color: ;" | Valanginian|| align"center" | 137.05 ± 0.2 || base: first occurrence of Calpionellites darderi|| Valangin, Switzerland
|-
| style"background-color: ;" | Berriasian || align"center" | 143.1 ±0.6 || base: first occurrence of Berriasella jacobi (traditionally);<br>first occurrence of Calpionella alpina (since 2016) || Berrias, France
|-
|}
Boundaries
or comet is today widely accepted as the main reason for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.]]
The lower boundary of the Cretaceous is currently undefined, and the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary is currently the only system boundary to lack a defined Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP). Placing a GSSP for this boundary has been difficult because of the strong regionality of most biostratigraphic markers, and the lack of any chemostratigraphic events, such as isotope excursions (large sudden changes in ratios of isotopes) that could be used to define or correlate a boundary. Calpionellids, an enigmatic group of planktonic protists with urn-shaped calcitic tests briefly abundant during the latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous, have been suggested as the most promising candidates for fixing the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary. In particular, the first appearance Calpionella alpina, coinciding with the base of the eponymous Alpina subzone, has been proposed as the definition of the base of the Cretaceous. The working definition for the boundary has often been placed as the first appearance of the ammonite Strambergella jacobi, formerly placed in the genus Berriasella, but its use as a stratigraphic indicator has been questioned, as its first appearance does not correlate with that of C. alpina. The boundary is officially considered by the International Commission on Stratigraphy to be approximately 145 million years ago, but other estimates have been proposed based on U-Pb geochronology, ranging as young as 140 million years ago.
The upper boundary of the Cretaceous is sharply defined, being placed at an iridium-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the Chicxulub impact crater, with its boundaries circumscribing parts of the Yucatán Peninsula and extending into the Gulf of Mexico. This layer has been dated at 66.043 Mya.
At the end of the Cretaceous, the impact of a large body with the Earth may have been the punctuation mark at the end of a progressive decline in biodiversity during the Maastrichtian age. The result was the extinction of three-quarters of Earth's plant and animal species. The impact created the sharp break known as the K–Pg boundary (formerly known as the K–T boundary). Earth's biodiversity required substantial time to recover from this event, despite the probable existence of an abundance of vacant ecological niches.
Despite the severity of the K-Pg extinction event, there were significant variations in the rate of extinction between and within different clades. Species that depended on photosynthesis declined or became extinct as atmospheric particles blocked solar energy. As is the case today, photosynthesizing organisms, such as phytoplankton and land plants, formed the primary part of the food chain in the late Cretaceous, and all else that depended on them suffered, as well. Herbivorous animals, which depended on plants and plankton as their food, died out as their food sources became scarce; consequently, the top predators, such as Tyrannosaurus rex, also perished. Yet only three major groups of tetrapods disappeared completely; the nonavian dinosaurs, the plesiosaurs and the pterosaurs. The other Cretaceous groups that did not survive into the Cenozoic }}the ichthyosaurs, last remaining temnospondyls (Koolasuchus), and nonmammalian }} were already extinct millions of years before the event occurred.
Coccolithophorids and molluscs, including ammonites, rudists, freshwater snails, and mussels, as well as organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example, ammonites are thought to have been the principal food of mosasaurs, a group of giant marine lizards related to snakes that became extinct at the boundary.
Omnivores, insectivores, and carrion-eaters survived the extinction event, perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources. At the end of the Cretaceous, there seem to have been no purely herbivorous or carnivorous mammals. Mammals and birds that survived the extinction fed on insects, larvae, worms, and snails, which in turn fed on dead plant and animal matter. Scientists theorise that these organisms survived the collapse of plant-based food chains because they fed on detritus.
In stream communities, few groups of animals became extinct. Stream communities rely less on food from living plants and more on detritus that washes in from land. This particular ecological niche buffered them from extinction. Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the water column than among animals living on or in the seafloor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on primary production from living phytoplankton, while animals living on or in the ocean floor feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding. These shales are an important source rock for oil and gas, for example in the subsurface of the North Sea. Europe
In northwestern Europe, chalk deposits from the Upper Cretaceous are characteristic for the Chalk Group, which forms the white cliffs of Dover on the south coast of England and similar cliffs on the French Normandian coast. The group is found in England, northern France, the low countries, northern Germany, Denmark and in the subsurface of the southern part of the North Sea. Chalk is not easily consolidated and the Chalk Group still consists of loose sediments in many places. The group also has other limestones and arenites. Among the fossils it contains are sea urchins, belemnites, ammonites and sea reptiles such as Mosasaurus.
In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of competent limestone beds or incompetent marls. Because the Alpine mountain chains did not yet exist in the Cretaceous, these deposits formed on the southern edge of the European continental shelf, at the margin of the Tethys Ocean.
North America
During the Cretaceous, the present North American continent was isolated from the other continents. In the Jurassic, the North Atlantic already opened, leaving a proto-ocean between Europe and North America. From north to south across the continent, the Western Interior Seaway started forming. This inland sea separated the elevated areas of Laramidia in the west and Appalachia in the east. Three dinosaur clades found in Laramidia (troodontids, therizinosaurids and oviraptorosaurs) are absent from Appalachia from the Coniacian through the Maastrichtian. Paleogeography
During the Cretaceous, the late-Paleozoic-to-early-Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangaea completed its tectonic breakup into the present-day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the Atlantic Ocean widened, the convergent-margin mountain building (orogenies) that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the North American Cordillera, as the Nevadan orogeny was followed by the Sevier and Laramide orogenies.
Gondwana had begun to break up during the Jurassic Period, but its fragmentation accelerated during the Cretaceous and was largely complete by the end of the period. South America, Antarctica, and Australia rifted away from Africa (though India and Madagascar remained attached to each other until around 80 million years ago); thus, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising eustatic sea levels worldwide. To the north of Africa the Tethys Sea continued to narrow. During most of the Late Cretaceous, North America would be divided in two by the Western Interior Seaway, a large interior sea, separating Laramidia to the west and Appalachia to the east, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between coal beds. Bivalve palaeobiogeography also indicates that Africa was split in half by a shallow sea during the Coniacian and Santonian, connecting the Tethys with the South Atlantic by way of the central Sahara and Central Africa, which were then underwater. Yet another shallow seaway ran between what is now Norway and Greenland, connecting the Tethys to the Arctic Ocean and enabling biotic exchange between the two oceans. At the peak of the Cretaceous transgression, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged.
The Cretaceous is justly famous for its chalk; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the Phanerozoic. Mid-ocean ridge activity—or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges—enriched the oceans in calcium; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the bioavailability of the element for calcareous nanoplankton. These widespread carbonates and other sedimentary deposits make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous formations from North America include the rich marine fossils of Kansas's Smoky Hill Chalk Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in Europe (e.g., the Weald) and China (the Yixian Formation). In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the Deccan Traps were erupted in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene.
Climate
Palynological evidence indicates the Cretaceous climate had three broad phases: a Berriasian–Barremian warm-dry phase, an Aptian–Santonian warm-wet phase, and a Campanian–Maastrichtian cool-dry phase. As in the Cenozoic, the 400,000 year eccentricity cycle was the dominant orbital cycle governing carbon flux between different reservoirs and influencing global climate. The location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was roughly the same as in the present.
The cooling trend of the last epoch of the Jurassic, the Tithonian, continued into the Berriasian, the first age of the Cretaceous. There is evidence that snowfalls were common in the higher latitudes during this age, and the tropics became wetter than during the Triassic and Jurassic. Glaciation was restricted to high-latitude mountains, though seasonal snow may have existed farther from the poles. After the end of the first age, however, temperatures began to increase again, with a number of thermal excursions, such as the middle Valanginian Weissert Thermal Excursion (WTX), It was followed by the middle Hauterivian Faraoni Thermal Excursion (FTX) and the early Barremian Hauptblatterton Thermal Event (HTE). The HTE marked the ultimate end of the Tithonian-early Barremian Cool Interval (TEBCI). For much of the TEBCI, northern Gondwana experienced a monsoonal climate. A shallow thermocline existed in the mid-latitude Tethys. The TEBCI was followed by the Barremian-Aptian Warm Interval (BAWI). Early Aptian tropical sea surface temperatures (SSTs) were 27–32 °C, based on TEX<sub>86</sub> measurements from the equatorial Pacific. During the Aptian, Milankovitch cycles governed the occurrence of anoxic events by modulating the intensity of the hydrological cycle and terrestrial runoff. The early Aptian was also notable for its millennial scale hyperarid events in the mid-latitudes of Asia. The BAWI itself was followed by the Aptian-Albian Cold Snap (AACS) that began about 118 Ma. and the expansion of calcareous nannofossils that dwelt in cold water into lower latitudes. The AACS is associated with an arid period in the Iberian Peninsula.
Temperatures increased drastically after the end of the AACS, which ended around 111 Ma with the Paquier/Urbino Thermal Maximum, giving way to the Mid-Cretaceous Hothouse (MKH), which lasted from the early Albian until the early Campanian. along with high flood basalt activity. The MKH was punctuated by multiple thermal maxima of extreme warmth. The Leenhardt Thermal Event (LTE) occurred around 110 Ma, followed shortly by the l’Arboudeyesse Thermal Event (ATE) a million years later. Following these two hyperthermals was the Amadeus Thermal Maximum around 106 Ma, during the middle Albian. Then, around a million years after that, occurred the Petite Verol Thermal Event (PVTE). Afterwards, around 102.5 Ma, the Event 6 Thermal Event (EV6) took place; this event was itself followed by the Breistroffer Thermal Maximum around 101 Ma, during the latest Albian. Approximately 94 Ma, the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum occurred, and being associated with a sea level highstand. Temperatures cooled down slightly over the next few million years, but then another thermal maximum, the Coniacian Thermal Maximum, happened, with this thermal event being dated to around 87 Ma. Mean annual temperatures at the poles during the MKH exceeded 14 °C. Such hot temperatures during the MKH resulted in a very gentle temperature gradient from the equator to the poles; the latitudinal temperature gradient during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum was 0.54 °C per ° latitude for the Southern Hemisphere and 0.49 °C per ° latitude for the Northern Hemisphere, in contrast to present day values of 1.07 and 0.69 °C per ° latitude for the Southern and Northern hemispheres, respectively. This meant weaker global winds, which drive the ocean currents, and resulted in less upwelling and more stagnant oceans than today. This is evidenced by widespread black shale deposition and frequent anoxic events. Tropical SSTs during the late Albian most likely averaged around 30 °C. Despite this high SST, seawater was not hypersaline at this time, as this would have required significantly higher temperatures still. On land, arid zones in the Albian regularly expanded northward in tandem with expansions of subtropical high pressure belts. The Cedar Mountain Formation's Soap Wash flora indicates a mean annual temperature of between 19 and 26 °C in Utah at the Albian-Cenomanian boundary. Tropical SSTs during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum were at least 30 °C, though one study estimated them as high as between 33 and 42 °C. An intermediate estimate of ~33-34 °C has also been given. Meanwhile, deep ocean temperatures were as much as warmer than today's<!-- Note that these are differences in temperature -->;<!-- "15 higher" or "15 which is higher"? --> one study estimated that deep ocean temperatures were between 12 and 20 °C during the MKH.
Beginning in the Santonian, near the end of the MKH, the global climate began to cool, with this cooling trend continuing across the Campanian. This period of cooling, driven by falling levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, caused the end of the MKH and the transition into a cooler climatic interval, known formally as the Late Cretaceous-Early Palaeogene Cool Interval (LKEPCI). Deep ocean temperatures declined to 9 to 12 °C, Regional conditions in the Western Interior Seaway changed little between the MKH and the LKEPCI. During this period of relatively cool temperatures, the ITCZ became narrower, while the strength of both summer and winter monsoons in East Asia was directly correlated to atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentrations. Laramidia likewise had a seasonal, monsoonal climate. The Maastrichtian was a time of chaotic, highly variable climate. Two upticks in global temperatures are known to have occurred during the Maastrichtian, bucking the trend of overall cooler temperatures during the LKEPCI. Between 70 and 69 Ma and 66–65 Ma, isotopic ratios indicate elevated atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> pressures with levels of 1000–1400 ppmV and mean annual temperatures in west Texas between . Atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> and temperature relations indicate a doubling of pCO<sub>2</sub> was accompanied by a ~0.6 °C increase in temperature. The latter warming interval, occurring at the very end of the Cretaceous, was triggered by the activity of the Deccan Traps. The LKEPCI lasted into the Late Palaeocene, when it gave way to another supergreenhouse interval.
s]]
The production of large quantities of magma, variously attributed to mantle plumes or to extensional tectonics, further pushed sea levels up, so that large areas of the continental crust were covered with shallow seas. The Tethys Sea connecting the tropical oceans east to west also helped to warm the global climate. Warm-adapted plant fossils are known from localities as far north as Alaska and Greenland, while dinosaur fossils have been found within 15 degrees of the Cretaceous south pole. It was suggested that there was Antarctic marine glaciation in the Turonian Age, based on isotopic evidence. However, this has subsequently been suggested to be the result of inconsistent isotopic proxies, with evidence of polar rainforests during this time interval at 82° S. Rafting by ice of stones into marine environments occurred during much of the Cretaceous, but evidence of deposition directly from glaciers is limited to the Early Cretaceous of the Eromanga Basin in southern Australia. Flora
specimen in the collection of the Natural History Museum, Berlin, Germany]]
Flowering plants (angiosperms) make up around 90% of living plant species today. Prior to the rise of angiosperms, during the Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous, the higher flora was dominated by gymnosperm groups, including cycads, conifers, ginkgophytes, gnetophytes and close relatives, as well as the extinct Bennettitales. Other groups of plants included pteridosperms or "seed ferns", a collective term that refers to disparate groups of extinct seed plants with fern-like foliage, including groups such as Corystospermaceae and Caytoniales. The exact origins of angiosperms are uncertain, although molecular evidence suggests that they are not closely related to any living group of gymnosperms. and Italy, initially at low abundance. Molecular clock estimates conflict with fossil estimates, suggesting the diversification of crown-group angiosperms during the Late Triassic or the Jurassic, but such estimates are difficult to reconcile with the heavily sampled pollen record and the distinctive tricolpate to tricolporoidate (triple grooved) pollen of eudicot angiosperms. Among the oldest records of Angiosperm macrofossils are Montsechia from the Barremian aged Las Hoyas beds of Spain and Archaefructus from the Barremian-Aptian boundary Yixian Formation in China. Tricolpate pollen distinctive of eudicots first appears in the Late Barremian, while the earliest remains of monocots are known from the Aptian. The oldest known fossils of grasses are from the Albian, with the family having diversified into modern groups by the end of the Cretaceous. The oldest large angiosperm trees are known from the Turonian (c. 90 Mya) of New Jersey, with the trunk having a preserved diameter of and an estimated height of .
During the Cretaceous, ferns in the order Polypodiales, which make up 80% of living fern species, would also begin to diversify.
Terrestrial fauna
On land, mammals were generally small sized, but a very relevant component of the fauna, with cimolodont multituberculates outnumbering dinosaurs in some sites. Neither true marsupials nor placentals existed until the very end, but a variety of non-marsupial metatherians and non-placental eutherians had already begun to diversify greatly, ranging as carnivores (Deltatheroida), aquatic foragers (Stagodontidae) and herbivores (Schowalteria, Zhelestidae). Various "archaic" groups like eutriconodonts were common in the Early Cretaceous, but by the Late Cretaceous northern mammalian faunas were dominated by multituberculates and therians, with dryolestoids dominating South America.
The apex predators were archosaurian reptiles, especially dinosaurs, which were at their most diverse stage. Avians such as the ancestors of modern-day birds also diversified. They inhabited every continent, and were even found in cold polar latitudes. Pterosaurs were common in the early and middle Cretaceous, but as the Cretaceous proceeded they declined for poorly understood reasons (once thought to be due to competition with early birds, but now it is understood avian adaptive radiation is not consistent with pterosaur decline). By the end of the period only three highly specialized families remained; Pteranodontidae, Nyctosauridae, and Azhdarchidae.
The Liaoning lagerstätte (Yixian Formation) in China is an important site, full of preserved remains of numerous types of small dinosaurs, birds and mammals, that provides a glimpse of life in the Early Cretaceous. The coelurosaur dinosaurs found there represent types of the group Maniraptora, which includes modern birds and their closest non-avian relatives, such as dromaeosaurs, oviraptorosaurs, therizinosaurs, troodontids along with other avialans. Fossils of these dinosaurs from the Liaoning lagerstätte are notable for the presence of hair-like feathers.
Insects diversified during the Cretaceous, and the oldest known ants, termites and some lepidopterans, akin to butterflies and moths, appeared. Aphids, grasshoppers and gall wasps appeared. and were absent from North Africa and northern South America by the early Late Cretaceous. The cause of the decline of Rhynchocephalia remains unclear, but has often been suggested to be due to competition with advanced lizards and mammals. They appear to have remained diverse in high-latitude southern South America during the Late Cretaceous, where lizards remained rare, with their remains outnumbering terrestrial lizards 200:1. Due to the extreme climatic warmth in the Arctic, choristoderans were able to colonise it too during the Late Cretaceous. Marine reptiles included ichthyosaurs in the early and mid-Cretaceous (becoming extinct during the late Cretaceous Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event), plesiosaurs throughout the entire period, and mosasaurs appearing in the Late Cretaceous. Sea turtles in the form of Cheloniidae and Panchelonioidea lived during the period and survived the extinction event. Panchelonioidea is today represented by a single species; the leatherback sea turtle. The Hesperornithiformes were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like grebes.
Baculites'', an ammonite genus with a straight shell, flourished in the seas along with reef-building rudist clams. Inoceramids were also particularly notable among Cretaceous bivalves, and they have been used to identify major biotic turnovers such as at the Turonian-Coniacian boundary. Predatory gastropods with drilling habits were widespread. Globotruncanid foraminifera and echinoderms such as sea urchins and starfish (sea stars) thrived. Ostracods were abundant in Cretaceous marine settings; ostracod species characterised by high male sexual investment had the highest rates of extinction and turnover. Thylacocephala, a class of crustaceans, went extinct in the Late Cretaceous. The first radiation of the diatoms (generally siliceous shelled, rather than calcareous) in the oceans occurred during the Cretaceous; freshwater diatoms did not appear until the Miocene. Calcareous nannoplankton were important components of the marine microbiota and important as biostratigraphic markers and recorders of environmental change.
The Cretaceous was also an important interval in the evolution of bioerosion, the production of borings and scrapings in rocks, hardgrounds and shells.
<gallery class="center">
File:Kronosaurus hunt1DB.jpg|A scene from the early Cretaceous: a Woolungasaurus is attacked by a Kronosaurus.
File:Tylosaurus pembinensis 1DB.jpg|Tylosaurus was a large mosasaur, carnivorous marine reptiles that emerged in the late Cretaceous.
File:Hesperornis BW (white background).jpg|Strong-swimming and toothed predatory waterbird Hesperornis roamed late Cretacean oceans.
File:DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg|The ammonite Discoscaphites iris, Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, Mississippi
File:The fossils from Cretaceous age found in Lebanon.jpg|A plate with Nematonotus sp., Pseudostacus sp. and a partial Dercetis triqueter, found in Hakel, Lebanon
File:Cretoxyrhina attacking Pteranodon.png|Cretoxyrhina, one of the largest Cretaceous sharks, attacking a Pteranodon in the Western Interior Seaway
</gallery>
See also
* Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction
* Cretaceous Thermal Maximum
* List of fossil sites (with link directory)
* South Polar region of the Cretaceous
References
Citations
Bibliography
*
*
*
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* —detailed coverage of various aspects of the evolutionary history of the insects.
*
*
* External links
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mesozoic/cretaceous/cretaceous.html UCMP Berkeley Cretaceous page]
*[http://www.foraminifera.eu/querydb.php?periodCretaceous&aktionsuche Cretaceous Microfossils: 180+ images of Foraminifera]
*[https://ghkclass.com/ghkC.html?cretaceous Cretaceous (chronostratigraphy scale)]
*
Category:Geological periods | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous | 2025-04-05T18:27:23.535728 |
5617 | Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease | Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD), also known as subacute spongiform encephalopathy or neurocognitive disorder due to prion disease, is a fatal neurodegenerative disease. Early symptoms include memory problems, behavioral changes, poor coordination, and visual and/or auditory disturbances.
CJD is caused by abnormal folding of a protein known as a prion. Infectious prions are misfolded proteins that can cause normally folded proteins to also become misfolded. Exposure to brain or spinal tissue from an infected person may also result in spread. Diagnosis involves ruling out other potential causes. Opioids may be used to help with pain, while clonazepam or sodium valproate may help with involuntary movements. Inherited CJD accounts for about 10% of prion disease cases.
Signs and symptoms
The first symptom of CJD is usually rapidly progressive dementia, leading to memory loss, personality changes, and hallucinations. Myoclonus (jerky movements) typically occurs in 90% of cases, but may be absent at initial onset. Other frequently occurring features include anxiety, depression, paranoia, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and psychosis. This is accompanied by physical problems such as speech impairment, balance and coordination dysfunction (ataxia), changes in gait, and rigid posture. In most people with CJD, these symptoms are accompanied by involuntary movements. The duration of the disease varies greatly, but sporadic (non-inherited) CJD can be fatal within months or even weeks. Most affected people die six months after initial symptoms appear, often of pneumonia due to impaired coughing reflexes. About 15% of people with CJD survive for two or more years.
The symptoms of CJD are caused by the progressive death of the brain's nerve cells, which are associated with the build-up of abnormal prion proteins forming in the brain. When brain tissue from a person with CJD is examined under a microscope, many tiny holes can be seen where the nerve cells have died. Parts of the brain may resemble a sponge where the prions were infecting the areas of the brain.
Cause
CJD is a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE), which are caused by prions. Other forms of TSEs that are found in humans are Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome, fatal familial insomnia, and kuru, as well as the recently discovered variably protease-sensitive prionopathy and familial spongiform encephalopathy Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy.
The CJD prion is dangerous because it promotes refolding of the cellular prion protein into the diseased state. The number of misfolded protein molecules will increase exponentially and the process leads to a large quantity of insoluble protein in affected cells. This mass of misfolded proteins disrupts neuronal cell function and causes cell death. Mutations in the gene for the prion protein can cause a misfolding of the dominantly alpha helical regions into beta pleated sheets. This change in conformation disables the ability of the protein to undergo digestion. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain and induce other prion protein molecules to misfold in a self-sustaining feedback loop. These neurodegenerative diseases are commonly called prion diseases.TransmissionThe defective protein can be transmitted by contaminated harvested human brain products, corneal grafts, dural grafts, or electrode implants and pituitary human growth hormone, which has been replaced by recombinant human growth hormone that poses no such risk.
It can be familial (fCJD) or it may appear without clear risk factors (sporadic form: sCJD). In the familial form, a mutation has occurred in the gene for PrP, PRNP, in that family. All types of CJD are transmissible irrespective of how they occur in the person.
It is thought that humans can contract the variant form of the disease by eating food from animals infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), the bovine form of TSE, also known as mad cow disease. However, it can also cause sCJD in some cases.
Cannibalism has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions, causing the disease known as kuru, once found primarily among women and children of the Fore people in Papua New Guinea, who previously engaged in funerary cannibalism. While the men of the tribe ate the muscle tissue of the deceased, women and children consumed other parts, such as the brain, and were more likely than men to contract kuru from infected tissue.
Prions, the infectious agent of CJD, may not be inactivated by means of routine surgical instrument sterilization procedures. The World Health Organization and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend that instrumentation used in such cases be immediately destroyed after use; short of destruction, it is recommended that heat and chemical decontamination be used in combination to process instruments that come in contact with high-infectivity tissues. Thermal depolymerization also destroys prions in infected organic and inorganic matter, since the process chemically attacks protein at the molecular level, although more effective and practical methods involve destruction by combinations of detergents and enzymes similar to biological washing powders.
Genetics
People can also develop CJD because they carry a mutation of the gene that codes for the prion protein (PRNP), located on chromosome 202p12-pter. This occurs in only 10–15% of all CJD cases. In sporadic cases, the misfolding of the prion protein is a process that is hypothesized to occur as a result of the effects of aging on cellular machinery, explaining why the disease often appears later in life.Diagnosis
, the obvious precipitation of prion protein in the brain is visible.]]
Testing for CJD has historically been problematic, due to nonspecific nature of early symptoms and difficulty in safely obtaining brain tissue for confirmation. The diagnosis may initially be suspected in a person with rapidly progressing dementia, particularly when they are also found with the characteristic medical signs and symptoms such as involuntary muscle jerking, difficulty with coordination/balance and walking, and visual disturbances.
*Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis for elevated levels of 14-3-3 protein and tau protein could be supportive in the diagnosis of sCJD. The two proteins are released into the CSF by damaged nerve cells. Increased levels of tau or 14-3-3 proteins are seen in 90% of prion diseases. The markers have a specificity of 95% in clinical symptoms suggestive of CJD, but specificity is 70% in other less characteristic cases. 14-3-3 and tau proteins may also be elevated in the CSF after ischemic strokes, inflammatory brain diseases, or seizures. The Real-Time Quaking-Induced Conversion (RT-QuIC) assay has a diagnostic sensitivity of more than 80% and a specificity approaching 100%, tested in detecting PrP<SUP>Sc</SUP> in CSF samples of people with CJD. It is therefore suggested as a high-value diagnostic method for the disease.
*MRI with diffusion weighted inversion (DWI) and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) shows a high signal intensity in certain parts of the cortex (a cortical ribboning appearance), the basal ganglia, and the thalami. The MRI changes characteristic of CJD may also be seen in the immediate aftermath (hours after the event) of autoimmune encephalitis or focal seizures. , screening tests to identify infected asymptomatic individuals, such as blood donors, are not yet available, though methods have been proposed and evaluated.
Imaging
Imaging of the brain may be performed during medical evaluation, both to rule out other causes and to obtain supportive evidence for diagnosis. Imaging findings are variable in their appearance, and also variable in sensitivity and specificity. While imaging plays a lesser role in diagnosis of CJD, characteristic findings on brain MRI in some cases may precede onset of clinical manifestations.
Brain MRI is the most useful imaging modality for changes related to CJD. Of the MRI sequences, diffuse-weighted imaging sequences are most sensitive. Characteristic findings are as follows:
*Focal or diffuse diffusion-restriction involving the cerebral cortex and/or basal ganglia. The most characteristic and striking cortical abnormality has been called "cortical ribboning" or "cortical ribbon sign" due to hyperintensities resembling ribbons appearing in the cortex on MRI. The involvement of the thalamus can be found in sCJD, is even stronger and constant in vCJD.
*Varying degree of symmetric T2 hyperintense signal changes in the basal ganglia (i.e., caudate and putamen), and to a lesser extent globus pallidus and occipital cortex.
Histopathology
Testing of tissue remains the most definitive way of confirming the diagnosis of CJD, although it must be recognized that even biopsy is not always conclusive.
In one-third of people with sporadic CJD, deposits of "prion protein (scrapie)", PrP<SUP>Sc</SUP>, can be found in the skeletal muscle and/or the spleen. Diagnosis of vCJD can be supported by biopsy of the tonsils, which harbor significant amounts of PrP<sup>Sc</sup>; however, biopsy of brain tissue is the definitive diagnostic test for all other forms of prion disease. Due to its invasiveness, biopsy will not be done if clinical suspicion is sufficiently high or low. A negative biopsy does not rule out CJD, since it may predominate in a specific part of the brain.
The classic histologic appearance is spongiform change in the gray matter: the presence of many round vacuoles from one to 50 micrometers in the neuropil, in all six cortical layers in the cerebral cortex or with diffuse involvement of the cerebellar molecular layer. These vacuoles appear glassy or eosinophilic and may coalesce. Neuronal loss and gliosis are also seen. Plaques of amyloid-like material can be seen in the neocortex in some cases of CJD.
However, extra-neuronal vacuolization can also be seen in other disease states. Diffuse cortical vacuolization occurs in Alzheimer's disease, and superficial cortical vacuolization occurs in ischemia and frontotemporal dementia. These vacuoles appear clear and punched-out. Larger vacuoles encircling neurons, vessels, and glia are a possible processing artifact.
*Sporadic (sCJD), caused by the spontaneous misfolding of prion-protein in an individual. This accounts for 85% of cases of CJD. Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD) is a type of acquired CJD potentially acquired from bovine spongiform encephalopathy or caused by consuming food contaminated with prions.
|-----
! Characteristic !! Classic CJD !! Variant CJD
|-----
| Median age at death || 68 years || 28 years
|-----
| Median duration of illness || 4–5 months
| 13–14 months
|-----
| Clinical signs and symptoms || Dementia; early neurologic signs
| Prominent psychiatric/behavioral symptoms; painful dysesthesias; delayed neurologic signs
|-----
| Periodic sharp waves on electroencephalogram
| Often present || Often absent
|-----
| Signal hyperintensity in the caudate nucleus and putamen on diffusion-weighted and FLAIR MRI
| Often present || Often absent
|-----
| Pulvinar sign-bilateral high signal intensities on axial FLAIR MRI. Also posterior thalamic involvement on sagittal T2 sequences || Not reported
| Present in >75% of cases
|-----
| Immunohistochemical analysis of brain tissue
| Variable accumulation.
| Marked accumulation of protease-resistant prion protein
|-----
| Presence of agent in lymphoid tissue
| Not readily detected || Readily detected
|-----
| Increased glycoform ratio on immunoblot analysis of protease-resistant prion protein
| Not reported
| Marked accumulation of protease-resistant prion protein
|-----
| Presence of amyloid plaques in brain tissue
| May be present || May be present
|}
Treatment
As of 2025, there is no cure or effective treatment for CJD. Psychiatric symptoms like anxiety and depression can be treated with sedatives and antidepressants. Myoclonic jerks can be handled with clonazepam or sodium valproate. Opiates can help in pain. Seizures are very uncommon but can nevertheless be treated with antiepileptic drugs.
Prognosis
Life expectancy is greatly reduced for people with Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, with the average being less than 6 months. As of 1981, no one was known to have lived longer than 2.5 years after the onset of CJD symptoms. One of the world's longest survivors of vCJD was Jonathan Simms, a Northern Irish man who lived for 10 years after his diagnosis and received experimental treatment with pentosan polysulphate. Simms died in 2011.
Epidemiology
CDC monitors the occurrence of CJD in the United States through periodic reviews of national mortality data. According to the CDC:
*CJD occurs worldwide at a rate of about 1 case per million population per year.
*On the basis of mortality surveillance from 1979 to 1994, the annual incidence of CJD remained stable at approximately 1 case per million people in the United States.
*In the United States, CJD deaths among people younger than 30 years of age are extremely rare (fewer than five deaths per billion per year).
*The disease is found most frequently in people 55–65 years of age, but cases can occur in people older than 90 years and younger than 55 years of age.
*In more than 85% of cases, the duration of CJD is less than one year (median: four months) after the onset of symptoms.
Further information from the CDC:
*Risk of developing CJD increases with age.
*CJD incidence was 3.5 cases per million among those over 50 years of age between 1979 and 2017.
*Approximately 85% of CJD cases are sporadic and 10–15% of CJD cases are due to inherited mutations of the prion protein gene.
*CJD deaths and age-adjusted death rate in the United States indicate an increasing trend in the number of deaths between 1979 and 2017.
Although not fully understood, additional information suggests that CJD rates in nonwhite groups are lower than in whites. While the mean onset is approximately 67 years of age, cases of sCJD have been reported as young as 17 years and over 80 years of age. Mental capabilities rapidly deteriorate and the average amount of time from onset of symptoms to death is 7 to 9 months.
According to a 2020 systematic review on the international epidemiology of CJD:
*Surveillance studies from 2005 and later show the estimated global incidence is 1–2 cases per million population per year.
*Sporadic CJD (sCJD) incidence increased from the years 1990–2018 in the UK.
*Probable or definite sCJD deaths also increased from the years 1996–2018 in twelve additional countries.
*CJD incidence is greatest in those over the age of 55 years old, with an average age of 67 years old.
The intensity of CJD surveillance increases the number of reported cases, often in countries where CJD epidemics have occurred in the past and where surveillance resources are greatest. An early description of familial CJD stems from the German psychiatrist and neurologist Friedrich Meggendorfer (1880–1953). A study published in 1997 counted more than 100 cases worldwide of transmissible CJD and new cases continued to appear at the time.
The first report of suspected iatrogenic CJD was published in 1974. Animal experiments showed that corneas of infected animals could transmit CJD, and the causative agent spreads along visual pathways. A second case of CJD associated with a corneal transplant was reported without details. In 1977, CJD transmission caused by silver electrodes previously used in the brain of a person with CJD was first reported. Transmission occurred despite the decontamination of the electrodes with ethanol and formaldehyde. Retrospective studies identified four other cases likely of similar cause. The rate of transmission from a single contaminated instrument is unknown, although it is not 100%. In some cases, the exposure occurred weeks after the instruments were used on a person with CJD. A review article published in 1979 indicated that 25 dura mater cases had occurred by that date in Australia, Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Yale University neuropathologist Laura Manuelidis has challenged the prion protein (PrP) explanation for the disease. In January 2007, she and her colleagues reported that they had found a virus-like particle in naturally and experimentally infected animals. "The high infectivity of comparable, isolated virus-like particles that show no intrinsic PrP by antibody labeling, combined with their loss of infectivity when nucleic acid–protein complexes are disrupted, make it likely that these 25-nm particles are the causal TSE virions".
Australia
Australia has documented 10 cases of healthcare-acquired CJD (iatrogenic or ICJD). Five of the deaths resulted after the patients, who were in treatment either for infertility or short stature, were treated using contaminated pituitary extract hormone but no new cases have been noted since 1991. The other five deaths occurred due to dura grafting procedures that were performed during brain surgery, in which the covering of the brain is repaired. There have been no other ICJD deaths documented in Australia due to transmission during healthcare procedures.
New Zealand
A case was reported in 1989 in a 25-year-old man from New Zealand, who also received dura mater transplant.United StatesIn 1988 there was a confirmed death from CJD of a person from Manchester, New Hampshire. Massachusetts General Hospital believed the person acquired the disease from a surgical instrument at a podiatrist's office. In 2007 Michael Homer, former Vice President of Netscape, had been experiencing consistent memory problems which led to his diagnosis. In August 2013 the British journalist Graham Usher died in New York of CJD.
In September 2013, another person in Manchester was posthumously determined to have died of the disease. The person had undergone brain surgery at Catholic Medical Center three months before his death, and a surgical probe used in the procedure was subsequently reused in other operations. Public health officials identified thirteen people at three hospitals who may have been exposed to the disease through the contaminated probe but said the risk of anyone contracting CJD is "extremely low".
In January 2015, former speaker of the Utah House of Representatives Rebecca D. Lockhart died of the disease within a few weeks of diagnosis. John Carroll, former editor of The Baltimore Sun and Los Angeles Times, died of CJD in Kentucky in June 2015, after having been diagnosed in January. American actress Barbara Tarbuck (General Hospital, American Horror Story) died of the disease on December 26, 2016. José Baselga, clinical oncologist having headed the AstraZeneca oncology division, died in Cerdanya, March 21, 2021, from CJD. In April 2024, a report was published regarding two hunters from the same lodge who, in 2022, were found to be afflicted with sporadic CJD after eating deer meat infected with chronic wasting disease (CWD), suggesting a potential link between CWD and CJD.
Research
Diagnosis
*In 2010, a team from New York described detection of PrP<sup>Sc</sup> in sheep's blood, even when initially present at only one part in one hundred billion (10<sup>−11</sup>) in sheep's brain tissue. The method combines amplification with a novel technology called surround optical fiber immunoassay (SOFIA) and some specific antibodies against PrP<sup>Sc</sup>. The technique allowed improved detection and testing time for PrP<sup>Sc</sup>.
*In 2014, a human study showed a nasal brushing method that can accurately detect PrP in the olfactory epithelial cells of people with CJD.
Treatment
*Pentosan polysulfate (PPS) may slow the progression of the disease, and may have contributed to the longer than expected survival of the seven people studied. The CJD Therapy Advisory Group to the UK Health Departments advises that data are not sufficient to support claims that pentosan polysulfate is an effective treatment and suggests that further research in animal models is appropriate. A 2007 review of the treatment of 26 people with PPS finds no proof of efficacy because of the lack of accepted objective criteria, but it was unclear to the authors whether that was caused by PPS itself. In 2012 it was claimed that the lack of significant benefits has likely been caused because of the drug being administered very late in the disease in many patients.
*Use of RNA interference to slow the progression of scrapie has been studied in mice. The RNA blocks production of the protein that the CJD process transforms into prions.
*Both amphotericin B and doxorubicin have been investigated as treatments for CJD, but as yet there is no strong evidence that either drug is effective in stopping the disease. Further study has been taken with other medical drugs, but none are effective. However, anticonvulsants and anxiolytic agents, such as valproate or a benzodiazepine, may be administered to relieve associated symptoms. and concluded that quinacrine had no measurable effect on the clinical course of CJD.
*Astemizole, a medication approved for human use, has been found to have anti-prion activity and may lead to a treatment for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.
*A monoclonal antibody (code name PRN100) targeting the prion protein (PrP) was given to six people with Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in an early-stage clinical trial conducted from 2018 to 2022. The treatment appeared to be well-tolerated and was able to access the brain, where it might have helped to clear PrP<sup>C</sup>. While the treated patients still showed progressive neurological decline, and while none of them survived longer than expected from the normal course of the disease, the scientists at University College London who conducted the study see these early-stage results as encouraging and suggest to conduct a larger study, ideally at the earliest possible intervention.See also
*Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy
*Chronic wasting disease
*Kuru
References
External links
, ,
|ICD10 = ,
|ICD9 =
|ICDO |OMIM 123400
|MedlinePlus = 000788
|eMedicineSubj = neuro
|eMedicineTopic = 725
|MeshID = D007562
}}
Category:Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
Category:Neurodegenerative disorders
Category:Dementia
Category:Rare infectious diseases
Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate
Category:Rare diseases
Category:1920 in biology | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creutzfeldt–Jakob_disease | 2025-04-05T18:27:23.577225 |
5622 | C. Northcote Parkinson | | death_place = Canterbury, Kent, England
| resting_place= Canterbury
| occupation = Naval historian
| education = University of Cambridge<br>King's College London
| alma_mater | period
| genre | subject Naval history
| movement | notableworks ''Parkinson's Law (1957)
| spouse | partner
| children | relatives
| influences | influenced
| awards = Julian Corbett Prize in Naval History
| signature | website
| portaldisp =
}}
Cyril Northcote Parkinson (30 July 1909 – 9 March 1993) was a British naval historian and author of some 60 books, the most famous of which was his best-seller Parkinson's Law'' (1957), in which Parkinson advanced the eponymous law stating that "work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion", an insight which led him to be regarded as an important scholar in public administration and management.
Early life and education
The youngest son of William Edward Parkinson (1871–1927), an art master at North East County School and from 1913 principal of York School of Arts and Crafts, and his wife, Rose Emily Mary Curnow (born 1877), Parkinson attended St. Peter's School, York, where in 1929 he won an exhibition to study history at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. He received a BA degree in 1932. As an undergraduate, Parkinson developed an interest in naval history, which he pursued when the Pellew family gave him access to family papers at the recently established National Maritime Museum. The papers formed the basis of his first book, Edward Pellew, Viscount Exmouth, Admiral of the Red. In 1934, then a graduate student at King's College London, he wrote his PhD thesis on Trade and War in the Eastern Seas, 1803–1810, which was awarded the Julian Corbett Prize in Naval History for 1935.
Academic and military career
While a graduate student in 1934, Parkinson was commissioned into the Territorial Army in the 22nd London Regiment (The Queen's), was promoted to lieutenant the same year, and commanded an infantry company at the jubilee of King George V in 1935. In the same year, Emmanuel College, Cambridge elected him a research fellow. While at Cambridge, he commanded an infantry unit of the Cambridge University Officers' Training Corps. He was promoted to captain in 1937.
He became senior history master at Blundell's School in Tiverton, Devon in 1938 (and a captain in the school's OTC), then instructor at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth in 1939. In 1940, he joined the Queen's Royal Regiment as a captain and undertook a range of staff and military teaching positions in Britain. In 1943 he married Ethelwyn Edith Graves (born 1915), a nurse tutor at Middlesex Hospital, with whom he had two children.
Demobilized as a major in 1945, he was a lecturer in history at the University of Liverpool from 1946 to 1949. In 1950, he was appointed Raffles Professor of History at the new University of Malaya in Singapore. While there, he initiated an important series of historical monographs on the history of Malaya, publishing the first in 1960. A movement developed in the mid-1950s to establish two campuses, one in Kuala Lumpur and one in Singapore. Parkinson attempted to persuade the authorities to avoid dividing the university by maintaining it in Johor Bahru to serve both Singapore and Malaya. His efforts were unsuccessful and the two campuses were established in 1959. The Singapore campus later became the University of Singapore.
Parkinson divorced in 1952 and he married the writer and journalist Ann Fry (1921–1983), with whom he had two sons and a daughter. In 1958, while still in Singapore, he published his most famous work, ''Parkinson's Law, which expanded upon a humorous article that he had published in the Economist'' magazine in November 1955, satirising government bureaucracies. The 120-page book of short studies, published in the United States and then in Britain, was illustrated by Osbert Lancaster and became an instant best seller. It explained the inevitability of bureaucratic expansion, arguing that 'work expands to fill the time available for its completion'. Typical of his satire and cynical humour, it included a discourse on Parkinson's Law of Triviality (debates about expenses for a nuclear plant, a bicycle shed, and refreshments), a note on why driving on the left side of the road (see road transport) is natural, and suggested that the Royal Navy would eventually have more admirals than ships. After serving as visiting professor at Harvard University in 1958, the University of Illinois and the University of California, Berkeley in 1959–60, he resigned his post in Singapore to become an independent writer.
To avoid high taxation in Britain, he moved to the Channel Islands and settled at St Martin's, Guernsey, where he purchased Les Caches Hall. In Guernsey, he was an active member of the community and was committed to the feudal heritage of the island. He financed a historical re-enactment of the Chevauche de Saint Michel (Cavalcade) by the Court of Seigneurs and wrote a newspaper article about it. He was an official member of the Royal Court of Chief Pleas in his quality of Seigneur d'Anneville as he had acquired the manorial rights of the Fief d'Anneville. Attendance at the Royal Court of Chief Pleas is considered very important in Guernsey, as it is the island's oldest court and its first historical self-governing body. In 1968 he purchased and restored Anneville Manor, the historic manor house of the Seigneurie (or fief) d'Anneville, and in 1971 he restored the Chapel of Thomas d'Anneville pertaining to the same fief. His writings from this period included a series of historical novels featuring a fictional naval officer from Guernsey, Richard Delancey, during the Napoleonic era. In the novel, Richard Delancey was Seigneur of the Fief d'Anneville.
In 1969 he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. He chose the subject "The Status of the Engineer". Parkinson and his 'law' Parkinson's law, which provides insight into a primary barrier to efficient time management, states that, "work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion".
Parkinson first published his law in a humorous satirical article in The Economist on 19 November 1955, were published in 1957.
In Singapore, where he was teaching at the time, this began a series of talks where he addressed diverse audiences in person, in print, and over the airwaves on 'Parkinson's Law'. For example, on 16 October 1957, at 10 a.m., he spoke on this at the International Women's Club programme talk held at the Y.W.C.A. at Raffles Quay. The advent of his new book as well as an interview during his debut talk was covered in an editorial in The Straits Times shortly after, entitled, "A professor's cocktail party secret: They arrive half an hour late and rotate." Time, which also wrote about the book, noted that its theme was "a delightfully unprofessional diagnosis of the widespread 20th century malady – galloping orgmanship." Orgmanship, according to Parkinson, was "the tendency of all administrative departments to increase the number of subordinate staff, irrespective of the amount of work (if any) to be done", as noted by The Straits Times. Parkinson, it was reported, wanted to trace the illegibility of signatures, the attempt being made to fix the point in a successful executive career at which the handwriting becomes meaningless, even to the executive himself.
Straits Times editor-in-chief Allington Kennard's editorial, "Twice the staff for half the work", in mid-April 1958, touched on further aspects or sub-laws, like Parkinson's Law of Triviality, and also other interesting, if dangerous areas, like "the problem of the retirement age, how not to pay Singapore income tax when a millionaire, the point of vanishing interest in high finance, how to get rid of the company chairman," etc. The author supported Parkinson's Law of Triviality – which states that, "The time spent on any item of an agenda is in inverse proportion to the sum involved," with a local example where it took the Singapore City Council "six hours to pick a new man for the gasworks and two and a half minutes to approve a $100 million budget."
His celebrity did not remain local. Parkinson travelled to England, arriving there aboard the P&O Canton, in early June 1958, as reported by Reuters, and made the front page of The Straits Times on 9 June. Reporting from London on Saturday 14 June 1958, Hall Romney wrote, "Prof. C. N. Parkinson of the University of Malaya, whose book, ''Parkinson's Law has sold more than 80,000 copies, has had a good deal of publicity since he arrived in England in the Canton''." Romney noted that "a television interview was arranged, a profile of him appeared in a highbrow Sunday newspaper, columnists gave him almost as much space as they gave to Leslie Charteris, and he was honoured by the Institute of Directors, whose reception was attended by many of the most notable men in the commercial life of London." And then, all of a sudden, satire was answered with some honesty when, as another Reuters release republished in The Straits Times under the title "Parkinson's Law at work in the UK," quoted, "A PARLIAMENTARY committee, whose Job is to see that British Government departments do not waste the taxpayer's money, said yesterday it was alarmed at the rate of staff increases in certain sections of the War Office. Admiralty and Air Ministry..." In March 1959, further publicity occurred when the Royal Navy in Singapore took umbrage at a remark Parkinson had made during his talk, about his new book on the wastage of public money, in Manchester, shortly before. Parkinson is reported to have said, "Britain spent about $500 million building a naval base there [Singapore] and the only fleet which has used it is the Japanese." A navy spokesman, then, attempting to counter that statement said that the Royal Navy's Singapore base had only been completed in 1939, and, while it was confirmed that the Japanese had, indeed used it during the Second World War, it had been used extensively by the Royal Navy's Far East fleet, after the war. Emeritus Professor of Japanese Studies at the University of Oxford, Richard Storry, writing in the Oxford Mail on 16 May 1962, noted, "The fall of Singapore is still viewed with anger and shame in Britain."
On Thursday 10 September 1959, at 10 p.m., Radio Singapore listeners got to experience his book, ''Parkinson's Law'', set to music by Nesta Pain. The serialised program continued until the end of February 1960. Parkinson, and Parkinson's law, continued to find its way into Singapore newspapers through the decades.
University of Malaya
Singapore was introduced to him almost immediately upon his arrival there, through exposure in the newspaper and a number of public appearances. Parkinson started teaching at the University of Malaya in Singapore at the beginning of April 1950.
Public lectures
The first lecture of the Raffles Professor of History was a public lecture given at the Oei Tiong Ham Hall, on 19 May. Parkinson, who was speaking on "The Task of the Historian," began by noting the new Raffles history chair was aptly named because it was Sir Stamford Raffles who had tried to found the university in 1823 and because Raffles himself was a historian. There was a large audience, including Professor Alexander Oppenheim, the university's Dean of the Faculty of Arts.
The text of his lecture was then reproduced and published over two issues of The Straits Times a few days later.
On 17 April 1953, he addressed the public on "The Historical Aspect of the Coronation," at the Singapore YMCA Hall.
Sponsored by the Malayan Historical Society, Parkinson gave a talk on the "Modern history of Taiping" at the residence of the District Officer, Larut and Matang on 12 August 1953.
Sponsored by the Singapore branch of the Malayan Historical Society, on 5 February 1954 Parkinson gave a public lecture on "Singapore in the sixties" [1860s] at St. Andrew's Cathedral War Memorial Hall.
Sponsored by the Seremban branch of the Historical Society of Malaya, Parkinson spoke on Tin Mining at the King George V School, Seremban. He said, in the past, Chinese labourers were imported from China at $32 a head to work the tin fields of Malaya. He said that mining developed steadily after British protection had been established and that tin from Negri Sembilan in the 1870s came from Sungei Ujong and Rembau, and worked with capital from Malacca. He noted that Chinese working side-by-side with Europeans did better with their primitive methods and made great profits when they took over mines that Europeans abandoned.
Arranged by the Indian University Graduates Association of Singapore, Parkinson gave a talk on "Indian Political Thought," at the USIS theatrette on 16 February 1955.
On 10 March 1955, he spoke on "What I think about Colonialism," at the British Council Hall, Stamford Road, Singapore, at 6.30 p.m. In his lecture, he argued that nationalism which was generally believed to be good, and colonialism which was seen as the reverse, were not necessarily opposite ideas but the same thing seen from different angles. He thought the gifts from Britain that Malaya and Singapore should value most and retain when they became self-governing included debate, literature (not comics), armed forces' tradition (not police state), arts, tolerance and humour (not puritanism) and public spirit.
Public exhibitions
On 18 August 1950, Parkinson opened a week-long exhibition on the "History of English Handwriting," at the British Council centre, Stamford Road, Singapore.
On 21 March 1952, he opened an exhibition of photographs from the Times of London which had been shown widely in different parts of the world. The exhibition comprised a selection of photographs spanning 1921 to 1951. 140 photographs were on display for a month at the British Council Hall, Singapore, showing scenes ranging from the German surrender to the opening of the Festival of Britain by the late king.
He opened an exhibition of photographs taken by students of the University of Malaya during their tour of India, at the University Arts Theatre in Cluny Road, Singapore, 10 October 1953.
Victor Purcell
Towards the end of August, Professor of Far Eastern History at Cambridge University, Dr. Victor Purcell, who was also a former Acting Secretary of Chinese Affairs in Singapore, addressed the Kuala Lumpur Rotary Club. The Straits Times, quoting Purcell, noted, "Professor C. N. Parkinson had been appointed to the Chair of History at the University of Malaya and 'we can confidently anticipate that under his direction academic research into Malaya's history will assume a creative aspect which it has not possessed before.'"
Johore Transfer Committee
In October, Parkinson was appointed by the Senate of the University of Malaya to head a special committee of experts to consult on technical details regarding the transfer of the university to Johore. Along with him were professor R. E. Holttum (botany), and acting professors C. G. Webb (physics) and D. W. Fryer (geography).
Library and Museum
In November, Parkinson was appointed a member of the committee for the management of Raffles Library and Museum, replacing Professor G. G. Hough who had resigned.
In March 1952, Parkinson proposed a central public library for Singapore as a memorial to King George VI, commemorating that monarch's reign. He is reported to have said, "Perhaps the day has gone by for public monuments except in a useful form. And if that be so, might not, some enterprise of local importance be graced with the late King's name? One plan he could certainly have warmly approved would be that of building a Central Public Library," he opined. Parkinson noted that the Raffles Library was growing in usefulness and would, in short time, outgrow the building that then housed it. He said, given the educational work that was producing a large literate population demanding books in English, Malay and Chinese, what was surely needed was a genuinely public library, air-conditioned to preserve the books, and of a design to make those books readily accessible. He suggested that the building, equipment and maintenance of the public library ought to be the responsibility of the municipality rather than the government.
T. P. F. McNeice, then-president of the Singapore City Council, as well as leading educationists of the time, thought the suggestion "an excellent, first-class suggestion to meet a definite and urgent need." McNeice also agreed that the project ought to be the responsibility of the city council. Also in favour of the idea was Director of Education A. W. Frisby, who thought that there ought to be branches of the library which could be fed by the central library, Raffles Institution Principal P. F. Howitt, Canon R. K. S. Adams (Principal of St. Andrews School) and Homer Cheng, the president of the Chinese Y.M.C.A. Principal of the Anglo-Chinese School, H. H. Peterson, suggested the authorities also consider a mobile school library.
While Parkinson had originally suggested that this be a municipal and not a government undertaking, something changed. A public meeting, convened by the Friends of Singapore – Parkinson was its President – at the British Council Hall on 15 May, decided that Singapore's memorial to King George VI would take the form of a public library, possibly with mobile units and sub-libraries in the out-of-town districts. Parkinson, in addressing the assembly, noted that Raffles Library was not a free library, did not have vernacular sections, and its building could not be air-conditioned. McNeice, the municipal president, then proposed a resolution be sent to government that the meeting considered the most appropriate memorial to the late king ought to take the form of a library (or libraries) and urged the government to set up a committee with enough non-government representation to consider the matter.
The government got involved, and a government spokesperson spoke to The Straits Times about this on 16 May, saying that the Singapore government welcomed proposals from the public on the form in which a memorial to King George ought to take, whether a public library, as suggested by Parkinson, or some other form.
In the middle of 1952, the Singapore government began setting up a committee to consider the suggestions made on the form Singapore's memorial to King George VI ought to take. G. G. Thomson, the government's public relations secretary, informed The Straits Times that the committee would have official and non-government representation and added that, apart from Parkinson's suggestion of a free public library, a polytechnic had also been suggested.
W. L. Blythe, the colonial secretary, making it clear where his vote lay, pointed out that Singapore at that time already had a library, the Raffles Library. News coverage notes that yet another committee had been formed, this time to consider what would be necessary to establish an institution along the lines of the London Polytechnic. Blythe stated that the arguments he had heard in favour of a polytechnic were very strong.
Director of Raffles Library and Museum, W. M. F. Tweedie, was in favour of the King George VI free public library but up to the end of November, nothing had been heard of any developments towards that end. Tweedie suggested the ground beside the British Council as being suitable for such a library, and, if the public library was built, he would suggest for all the books at the Raffles Library to be moved to the new site, so that the space thus vacated could be used for a public art gallery.
Right after, the government, who were not supposed to have been involved in the first place – the suggestion made by Parkinson and accepted by City Council President T. P. F. McNeice that this be a municipal and not government undertaking – approved the proposal to set up a polytechnic as a memorial to King George IV.
And Singapore continued with its subscription library and was without a free public library as envisioned by Parkinson. However, his call did not go unheeded. The following year, in August 1953, the Lee Foundation pledged a dollar-for-dollar match up to $375,000 towards the establishment of a national library, provided that it was a free, without-cost, public library, open to men and women of every race, class, creed, and colour.
It was not, however, until November 1960 that Parkinson's vision was realised, when the new library, free and for all, was completed and opened to the public.
Film Censorship Consultative Committee
That same month he was also appointed, by the Singapore Government, chairman of a committee set up to study film censorship in the colony and suggest changes, if necessary.
Their terms of reference were to enquire into the existing procedure and legislation relating to cinematograph film censorship and to make recommendations with a view to improving the system, including legislation. They were also asked to consider whether the Official Film Censor should continue to be the controller of the British film quota, and to consider the memorandum of the film trade submitted to the governor earlier that year.
Investigating, archiving and writing Malaya's past
At the beginning of December 1950, Parkinson made an appeal at the Singapore Rotary Club for old log books, diaries, newspaper files, ledgers or maps accumulated over the years. He asked that these be passed to the Raffles Library or the University of Malaya library, instead of being thrown away, as they might aid research and help those studying the history of the country to set down an account of what had happened in Malaya since 1867. "The time will come when school-children will be taught the history of their own land rather than of Henry VIII or the capture of Quebec. Parkinson told his audience that there was a large volume of documentary evidence about Malaya written in Portuguese and Dutch. He said that the arrival of the Pluto in Singapore, one of the first vessels to pass through the Suez Canal when it opened in 1869, might be described as the moment when British Malaya was born. "I would urge you not to scrap old correspondence just because it clutters up the office. Send it to a library where it may some day be of great value," he said.
In September 1951 the magazine British Malaya published Parkinson's letter that called for the formation of one central archives office where all the historical records of Malaya and Singapore could be properly preserved, pointing out that it would be of inestimable value to administrators, historians, economists, social science investigators and students. In his letter, Parkinson, who was still abroad in London attending the Anglo-American Conference of Historians, said that the formation of an archives office was already in discussion, and was urgent, in view of the climate where documents were liable to damage by insects and mildew. He said that many private documents relating to Malaya were kept in the U.K. where they were not appreciated because names like Maxwell, Braddell and Swettenham might mean nothing there. "The establishment of a Malayan Archives Office would do much to encourage the transfer of these documents," he wrote.
On 22 May 1953, Parkinson convened a meeting at the British Council, Stamford Road, Singapore, to form the Singapore branch of the Malayan Historical Society.
Speaking at the inaugural meeting of the society's Singapore branch, Parkinson, addressing the more than 100 people attending, said the aims of the branch would be to assist in the recording of history, folklore, tradition and customs of Malaya and its people and to encourage the preservation of objects of historical and cultural interest. Of Malayan history, he said, it "has mostly still to be written. Nor can it even be taught in the schools until that writing has been done."
Parkinson had been urging the Singapore and Federation Governments to set up a national archives since 1950. In June 1953 he urged the speedy establishment of a national archives, where, "in air-conditioned rooms, on steel shelves, with proper skilled supervision and proper precaution against fire and theft, the records of Malayan history might be preserved indefinitely and at small expense. He noted that cockroaches had nibbled away at many vital documents and records, shrouding many years of Malaya's past in mystery, aided by moths and silverfish and abetted by negligent officials.
A start had, by then, already been made – an air-conditioned room at the Federal Museum had already been set aside for storing important historical documents and preserving them from cockroaches and decay, the work of Peter Williams-Hunt, the Federation Director of Museums and Adviser on Aborigine Affairs who had died that month. He noted, however, that the problems of supervising archives and collecting old documents had still to be solved.
In January 1955 Parkinson formed University of Malaya's Archaeological Society and became its first president. Upon commencement, The society had a membership of 53 which was reported to be the largest of its kind in Southeast Asia at the time. "Drive to discover the secrets of S.E. Asia. Hundreds of amateurs will delve into mysteries of the past."
In April 1956 it was reported that "For the first time, a long-needed Standard History of Malaya is to be published for students." According to the news report a large-scale project, developing a ten-volume series, the result of ten years of research by University of Malaya staff, was currently in progress, detailing events dating back to the Portuguese occupation of 1511, to the, then, present day. The first volume, written by Parkinson, covered the years 1867 to 1877 and was to be published within three months thence. It was estimated that the last volume would be released after 1960. The report noted that, as at that time, Parkinson and his wife had already released two books on history for junior students, entitled The Heroes and Malayan Fables.
Three months passed by and the book remained unpublished. It was not until 1960 that British intervention in Malaya (1867–1877), that the first volume finally found its way onto bookshelves and into libraries. By that time, the press reported the series had expanded into a twelve-volume set.
Malayan history syllabus
In January 1951 Parkinson was interviewed by New Zealand film producer and director Wynona "Noni" Hope Wright. He told of his reorganisation of the Department of History during the last term to facilitate a new syllabus. The interview took place in Parkinson's sitting room beneath a frieze depicting Malaya's history, painted by Parkinson. Departing from the usual syllabus, Parkinson had decided to leave out European History almost entirely in order to give greater focus to Southeast Asia, particularly Malaya. The course, designed experimentally, takes in the study of world history up to 1497 in the first year, the impact of different European nations on Southeast Asia in the second year, and the study of Southeast Asia, particularly Malaya, after the establishment of British influence at the Straits Settlements in the third year. The students who make it through and decide to specialise in history will then have been brought to a point where they can profitably undertake original research in the history of modern Malaya, i.e. the 19th and 20th centuries, an area where, according to Parkinson, little had been done, with hardly any serious research attempted for the period after 'the transfer' in 1867. Parkinson hoped that lecturing on this syllabus would ultimately produce a full-scale history of Malaya. This would include discovering documentation from Portuguese and Dutch sources from the time when those two countries still had a foothold in Malaya. He said that, while the period of development of the Straits Settlements under the East India Company were well-documented – the bulk of these archived at the Raffles Museum, local records after 1867 were not as plentiful and that it would be necessary to reconstruct those records from microfilm copies of documents kept in the United Kingdom. The task for the staff at the History Department was made formidable because their unfamiliarity with the Dutch and Portuguese languages. "I have no doubt that the history of Malaya must finally be written by Malayans, but we can at least do very much to prepare the way." Parkinson told Wright. "Scholars trained at this University in the spirit and technique of historical research, a study divorced from all racial and religious animosities, a study concerned only with finding the truth and explaining it in a lucid and attractive literary form, should be able to make a unique contribution to the mutual understanding of East and West," he said. "History apart, nothing seems to be of more vital importance in our time than the promotion of this understanding. In no field at the present time does the perpetuation of distrust and mutual incomprehension seem more dangerous. If we can, from this university, send forth graduates who can combine learning and ways of thought of the Far East and of the West, they may play a great part in overcoming the barriers of prejudice, insularity and ignorance," he concluded.
Radio Malaya programs
In March 1951 Parkinson wrote a historical feature, "The China Fleet," for Radio Malaya, offering a what was said to be a true account in dramatic form of an incident in the annals of the East India Company that had such an influence on Malaya and other parts of Southeast Asia in the early nineteenth century.
On 28 January 1952, at 9.40 p.m. he talked about the founding of Singapore.
Special Constabulary
In the middle of April 1951, Parkinson was sworn in as special constable by ASP Watson of the Singapore Special Constabulary at the Oei Tion Ham Hall, together with other members of the staff, and students who were then placed under Parkinson's supervision. The special constabulary, The University Corp, being informed of their duties and powers of arrest were then issued batons and charged with the defence of the university in the event of trouble. Lecturer in Economics, P. Sherwood, was appointed Parkinson's assistant. These measures were taken to ensure that rioters were dispersed and ejected if they trespassed onto university grounds. Parkinson signed a notice that noted that some of the rioters who took part in the December disorders came from an area near the university buildings in Bukit Timah.
These precautions were taken in advance of the Maria Hertogh appeal on Monday 16 April. The case was postponed a number of times, after which it was finally heard at the end of July.
Anglo-American Conference of Historians
Parkinson departed Singapore on Monday 18 June 1951 for London, where he represented the University of Malaya at the Fifth Anglo-American Conference of Historians there from 9 to 14 July. He was to return in October at the start of the new academic year.
Resignation
In October 1958, while still on sabbatical in America – together with his wife and two young children, he had set off for America in May 1958 for study and travel and was due to return to work in April 1959 – Parkinson, through a letter sent from New York, resigned his position at the University of Malaya. K. G. Tregonning was at that time acting head of the history department.
Parkinson had not been the only one to resign while on leave. Professor E. H. G. Dobby of the geography department had also submitted his resignation while away on sabbatical leave. After deliberations, the university council had decided, before the university's new constitution came into force on 15 January, that no legal action would be taken against Dobby – the majority of the council feeling that there was no case against Dobby as his resignation occurred before new regulations governing sabbatical leave benefits were introduced. In Parkinson's case, however, the council determined that that resignation had been submitted after the regulations came into effect, and a decision had been made to write to him, asking that he report back to work before a certain date, failing which the council said it was free to take any action they thought appropriate.
In July 1959, K. G. Tregonning, acting head of the history department, and history lecturer at the University of Malaya since 1952, was appointed to fill the Raffles History Chair left vacant by Parkinson's resignation. There was nothing in the press about whether the matter between Parkinson and the university had been resolved, or not. Later life and death After the death of his second wife in 1984, in 1985 Parkinson married Iris Hilda Waters (died 1994) and moved to the Isle of Man. After two years there, they moved to Canterbury, Kent, where he died in March 1993, at the age of 83. He was buried in Canterbury, and the law named after him is quoted as his epitaph.
Published works
; Richard Delancey series of naval novels
* The Devil to Pay (1973)(2)
* The Fireship (1975)(3)
* Touch and Go (1977)(4)
* Dead Reckoning (1978)(6)
* So Near, So Far (1981)(5)
* The Guernseyman (1982)(1)
; Other nautical fiction
* Manhunt (1990)
; Other fiction
* Ponies Plot (1965)
; Biographies of fictional characters
* The Life and Times of Horatio Hornblower (1970)
* ''Jeeves: A Gentleman's Personal Gentleman (1979<!--1981 IS US REPRINT-->)
; Naval history
* Edward Pellew, Viscount Exmouth (1934)
* The Trade Winds, Trade in the French Wars 1793–1815 (1948)
* Samuel Walters, Lieut. RN (1949)
* War in the Eastern Seas, 1793–1815 (1954)
* Trade in the Eastern Seas (1955)
* British Intervention in Malaya, 1867–1877 (1960)
* Britannia Rules (1977)
* Portsmouth Point, The Navy in Fiction, 1793–1815 (1948)
; Other non-fiction
* The Rise of the Port of Liverpool (1952)
* Parkinson's Law (1957)
* The Evolution of Political Thought (1958)
* The Law and the Profits (1960)
* In-Laws and Outlaws (1962)
* East and West (1963)
* Parkinsanities (1965)
* Left Luggage (1967)
* Mrs. Parkinson's Law: and Other Studies in Domestic Science (1968)
* The Law of Delay (1970)
* The Fur-lined Mousetrap (1972)
* The Defenders, script for a son et lumière in Guernsey (1975)
* Gunpowder, Treason and Plot (1978)
* The Law, or Still in Pursuit (1979)
; Audio recordings
* Discusses Political Science with Julian H. Franklin (10 LPs) (1959)
* Explains "Parkinson's Law" (1960)
References
; Sources consulted
* [http://www.fantasticfiction.co.uk/p/c-northcote-parkinson/ C. Northcote Parkinson on the Fantastic Fiction website]
* Turnbull, C. M. (2004) "Parkinson, Cyril Northcote (1909–1993)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''
; Endnotes
; Bibliography
* Bibliography of C. Northcote Parkinson
External links
*
*
*
* Parkinson's law and other texts analysed on [http://www.bibnum.education.fr/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/la-loi-de-parkinson BibNum] (click "A télécharger", and find the English version)
* [http://www.panarchy.org/parkinson/parkinsonlaw.html C. Northcote Parkinson, Parkinson's Law – extract] (1958)
*
*
Category:20th-century English non-fiction writers
Category:English satirists
Category:English historical novelists
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Category:1993 deaths
Category:Military personnel from County Durham
Category:People from Barnard Castle
Category:Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge
Category:Academic staff of the National University of Singapore
Category:Alumni of King's College London
Category:London Regiment officers
Category:Officers' Training Corps officers
Category:Queen's Royal Regiment officers
Category:Fellows of Emmanuel College, Cambridge
Category:Academics of the University of Liverpool
Category:Nautical historical novelists
Category:People educated at St Peter's School, York
Category:20th-century English novelists
Category:20th-century English historians
Category:English male novelists
Category:British Army personnel of World War II
Category:20th-century English male writers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Northcote_Parkinson | 2025-04-05T18:27:23.607066 |
5623 | Canal | , Germany]]
in Ireland]]
fuelled the Industrial Revolution in much of Europe and the United States.]]
, in the town of Cassinetta di Lugagnano, in Italy]]
, Netherlands]]
]]
Canals or artificial waterways are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage management (e.g. flood control and irrigation) or for conveyancing water transport vehicles (e.g. water taxi). They carry free, calm surface flow under atmospheric pressure, and can be thought of as artificial rivers.
In most cases, a canal has a series of dams and locks that create reservoirs of low speed current flow. These reservoirs are referred to as slack water levels, often just called levels. A canal can be called a navigation canal when it parallels a natural river and shares part of the latter's discharges and drainage basin, and leverages its resources by building dams and locks to increase and lengthen its stretches of slack water levels while staying in its valley.
A canal can cut across a drainage divide atop a ridge, generally requiring an external water source above the highest elevation. The best-known example of such a canal is the Panama Canal.
Many canals have been built at elevations, above valleys and other waterways. Canals with sources of water at a higher level can deliver water to a destination such as a city where water is needed. The Roman Empire's aqueducts were such water supply canals.
The term was once used to describe linear features seen on the surface of Mars, Martian canals, an optical illusion.
Types of artificial waterways
, a transportation canal between Finland and Russia, in Lappeenranta]]
A navigation is a series of channels that run roughly parallel to the valley and stream bed of an unimproved river. A navigation always shares the drainage basin of the river. A vessel uses the calm parts of the river itself as well as improvements, traversing the same changes in height.
A true canal is a channel that cuts across a drainage divide, making a navigable channel connecting two different drainage basins.
: the garden "Canal"]]
Structures used in artificial waterways
Both navigations and canals use engineered structures to improve navigation:
* weirs and dams to raise river water levels to usable depths;
* looping descents to create a longer and gentler channel around a stretch of rapids or falls;
* locks to allow ships and barges to ascend/descend.
Since they cut across drainage divides, canals are more difficult to construct and often need additional improvements, like viaducts and aqueducts to bridge waters over streams and roads, and ways to keep water in the channel.
Types of canals
There are two broad types of canal:
* Waterways: canals and navigations used for carrying vessels transporting goods and people. These can be subdivided into two kinds:
:* Those connecting existing lakes, rivers, other canals or seas and oceans.
:* Those connected in a city network: such as the Canal Grande and others of Venice; the grachten of Amsterdam or Utrecht, and the waterways of Bangkok.
* Aqueducts: water supply canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of potable water, municipal uses, hydro power canals and agriculture irrigation.
on the Lehigh Canal to feed the early United States industries in the pioneer-era]]
thumb|
1. Design High Water Level (HWL)
2. Low water channel
3. Flood channel
4. Riverside slope
5. Riverside banquette
6. Levee crown
7. Landside slope
8. Landside banquette
9. Berm
10. Low water revetment
11. Riverside land
12. Levee
13. Protected lowland
14. River zone
in Romania]]
near Rijswijk, Netherlands]]
Importance
<!-- This section needs information on irrigation canals. -->Historically, canals were of immense importance to the commerce, development, growth and vitality of a civilization. The movement of bulk raw materials such as coal and ores—practically a prerequisite for further urbanization and industrialization—were difficult and only marginally affordable to move without water transport. The movement of bulk raw materials, facilitated by canals, fueled the Industrial Revolution, leading to new research disciplines, new industries and economies of scale, raising the standard of living for industrialized societies.
The few canals still in operation in the 21st century are a fraction of the number that were once maintained during the earlier part of the Industrial Revolution. Their replacement was gradual, beginning first in the United Kingdom in the 1840s, where canal shipping was first augmented by, and later superseded by the much faster, less geographically constrained, and generally cheaper to maintain railways.
By the early 1880s, many canals which had little ability to compete with rail transport were abandoned. In the 20th century, oil was increasingly used as the heating fuel of choice, and the growth of coal shipments began to decrease. After the First World War, technological advances in motor trucks as well as expanding road networks saw increasing amounts of freight being transported by road, and the last small U.S. barge canals saw a steady decline in cargo ton-miles.
The once critical smaller inland waterways conceived and engineered as boat and barge canals have largely been supplanted and filled in, abandoned and left to deteriorate, or kept in service under a park service and staffed by government employees, where dams and locks are maintained for flood control or pleasure boating. Today, most ship canals (intended for larger, oceangoing vessels) service primarily service bulk cargo and large ship transportation industries.
The longest extant canal today, the Grand Canal in northern China, still remains in heavy use, especially the portion south of the Yellow River. It stretches from Beijing to Hangzhou at 1,794 kilometres (1,115 miles).
Construction
Canals are built in one of three ways, or a combination of the three, depending on available water and available path:
;Human made streams
* A canal can be created where no stream presently exists. Either the body of the canal is dug or the sides of the canal are created by making dykes or levees by piling dirt, stone, concrete or other building materials. The finished shape of the canal as seen in cross section is known as the canal prism. The water for the canal must be provided from an external source, like streams or reservoirs. Where the new waterway must change elevation engineering works like locks, lifts or elevators are constructed to raise and lower vessels. Examples include canals that connect valleys over a higher body of land, like Canal du Midi, Canal de Briare and the Panama Canal.
* A canal can be constructed by dredging a channel in the bottom of an existing lake. When the channel is complete, the lake is drained and the channel becomes a new canal, serving both drainage of the surrounding polder and providing transport there. Examples include the . One can also build two parallel dikes in an existing lake, forming the new canal in between, and then drain the remaining parts of the lake. The eastern and central parts of the North Sea Canal were constructed in this way. In both cases pumping stations are required to keep the land surrounding the canal dry, either pumping water from the canal into surrounding waters, or pumping it from the land into the canal.
;Canalization and navigations
* A stream can be canalized to make its navigable path more predictable and easier to maneuver. Canalization modifies the stream to carry traffic more safely by controlling the flow of the stream by dredging, damming and modifying its path. This frequently includes the incorporation of locks and spillways, that make the river a navigation. Examples include the Lehigh Canal in Northeastern Pennsylvania's coal Region, Basse Saône, Canal de Mines de Fer de la Moselle, and canal Aisne. Riparian zone restoration may be required.
;Lateral canals
* When a stream is too difficult to modify with canalization, a second stream can be created next to or at least near the existing stream. This is called a lateral canal, and may meander in a large horseshoe bend or series of curves some distance from the source waters stream bed lengthening the effective length in order to lower the ratio of rise over run (slope or pitch). The existing stream usually acts as the water source and the landscape around its banks provide a path for the new body. Examples include the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Canal latéral à la Loire, Garonne Lateral Canal, Welland Canal and Juliana Canal.
Smaller transportation canals can carry barges or narrowboats, while ship canals allow seagoing ships to travel to an inland port (e.g., Manchester Ship Canal), or from one sea or ocean to another (e.g., Caledonian Canal, Panama Canal).
Features
At their simplest, canals consist of a trench filled with water. Depending on the stratum the canal passes through, it may be necessary to line the cut with some form of watertight material such as clay or concrete. When this is done with clay, it is known as puddling.
Canals need to be level, and while small irregularities in the lie of the land can be dealt with through cuttings and embankments, for larger deviations other approaches have been adopted. The most common is the pound lock, which consists of a chamber within which the water level can be raised or lowered connecting either two pieces of canal at a different level or the canal with a river or the sea. When there is a hill to be climbed, flights of many locks in short succession may be used.
Prior to the development of the pound lock in 984 AD in China by Chhaio Wei-Yo and later in Europe in the 15th century, either flash locks consisting of a single gate were used or ramps, sometimes equipped with rollers, were used to change the level. Flash locks were only practical where there was plenty of water available.
Locks use a lot of water, so builders have adopted other approaches for situations where little water is available. These include boat lifts, such as the Falkirk Wheel, which use a caisson of water in which boats float while being moved between two levels; and inclined planes where a caisson is hauled up a steep railway.
To cross a stream, road or valley (where the delay caused by a flight of locks at either side would be unacceptable) the valley can be spanned by a navigable aqueduct – a famous example in Wales is the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct (now a UNESCO World Heritage Site) across the valley of the River Dee.
Another option for dealing with hills is to tunnel through them. An example of this approach is the Harecastle Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal. Tunnels are only practical for smaller canals.
Some canals attempted to keep changes in level down to a minimum. These canals known as contour canals would take longer, winding routes, along which the land was a uniform altitude. Other, generally later, canals took more direct routes requiring the use of various methods to deal with the change in level.
Canals have various features to tackle the problem of water supply. In cases, like the Suez Canal, the canal is open to the sea. Where the canal is not at sea level, a number of approaches have been adopted. Taking water from existing rivers or springs was an option in some cases, sometimes supplemented by other methods to deal with seasonal variations in flow. Where such sources were unavailable, reservoirs – either separate from the canal or built into its course – and back pumping were used to provide the required water. In other cases, water pumped from mines was used to feed the canal. In certain cases, extensive "feeder canals" were built to bring water from sources located far from the canal.
Where large amounts of goods are loaded or unloaded such as at the end of a canal, a canal basin may be built. This would normally be a section of water wider than the general canal. In some cases, the canal basins contain wharfs and cranes to assist with movement of goods.
When a section of the canal needs to be sealed off so it can be drained for maintenance stop planks are frequently used. These consist of planks of wood placed across the canal to form a dam. They are generally placed in pre-existing grooves in the canal bank. On more modern canals, "guard locks" or gates were sometimes placed to allow a section of the canal to be quickly closed off, either for maintenance, or to prevent a major loss of water due to a canal breach.
Canal falls
A canal fall, or canal drop, is a vertical drop in the canal bed.<!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --> These are built when the natural ground slope is steeper than the desired canal gradient.<!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --> They are constructed so the falling water's kinetic energy is dissipated in order to prevent it from scouring the bed and sides of the canal.<!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 -->
A canal fall is constructed by cut and fill.<!-- Sharma 2016, p. 643 --> It may be combined with a regulator, bridge, or other structure to save costs.<!-- Sharma 2016, p. 644 --> This is the first time that such planned civil project had taken place in the ancient world. In Egypt, canals date back at least to the time of Pepi I Meryre (reigned 2332–2283 BC), who ordered a canal built to bypass the cataract on the Nile near Aswan.
at Suzhou]]
In ancient China, large canals for river transport were established as far back as the Spring and Autumn period (8th–5th centuries BC), the longest one of that period being the Hong Gou (Canal of the Wild Geese), which according to the ancient historian Sima Qian connected the old states of Song, Zhang, Chen, Cai, Cao, and Wei. The Caoyun System of canals was essential for imperial taxation, which was largely assessed in kind and involved enormous shipments of rice and other grains. By far the longest canal was the Grand Canal of China, still the longest canal in the world today and the oldest extant one. It is long and was built to carry the Emperor Yang Guang between Zhuodu (Beijing) and Yuhang (Hangzhou). The project began in 605 and was completed in 609, although much of the work combined older canals, the oldest section of the canal existing since at least 486 BC. Even in its narrowest urban sections it is rarely less than wide.
In the 5th century BC, Achaemenid king Xerxes I of Persia ordered the construction of the Xerxes Canal through the base of Mount Athos peninsula, Chalkidiki, northern Greece. It was constructed as part of his preparations for the Second Persian invasion of Greece, a part of the Greco-Persian Wars. It is one of the few monuments left by the Persian Empire in Europe.
Greek engineers were also among the first to use canal locks, by which they regulated the water flow in the Ancient Suez Canal as early as the 3rd century BC.
<blockquote>
There was little experience moving bulk loads by carts, while a pack-horse would [i.e. 'could'] carry only an eighth of a ton. On a soft road a horse might be able to draw 5/8ths of a ton. But if the load were carried by a barge on a waterway, then up to 30 tons could be drawn by the same horse.<br />— technology historian Ronald W. Clark referring to transport realities before the industrial revolution and the Canal age.</blockquote>
Hohokam was a society in the North American Southwest in what is now part of Arizona, United States, and Sonora, Mexico. Their irrigation systems supported the largest population in the Southwest by 1300 CE. This prehistoric group occupied southern Arizona as early as 2000 BCE, and in the Early Agricultural period grew corn, lived year-round in sedentary villages, and developed sophisticated irrigation canals.
The large-scale Hohokam irrigation network in the Phoenix metropolitan area was the most complex in ancient North America. A portion of the ancient canals has been renovated for the Salt River Project and now helps to supply the city's water.
, Sri Lanka]]
The Sinhalese constructed the 87 km (54 mi) Yodha Ela in 459 A.D. as a part of their extensive irrigation network which functioned in a way of a moving reservoir due to its single banking aspect to manage the canal pressure with the influx of water. It was also designed as an elongated reservoir passing through traps creating 66 mini catchments as it flows from Kala Wewa to Thissa Wawa. The canal was not designed for the quick conveying of water from Kala Wewa to Thissa Wawa but to create a mass of water between the two reservoirs, which would in turn provided for agriculture and the use of humans and animals.
They also achieved a rather low gradient for its time. The canal is still in use after renovation.
Middle Ages
]]
In the Middle Ages, water transport was several times cheaper and faster than transport overland. Overland transport by animal drawn conveyances was used around settled areas, but unimproved roads required pack animal trains, usually of mules to carry any degree of mass, and while a mule could carry an eighth ton, with Glastonbury Abbey, a distance of about . Its initial purpose is believed to be the transport of building stone for the abbey, but later it was used for delivering produce, including grain, wine and fish, from the abbey's outlying properties. It remained in use until at least the 14th century, but possibly as late as the mid-16th century.<br />More lasting and of more economic impact were canals like the Naviglio Grande built between 1127 and 1257 to connect Milan with the river Ticino. The Naviglio Grande is the most important of the lombard "navigli" and the oldest functioning canal in Europe.<br />Later, canals were built in the Netherlands and Flanders to drain the polders and assist transportation of goods and people.
Canal building was revived in this age because of commercial expansion from the 12th century. River navigations were improved progressively by the use of single, or flash locks. Taking boats through these used large amounts of water leading to conflicts with watermill owners and to correct this, the pound or chamber lock first appeared, in the 10th century in China and in Europe in 1373 in Vreeswijk, Netherlands. Another important development was the mitre gate, which was, it is presumed, introduced in Italy by Bertola da Novate in the 16th century. This allowed wider gates and also removed the height restriction of guillotine locks.
To break out of the limitations caused by river valleys, the first summit level canals were developed with the Grand Canal of China in 581–617 AD whilst in Europe the first, also using single locks, was the Stecknitz Canal in Germany in 1398.
Africa
In the Songhai Empire of West Africa, several canals were constructed under Sunni Ali and Askia Muhammad I between Kabara and Timbuktu in the 15th century. These were used primarily for irrigation and transport. Sunni Ali also attempted to construct a canal from the Niger River to Walata to facilitate conquest of the city but his progress was halted when he went to war with the Mossi Kingdoms.
Early modern period
, Sri Lanka]]
Around 1500–1800 the first summit level canal to use pound locks in Europe was the Briare Canal connecting the Loire and Seine (1642), followed by the more ambitious Canal du Midi (1683) connecting the Atlantic to the Mediterranean. This included a staircase of 8 locks at Béziers, a tunnel, and three major aqueducts.
Canal building progressed steadily in Germany in the 17th and 18th centuries with three great rivers, the Elbe, Oder and Weser being linked by canals. In post-Roman Britain, the first early modern period canal built appears to have been the Exeter Canal, which was surveyed in 1563, and open in 1566.
The oldest canal in the European settlements of North America, technically a mill race built for industrial purposes, is Mother Brook between the Boston, Massachusetts neighbourhoods of Dedham and Hyde Park connecting the higher waters of the Charles River and the mouth of the Neponset River and the sea. It was constructed in 1639 to provide water power for mills.
In Russia, the Volga–Baltic Waterway, a nationwide canal system connecting the Baltic Sea and Caspian Sea via the Neva and Volga rivers, was opened in 1718.
Industrial Revolution
The modern canal system was mainly a product of the 18th century and early 19th century. It came into being because the Industrial Revolution (which began in Britain during the mid-18th century) demanded an economic and reliable way to transport goods and commodities in large quantities.
By the early 18th century, river navigations such as the Aire and Calder Navigation were becoming quite sophisticated, with pound locks and longer and longer "cuts" (some with intermediate locks) to avoid circuitous or difficult stretches of river. Eventually, the experience of building long multi-level cuts with their own locks gave rise to the idea of building a "pure" canal, a waterway designed on the basis of where goods needed to go, not where a river happened to be.
The claim for the first pure canal in Great Britain is debated between "Sankey" and "Bridgewater" supporters. The first true canal in what is now the United Kingdom was the Newry Canal in Northern Ireland constructed by Thomas Steers in 1741.
The Sankey Brook Navigation, which connected St Helens with the River Mersey, is often claimed as the first modern "purely artificial" canal because although originally a scheme to make the Sankey Brook navigable, it included an entirely new artificial channel that was effectively a canal along the Sankey Brook valley. However, "Bridgewater" supporters point out that the last quarter-mile of the navigation is indeed a canalized stretch of the Brook, and that it was the Bridgewater Canal (less obviously associated with an existing river) that captured the popular imagination and inspired further canals.
The new canals proved highly successful. The boats on the canal were horse-drawn with a towpath alongside the canal for the horse to walk along. This horse-drawn system proved to be highly economical and became standard across the British canal network. Commercial horse-drawn canal boats could be seen on the UK's canals until as late as the 1950s, although by then diesel-powered boats, often towing a second unpowered boat, had become standard.
The canal boats could carry thirty tons at a time with only one horse pulling
, Lockport, New York, c. 1855]]
The new canal system was both cause and effect of the rapid industrialization of The Midlands and the north. The period between the 1770s and the 1830s is often referred to as the "Golden Age" of British canals.
For each canal, an Act of Parliament was necessary to authorize construction, and as people saw the high incomes achieved from canal tolls, canal proposals came to be put forward by investors interested in profiting from dividends, at least as much as by people whose businesses would profit from cheaper transport of raw materials and finished goods.
In a further development, there was often out-and-out speculation, where people would try to buy shares in a newly floated company to sell them on for an immediate profit, regardless of whether the canal was ever profitable, or even built. During this period of "canal mania", huge sums were invested in canal building, and although many schemes came to nothing, the canal system rapidly expanded to nearly 4,000 miles (over 6,400 kilometres) in length.
at Rexford, New York, one of 32 navigable aqueducts on the Erie Canal]]
Canal companies were initially chartered by individual states in the United States. These early canals were constructed, owned, and operated by private joint-stock companies. Four were completed when the War of 1812 broke out; these were the South Hadley Canal (opened 1795) in Massachusetts, Santee Canal (opened 1800) in South Carolina, the Middlesex Canal (opened 1802) also in Massachusetts, and the Dismal Swamp Canal (opened 1805) in Virginia. The Erie Canal (opened 1825) was chartered and owned by the state of New York and financed by bonds bought by private investors. The Erie canal runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie. The Hudson River connects Albany to the Atlantic port of New York City and the Erie Canal completed a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes. The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of around 565 ft. (169 m). The Erie Canal with its easy connections to most of the U.S. mid-west and New York City soon quickly paid back all its invested capital (US$7 million) and started turning a profit. By cutting transportation costs in half or more it became a large profit center for Albany and New York City as it allowed the cheap transportation of many of the agricultural products grown in the mid west of the United States to the rest of the world. From New York City these agricultural products could easily be shipped to other U.S. states or overseas. Assured of a market for their farm products the settlement of the U.S. mid-west was greatly accelerated by the Erie Canal. The profits generated by the Erie Canal project started a canal building boom in the United States that lasted until about 1850 when railroads started becoming seriously competitive in price and convenience. The Blackstone Canal (finished in 1828) in Massachusetts and Rhode Island fulfilled a similar role in the early industrial revolution between 1828 and 1848. The Blackstone Valley was a major contributor of the American Industrial Revolution where Samuel Slater built his first textile mill.
in the canal of Gabčíkovo Dam (Slovakia) – the canal is conveying water to a hydroelectric power station.]]
Power canals
A power canal refers to a canal used for hydraulic power generation, rather than for transport. Nowadays power canals are built almost exclusively as parts of hydroelectric power stations. Parts of the United States, particularly in the Northeast, had enough fast-flowing rivers that water power was the primary means of powering factories (usually textile mills) until after the American Civil War. For example, Lowell, Massachusetts, considered to be "The Cradle of the American Industrial Revolution," has of canals, built from around 1790 to 1850, that provided water power and a means of transportation for the city. The output of the system is estimated at 10,000 horsepower. Other cities with extensive power canal systems include Lawrence, Massachusetts, Holyoke, Massachusetts, Manchester, New Hampshire, and Augusta, Georgia. The most notable power canal was built in 1862 for the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company.19th century
Competition, from railways from the 1830s and roads in the 20th century, made the smaller canals obsolete for most commercial transport, and many of the British canals fell into decay. Only the Manchester Ship Canal and the Aire and Calder Canal bucked this trend. Yet in other countries canals grew in size as construction techniques improved. During the 19th century in the US, the length of canals grew from to over 4,000, with a complex network making the Great Lakes navigable, in conjunction with Canada, although some canals were later drained and used as railroad rights-of-way.
In the United States, navigable canals reached into isolated areas and brought them in touch with the world beyond. By 1825 the Erie Canal, long with 36 locks, opened up a connection from the populated Northeast to the Great Lakes. Settlers flooded into regions serviced by such canals, since access to markets was available. The Erie Canal (as well as other canals) was instrumental in lowering the differences in commodity prices between these various markets across America. The canals caused price convergence between different regions because of their reduction in transportation costs, which allowed Americans to ship and buy goods from farther distances much cheaper. Ohio built many miles of canal, Indiana had working canals for a few decades, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal connected the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River system until replaced by a channelized river waterway.
.]]
Three major canals with very different purposes were built in what is now Canada. The first Welland Canal, which opened in 1829 between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, bypassing Niagara Falls and the Lachine Canal (1825), which allowed ships to skirt the nearly impassable rapids on the St. Lawrence River at Montreal, were built for commerce. The Rideau Canal, completed in 1832, connects Ottawa on the Ottawa River to Kingston, Ontario on Lake Ontario. The Rideau Canal was built as a result of the War of 1812 to provide military transportation between the British colonies of Upper Canada and Lower Canada as an alternative to part of the St. Lawrence River, which was susceptible to blockade by the United States.
, from around 1870.]]
In France, a steady linking of all the river systems – Rhine, Rhône, Saône and Seine – and the North Sea was boosted in 1879 by the establishment of the Freycinet gauge, which specified the minimum size of locks. Canal traffic doubled in the first decades of the 20th century.
Many notable sea canals were completed in this period, starting with the Suez Canal (1869) – which carries tonnage many times that of most other canals – and the Kiel Canal (1897), though the Panama Canal was not opened until 1914.
In the 19th century, a number of canals were built in Japan including the Biwako canal and the Tone canal. These canals were partially built with the help of engineers from the Netherlands and other countries.
A major question was how to connect the Atlantic and the Pacific with a canal through narrow Central America. (The Panama Railroad opened in 1855.) The original proposal was for a sea-level canal through what is today Nicaragua, taking advantage of the relatively large Lake Nicaragua. This canal has never been built in part because of political instability, which scared off potential investors. It remains an active project (the geography has not changed), and in the 2010s Chinese involvement was developing.
The second choice for a Central American canal was a Panama Canal. The De Lesseps company, which ran the Suez Canal, first attempted to build a Panama Canal in the 1880s. The difficulty of the terrain and weather (rain) encountered caused the company to go bankrupt. High worker mortality from disease also discouraged further investment in the project. DeLesseps' abandoned excavating equipment sits, isolated decaying machines, today tourist attractions.
Twenty years later, an expansionist United States, that just acquired colonies after defeating Spain in the 1898 Spanish–American War, and whose Navy became more important, decided to reactivate the project. The United States and Colombia did not reach agreement on the terms of a canal treaty (see Hay–Herrán Treaty). Panama, which did not have (and still does not have) a land connection with the rest of Colombia, was already thinking of independence. In 1903 the United States, with support from Panamanians who expected the canal to provide substantial wages, revenues, and markets for local goods and services, took Panama province away from Colombia, and set up a puppet republic (Panama). Its currency, the Balboa – a name that suggests the country began as a way to get from one hemisphere to the other – was a replica of the US dollar. The US dollar was and remains legal tender (used as currency). A U.S. military zone, the Canal Zone, wide, with U.S. military stationed there (bases, 2 TV stations, channels 8 and 10, Pxs, a U.S.-style high school), split Panama in half. The Canal – a major engineering project – was built. The U.S. did not feel that conditions were stable enough to withdraw until 1979. The withdrawal from Panama contributed to President Jimmy Carter's defeat in 1980.
Modern uses
Large-scale ship canals such as the Panama Canal and Suez Canal continue to operate for cargo transportation, as do European barge canals. Due to globalization, they are becoming increasingly important, resulting in expansion projects such as the Panama Canal expansion project. The expanded canal began commercial operation on 26 June 2016. The new set of locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax and New Panamax ships.
The narrow early industrial canals, however, have ceased to carry significant amounts of trade and many have been abandoned to navigation, but may still be used as a system for transportation of untreated water. In some cases railways have been built along the canal route, an example being the Croydon Canal.
A movement that began in Britain and France to use the early industrial canals for pleasure boats, such as hotel barges, has spurred rehabilitation of stretches of historic canals. In some cases, abandoned canals such as the Kennet and Avon Canal have been restored and are now used by pleasure boaters. In Britain, canalside housing has also proven popular in recent years.
The Seine–Nord Europe Canal is being developed into a major transportation waterway, linking France with Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands.
Canals have found another use in the 21st century, as easements for the installation of fibre optic telecommunications network cabling, avoiding having them buried in roadways while facilitating access and reducing the hazard of being damaged from digging equipment.
Canals are still used to provide water for agriculture. An extensive canal system exists within the Imperial Valley in the Southern California desert to provide irrigation to agriculture within the area.
Cities on water
) in Amsterdam, Netherlands]]
in St. Petersburg, Russia]]
, Australia]]
in Utrecht, Netherlands]]
Canals are so deeply identified with Venice that many canal cities have been nicknamed "the Venice of…". The city is built on marshy islands, with wooden piles supporting the buildings, so that the land is man-made rather than the waterways. The islands have a long history of settlement; by the 12th century, Venice was a powerful city state.
Amsterdam was built in a similar way, with buildings on wooden piles. It became a city around 1300. Many Amsterdam canals were built as part of fortifications. They became grachten when the city was enlarged and houses were built alongside the water. Its nickname as the "Venice of the North" is shared with Hamburg of Germany, St. Petersburg of Russia and Bruges of Belgium.
Suzhou was dubbed the "Venice of the East" by Marco Polo during his travels there in the 13th century, with its modern canalside Pingjiang Road and Shantang Street becoming major tourist attractions. Other nearby cities including Nanjing, Shanghai, Wuxi, Jiaxing, Huzhou, Nantong, Taizhou, Yangzhou, and Changzhou are located along the lower mouth of the Yangtze River and Lake Tai, yet another source of small rivers and creeks, which have been canalized and developed for centuries.
, France]]
Other cities with extensive canal networks include: Alkmaar, Amersfoort, Bolsward, Brielle, Delft, Den Bosch, Dokkum, Dordrecht, Enkhuizen, Franeker, Gouda, Haarlem, Harlingen, Leeuwarden, Leiden, Sneek and Utrecht in the Netherlands; Brugge and Gent in Flanders, Belgium; Birmingham in England; Saint Petersburg in Russia; Bydgoszcz, Gdańsk, Szczecin and Wrocław in Poland; Aveiro in Portugal; Hamburg and Berlin in Germany; Fort Lauderdale and Cape Coral in Florida, United States, Wenzhou in China, Cần Thơ in Vietnam, Bangkok in Thailand, and Lahore in Pakistan.
Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City was a UNESCO World Heritage Site near the centre of Liverpool, England, where a system of intertwining waterways and docks is now being developed for mainly residential and leisure use.
Canal estates (sometimes known as bayous in the United States) are a form of subdivision popular in cities like Miami, Florida, Texas City, Texas and the Gold Coast, Queensland; the Gold Coast has over 890 km of residential canals. Wetlands are difficult areas upon which to build housing estates, so dredging part of the wetland down to a navigable channel provides fill to build up another part of the wetland above the flood level for houses. Land is built up in a finger pattern that provides a suburban street layout of waterfront housing blocks.
Boats
ships in the Miraflores Locks on the Panama Canal, Panama]]
Inland canals have often had boats specifically built for them. An example of this is the British narrowboat, which is up to long and wide and was primarily built for British Midland canals. In this case the limiting factor was the size of the locks. This is also the limiting factor on the Panama canal where Panamax ships were limited to a length of and a beam of until 26 June 2016 when the opening of larger locks allowed for the passage of larger New Panamax ships. For the lockless Suez Canal the limiting factor for Suezmax ships is generally draft, which is limited to . At the other end of the scale, tub-boat canals such as the Bude Canal were limited to boats of under 10 tons for much of their length due to the capacity of their inclined planes or boat lifts. Most canals have a limit on height imposed either by bridges or by tunnels.Lists of canals
*Africa
** Bahr Yussef
** El Salam Canal (Egypt)
** Ibrahimiya Canal (Egypt)
** Mahmoudiyah Canal (Egypt)
** Suez Canal (Egypt)
*Asia
** see List of canals in India
** see List of canals in Pakistan
** see History of canals in China
** King Abdullah Canal (Jordan)
** Qanat al-Jaish (Iraq)
* Europe
** Danube–Black Sea Canal (Romania)
** North Crimean Canal (Ukraine)
** Canals of France
** Canals of Amsterdam
** Canals of Germany
** Canals of Ireland
** Canals of Russia
** Canals of the United Kingdom
*** List of canals in the United Kingdom
** Great Bačka Canal (Serbia)
* North America
** Canals of Canada
** Canals of the United States
** Panama Canal
Lists of proposed canals
* Eurasia Canal
* Istanbul Canal
* Nicaragua Canal
* Salwa Canal
* Thai Canal
* Sulawesi Canal
* Two Seas Canal
* Northern river reversal
* Balkan Canal or Danube–Morava–Vardar–Aegean Canal
* Iranrud
See also
* Beaver, a non-human animal also known for canal building
* Canal elevator
* Calle canal
* Canal & River Trust
* Canal tunnel
* Environment Agency
* Horse-drawn boat
* Irrigation district
* Lists of canals
* List of navigation authorities in the United Kingdom
* List of waterways
* List of waterway societies in the United Kingdom
* Mooring
* Navigation authority
* Proposed canals
* Roman canals – (Torksey)
* Volumetric flow rate
* Water bridge
* Waterscape
* Water transportation
* Waterway restoration
* Waterways in the United Kingdom
* Weigh lock
References
Notes
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
External links
* [http://www.waterscape.com/ British Waterways' leisure website – Britain's official guide to canals, rivers and lakes]
* [http://www.towpathtreks.co.uk/ Leeds Liverpool Canal Photographic Guide]
* [https://www.nycanals.com/ Information and Boater's Guide to the New York State Canal System]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110719194715/http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/wetland/canal/canals.htm "Canals and Navigable Rivers" by James S. Aber, Emporia State University]
* [https://canals.org/ National Canal Museum (US)]
* [https://www.canalmuseum.org.uk/ London Canal Museum (UK)]
* [http://www.world-city-photos.org/Amsterdam/photos/Canals_and_Bridges/ Canals in Amsterdam]
* [http://www.canaldumidi.com Canal du Midi]
* [http://www.canaldumidi.com/Canal-des-Deux-Mers.php Canal des Deux Mers]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070717234045/http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/water/bubbler/index.htm Canal flow measurement using a sensor].
*
Category:Coastal construction
Category:Water transport infrastructure
Category:Artificial bodies of water
Category:Infrastructure | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal | 2025-04-05T18:27:23.645688 |
5626 | Cognitive science | , linguistics, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, anthropology, and psychology]]
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition (in a broad sense). Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include perception, memory, attention, reasoning, language, and emotion. To understand these faculties, cognitive scientists borrow from fields such as psychology, economics, artificial intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology. The typical analysis of cognitive science spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision-making to logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. One of the fundamental concepts of cognitive science is that "thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures."
Another precursor was the early development of the theory of computation and the digital computer in the 1940s and 1950s. Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, Alan Turing, and John von Neumann were instrumental in these developments. The modern computer, or Von Neumann machine, would play a central role in cognitive science, both as a metaphor for the mind, and as a tool for investigation.
The first instance of cognitive science experiments being done at an academic institution took place at MIT Sloan School of Management, established by J.C.R. Licklider working within the psychology department and conducting experiments using computer memory as models for human cognition. In 1959, Noam Chomsky published a scathing review of B. F. Skinner's book Verbal Behavior. At the time, Skinner's behaviorist paradigm dominated the field of psychology within the United States. Most psychologists focused on functional relations between stimulus and response, without positing internal representations. Chomsky argued that in order to explain language, we needed a theory like generative grammar, which not only attributed internal representations but characterized their underlying order.
The term cognitive science was coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins in his 1973 commentary on the Lighthill report, which concerned the then-current state of artificial intelligence research. In the same decade, the journal Cognitive Science and the Cognitive Science Society were founded. The founding meeting of the Cognitive Science Society was held at the University of California, San Diego in 1979, which resulted in cognitive science becoming an internationally visible enterprise. In 1972, Hampshire College started the first undergraduate education program in Cognitive Science, led by Neil Stillings. In 1982, with assistance from Professor Stillings, Vassar College became the first institution in the world to grant an undergraduate degree in Cognitive Science. In 1986, the first Cognitive Science Department in the world was founded at the University of California, San Diego. While both connectionism and symbolic approaches have proven useful for testing various hypotheses and exploring approaches to understanding aspects of cognition and lower level brain functions, neither are biologically realistic and therefore, both suffer from a lack of neuroscientific plausibility. Connectionism has proven useful for exploring computationally how cognition emerges in development and occurs in the human brain, and has provided alternatives to strictly domain-specific / domain general approaches. For example, scientists such as Jeff Elman, Liz Bates, and Annette Karmiloff-Smith have posited that networks in the brain emerge from the dynamic interaction between them and environmental input.
Recent developments in quantum computation, including the ability to run quantum circuits on quantum computers such as IBM Quantum Platform, has accelerated work using elements from quantum mechanics in cognitive models.
Principles
Levels of analysis
A central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. An example would be the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it later. One approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation, or naturalistic observation. A person could be presented with a phone number and be asked to recall it after some delay of time; then the accuracy of the response could be measured. Another approach to measure cognitive ability would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works. Even if the technology to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time were available and it were known when each neuron fired it would still be impossible to know how a particular firing of neurons translates into the observed behavior. Thus an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other is imperative. Francisco Varela, in The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience, argues that "the new sciences of the mind need to enlarge their horizon to encompass both lived human experience and the possibilities for transformation inherent in human experience". On the classic cognitivist view, this can be provided by a functional level account of the process. Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior.
Marr gave a famous description of three levels of analysis:
# The computational theory, specifying the goals of the computation;
# Representation and algorithms, giving a representation of the inputs and outputs and the algorithms which transform one into the other; and
# The hardware implementation, or how algorithm and representation may be physically realized.
Interdisciplinary nature
Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field with contributors from various fields, including psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy of mind, computer science, anthropology and biology. Cognitive scientists work collectively in hope of understanding the mind and its interactions with the surrounding world much like other sciences do. The field regards itself as compatible with the physical sciences and uses the scientific method as well as simulation or modeling, often comparing the output of models with aspects of human cognition. Similarly to the field of psychology, there is some doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science, which have led some researchers to prefer 'cognitive sciences' in plural.
Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists hold a functionalist view of the mind—the view that mental states and processes should be explained by their function – what they do. According to the multiple realizability account of functionalism, even non-human systems such as robots and computers can be ascribed as having cognition.Cognitive science, the term
The term "cognitive" in "cognitive science" is used for "any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused with how "cognitive" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where "cognitive" has to do only with formal rules and truth-conditional semantics.
The earliest entries for the word "cognitive" in the OED take it to mean roughly "pertaining to the action or process of knowing". The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato.
Scope
Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that cognitive science has not always been equally concerned with every topic that might bear relevance to the nature and operation of minds. Classical cognitivists have largely de-emphasized or avoided social and cultural factors, embodiment, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, and comparative and evolutionary psychologies. However, with the decline of behaviorism, internal states such as affects and emotions, as well as awareness and covert attention became approachable again. For example, situated and embodied cognition theories take into account the current state of the environment as well as the role of the body in cognition. With the newfound emphasis on information processing, observable behavior was no longer the hallmark of psychological theory, but the modeling or recording of mental states.
Below are some of the main topics that cognitive science is concerned with; see List of cognitive science topics for a more exhaustive list.
Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the study of cognitive phenomena in machines. One of the practical goals of AI is to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers. Computers are also widely used as a tool with which to study cognitive phenomena. Computational modeling uses simulations to study how human intelligence may be structured. (See .)
There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is best viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i.e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures such as symbols, schemes, plans, and rules. The former view uses connectionism to study the mind, whereas the latter emphasizes symbolic artificial intelligence. One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that make up the human brain.
Attention
Attention is the selection of important information. The human mind is bombarded with millions of stimuli and it must have a way of deciding which of this information to process. Attention is sometimes seen as a spotlight, meaning one can only shine the light on a particular set of information. Experiments that support this metaphor include the dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1957) and studies of inattentional blindness (Mack and Rock, 1998). In the dichotic listening task, subjects are bombarded with two different messages, one in each ear, and told to focus on only one of the messages. At the end of the experiment, when asked about the content of the unattended message, subjects cannot report it.
The psychological construct of attention is sometimes confused with the concept of intentionality due to some degree of semantic ambiguity in their definitions. At the beginning of experimental research on attention, Wilhelm Wundt defined this term as "that psychical process, which is operative in the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness." His experiments showed the limits of attention in space and time, which were 3-6 letters during an exposition of 1/10 s. While intentionality is the power of minds to be about something, attention is the concentration of awareness on some phenomenon during a period of time, which is necessary to elevate the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness and which is feasible to control this focus in mind. The ground of this statement is that the more details (associated with an event) the mind may grasp for their comparison, association, and categorization, the closer apprehension, judgment, and reasoning of the event are in accord with reality. According to Latvian professor Sandra Mihailova and professor Igor Val Danilov, the more elements of the phenomenon (or phenomena ) the mind can keep in the scope of attention simultaneously, the more significant number of reasonable combinations within that event it can achieve, enhancing the probability of better understanding features and particularity of the phenomenon (phenomena). to posture, motor control, proprioception, and kinaesthesis, to autonomic processes that involve heartbeat and respiration, to the role of the enteric gut microbiome. It also includes accounts of how the body engages with or is coupled to social and physical environments. 4E (embodied, embedded, extended and enactive) cognition includes a broad range of views about brain-body-environment interaction, from causal embeddedness to stronger claims about how the mind extends to include tools and instruments, as well as the role of social interactions, action-oriented processes, and affordances. 4E theories range from those closer to classic cognitivism (so-called "weak" embodied cognition) to stronger extended and enactive versions that are sometimes referred to as radical embodied cognitive science.
A hypothesis of pre-perceptual multimodal integration supports embodied cognition approaches and converges two competing naturalist and constructivist viewpoints about cognition and the development of emotions. According to this hypothesis supported by empirical data, cognition and emotion development are initiated by the association of affective cues with stimuli responsible for triggering the neuronal pathways of simple reflexes.
The study of language processing in cognitive science is closely tied to the field of linguistics. Linguistics was traditionally studied as a part of the humanities, including studies of history, art and literature. In the last fifty years or so, more and more researchers have studied knowledge and use of language as a cognitive phenomenon, the main problems being how knowledge of language can be acquired and used, and what precisely it consists of. Linguists have found that, while humans form sentences in ways apparently governed by very complex systems, they are remarkably unaware of the rules that govern their own speech. Thus linguists must resort to indirect methods to determine what those rules might be, if indeed rules as such exist. In any event, if speech is indeed governed by rules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration.Learning and development
Learning and development are the processes by which we acquire knowledge and information over time. Infants are born with little or no knowledge (depending on how knowledge is defined), yet they rapidly acquire the ability to use language, walk, and recognize people and objects. Research in learning and development aims to explain the mechanisms by which these processes might take place.
A major question in the study of cognitive development is the extent to which certain abilities are innate or learned. This is often framed in terms of the nature and nurture debate. The nativist view emphasizes that certain features are innate to an organism and are determined by its genetic endowment. The empiricist view, on the other hand, emphasizes that certain abilities are learned from the environment. Although clearly both genetic and environmental input is needed for a child to develop normally, considerable debate remains about how genetic information might guide cognitive development. In the area of language acquisition, for example, some (such as Steven Pinker) have argued that specific information containing universal grammatical rules must be contained in the genes, whereas others (such as Jeffrey Elman and colleagues in Rethinking Innateness) have argued that Pinker's claims are biologically unrealistic. They argue that genes determine the architecture of a learning system, but that specific "facts" about how grammar works can only be learned as a result of experience.
Memory
Memory allows us to store information for later retrieval. Memory is often thought of as consisting of both a long-term and short-term store. Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years). We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity. Short-term memory allows us to store information over short time scales (seconds or minutes).
Memory is also often grouped into declarative and procedural forms. Declarative memory—grouped into subsets of semantic and episodic forms of memory—refers to our memory for facts and specific knowledge, specific meanings, and specific experiences (e.g. "Are apples food?", or "What did I eat for breakfast four days ago?"). Procedural memory allows us to remember actions and motor sequences (e.g. how to ride a bicycle) and is often dubbed implicit knowledge or memory .
Cognitive scientists study memory just as psychologists do, but tend to focus more on how memory bears on cognitive processes, and the interrelationship between cognition and memory. One example of this could be, what mental processes does a person go through to retrieve a long-lost memory? Or, what differentiates between the cognitive process of recognition (seeing hints of something before remembering it, or memory in context) and recall (retrieving a memory, as in "fill-in-the-blank")?
Perception and action
, an example of an optical illusion]]
.]]
Perception is the ability to take in information via the senses, and process it in some way. Vision and hearing are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the environment. Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include: (1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time? One tool for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process optical illusions. The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is, the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions.
The study of haptic (tactile), olfactory, and gustatory stimuli also fall into the domain of perception.
Action is taken to refer to the output of a system. In humans, this is accomplished through motor responses. Spatial planning and movement, speech production, and complex motor movements are all aspects of action.
Consciousness
Consciousness is the awareness of experiences within oneself.
This helps the mind with having the ability to experience or feel a sense of self.
Research methods
Many different methodologies are used to study cognitive science. As the field is highly interdisciplinary, research often cuts across multiple areas of study, drawing on research methods from psychology, neuroscience, computer science and systems theory.
Behavioral experiments
In order to have a description of what constitutes intelligent behavior, one must study behavior itself. This type of research is closely tied to that in cognitive psychology and psychophysics. By measuring behavioral responses to different stimuli, one can understand something about how those stimuli are processed. Lewandowski & Strohmetz (2009) reviewed a collection of innovative uses of behavioral measurement in psychology including behavioral traces, behavioral observations, and behavioral choice. Behavioral traces are pieces of evidence that indicate behavior occurred, but the actor is not present (e.g., litter in a parking lot or readings on an electric meter). Behavioral observations involve the direct witnessing of the actor engaging in the behavior (e.g., watching how close a person sits next to another person). Behavioral choices are when a person selects between two or more options (e.g., voting behavior, choice of a punishment for another participant).
* Reaction time. The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature. For example, if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that this cognitive process of searching involves serial instead of parallel processing.
* Psychophysical responses. Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique, which has been adopted by cognitive psychology. They typically involve making judgments of some physical property, e.g. the loudness of a sound. Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory biases as compared to actual physical measurements. Some examples include:
** sameness judgments for colors, tones, textures, etc.
** threshold differences for colors, tones, textures, etc.
* Eye tracking. This methodology is used to study a variety of cognitive processes, most notably visual perception and language processing. The fixation point of the eyes is linked to an individual's focus of attention. Thus, by monitoring eye movements, we can study what information is being processed at a given time. Eye tracking allows us to study cognitive processes on extremely short time scales. Eye movements reflect online decision making during a task, and they provide us with some insight into the ways in which those decisions may be processed.Brain imaging
.]]
Brain imaging involves analyzing activity within the brain while performing various tasks. This allows us to link behavior and brain function to help understand how information is processed. Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal (time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution. Brain imaging is often used in cognitive neuroscience.
* Single-photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography. SPECT and PET use radioactive isotopes, which are injected into the subject's bloodstream and taken up by the brain. By observing which areas of the brain take up the radioactive isotope, we can see which areas of the brain are more active than other areas. PET has similar spatial resolution to fMRI, but it has extremely poor temporal resolution.
* Electroencephalography. EEG measures the electrical fields generated by large populations of neurons in the cortex by placing a series of electrodes on the scalp of the subject. This technique has an extremely high temporal resolution, but a relatively poor spatial resolution.
* Functional magnetic resonance imaging. fMRI measures the relative amount of oxygenated blood flowing to different parts of the brain. More oxygenated blood in a particular region is assumed to correlate with an increase in neural activity in that part of the brain. This allows us to localize particular functions within different brain regions. fMRI has moderate spatial and temporal resolution.
* Optical imaging. This technique uses infrared transmitters and receivers to measure the amount of light reflectance by blood near different areas of the brain. Since oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reflects light by different amounts, we can study which areas are more active (i.e., those that have more oxygenated blood). Optical imaging has moderate temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution. It also has the advantage that it is extremely safe and can be used to study infants' brains.
* Magnetoencephalography. MEG measures magnetic fields resulting from cortical activity. It is similar to EEG, except that it has improved spatial resolution since the magnetic fields it measures are not as blurred or attenuated by the scalp, meninges and so forth as the electrical activity measured in EEG is. MEG uses SQUID sensors to detect tiny magnetic fields.
Computational modeling
with two layers]]
Computational models require a mathematically and logically formal representation of a problem. Computer models are used in the simulation and experimental verification of different specific and general properties of intelligence. Computational modeling can help us understand the functional organization of a particular cognitive phenomenon.
Approaches to cognitive modeling can be categorized as: (1) symbolic, on abstract mental functions of an intelligent mind by means of symbols; (2) subsymbolic, on the neural and associative properties of the human brain; and (3) across the symbolic–subsymbolic border, including hybrid.
* Symbolic modeling evolved from the computer science paradigms using the technologies of knowledge-based systems, as well as a philosophical perspective (e.g. "Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence" (GOFAI)). They were developed by the first cognitive researchers and later used in information engineering for expert systems. Since the early 1990s it was generalized in systemics for the investigation of functional human-like intelligence models, such as personoids, and, in parallel, developed as the SOAR environment. Recently, especially in the context of cognitive decision-making, symbolic cognitive modeling has been extended to the socio-cognitive approach, including social and organizational cognition, interrelated with a sub-symbolic non-conscious layer.
* Subsymbolic modeling includes connectionist/neural network models. Connectionism relies on the idea that the mind/brain is composed of simple nodes and its problem-solving capacity derives from the connections between them. Neural nets are textbook implementations of this approach. Some critics of this approach feel that while these models approach biological reality as a representation of how the system works, these models lack explanatory powers because, even in systems endowed with simple connection rules, the emerging high complexity makes them less interpretable at the connection-level than they apparently are at the macroscopic level.
* Other approaches gaining in popularity include (1) dynamical systems theory, (2) mapping symbolic models onto connectionist models (Neural-symbolic integration or hybrid intelligent systems), and (3) and Bayesian models, which are often drawn from machine learning.
All the above approaches tend either to be generalized to the form of integrated computational models of a synthetic/abstract intelligence (i.e. cognitive architecture) in order to be applied to the explanation and improvement of individual and social/organizational decision-making and reasoning or to focus on single simulative programs (or microtheories/"middle-range" theories) modelling specific cognitive faculties (e.g. vision, language, categorization etc.).Neurobiological methods
Research methods borrowed directly from neuroscience and neuropsychology can also help us to understand aspects of intelligence. These methods allow us to understand how intelligent behavior is implemented in a physical system.
* Single-unit recording
* Direct brain stimulation
* Animal models
* Postmortem studies
Key findings
Cognitive science has given rise to models of human cognitive bias and risk perception, and has been influential in the development of behavioral finance, part of economics. It has also given rise to a new theory of the philosophy of mathematics (related to denotational mathematics), and many theories of artificial intelligence, persuasion and coercion. It has made its presence known in the philosophy of language and epistemology as well as constituting a substantial wing of modern linguistics. Fields of cognitive science have been influential in understanding the brain's particular functional systems (and functional deficits) ranging from speech production to auditory processing and visual perception. It has made progress in understanding how damage to particular areas of the brain affect cognition, and it has helped to uncover the root causes and results of specific dysfunction, such as dyslexia, anopsia, and hemispatial neglect.
Notable researchers
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name !! Year of birth
!Year of contribution!! Contribution(s)
|-
|David Chalmers|| 1966
|1995
|Dualism, hard problem of consciousness
|-
| Daniel Dennett || 1942
|1987|| Offered a computational systems perspective (Multiple drafts model)
|-
| John Searle || 1932
|1980
| Chinese room
|-
|Douglas Hofstadter|| 1945
|1979
|Gödel, Escher, Bach
|-
| Jerry Fodor || 1935
|1968, 1975
| Functionalism
|-
| Alan Baddeley || 1934
|1974
| Baddeley's model of working memory
|-
|Marvin Minsky
|1927
|1970s, early 1980s
|Wrote computer programs in languages such as LISP to attempt to formally characterize the steps that human beings go through, such as making decisions and solving problems
|-
|Christopher Longuet-Higgins
|1923
|1973
|Coined the term cognitive science
|-
|Noam Chomsky
|1928
|1959
|Published a review of B.F. Skinner's book Verbal Behavior which began cognitivism against then-dominant behaviorism
|-
|Eleanor Rosch
|1938
|1976
|Development of the Prototype Theory of categorisation
|-
|Philip N. Johnson-Laird
|1936
|1980
|Introduced the idea of mental models in cognitive science
|-
|Dedre Gentner
|1944
|1983
|Development of the Structure-mapping Theory of analogical reasoning
|-
|Allen Newell
|1927
|1990
|Development of the field of Cognitive architecture in cognitive modelling and artificial intelligence
|-
|Annette Karmiloff-Smith
|1938
|1992
|Integrating neuroscience and computational modelling into theories of cognitive development
|-
|David Marr (neuroscientist)
|1945
|1990
|Proponent of the Three-Level Hypothesis of levels of analysis of computational systems
|-
|Peter Gärdenfors
|1949
|2000
|Creator of the conceptual space framework used in cognitive modelling and artificial intelligence.
|-
|Linda B. Smith
|1951
|1993
|Together with Esther Thelen, created a dynamical systems approach to understanding cognitive development
|}
Some of the more recognized names in cognitive science are usually either the most controversial or the most cited. Within philosophy, some familiar names include Daniel Dennett, who writes from a computational systems perspective, John Searle, known for his controversial Chinese room argument, and Jerry Fodor, who advocates functionalism.
Others include David Chalmers, who advocates Dualism and is also known for articulating the hard problem of consciousness, and Douglas Hofstadter, famous for writing Gödel, Escher, Bach, which questions the nature of words and thought.
In the realm of linguistics, Noam Chomsky and George Lakoff have been influential (both have also become notable as political commentators). In artificial intelligence, Marvin Minsky, Herbert A. Simon, and Allen Newell are prominent.
Popular names in the discipline of psychology include George A. Miller, James McClelland, Philip Johnson-Laird, Lawrence Barsalou, Vittorio Guidano, Howard Gardner and Steven Pinker. Anthropologists Dan Sperber, Edwin Hutchins, Bradd Shore, James Wertsch and Scott Atran, have been involved in collaborative projects with cognitive and social psychologists, political scientists and evolutionary biologists in attempts to develop general theories of culture formation, religion, and political association.
Computational theories (with models and simulations) have also been developed, by David Rumelhart, James McClelland and Philip Johnson-Laird.
Epistemics<!--'Epistemics' redirects here-->
Epistemics<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> is a term coined in 1969 by the University of Edinburgh with the foundation of its School of Epistemics. Epistemics is to be distinguished from epistemology in that epistemology is the philosophical theory of knowledge, whereas epistemics signifies the scientific study of knowledge.
Christopher Longuet-Higgins has defined it as "the construction of formal models of the processes (perceptual, intellectual, and linguistic) by which knowledge and understanding are achieved and communicated."
In his 1978 essay "Epistemics: The Regulative Theory of Cognition", Alvin I. Goldman claims to have coined the term "epistemics" to describe a reorientation of epistemology. Goldman maintains that his epistemics is continuous with traditional epistemology and the new term is only to avoid opposition. Epistemics, in Goldman's version, differs only slightly from traditional epistemology in its alliance with the psychology of cognition; epistemics stresses the detailed study of mental processes and information-processing mechanisms that lead to knowledge or beliefs.
In the mid-1980s, the School of Epistemics was renamed as The Centre for Cognitive Science (CCS). In 1998, CCS was incorporated into the University of Edinburgh's School of Informatics.
Binding problem in cognitive science
One of the core aims of cognitive science is to achieve an integrated theory of cognition. This requires integrative mechanisms explaining how the information processing that occurs simultaneously in spatially segregated (sub-)cortical areas in the brain is coordinated and bound together to give rise to coherent perceptual and symbolic representations. One approach is to solve this "Binding problem" (that is, the problem of dynamically representing conjunctions of informational elements, from the most basic perceptual representations ("feature binding") to the most complex cognitive representations, like symbol structures ("variable binding")), by means of integrative synchronization mechanisms. In other words, one of the coordinating mechanisms appears to be the temporal (phase) synchronization of neural activity based on dynamical self-organizing processes in neural networks, described by the Binding-by-synchrony (BBS) Hypothesis from neurophysiology. Connectionist cognitive neuroarchitectures have been developed that use integrative synchronization mechanisms to solve this binding problem in perceptual cognition and in language cognition. In perceptual cognition the problem is to explain how elementary object properties and object relations, like the object color or the object form, can be dynamically bound together or can be integrated to a representation of this perceptual object by means of a synchronization mechanism ("feature binding", "feature linking"). In language cognition the problem is to explain how semantic concepts and syntactic roles can be dynamically bound together or can be integrated to complex cognitive representations like systematic and compositional symbol structures and propositions by means of a synchronization mechanism ("variable binding") (see also the "Symbolism vs. connectionism debate" in connectionism).
However, despite significant advances in understanding the integrated theory of cognition (specifically the Binding problem), the debate on this issue of beginning cognition is still in progress. From the different perspectives noted above, this problem can be reduced to the issue of how organisms at the simple reflexes stage of development overcome the threshold of the environmental chaos of sensory stimuli: electromagnetic waves, chemical interactions, and pressure fluctuations. The so-called Primary Data Entry (PDE) thesis poses doubts about the ability of such an organism to overcome this cue threshold on its own. In terms of mathematical tools, the PDE thesis underlines the insuperable high threshold of the cacophony of environmental stimuli (the stimuli noise) for young organisms at the onset of life.<ref name"Val Danilov 2023 Theoretical Grounds" /> It argues that the temporal (phase) synchronization of neural activity based on dynamical self-organizing processes in neural networks, any dynamical bound together or integration to a representation of the perceptual object by means of a synchronization mechanism can not help organisms in distinguishing relevant cue (informative stimulus) for overcome this noise threshold.<ref name"Val Danilov 2023 Theoretical Grounds" />
See also
* Affective science
* Cognitive anthropology
* Cognitive biology
* Cognitive computing
* Cognitive ethology
* Cognitive linguistics
* Cognitive neuropsychology
* Cognitive neuroscience
* Cognitive psychology
* Cognitive science of religion
* Computational neuroscience
* Computational-representational understanding of mind
* Concept mining
* Decision field theory
* Decision theory
* Dynamicism
* Educational neuroscience
* Educational psychology
* Embodied cognition
* Embodied cognitive science
* Enactivism
* Epistemology
* Folk psychology
* Heterophenomenology
* Human Cognome Project
* Human–computer interaction
* Indiana Archives of Cognitive Science
* Informatics (academic field)
* List of cognitive scientists
* List of psychology awards
* Malleable intelligence
* Neural Darwinism
* Personal information management (PIM)
* Qualia
* Quantum cognition
* Simulated consciousness
* Situated cognition
* Society of Mind theory
* Spatial cognition
* Speech–language pathology
; Outlines
* Outline of human intelligence – topic tree presenting the traits, capacities, models, and research fields of human intelligence, and more.
* Outline of thought – topic tree that identifies many types of thoughts, types of thinking, aspects of thought, related fields, and more.
References
External links
*
*
*
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/ "Cognitive Science"] on the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [http://www.cognitivesciencesociety.org Cognitive Science Society]
* [https://www.indiana.edu/~cogfilms Cognitive Science Movie Index: A broad list of movies showcasing themes in the Cognitive Sciences]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20151105123048/http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/%7Emryder/itc/cogsci.html List of leading thinkers in cognitive science] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science | 2025-04-05T18:27:23.719721 |
5630 | Copula (linguistics) | <!-- Everything other than Persdoian and Urdu is untagged -->
In linguistics, a copula (; : copulas or copulae; abbreviated ) is a word or phrase that links the subject of a sentence to a subject complement, such as the word is in the sentence "The sky is blue" or the phrase was not being in the sentence "It was not being cooperative." The word copula derives from the Latin noun for a "link" or "tie" that connects two different things.
A copula is often a verb or a verb-like word, though this is not universally the case. A verb that is a copula is sometimes called a copulative or copular verb. In English primary education grammar courses, a copula is often called a linking verb. In other languages, copulas show more resemblances to pronouns, as in Classical Chinese and Guarani, or may take the form of suffixes attached to a noun, as in Korean, Beja, and Inuit languages.
Most languages have one main copula (in English, the verb "to be"), although some (like Spanish, Portuguese and Thai) have more than one, while others have none. While the term copula is generally used to refer to such principal verbs, it may also be used for a wider group of verbs with similar potential functions (like become, get, feel and seem in English); alternatively, these might be distinguished as "semi-copulas" or "pseudo-copulas".
Grammatical function
The principal use of a copula is to link the subject of a clause to a subject complement. A copular verb is often considered to be part of the predicate, the remainder being called a predicative expression. A simple clause containing a copula is illustrated below:
<blockquote>The book is on the table.</blockquote>
In that sentence, the noun phrase the book is the subject, the verb is serves as the copula, and the prepositional phrase on the table is the predicative expression. In some theories of grammar, the whole expression is on the table may be called a predicate or a verb phrase.
The predicative expression accompanying the copula, also known as the complement of the copula, may take any of several possible forms: it may be a noun or noun phrase, an adjective or adjective phrase, a prepositional phrase (as above), or an adverb or another adverbial phrase expressing time or location. Examples are given below, with the copula in bold and the predicative expression in italics:
The three components (subject, copula and predicative expression) do not necessarily appear in that order: their positioning depends on the rules for word order applicable to the language in question. In English (an SVO language), the ordering given above is the normal one, but certain variation is possible:
*In many questions and other clauses with subject–auxiliary inversion, the copula moves in front of the subject: Are you happy?
*In inverse copular constructions (see below) the predicative expression precedes the copula, but the subject follows it: In the room were three men.
It is also possible, in certain circumstances, for one (or even two) of the three components to be absent:
*In null-subject (pro-drop) languages, the subject may be omitted, as it may from other types of sentence. In Italian, means , literally .
*In non-finite clauses in languages like English, the subject is often absent, as in the participial phrase being tired or the infinitive phrase to be tired. The same applies to most imperative sentences like Be good!
*For cases in which no copula appears, see below.
*Any of the three components may be omitted as a result of various general types of ellipsis. In particular, in English, the predicative expression may be elided in a construction similar to verb phrase ellipsis, as in short sentences like I am; Are they? (where the predicative expression is understood from the previous context).
Inverse copular constructions, in which the positions of the predicative expression and the subject are reversed, are found in various languages. They have been the subject of much theoretical analysis, particularly in regard to the difficulty of maintaining, in the case of such sentences, the usual division into a subject noun phrase and a predicate verb phrase.
Another issue is verb agreement when both subject and predicative expression are noun phrases (and differ in number or person): in English, the copula typically agrees with the syntactical subject even if it is not logically (i.e. semantically) the subject, as in the cause of the riot is (not are) these pictures of the wall. Compare Italian ; notice the use of the plural to agree with plural rather than with singular . In instances where an English syntactical subject comprises a prepositional object that is pluralized, however, the prepositional object agrees with the predicative expression, e.g. "What kind of birds are those?"
The definition and scope of the concept of a copula is not necessarily precise in any language. As noted above, though the concept of the copula in English is most strongly associated with the verb to be, there are many other verbs that can be used in a copular sense as well.
* The boy became a man.
* The girl grew more excited as the holiday preparations intensified.
* The dog felt tired from the activity.
And more tenuously
Similar examples can be found in many other languages; for example, the French and Latin equivalents of I think therefore I am are and , where and are the equivalents of English "am", normally used as copulas. However, other languages prefer a different verb for existential use, as in the Spanish version (where the verb is used rather than the copula or ).
Another type of existential usage is in clauses of the there is... or there are... type. Languages differ in the way they express such meanings; some of them use the copular verb, possibly with an expletive pronoun like the English there, while other languages use different verbs and constructions, like the French (which uses parts of the verb , not the copula) or the Swedish (the passive voice of the verb for "to find"). For details, see existential clause.
Relying on a unified theory of copular sentences, it has been proposed that the English there-sentences are subtypes of inverse copular constructions.
Meanings
Predicates formed using a copula may express identity: that the two noun phrases (subject and complement) have the same referent or express an identical concept:
They may also express membership of a class or a subset relationship:
Similarly they may express some property, relation or position, permanent or temporary:
Essence versus state
Some languages use different copulas, or different syntax, to denote a permanent, essential characteristic of something versus a temporary state. For examples, see the sections on the Romance languages, Slavic languages and Irish.
Forms
In many languages the principal copula is a verb, like English (to) be, German , Mixtec , Touareg emous, This phenomenon is known as nonverbal person agreement (or nonverbal subject agreement), and the relevant markers are always established as deriving from cliticized independent pronouns. Zero copula
In some languages, copula omission occurs within a particular grammatical context. For example, speakers of Bengali, Russian, Indonesian, Turkish, Hungarian, Arabic, Hebrew, Geʽez and Quechuan languages consistently drop the copula in present tense: Bengali: , Aami manush, 'I (am a) human'; Russian: , ; Indonesian: ; Turkish: ; Hungarian: ; Arabic: , ; Hebrew: , ; Geʽez: , / / ; Southern Quechua: . The usage is known generically as the zero copula. In other tenses (sometimes in forms other than third person singular), the copula usually reappears.
Some languages drop the copula in poetic or aphoristic contexts. Examples in English include
* The more, the merrier.
* Out of many, one.
* True that.
Such poetic copula dropping is more pronounced in some languages other than English, like the Romance languages.
In informal speech of English, the copula may also be dropped in general sentences, as in "She a nurse" or "They not like us." It is a feature of African-American Vernacular English, but is also used by a variety of other English speakers. An example is the sentence "I saw twelve men, each a soldier." Examples in specific languages In Ancient Greek, when an adjective precedes a noun with an article, the copula is understood: , "the house is large", can be written , "large the house (is)."
In Quechua (Southern Quechua used for the examples), zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular (): ; but: .
In Māori, the zero copula can be used in predicative expressions and with continuous verbs (many of which take a copulative verb in many Indo-European languages) — , literally , ; , literally , ; , literally , , , literally , .
Alternatively, in many cases, the particle can be used as a copulative (though not all instances of are used as thus, like all other Māori particles, has multiple purposes): ; ; .
However, when expressing identity or class membership, must be used: ; ; .
When expressing identity, can be placed on either object in the clause without changing the meaning ( is the same as ) but not on both ( would be equivalent to saying "it is this, it is my book" in English).
In Hungarian, zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular and plural: / — / ; but: , , , . The copula also reappears for stating locations: , and for stating time: . However, the copula may be omitted in colloquial language: .
Hungarian uses copula for expressing location: , but it is omitted in the third person present tense for attribution or identity statements: ; ; (but , , ).
In Turkish, both the third person singular and the third person plural copulas are omittable. and both mean , and and both mean . Both of the sentences are acceptable and grammatically correct, but sentences with the copula are more formal.
The Turkish first person singular copula suffix is omitted when introducing oneself. is grammatically correct, but (same sentence with the copula) is not for an introduction (but is grammatically correct in other cases).
Further restrictions may apply before omission is permitted. For example, in the Irish language, , the present tense of the copula, may be omitted when the predicate is a noun. , the past/conditional, cannot be deleted. If the present copula is omitted, the pronoun (e.g., , , ) preceding the noun is omitted as well.
Copula-like words
Sometimes, the term copula is taken to include not only a language's equivalent(s) to the verb be but also other verbs or forms that serve to link a subject to a predicative expression (while adding semantic content of their own). For example, English verbs like become, get, feel, look, taste, smell, and seem can have this function, as in the following sentences (the predicative expression, the complement of the verb, is in italics):
(This usage should be distinguished from the use of some of these verbs as "action" verbs, as in They look at the wall, in which look denotes an action and cannot be replaced by the basic copula are.)
Some verbs have rarer, secondary uses as copular verbs, like the verb fall in sentences like The zebra fell victim to the lion.
These extra copulas are sometimes called "semi-copulas" or "pseudo-copulas." For a list of common verbs of this type in English, see List of English copulae.
In particular languages
Indo-European
In Indo-European languages, the words meaning to be are sometimes similar to each other. Due to the high frequency of their use, their inflection retains a considerable degree of similarity in some cases. Thus, for example, the English form is is a cognate of German , Latin , Persian and Russian , even though the Germanic, Italic, Iranian and Slavic language groups split at least 3000 years ago. The origins of the copulas of most Indo-European languages can be traced back to four Proto-Indo-European stems: (), (), and ().
English
The English copular verb be has eight basic forms (be, am, is, are, being, was, were, been) and five negative forms (''ain't (in some dialects), isn't, aren't, wasn't, weren't). No other English verb has more than five forms. Additional archaic forms include art, wast, wert, and occasionally beest (as a subjunctive). For more details see English verbs. For the etymology of the various forms, see Indo-European copula.
The main uses of the copula in English are described in the above sections. The possibility of copula omission is mentioned under .
A particular construction found in English (particularly in speech) is the use of two successive copulas when only one appears necessary, as in My point is, is that.... The acceptability of this construction is a disputed matter in English prescriptive grammar.
The simple English copula "be" may on occasion be substituted by other verbs with near identical meanings.
Persian
In Persian, the verb to be can take the form of either (cognate to English is) or (cognate to be).
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
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Hindustani
In Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), the copula }} can be put into four grammatical aspects (simple, habitual, perfective, and progressive) and each of those four aspects can be put into five grammatical moods (indicative, presumptive, subjunctive, contrafactual, and imperative). Some example sentences using the simple aspect are shown below:
{|
!colspan=2|
! align="right" | Hindi
! Urdu
! align="left" | Transliteration
! align="left" | English
|-
!rowspan=4| Simple Indicative
! Present
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| }}
|
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! Perfect
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| }}
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! Imperfect
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| }}
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! Future
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| }}
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!rowspan=2| Simple Subjunctive
! Present
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| }}
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! Future
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| }}
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!colspan=2| Simple Presumptive Present
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| }}
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!colspan=2| Simple Contrafactual Past
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| }}
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|}
Besides the verb }} , there are three other verbs which can also be used as the copula: }} , }} , and }} . The following table shows the conjugations of the copula }} in the five grammatical moods in the simple aspect. The transliteration scheme used is ISO 15919.
{| class"wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding"1"
| colspan="7" |Hindustani Copula }}}} [Simple Aspect]
|-
! rowspan="2" |Mood
! rowspan="2" |Tense
! rowspan="2" |Gender
! colspan="4" |Pronouns
|-
! align="right" |
! align="left" |
!
!,
|-
! rowspan="7" |Indicative
! Present
!♂ ♀
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Perfect
!♂
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
!♀
| colspan="3" |
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Imperfect
!♂
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
!♀
| colspan="3" |
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Future
!♂
|hoū̃gā
|hoegā
|hooge
|hoẽge
|-
!♀
|hoū̃gī
|hoegī
|hoogī
|hoẽgī
|-
! rowspan="2" |Presumptive
! rowspan="2" |All
!♂
|hū̃gā
|hogā
|hoge
|hõge
|-
!♀
|hū̃gī
|hogī
|hogī
|hõgī
|-
! rowspan="2" |Subjunctive
!Present
!♂ ♀
|
| colspan="2" |
|
|-
!Future
!♂ ♀
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Contrafactual
! rowspan="2" |Past
!♂
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
!♀
| colspan="3" |
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Imperative
!Present
!♂ ♀
|—
|
|
|
|-
!Future
!♂ ♀
|—
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="7" |Note: the third person singular and plural conjugations are respectively
the same as the second person intimate and formal conjugations.
|}
Romance
Copulas in the Romance languages usually consist of two different verbs that can be translated as "to be", the main one from the Latin (via Vulgar Latin ; deriving from *es-''), often referenced as (another of the Latin verb's principal parts) and a secondary one from (from *sta-), often referenced as . The resulting distinction in the modern forms is found in all the Iberian Romance languages, and to a lesser extent Italian, but not in French or Romanian. The difference is that the first usually refers to essential characteristics, while the second refers to states and situations, e.g., "Bob is old" versus "Bob is well." A similar division is found in the non-Romance Basque language (viz. and ). (The English words just used, "essential" and "state", are also cognate with the Latin infinitives and . The word "stay" also comes from Latin , through Middle French , stem of Old French .) In Spanish and Portuguese, the high degree of verbal inflection, plus the existence of two copulas ( and ), means that there are 105 (Spanish) and 110 (Portuguese) separate forms to express the copula, compared to eight in English and one in Chinese.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=2 | Copula
! colspan=4 | Language
|-
! Italian
! Spanish
! Portuguese
! English
|- align=left
! align=left | -derived
| vecchio.}} || viejo.}} || velho.}} ||
|- align=left
! align=left | -derived
| bene.}} || bien.}} || bem}} ||
|}
In some cases, the verb itself changes the meaning of the adjective/sentence. The following examples are from Portuguese:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=2 | Copula
! colspan="3" | Example 1
! colspan="3" | Example 2
|-
! Portuguese
! Spanish
! English
! Portuguese
! Spanish
! English
|- align=left
! align=left | -derived
| esquisito.}}
| extraño.}} || || parvo.}}
| idiota.}} ||
|- align=left
! align=left | -derived
| esquisito.}}
| extraño.}} || || parvo.}}
| idiota.}} ||
|}
Slavic
Some Slavic languages make a distinction between essence and state (similar to that discussed in the above section on the Romance languages), by putting a predicative expression denoting a state into the instrumental case, and essential characteristics are in the nominative. This can apply with other copula verbs as well: the verbs for "become" are normally used with the instrumental case.
As noted above under , Russian and other North Slavic languages generally or often omit the copula in the present tense.
Irish
In Irish and Scottish Gaelic, there are two copulas, and the syntax is also changed when one is distinguishing between states or situations and essential characteristics.
Describing the subject's state or situation typically uses the normal VSO ordering with the verb . The copula is used to state essential characteristics or equivalences.
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding"1" valign"top"
| alignleft valigntop| || alignright valigntop | || alignleft valigntop |
|-
| fear é Liam.}} || || (lit. )
|-
| leabhar é sin.}} || || (lit. )
|}
The word is the copula (rhymes with the English word "miss").
The pronoun used with the copula is different from the normal pronoun. For a masculine singular noun, is used (for "he" or "it"), as opposed to the normal pronoun ; for a feminine singular noun, is used (for "she" or "it"), as opposed to normal pronoun ; for plural nouns, is used (for "they" or "those"), as opposed to the normal pronoun .
To describe being in a state, condition, place, or act, the verb "to be" is used: Arabic dialects North Levantine Arabic The North Levantine Arabic dialect, spoken in Syria and Lebanon, has a negative copula formed by and a suffixed pronoun.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan"4" | Negative copula in Levantine
:
:
For the 1st and 2nd persons the particle is combined with pronouns, e.g., :
:
:
:
For temporary states and location, the copula is the appropriate form of the defective verb :
:
:
:
For the 1st and 2nd persons the person is shown, as normally with Chichewa verbs, by the appropriate pronominal prefix:
:
:
:
In the past tenses, is used for both types of copula:
:
:
In the future, subjunctive, or conditional tenses, a form of the verb is used as a copula:
:
Muylaq' Aymaran
Uniquely, the existence of the copulative verbalizer suffix in the Southern Peruvian Aymaran language variety, Muylaq' Aymara, is evident only in the surfacing of a vowel that would otherwise have been deleted because of the presence of a following suffix, lexically prespecified to suppress it. As the copulative verbalizer has no independent phonetic structure, it is represented by the Greek letter ʋ in the examples used in this entry.
Accordingly, unlike in most other Aymaran variants, whose copulative verbalizer is expressed with a vowel-lengthening component, -:, the presence of the copulative verbalizer in Muylaq' Aymara is often not apparent on the surface at all and is analyzed as existing only meta-linguistically. However, in a verb phrase like "It is old", the noun does not require the copulative verbalizer: .
It is now pertinent to make some observations about the distribution of the copulative verbalizer. The best place to start is with words in which its presence or absence is obvious. When the vowel-suppressing first person simple tense suffix attaches to a verb, the vowel of the immediately preceding suffix is suppressed (in the examples in this subsection, the subscript "c" appears prior to vowel-suppressing suffixes in the interlinear gloss to better distinguish instances of deletion that arise from the presence of a lexically pre-specified suffix from those that arise from other (e.g. phonotactic) motivations). Consider the verb , which is inflected for the first person simple tense and so, predictably, loses its final root vowel: .
However, prior to the suffixation of the first person simple suffix to the same root nominalized with the agentive nominalizer , the word must be verbalized. The fact that the final vowel of below is not suppressed indicates the presence of an intervening segment, the copulative verbalizer: .
It is worthwhile to compare of the copulative verbalizer in Muylaq' Aymara as compared to La Paz Aymara, a variant which represents this suffix with vowel lengthening. Consider the near-identical sentences below, both translations of "I have a small house" in which the nominal root is verbalized with the copulative verbalizer, but the correspondence between the copulative verbalizer in these two variants is not always a strict one-to-one relation.
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
| La Paz Aymara:
|
|-
| Muylaq' Aymara:
|
|}
Georgian
As in English, the verb "to be" () is irregular in Georgian (a Kartvelian language); different verb roots are employed in different tenses. The roots , , , and (past participle) are used in the present tense, future tense, past tense and the perfective tenses respectively. Examples:
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|-
|
|
|}
In the last two examples (perfective and pluperfect), two roots are used in one verb compound. In the perfective tense, the root (which is the expected root for the perfective tense) is followed by the root , which is the root for the present tense. In the pluperfective tense, again, the root is followed by the past tense root . This formation is very similar to German (an Indo-European language), where the perfect and the pluperfect are expressed in the following way:
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
|
| , literally
|-
|
| , literally
|}
Here, is the past participle of in German. In both examples, as in Georgian, this participle is used together with the present and the past forms of the verb in order to conjugate for the perfect and the pluperfect aspects.
Haitian Creole
Haitian Creole, a French-based creole language, has three forms of the copula: , , and the zero copula, no word at all (the position of which will be indicated with Ø, just for purposes of illustration).
Although no textual record exists of Haitian-Creole at its earliest stages of development from French, is derived from French (written ), which is the normal French contraction of (that, written ) and the copula (is, written ) (a form of the verb ).
The derivation of is less obvious; but we can assume that the French source was ("he/it is", written ), which, in rapidly spoken French, is very commonly pronounced as (typically written ).
The use of a zero copula is unknown in French, and it is thought to be an innovation from the early days when Haitian-Creole was first developing as a Romance-based pidgin. Latin also sometimes used a zero copula.
Which of //Ø is used in any given copula clause depends on complex syntactic factors that we can superficially summarize in the following four rules:
1. Use Ø (i.e., no word at all) in declarative sentences where the complement is an adjective phrase, prepositional phrase, or adverb phrase:
2. Use when the complement is a noun phrase. But, whereas other verbs come after any tense/mood/aspect particles (like to mark negation, or to explicitly mark past tense, or to mark progressive aspect), comes before any such particles:
3. Use where French and English have a dummy "it" subject:
4. Finally, use the other copula form in situations where the sentence's syntax leaves the copula at the end of a phrase:
The above is, however, only a simplified analysis.
Japanese
The Japanese copula (most often translated into English as an inflected form of "to be") is unique among verbs in Japanese. It is highly irregular, and in several ways behaves in ways other verbs do not; such as requiring a separate relativised form in some circumstances, and acting simply as a marker of formality/politeness with no predication force in some circumstances. In the most basic case, it behaves like a normal verb with irregular forms, which (like most copulas crosslinguistically) takes a non-case-marked complement instead of an object.
}}
}}
As with all verbs in Japanese, it is necessary to mark the speaker's implied social relationship to the addressee by the choice of verb form. The following two sentences differ only in the fact that the first is appropriate only between decently close friends or family, or said by someone of significantly higher social status than the listener, and the second is only appropriate outside of such circumstances.
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
|
| || ||
|-
|
| || ||
|}
Japanese has two classes of words which correspond to adjectives in English, one of which requires a copula to become a predicate and one of which does not.
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
|
| ||
|-
|
| ||
|-
| <sup>*</sup>
| <sup>*</sup> || colspan=2 | Invalid, as is its own predicate and does not need a copula to make it a predicate
|}
However, the polite copula is used as a means to mark the self-predicating class of adjectives as grammatically formal, and thus the formal equivalent of is . In these situations, the copula is not serving as an actual predication device; it is only a means to supply formality marking.
The non-self-predicating class of adjectives is the one place in modern Japanese where a separate relativiser form appears; these require the form in order to modify nouns.
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
|
| ||
|-
|
| ||
|-
|
| ||
|-
|
| ||
|-
| <sup>*</sup>
| <sup>*</sup> || colspan=2 | Invalid, as this class of adjectives cannot just be placed next to a noun to modify it
|-
| <sup>*</sup>
| <sup>*</sup> || colspan=2 | Invalid, as the copula form requires a specially marked form when it heads a relative clause, unlike all other verbs in modern Japanese
|}
Etymologically the copula is a reduced form of , which effectively means 'exists as'; in formal situations or its formal form can appear in place of or , and in certain situations other forms of may be appropriate (such as /). Nonstandard forms such as in Kansai and in much of the rest of western Japan (see map above) are due to various dialects reducing differently than the Kantō-based standard form did.
The negative form of the copula is generally or its reduced form (or in formal situations, substitute for ). This includes the topic marker , due to negative copula sentences typically implying some kind of contrastive topic-like force on the complement. can occur in relative clauses, where information structure marking might be odd, but is also a general negative copula and would be sensible still in any situation might be used.
Many sentences in Japanese are structurally a headless relative clause nominalised by (or its reduced form ) and then predicated with a copula; the structure is analogous to something like English ''it's that...''. This structure is used to indicate that the statement is intended to answer a question or explain confusion a listener may have had (though the question it answers may not have ever been overtly spoken). This has largely been incorporated into Japanese's sentence-final particle system, and is far more common than the equivalent English structure.
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
|
| ||
|-
|
| ||
|}
Similarly, has also been recruited into the sentence-final particle system, and is used to mark a sentence that the speaker should have been decently obvious to the listener, or to indicate that the speaker is surprised to find that the sentence is true. In this role it can cooccur with an actual predicative , but not with the positive ; is omitted in such sentences.
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
|
| || (differs from "It's not tomorrow" only by intonation; as a sentence-final particle is not a separate phonological unit while as a negative copula it is)
|-
|
| ||
|}
Korean
For sentences with predicate nominatives, the copula () is added to the predicate nominative (with no space in between).
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
|
| ||
|}
Some adjectives (usually colour adjectives) are nominalized and used with the copula ().
1. Without the copula ():
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
|
| ||
|}
2. With the copula ():
:{| border"0" cellspacing"2" cellpadding="1"
| alignleft | || alignright | || align=left |
|-
|
| ||
|}
Some Korean adjectives are derived using the copula. Separating these articles and nominalizing the former part will often result in a sentence with a related, but different meaning. Using the separated sentence in a situation where the un-separated sentence is appropriate is usually acceptable as the listener can decide what the speaker is trying to say using the context.
Chinese
In Chinese, both states and qualities are, in general, expressed with stative verbs (SV) with no need for a copula, e.g., in Chinese, "to be tired" ( ), "to be hungry" ( ), "to be located at" ( ), "to be stupid" ( ) and so forth. A sentence can consist simply of a pronoun and such a verb: for example, (). Usually, however, verbs expressing qualities are qualified by an adverb (meaning "very", "not", "quite", etc.); when not otherwise qualified, they are often preceded by , which in other contexts means "very", but in this use often has no particular meaning.
Only sentences with a noun as the complement (e.g., "This is my sister") use the copular verb "to be": |pshì|labelsno}}. This is used frequently; for example, instead of having a verb meaning "to be Chinese", the usual expression is "to be a Chinese person" (|t|first|c}}; |literally}} ; ). This is sometimes called an equative verb. Another possibility is for the complement to be just a noun modifier (ending in |pde|labelsno}}), the noun being omitted: |lMy car is red. |c|t}}
Before the Han dynasty, the character served as a demonstrative pronoun meaning "this" (this usage survives in some idioms and proverbs.) Some linguists believe that developed into a copula because it often appeared, as a repetitive subject, after the subject of a sentence (in classical Chinese we can say, for example: "George W. Bush, this president of the United States" meaning "George W. Bush is the president of the United States). The character appears to be formed as a compound of characters with the meanings of "early" and "straight."
Another use of in modern Chinese is in combination with the modifier to mean "yes" or to show agreement. For example:
<blockquote>Question: Response: , meaning "Yes", or , meaning "No." </blockquote>
(A more common way of showing that the person asking the question is correct is by simply saying "right" or "correct", ; the corresponding negative answer is .)
Yet another use of is in the shì...(de)'' construction, which is used to emphasize a particular element of the sentence; see .
In Hokkien acts as the copula, and is the equivalent in Wu Chinese. Cantonese uses () instead of ; similarly, Hakka uses .Siouan languages<!-- This section is linked from Medicine man -->
In Siouan languages like Lakota, in principle almost all words—according to their structure—are verbs. So not only (transitive, intransitive and so-called "stative") verbs but even nouns often behave like verbs and do not need to have copulas.
For example, the word refers to a man, and the verb is expressed as . Yet there also is a copula that in most cases is used: .
In order to express the statement , one has to say . But, in order to express that that person is THE doctor (say, that had been phoned to help), one must use another copula :
|
}}
In order to refer to space (e.g., Robert is in the house), various verbs are used, e.g., (lit., ) for humans, or for inanimate objects of a certain shape. "Robert is in the house" could be translated as , whereas "There's one restaurant next to the gas station" translates as
Constructed languages
The constructed language Lojban has two words that act similar to a copula in natural languages. The clause turns whatever follows it into a predicate that means to be (among) what it follows. For example, means "to be Bob", and means "to be one of the three sisters". Another one is , which is itself a predicate that means all its arguments are the same thing (equal). One word which is often confused for a copula in Lojban, but is not one, is . It merely indicates that the word which follows is the main predicate of the sentence. For example, means "my friend is a musician", but the word does not correspond to English is; instead, the word , which is a predicate, corresponds to the entire phrase "is a musician". The word is used to prevent , which would mean "the friend-of-me type of musician". See also
* Indo-European copula
* Nominal sentence
* Stative verb
* Subject complement
* Zero copula
Citations
General references
*
*
* (See "copular sentences" and "existential sentences and expletive there" in Volume II.)
*
*
* Moro, A. (1997) [http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?ISBN=9780521024785 The Raising of Predicates]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.
*
* Tüting, A. W. (December 2003). [http://www.fa-kuan.de/LAKSTRUCT.HTML Essay on Lakota syntax]. .
*
Further reading
*
*
Category:Parts of speech
Category:Verb types | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copula_(linguistics) | 2025-04-05T18:27:23.793358 |
5635 | Christopher Columbus | | order = 1st
| office = Governor of the Indies
| term_start = 1492
| term_end = 1499
| appointed = Isabella I of Castile
| predecessor = Office established
| successor = Francisco de Bobadilla
| birth_date = Between 25 August and 31 October 1451
| birth_place = Genoa, Republic of Genoa
| death_date (aged 54)
| death_place = Valladolid, Castile
| resting_place = Seville Cathedral, Seville, Spain
| spouse
| partner = Beatriz Enríquez de Arana
| children =
| mother = Susanna Fontanarossa
| father = Domenico Colombo
| relatives = Bartholomew Columbus (brother)
| profession = Maritime explorer
| signature = Columbus Signature.svg
}}
Christopher Columbus
*
*
*
* (or )
* .}} (; between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 May 1506) was an Italian explorer and navigator from the Republic of Genoa
Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable in geography, astronomy, and history. He developed a plan to seek a western sea passage to the East Indies, hoping to profit from the lucrative spice trade. After the Granada War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II, agreed to sponsor a journey west. Columbus left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and made landfall in the Americas on 12 October, ending the period of human habitation in the Americas now referred to as the pre-Columbian era. His landing place was an island in the Bahamas, known by its native inhabitants as Guanahani. He then visited the islands now known as Cuba and Hispaniola, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti. Columbus returned to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word of his voyage soon spread throughout Europe.
Columbus made three further voyages to the Americas, exploring the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern coast of South America in 1498, and the east coast of Central America in 1502. Many of the names given to geographical features by Columbus, particularly the names of islands, are still in use. He gave the name ('Indians') to the indigenous peoples he encountered. The extent to which he was aware that the Americas were a wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced his belief he had reached the Far East. As a colonial governor, Columbus was accused by some of his contemporaries of significant brutality and removed from the post. Columbus's strained relationship with the Crown of Castile and its colonial administrators in America led to his arrest and removal from Hispaniola in 1500, and later to protracted litigation over the privileges he and his heirs claimed were owed to them by the Crown.
Columbus's expeditions inaugurated a period of exploration, conquest, and colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas into the European sphere of influence. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Old World and New World that followed his first voyage are known as the Columbian exchange, named after him. These events and the effects which persist to the present are often cited as the beginning of the modern era. Diseases introduced from the Old World contributed to the depopulation of Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, who were also subject to enslavement and other mistreatments by Columbus's government. Increased public awareness of these interactions has led to Columbus being less celebrated in Western culture, which has historically idealized him as a heroic discoverer. Numerous places have been named for him, as has Columbia, a personification commonly used to represent the United States.
Early life
in Genoa, Italy, an 18th-century reconstruction of the house in which Columbus grew up. The original was likely destroyed during the 1684 bombardment of Genoa.]]
Columbus's early life is obscure, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic of Genoa between 25 August and 31 October 1451. His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who worked in Genoa and Savona, and owned a cheese stand at which young Christopher worked. His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)—as well as a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Lisbon for at least part of his adulthood.
His native language is presumed to have been a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as his first language, though Columbus probably never wrote in it. His name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo, in Italian, , and in Spanish .
In one of his writings, Columbus says he went to sea at 14. In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. Some modern authors have argued that he was not from Genoa, but from the Aragon region of Spain or from Portugal. These competing hypotheses have been discounted by most scholars.
, Genoa]]
In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families of Genoa. Later, he made a trip to the Greek island Chios in the Aegean Sea, then ruled by Genoa. In May 1476, he took part in an armed convoy sent by Genoa to carry valuable cargo to northern Europe. He probably visited Bristol, England, and Galway, Ireland, where he may have visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church. It has been speculated he went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this. It is known that in the autumn of 1477, he sailed on a Portuguese ship from Galway to Lisbon, where he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading for the Centurione family. Columbus based himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying trip to Madeira. He married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin, who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.
]]
In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born. Between 1482 and 1485, Columbus traded along the coasts of West Africa, reaching the Portuguese trading post of Elmina at the Guinea coast in present-day Ghana. Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his wife had died. He returned to Portugal to settle her estate and take Diego with him. He left Portugal for Castile in 1485, where he took a mistress in 1487, a 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana. It is likely that Beatriz met Columbus when he was in Córdoba, a gathering place for Genoese merchants and where the court of the Catholic Monarchs was located at intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at the time, gave birth to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, in July 1488, named for the monarch of Aragon. Columbus recognized the boy as his offspring. Columbus entrusted his older, legitimate son Diego to take care of Beatriz and pay the pension set aside for her following his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.
'', with his handwritten notes in Latin in the margins]]
Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. He read widely about astronomy, geography, and history, including the works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's , the travels of Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Pope Pius II's . According to historian Edmund Morgan,
<blockquote>Columbus was not a scholarly man. Yet he studied these books, made hundreds of marginal notations in them and came out with ideas about the world that were characteristically simple and strong and sometimes wrong ...</blockquote>
Quest for Asia
Background
's notions of the geography of the Atlantic Ocean (shown superimposed on a modern map), which directly influenced Columbus's plans]]
Under the Mongol Empire's hegemony over Asia and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a safe land passage on the Silk Road to India, parts of East Asia, including China and Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods. With the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Silk Road was closed to Christian traders.
In 1474, the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso V of Portugal that sailing west across the Atlantic would be a quicker way to reach Asia than the route around Africa, but Afonso rejected his proposal. In the 1480s, Columbus and his brother proposed a plan to reach the East Indies by sailing west. Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 and received encouragement, along with a copy of a map the astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward route to Asia was possible. Columbus's plans were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Route around Africa to Asia.
Columbus had to wait until 1492 for King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to support his voyage across the Atlantic to find gold, spices, a safer route to the East, and converts to Christianity.
Carol Delaney and other commentators have argued that Columbus was a Christian millennialist and apocalypticist and that these beliefs motivated his quest for Asia in a variety of ways. Columbus often wrote about seeking gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in such quantity that the sovereigns... will undertake and prepare to go conquer the Holy Sepulcher" in a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy. Columbus often wrote about converting all races to Christianity. Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope of "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources of newly discovered lands". Geographical considerations Despite a popular misconception to the contrary, nearly all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Earth is spherical, a concept that had been understood since antiquity. The techniques of celestial navigation, which uses the position of the Sun and the stars in the sky, had long been in use by astronomers and were beginning to be implemented by mariners.<!-- Please do not remove url just because the DOI is given; the webpage has a link to a free download, and the very good paper can be read right there. -->
However Columbus made several errors in calculating the size of the Earth, the distance the continent extended to the east, and therefore the distance to the west to reach his goal.
First, as far back as the 3rd century BC, Eratosthenes had correctly computed the circumference of the Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows cast by objects at two remote locations. In the 1st century BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's results by comparing stellar observations at two separate locations. These measurements were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of the smaller, old-fashioned units of distance led Columbus to underestimate the size of the Earth by about a third.
mapmaking workshop of Bartholomew and Christopher Columbus]]
Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds of Columbus's enterprise: the distance across the ocean between Europe and Asia, which depended on the extent of the oikumene, i.e., the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; the circumference of the Earth; and the number of miles or leagues in a degree of longitude, which was possible to deduce from the theory of the relationship between the size of the surfaces of water and the land as held by the followers of Aristotle in medieval times.
From Pierre d'Ailly's (1410), Columbus learned of Alfraganus's estimate that a degree of latitude (equal to approximately a degree of longitude along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to or 76.2 mi), but he did not realize that this was expressed in the Arabic mile (about ) rather than the shorter Roman mile (about 1,480 m) with which he was familiar. Columbus therefore estimated the size of the Earth to be about 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.
Third, most scholars of the time accepted Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude, rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) or 150° (to Japan at the latitude of Spain). Columbus believed an even higher estimate, leaving a smaller percentage for water. In d'Ailly's , Columbus read Marinus of Tyre's estimate that the longitudinal span of Eurasia was 225° at the latitude of Rhodes. Some historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed the statement in the apocryphal book 2 Esdras (6:42) that "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and the seventh is covered with water." He was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was some to the east of China ("Cathay"), and closer to the equator than it is. He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther to the east than Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might lie not much farther to the west than the Azores, and the distance westward from the Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, equivalent to (a 58% error). No ship in the 15th century could have carried enough food and fresh water for such a long voyage, and the dangers involved in navigating through the uncharted ocean would have been formidable. Most European navigators reasonably concluded that a westward voyage from Europe to Asia was unfeasible. The Catholic Monarchs, however, having completed the , an expensive war against the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula, were eager to obtain a competitive edge over other European countries in the quest for trade with the Indies. Columbus's project, though far-fetched, held the promise of such an advantage.
'', by Benet Mercadé]]
Nautical considerations
Though Columbus was wrong about the number of degrees of longitude that separated Europe from the Far East and about the distance that each degree represented, he did take advantage of the trade winds, which would prove to be the key to his successful navigation of the Atlantic Ocean. He planned to first sail to the Canary Islands before continuing west with the northeast trade wind. Part of the return to Spain would require traveling against the wind using an arduous sailing technique called beating, during which progress is made very slowly. To effectively make the return voyage, Columbus would need to follow the curving trade winds northeastward to the middle latitudes of the North Atlantic, where he would be able to catch the westerlies that blow eastward to the coast of Western Europe.
The navigational technique for travel in the Atlantic appears to have been exploited first by the Portuguese, who referred to it as the ('turn of the sea'). Through his marriage to his first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had access to the nautical charts and logs that had belonged to her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as a captain in the Portuguese navy under Prince Henry the Navigator. In the mapmaking shop where he worked with his brother Bartholomew, Columbus also had ample opportunity to hear the stories of old seamen about their voyages to the western seas, but his knowledge of the Atlantic wind patterns was still imperfect at the time of his first voyage. By sailing due west from the Canary Islands during hurricane season, skirting the so-called horse latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, he risked being becalmed and running into a tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided by chance.
Quest for financial support for a voyage
, 17th century]]
By about 1484, Columbus proposed his planned voyage to King John II of Portugal. The king submitted Columbus's proposal to his advisors, who rejected it, correctly, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage of 2,400 nmi was only a quarter of what it should have been. In 1488, Columbus again appealed to the court of Portugal, and John II again granted him an audience. That meeting also proved unsuccessful, in part because not long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal with news of his successful rounding of the southern tip of Africa (near the Cape of Good Hope).
, in which Columbus stayed in the years before his first expedition]]
Columbus sought an audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who had united several kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula by marrying and now ruled together. On 1 May 1486, permission having been granted, Columbus presented his plans to Queen Isabella, who in turn referred it to a committee. The learned men of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied that Columbus had grossly underestimated the distance to Asia. They pronounced the idea impractical and advised the Catholic Monarchs to pass on the proposed venture. To keep Columbus from taking his ideas elsewhere, and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling about 14,000 for the year, or about the annual salary of a sailor. In May 1489, the queen sent him another 10,000 , and the same year the monarchs furnished him with a letter ordering all cities and towns under their dominion to provide him food and lodging at no cost.
Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to the court of Henry VII of England to inquire whether the English Crown might sponsor his expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, and only arrived in early 1491. By that time, Columbus had retreated to La Rábida Friary, where the Spanish Crown sent him 20,000 maravedis to buy new clothes and instructions to return to the Spanish court for renewed discussions.
Agreement with the Spanish Crown
, where Columbus received permission from the Catholic Monarchs for his first voyage]]
Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula, in January 1492. A council led by Isabella's confessor, Hernando de Talavera, found Columbus's proposal to reach the Indies implausible. Columbus had left for France when Ferdinand intervened,}} first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza to appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by the king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, and offered to help arrange the funding. Isabella then sent a royal guard to fetch Columbus, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.
In the April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella promised Columbus that if he succeeded he would be given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and appointed Viceroy and Governor of all the new lands he might claim for Spain. He had the right to nominate three persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for any office in the new lands. He would be entitled to one-tenth () of all the revenues from the new lands in perpetuity. He also would have the option of buying one-eighth interest in any commercial venture in the new lands, and receive one-eighth () of the profits.
In 1500, during his third voyage to the Americas, Columbus was arrested and dismissed from his posts. He and his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a lengthy series of court cases against the Castilian Crown, known as the , alleging that the Crown had illegally reneged on its contractual obligations to Columbus and his heirs. The Columbus family had some success in their first litigation, as a judgment of 1511 confirmed Diego's position as viceroy but reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued until 1790.
In Columbus's letter on the first voyage, published following his first return to Spain, he claimed that he had reached Asia, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans. Over his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the lands he visited and claimed for Spain were not part of Asia, in the face of mounting evidence to the contrary. This might explain, in part, why the American continent was named after the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit for recognizing it as a "New World"—and not after Columbus. ('unknown land'), noting that it had been discovered by Columbus.}} First voyage (1492–1493) . The island considered by Samuel Eliot Morison to be the most likely location of first contact is the easternmost land touching the top edge of this image.|namefirstimage}} Modern place names in black, Columbus's place names in blue]]
On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera with three ships. The largest was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and under Columbus's direct command. The other two were smaller caravels, the Pinta and the Niña, piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed to the Canary Islands. There he restocked provisions and made repairs then departed from San Sebastián de La Gomera on 6 September, for what turned out to be a five-week voyage across the ocean.
On 7 October, the crew spotted "[i]mmense flocks of birds". On 11 October, Columbus changed the fleet's course to due west, and sailed through the night, believing land was soon to be found. At around 02:00 the following morning, a lookout on the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land. The captain of the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of land and alerted Columbus. Columbus later maintained that he had already seen a light on the land a few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand and Isabella to the first person to sight land. Columbus called this island (in what is now the Bahamas) ('Holy Savior'); the Natives called it Guanahani.}} Christopher Columbus's journal entry of 12 October 1492 states:<blockquote>I saw some who had marks of wounds on their bodies and I made signs to them asking what they were; and they showed me how people from other islands nearby came there and tried to take them, and how they defended themselves; and I believed and believe that they come here from to take them captive. They should be good and intelligent servants, for I see that they say very quickly everything that is said to them; and I believe they would become Christians very easily, for it seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Lord pleasing, at the time of my departure I will take six of them from here to Your Highnesses in order that they may learn to speak.</blockquote>
Columbus called the inhabitants of the lands that he visited ('Indians'). He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples. Noting their gold ear ornaments, Columbus took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the source of the gold. Columbus did not believe he needed to create a fortified outpost, writing, "the people here are simple in war-like matters ... I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men, and govern them as I pleased." The Taínos told Columbus that another indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may have been a belief perpetuated by the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.
Columbus also explored the northeast coast of Cuba, where he landed on 28 October. On the night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on an unauthorized expedition in search of an island called "Babeque" or "Baneque", which the natives had told him was rich in gold. Columbus, for his part, continued to the northern coast of Hispaniola, where he landed on 6 December. There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 December 1492 and had to be abandoned. The wreck was used as a target for cannon fire to impress the native peoples. Columbus was received by the native cacique Guacanagari, who gave him permission to leave some of his men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis de Torres,}} and founded the settlement of La Navidad, in present-day Haiti. Columbus took more natives prisoner and continued his exploration.
On 13 January 1493, Columbus made his last stop of this voyage in the Americas, in the Bay of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola. There he encountered the Ciguayos, the only natives who offered violent resistance during this voyage. The Ciguayos refused to trade the amount of bows and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and another wounded with an arrow in his chest. Because of these events, Columbus called the inlet the ('Bay of Arrows').
Columbus headed for Spain on the Niña, but a storm separated him from the Pinta, and forced the Niña to stop at the island of Santa Maria in the Azores. Half of his crew went ashore to say prayers of thanksgiving in a chapel for having survived the storm. But while praying, they were imprisoned by the governor of the island, ostensibly on suspicion of being pirates. After a two-day stand-off, the prisoners were released, and Columbus again set sail for Spain.
Another storm forced Columbus into the port at Lisbon. From there he went to north of Lisbon to meet King John II of Portugal, who told Columbus that he believed the voyage to be in violation of the 1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas. After spending more than a week in Portugal, Columbus set sail for Spain. Returning to Palos on 15 March 1493, he was given a hero's welcome and soon afterward received by Isabella and Ferdinand in Barcelona. To them he presented kidnapped Taínos and various plants and items he had collected.
One of the ten Natives taken on the return trip was a Lucayan Taíno from Guanahani thought to be 13–15 years of age, who Columbus adopted as his son upon their arrival in Spain; the boy, whose Lucayan name is unknown, received the name Diego at baptism. Initially, Diego had been recognized for his intelligence and rapid acquisition of Spanish customs, and would serve as a guide and interpreter on each of Columbus's subsequent voyages. By the second voyage's departure later in 1493, Diego was the only Native out of the ten taken to Europe who had not died or become seriously ill as the result of disease; while on this voyage, he played a vital role in the discovery of La Navidad. He subsequently married and had a son, also named Diego, who died of illness in 1506. Following Columbus's death, Diego spent the rest of his life confined to Santo Domingo, and does not reappear in the historical record following a smallpox epidemic that swept Hispaniola in 1519.
Columbus's letter on the first voyage, probably dispatched to the Spanish court upon arrival in Lisbon, was instrumental in spreading the news throughout Europe about his voyage. Almost immediately after his arrival in Spain, printed versions began to appear, and word of his voyage spread rapidly. Most people initially believed that he had reached Asia. The Bulls of Donation, three papal bulls of Pope Alexander VI delivered in 1493, purported to grant overseas territories to Portugal and the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. They were replaced by the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494.
The two earliest published copies of Columbus's letter on the first voyage aboard the Niña were donated in 2017 by the Jay I. Kislak Foundation to the University of Miami library in Coral Gables, Florida, where they are housed.
Second voyage (1493–1496)
at the end of his second voyage before sailing back to Spain.}}]]
On 24 September 1493, Columbus sailed from Cádiz with 17 ships, and supplies to establish permanent colonies in the Americas. He sailed with nearly 1,500 men, including sailors, soldiers, priests, carpenters, stonemasons, metalworkers, and farmers. Among the expedition members were Alvarez Chanca, a physician who wrote a detailed account of the second voyage; Juan Ponce de León, the first governor of Puerto Rico and Florida; the father of Bartolomé de las Casas; Juan de la Cosa, a cartographer who is credited with making the first world map depicting the New World; and Columbus's youngest brother Diego. The fleet stopped at the Canary Islands to take on more supplies, and set sail again on 7 October, deliberately taking a more southerly course than on the first voyage.
On 3 November, they arrived in the Windward Islands; the first island they encountered was named Dominica by Columbus, but not finding a good harbor there, they anchored off a nearby smaller island, which he named , now a part of Guadeloupe and called Marie-Galante. Other islands named by Columbus on this voyage were Montserrat, Antigua, Saint Martin, the Virgin Islands, as well as many others.
On 22 November, Columbus returned to Hispaniola to visit La Navidad in modern-day Haiti, where 39 Spaniards had been left during the first voyage. Columbus found the fort in ruins. He learned from Guacanagaríx, the local tribe leader, that his men had quarreled over gold and taken women from the tribe, and that after some left for the territory of Caonabo, Caonabo came and burned the fort and killed the rest of the men there.
Columbus then established a poorly located and short-lived settlement to the east, La Isabela, By the end of 1494, disease and famine had killed two-thirds of the Spanish settlers there.
From April to August 1494, Columbus explored Cuba and Jamaica, then returned to Hispaniola. Before leaving on this exploration to Cuba, Columbus had ordered a large number of men, under Pedro Margarit, to "journey the length and breadth of the island, enforcing Spanish control and bringing all the people under the Spanish yoke." These men, in his absence, raped women, took men captive to be servants, and stole from the indigenous people. A number of Spanish were killed in retaliation. By the time Columbus returned from exploring Cuba, the four primary leaders of the Arawak people in Hispaniola were gathering for war to try to drive the Spanish from the Island. Columbus assembled a large number of troops, and joined with his one native ally, chief [Guacanagarix], met for battle. The Spanish, even though they were largely outnumbered, won this battle, and over the next 9 months Columbus continued to wage war on the native Taíno on Hispaniola until they surrendered and agreed to pay tribute.
Columbus implemented , a Spanish labor system that rewarded conquerors with the labor of conquered non-Christian people. It is also recorded that punishments to both Spaniards and natives included whippings and mutilation (cutting noses and ears).
Columbus and the colonists enslaved many of the indigenous people, including children. Natives were beaten, raped, and tortured for the location of imagined gold. Thousands committed suicide rather than face the oppression.
In February 1495, Columbus rounded up about 1,500 Arawaks, some of whom had rebelled, in a great slave raid. About 500 of the strongest were shipped to Spain as slaves, with about two hundred of those dying en route.
In June 1495, the Spanish Crown sent ships and supplies to Hispaniola. In October, Florentine merchant Gianotto Berardi, who had won the contract to provision the fleet of Columbus's second voyage and to supply the colony on Hispaniola, received almost 40,000 worth of enslaved Indians. He renewed his effort to get supplies to Columbus, and was working to organize a fleet when he suddenly died in December. On 10 March 1496, having been away about 30 months, the fleet departed La Isabela. On 8 June the crew sighted land somewhere between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent, and disembarked in Cádiz on 11 June.
Third voyage (1498–1500)
On 30 May 1498, Columbus left with six ships from Sanlúcar, Spain. The fleet called at Madeira and the Canary Islands, where it divided in two, with three ships heading for Hispaniola and the other three vessels, commanded by Columbus, sailing south to the Cape Verde Islands and then westward across the Atlantic. It is probable that this expedition was intended at least partly to confirm rumors of a large continent south of the Caribbean Sea, that is, South America.
On 31 July they sighted Trinidad, the most southerly of the Caribbean islands. On 5 August, Columbus sent several small boats ashore on the southern side of the Paria Peninsula in what is now Venezuela, near the mouth of the Orinoco river. The fleet then sailed to the islands of Chacachacare and Margarita, reaching the latter on 14 August, and sighted Tobago and Grenada from afar, according to some scholars. By this time, accusations of tyranny and incompetence on the part of Columbus had also reached the Court. The sovereigns sent Francisco de Bobadilla, a relative of Marquesa Beatriz de Bobadilla, a patron of Columbus and a close friend of Queen Isabella, to investigate the accusations of brutality made against the Admiral. Arriving in Santo Domingo while Columbus was away, Bobadilla was immediately met with complaints about all three Columbus brothers. He moved into Columbus's house and seized his property, took depositions from the Admiral's enemies, and declared himself governor. Columbus vehemently denied the charges. The neutrality and accuracy of the accusations and investigations of Bobadilla toward Columbus and his brothers have been disputed by historians, given the anti-Italian sentiment of the Spaniards and Bobadilla's desire to take over Columbus's position.
In early October 1500, Columbus and Diego presented themselves to Bobadilla, and were put in chains aboard La Gorda, the caravel on which Bobadilla had arrived at Santo Domingo. They were returned to Spain, and languished in jail for six weeks before King Ferdinand ordered their release. Not long after, the king and queen summoned the Columbus brothers to the Alhambra palace in Granada. The sovereigns expressed indignation at the actions of Bobadilla, who was then recalled and ordered to make restitutions of the property he had confiscated from Columbus. The royal couple heard the brothers' pleas; restored their freedom and wealth; and, after much persuasion, agreed to fund Columbus's fourth voyage. However, Nicolás de Ovando was to replace Bobadilla and be the new governor of the West Indies.
New light was shed on the seizure of Columbus and his brother Bartholomew, the Adelantado, with the discovery by archivist Isabel Aguirre of an incomplete copy of the testimonies against them gathered by Francisco de Bobadilla at Santo Domingo in 1500. She found a manuscript copy of this (inquiry) in the Archive of Simancas, Spain, uncatalogued until she and Consuelo Varela published their book, (The fall of Christopher Colón: the judgement of Bobadilla) in 2006.
Fourth voyage (1502–1504)
granted to Christopher Columbus and the by Pope Alexander VI in 1502]]
On 9 May 1502, Columbus left Cádiz with his flagship Santa María and three other vessels. The ships were crewed by 140 men, including his brother Bartholomew as second in command and his son Fernando. He sailed to Asilah on the Moroccan coast to rescue Portuguese soldiers said to be besieged by the Moors. The siege had been lifted by the time they arrived, so the Spaniards stayed only a day and continued on to the Canary Islands.
On 15 June, the fleet arrived at Martinique, where it lingered for several days. A hurricane was forming, so Columbus continued westward, The gold was his tenth () of the profits from Hispaniola, equal to 240,000 maravedis, guaranteed by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.
After a brief stop at Jamaica, Columbus sailed to Central America, arriving at the coast of Honduras on 30 July. Here Bartholomew found native merchants and a large canoe. On 14 August, Columbus landed on the continental mainland at Punta Caxinas, now Puerto Castilla, Honduras. He spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, seeking a strait in the western Caribbean through which he could sail to the Indian Ocean. Sailing south along the Nicaraguan coast, he found a channel that led into Almirante Bay in Panama on 5 October.
As soon as his ships anchored in Almirante Bay, Columbus encountered Ngäbe people in canoes who were wearing gold ornaments. In January 1503, he established a garrison at the mouth of the Belén River. Columbus left for Hispaniola on 16 April. On 10 May he sighted the Cayman Islands, naming them after the numerous sea turtles there. His ships sustained damage in a storm off the coast of Cuba. Unable to travel farther, on 25 June 1503 they were beached in Saint Ann Parish, Jamaica.
For six months Columbus and 230 of his men remained stranded on Jamaica. Diego Méndez de Segura, who had shipped out as a personal secretary to Columbus, and a Spanish shipmate called Bartolomé Flisco, along with six natives, paddled a canoe to get help from Hispaniola. The governor, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, detested Columbus and obstructed all efforts to rescue him and his men. In the meantime Columbus, in a desperate effort to induce the natives to continue provisioning him and his hungry men, won their favor by predicting a lunar eclipse for 29 February 1504, using Abraham Zacuto's astronomical charts. Despite the governor's obstruction, Christopher Columbus and his men were rescued on 28 June 1504, and arrived in Sanlúcar, Spain, on 7 November. Probably with the assistance of his son Diego and his friend the Carthusian monk Gaspar Gorricio, Columbus produced two books during his later years: a Book of Privileges (1502), detailing and documenting the rewards from the Spanish Crown to which he believed he and his heirs were entitled, and a Book of Prophecies (1505), in which passages from the Bible were used to place his achievements as an explorer in the context of Christian eschatology.
In his later years, Columbus demanded that the Crown of Castile give him his tenth of all the riches and trade goods yielded by the new lands, as stipulated in the Capitulations of Santa Fe.
]]
During a violent storm on his first return voyage, Columbus, then 41, had suffered an attack of what was believed at the time to be gout. In subsequent years, he was plagued with what was thought to be influenza and other fevers, bleeding from the eyes, temporary blindness and prolonged attacks of gout. The attacks increased in duration and severity, sometimes leaving Columbus bedridden for months at a time, and culminated in his death 14 years later.
Based on Columbus's lifestyle and the described symptoms, some modern commentators suspect that he suffered from reactive arthritis, rather than gout. Reactive arthritis is a joint inflammation caused by intestinal bacterial infections or after acquiring certain sexually transmitted diseases (primarily chlamydia or gonorrhea). In 2006, Frank C. Arnett, a medical doctor, and historian Charles Merrill, published their paper in The American Journal of the Medical Sciences proposing that Columbus had a form of reactive arthritis; Merrill made the case in that same paper that Columbus was the son of Catalans and his mother possibly a member of a prominent (converted Jew) family. "It seems likely that [Columbus] acquired reactive arthritis from food poisoning on one of his ocean voyages because of poor sanitation and improper food preparation", says Arnett, a rheumatologist and professor of internal medicine, pathology and laboratory medicine at the University of Texas Medical School at Houston.
Some historians such as H. Micheal Tarver and Emily Slape, as well as medical doctors such as Arnett and Antonio Rodríguez Cuartero, believe that Columbus had such a form of reactive arthritis, but according to other authorities, this is "speculative", or "very speculative".
After his arrival to Sanlúcar from his fourth voyage (and Queen Isabella's death), an ill Columbus settled in Seville in April 1505. He stubbornly continued to make pleas to the Crown to defend his own personal privileges and his family's. He moved to Segovia (where the court was at the time) on a mule by early 1506, and, on the occasion of the wedding of King Ferdinand with Germaine of Foix in Valladolid, Spain, in March 1506, Columbus moved to that city to persist with his demands. On 20 May 1506, aged 54, Columbus died in Valladolid.
Location of remains
Columbus's remains were first buried at the Chapel of Wonders at the Convent of St. Francis, Valladolid, but were then moved to the monastery of La Cartuja in Seville (southern Spain) by the will of his son Diego. They may have been exhumed in 1513 and interred at the Seville Cathedral. In about 1536, the remains of both Columbus and his son Diego were moved to a cathedral in Colonial Santo Domingo, in the present-day Dominican Republic; Columbus had requested to be buried on the island. After Cuba became independent following the Spanish–American War in 1898, at least some of these remains were moved back to the Seville Cathedral, Initial observations suggested that the bones did not appear to match Columbus's physique or age at death. DNA extraction proved difficult; only short fragments of mitochondrial DNA could be isolated. These matched corresponding DNA from Columbus's brother, supporting that the two men had the same mother. Such evidence, together with anthropologic and historic analyses, led the researchers to conclude that the remains belonged to Christopher Columbus.
In 1877, a priest discovered a lead box at Santo Domingo inscribed: "Discoverer of America, First Admiral". Inscriptions found the next year read "Last of the remains of the first admiral, Sire Christopher Columbus, discoverer." The box contained bones of an arm and a leg, as well as a bullet. These remains were considered legitimate by physician and U.S. Assistant Secretary of State John Eugene Osborne, who suggested in 1913 that they travel through the Panama Canal as a part of its opening ceremony. These remains were kept at the Basilica Cathedral of Santa María la Menor (in the Colonial City of Santo Domingo) before being moved to the Columbus Lighthouse (Santo Domingo Este, inaugurated in 1992). The authorities in Santo Domingo have never allowed these remains to be DNA-tested, so it is unconfirmed whether they are from Columbus's body as well. In the spring of 1692, Puritan preacher Cotton Mather described Columbus's voyage as one of three shaping events of the modern age, connecting Columbus's voyage and the Puritans' migration to North America, seeing them together as the key to a grand design.
The use of Columbus as a founding figure of New World nations spread rapidly after the American Revolution. This was out of a desire to develop a national history and founding myth with fewer ties to Britain. His name was the basis for the female national personification of the United States, Columbia, in use since the 1730s with reference to the original Thirteen Colonies, and also a historical name applied to the Americas and to the New World. Columbia, South Carolina and Columbia Rediviva, the ship for which the Columbia River was named, are named for Columbus.
Columbus's name was given to the newly born Republic of Colombia in the early 19th century, inspired by the political project of "Colombeia" developed by revolutionary Francisco de Miranda, which was put at the service of the emancipation of continental Hispanic America.<!--Towns, streets, and plazas throughout Latin America and Spain have been named after him.-->
To commemorate the 400th anniversary of the landing of Columbus, the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago was named the World's Columbian Exposition. The U.S. Postal Service issued the first U.S. commemorative stamps, the Columbian Issue, depicting Columbus, Queen Isabella and others in various stages of his several voyages. A commemorative silver half dollar was also struck, which remains the only U.S. currency issued having a foreigner as its subject. The policies related to the celebration of the Spanish colonial empire as the vehicle of a nationalist project undertaken in Spain during the Restoration in the late 19th century took form with the commemoration of the 4th centenary on 12 October 1892 (in which the figure of Columbus was extolled by the Conservative government), eventually becoming the very same national day. Several monuments commemorating the "discovery" were erected in cities such as Palos, Barcelona, Granada, Madrid, Salamanca, Valladolid and Seville in the years around the 400th anniversary.
For the Columbus Quincentenary in 1992, a second Columbian issue was released jointly with Italy, Portugal, and Spain. Columbus was celebrated at Seville Expo '92, and Genoa Expo '92.
The Boal Mansion Museum, founded in 1951, contains a collection of materials concerning later descendants of Columbus and collateral branches of the family. It features a 16th-century chapel from a Spanish castle reputedly owned by Diego Colón which became the residence of Columbus's descendants. The chapel interior was dismantled and moved from Spain in 1909 and re-erected on the Boal estate at Boalsburg, Pennsylvania. Inside it are numerous religious paintings and other objects including a reliquary with fragments of wood supposedly from the True Cross. The museum also holds a collection of documents mostly relating to Columbus descendants of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
In many countries of the Americas, as well as Spain and Italy, Columbus Day celebrates the anniversary of Columbus's arrival in the Americas on 12 October 1492.
Legacy
The voyages of Columbus are considered a turning point in human history, marking the beginning of globalization and accompanying demographic, commercial, economic, social, and political changes.
. The landing of Columbus became a powerful icon of American genesis in the 19th century.]]
His explorations resulted in permanent contact between the two hemispheres, and the term "pre-Columbian" is used to refer to the cultures of the Americas before the arrival of Columbus and his European successors. The ensuing Columbian exchange saw the massive exchange of animals, plants, fungi, diseases, technologies, mineral wealth and ideas.
In the first century after his endeavors, Columbus's figure largely languished in the backwaters of history, and his reputation was beset by his failures as a colonial administrator. His legacy was somewhat rescued from oblivion when he began to appear as a character in Italian and Spanish plays and poems from the late 16th century onward.
Columbus was subsumed into the Western narrative of colonization and empire building, which invoked notions of translatio imperii and translatio studii to underline who was considered "civilized" and who was not.
'' sculpture, depicting Columbus and a cowering Indian maiden, stood outside the U.S. Capitol from 1844 to 1958.]]
The Americanization of the figure of Columbus began in the latter decades of the 18th century, after the revolutionary period of the United States, elevating the status of his reputation to a national myth, homo americanus. His landing became a powerful icon as an "image of American genesis". As recorded during its unveiling in 1844, the sculpture extends to "represent the meeting of the two races", as Persico captures their first interaction, highlighting the "moral and intellectual inferiority" of Natives. Placed outside the U.S. Capitol building where it remained until its removal in the mid-20th century, the sculpture reflected the contemporary view of whites in the U.S. toward the Natives; they are labeled "merciless Indian savages" in the United States Declaration of Independence. In 1836, Pennsylvania senator and future U.S. President James Buchanan, who proposed the sculpture, described it as representing "the great discoverer when he first bounded with ecstasy upon the shore, ail his toils past, presenting a hemisphere to the astonished world, with the name America inscribed upon it. Whilst he is thus standing upon the shore, a female savage, with awe and wonder depicted in her countenance, is gazing upon him."
The American Columbus myth was reconfigured later in the century when he was enlisted as an ethnic hero by immigrants to the United States who were not of Anglo-Saxon stock, such as Jewish, Italian, and Irish people, who claimed Columbus as a sort of ethnic founding father. Catholics unsuccessfully tried to promote him for canonization in the 19th century.
From the 1990s onward, a narrative of Columbus being responsible for the genocide of indigenous peoples and environmental destruction began to compete with the then predominant discourse of Columbus as Christ-bearer, scientist, or father of America. This narrative features the negative effects of Columbus' conquests on native populations. and were largely replaced by Europeans and Africans, who brought with them new methods of farming, business, governance, and religious worship.
Originality of discovery of America
commemorates the voyages of discovery of Leif Erikson () and Christopher Columbus (1492).]]
Though Christopher Columbus came to be considered the European discoverer of America in Western popular culture, his historical legacy is more nuanced. After settling Iceland, the Norse settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century. Norsemen are believed to have then set sail from Greenland and Iceland to become the first known Europeans to reach the North American mainland, nearly 500 years before Columbus reached the Caribbean. The 1960s discovery of a Norse settlement dating c. 1000 at L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, partially corroborates accounts within the Icelandic sagas of Erik the Red's colonization of Greenland and his son Leif Erikson's subsequent exploration of a place he called Vinland.
In the 19th century, amid a revival of interest in Norse culture, Carl Christian Rafn and Benjamin Franklin DeCosta wrote works establishing that the Norse had preceded Columbus in colonizing the Americas. Following this, in 1874 Rasmus Bjørn Anderson argued that Columbus must have known of the North American continent before he started his voyage of discovery.
Europeans devised explanations for the origins of the Native Americans and their geographical distribution with narratives that often served to reinforce their own preconceptions built on ancient intellectual foundations. In modern Latin America, the non-Native populations of some countries often demonstrate an ambiguous attitude toward the perspectives of indigenous peoples regarding the so-called "discovery" by Columbus and the era of colonialism that followed.
In his 1960 monograph, Mexican philosopher and historian Edmundo O'Gorman explicitly rejects the Columbus discovery myth, arguing that the idea that Columbus discovered America was a misleading legend fixed in the public mind through the works of American author Washington Irving during the 19th century. O'Gorman argues that to assert Columbus "discovered America" is to shape the facts concerning the events of 1492 to make them conform to an interpretation that arose many years later. For him, the Eurocentric view of the discovery of America sustains systems of domination in ways that favor Europeans. In a 1992 article for The UNESCO Courier, Félix Fernández-Shaw argues that the word "discovery" prioritizes European explorers as the "heroes" of the contact between the Old and New World. He suggests that the word "encounter" is more appropriate, being a more universal term which includes Native Americans in the narrative. America as a distinct land
in Columbus Circle, New York City]]
Historians have traditionally argued that Columbus remained convinced until his death that his journeys had been along the east coast of Asia as he originally intended
Shape of the Earth
, a Museum and Mausoleum in homage to Christopher Columbus in Santo Domingo]]
Washington Irving's 1828 biography of Columbus popularized the idea that Columbus had difficulty obtaining support for his plan because many Catholic theologians insisted that the Earth was flat, but this is a popular misconception which can be traced back to 17th-century Protestants campaigning against Catholicism. In fact, the spherical shape of the Earth had been known to scholars since antiquity, and was common knowledge among sailors, including Columbus. Coincidentally, the oldest surviving globe of the Earth, the Erdapfel, was made in 1492, just before Columbus's return to Europe from his first voyage. As such it contains no sign of the Americas and yet demonstrates the common belief in a spherical Earth.
In 1492, Columbus correctly measured Polaris's diurnal motion around true north as having a diameter of almost 7°. In 1498, while sailing west through the doldrums 8° north in July and again in August sailing the trade winds 13° north, Columbus reported seeing Polaris with a diurnal motion of 10° in diameter. He accounted for the shift by concluding that Earth's figure is pear-shaped, with the 'stalk' portion (comparing this to a woman's breast) being nearest Heaven and upon which was centered the Earthly Paradise. Although Columbus's later readings were incorrect, 20th-century satellite data happens to indicate that the Earth has a slight pear shape. Criticism and defense Columbus has been criticized both for his brutality and for initiating the depopulation of the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, whether by imported diseases or intentional violence. According to scholars of Native American history, George Tinker and Mark Freedman, Columbus was responsible for creating a cycle of "murder, violence, and slavery" to maximize exploitation of the Caribbean islands' resources, and that Native deaths on the scale at which they occurred would not have been caused by new diseases alone. Further, they describe the proposition that disease and not genocide caused these deaths as "American holocaust denial". Historian Kris Lane disputes whether it is appropriate to use the term "genocide" when the atrocities were not Columbus's intent, but resulted from his decrees, family business goals, and negligence. Other scholars defend Columbus's actions or allege that the worst accusations against him are not based in fact while others claim that "he has been blamed for events far beyond his own reach or knowledge".
As a result of the protests and riots that followed the murder of George Floyd in 2020, many public monuments of Christopher Columbus have been removed. Brutality
in the Baltimore inner harbor area. The statue was thrown into the harbor on 4 July 2020, as part of the George Floyd protests.]]
Some historians have criticized Columbus for initiating the widespread colonization of the Americas and for abusing its native population. On St. Croix, Columbus's friend Michele da Cuneo—according to his own account—kept an indigenous woman he captured, whom Columbus "gave to [him]", then brutally raped her.}}
According to some historians, the punishment for an indigenous person, aged 14 and older, failing to pay a hawk's bell, or cascabela, worth of gold dust every six months (based on Bartolomé de las Casas's account) was cutting off the hands of those without tokens, often leaving them to bleed to death. Other historians dispute such accounts. For example, a study of Spanish archival sources showed that the cascabela quotas were imposed by Guarionex, not Columbus, and that there is no mention, in the primary sources, of punishment by cutting off hands for failing to pay. Columbus had an economic interest in the enslavement of the Hispaniola natives and for that reason was not eager to baptize them, which attracted criticism from some churchmen. Consuelo Varela, a Spanish historian, stated that "Columbus's government was characterized by a form of tyranny. Even those who loved him had to admit the atrocities that had taken place." Other historians have argued that some of the accounts of the brutality of Columbus and his brothers have been exaggerated as part of the Black Legend, a historical tendency towards anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic sentiment in historical sources dating as far back as the 16th century, which they speculate may continue to taint scholarship into the present day.
According to historian Emily Berquist Soule, the immense Portuguese profits from the maritime trade in African slaves along the West African coast served as an inspiration for Columbus to create a counterpart of this apparatus in the New World using indigenous American slaves. Historian William J. Connell has argued that while Columbus "brought the entrepreneurial form of slavery to the New World", this "was a phenomenon of the times", further arguing that "we have to be very careful about applying 20th-century understandings of morality to the morality of the 15th century." In a less popular defense of colonization, Spanish ambassador has argued, "Normally we melded with the cultures in America, we stayed there, we spread our language and culture and religion."
British historian Basil Davidson has dubbed Columbus the "father of the slave trade", citing the fact that the first license to ship enslaved Africans to the Caribbean was issued by the Catholic Monarchs in 1501 to the first royal governor of Hispaniola, Nicolás de Ovando.
Depopulation
Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates for the population of Hispaniola ranged between 250,000 and two million, Charles C. Mann writes that "It was as if the suffering these diseases had caused in Eurasia over the past millennia were concentrated into the span of decades." A third of the natives forced to work in gold and silver mines died every six months. The indigenous population of the Americas overall is thought to have been reduced by about 90% in the century after Columbus's arrival. Among indigenous peoples, Columbus is often viewed as a key agent of genocide. Samuel Eliot Morison, a Harvard University historian and author of a multivolume biography on Columbus, writes, "The cruel policy initiated by Columbus and pursued by his successors resulted in complete genocide."
According to Noble David Cook, "There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact." He instead estimates that the death toll was caused by smallpox, which may have caused a pandemic only after the arrival of Hernán Cortés in 1519. According to some estimates, smallpox had an 80–90% fatality rate in Native American populations. The natives had no acquired immunity to these new diseases and suffered high fatalities. There is also evidence that they had poor diets and were overworked. Historian Andrés Reséndez of University of California, Davis, says the available evidence suggests "slavery has emerged as major killer" of the indigenous populations of the Caribbean between 1492 and 1550 more so than diseases such as smallpox, influenza and malaria. He says that indigenous populations did not experience a rebound like European populations did following the Black Death because unlike the latter, a large portion of the former were subjected to deadly forced labor in the mines.
The diseases that devastated the Native Americans came in multiple waves at different times, sometimes as much as centuries apart, which would mean that survivors of one disease may have been killed by others, preventing the population from recovering. Historian David Stannard describes the depopulation of the indigenous Americans as "neither inadvertent nor inevitable", saying it was the result of both disease and intentional genocide.
Navigational expertise
Biographers and historians have a wide range of opinions about Columbus's expertise and experience navigating and captaining ships. One scholar lists some European works ranging from the 1890s to 1980s that support Columbus's experience and skill as among the best in Genoa, while listing some American works over a similar timeframe that portray the explorer as an untrained entrepreneur, having only minor crew or passenger experience prior to his noted journeys. According to Morison, Columbus's success in utilizing the trade winds might owe significantly to luck. Physical appearance
Contemporary descriptions of Columbus, including those by his son Fernando and Bartolomé de las Casas, describe him as taller than average, with light skin (often sunburnt), blue or hazel eyes, high cheekbones and freckled face, an aquiline nose, and blond to reddish hair and beard (until about the age of 30, when it began to whiten). One Spanish commentator described his eyes using the word garzos, now usually translated as "light blue", but it seems to have indicated light grey-green or hazel eyes to Columbus's contemporaries. The word rubios can mean "blond", "fair", or "ruddy". Although an abundance of artwork depicts Columbus, no authentic contemporary portrait is known.
A well-known image of Columbus is a portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo, which has been reproduced in many textbooks. It agrees with descriptions of Columbus in that it shows a large man with auburn hair, but the painting dates from 1519 so cannot have been painted from life. Furthermore, the inscription identifying the subject as Columbus was probably added later, and the face shown differs from that of other images.
Sometime between 1531 and 1536, Alejo Fernández painted an altarpiece, The Virgin of the Navigators, that includes a depiction of Columbus. The painting was commissioned for a chapel in Seville's Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) in the Alcázar of Seville and remains there.
At the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893, 71 alleged portraits of Columbus were displayed; most of them did not match contemporary descriptions. See also
* Christopher Columbus in fiction
* Columbus Day
* Egg of Columbus
* Christopher Columbus House
* History of the Americas
* Peopling of the Americas
* Lugares colombinos
Notes
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
* in
* Crosby, A. W. (1987) The Columbian Voyages: the Columbian Exchange, and their Historians. Washington, D.C.: American Historical Association.
*
*
* Fuson, Robert H. (1992) The Log of Christopher Columbus. International Marine
*
*
*
*
** }}
** }}
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
*
*
*
* Wey, Gómez Nicolás (2008). [http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/137222779 The tropics of empire: Why Columbus sailed south to the Indies]. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
* Wilford, John Noble (1991), The Mysterious History of Columbus: An Exploration of the Man, the Myth, the Legacy, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
* External links
*
*
*
* [https://archive.org/details/journalsdocumentscolumbus Journals and Other Documents on the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus], translated and edited by Samuel Eliot Morison in PDF format
* [http://www.franciscan-archive.org/columbus/opera/excerpts.html Excerpts from the log of Christopher Columbus's first voyage]
* [https://www.bartleby.com/43/2.html The Letter of Columbus to Luis de Sant Angel Announcing His Discovery]
* [http://columbus.vanderkrogt.net/ Columbus Monuments Pages] (overview of monuments for Columbus all over the world)
* [http://www.bridgepugliausa.it/articolo.asp?id_sez2&id_cat37&id_art=3554 "But for Columbus There Would Be No America"], Tiziano Thomas Dossena, Bridgepugliausa.it, 2012.
Category:1451 births
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Category:1490s in the Caribbean
Category:1492 in North America
Category:15th-century apocalypticists
Category:15th-century Genoese people
Category:15th-century Italian explorers
Category:15th-century Roman Catholics
Category:16th-century diarists
Category:16th-century Genoese people
Category:Burials at Seville Cathedral
Category:Colonial governors of Santo Domingo
Christopher
Category:Explorers from the Republic of Genoa
Category:Explorers of Central America
Category:Italian expatriates in Spain
Category:Italian explorers of North America
Category:Italian explorers of South America
Category:Italian people imprisoned abroad
Category:Italian Roman Catholics
Category:Palmarian saints
Category:Foreign nationals imprisoned in Spain
Category:Spanish exploration in the Age of Discovery | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus | 2025-04-05T18:27:23.920848 |
5636 | Chemist | thumb|250px|The Apothecary or The Chemist, a portrait by Gabriël Metsu,
A chemist (from Greek chēm(ía) alchemy; replacing chymist from Medieval Latin alchemist) is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the field. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, chemical reaction rates, and other chemical properties. In Commonwealth English, pharmacists are often called chemists.
Chemists use their knowledge to learn the composition and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The work of chemists is often related to the work of chemical engineers, who are primarily concerned with the proper design, construction and evaluation of the most cost-effective large-scale chemical plants and work closely with industrial chemists on the development of new processes and methods for the commercial-scale manufacture of chemicals and related products.
History of chemistry
thumb|German chemist Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) was the first to drop the Arabic definite article al-, exclusively writing chymia and chymista in describing activity that we today would characterize as chemical or alchemical.
thumb|Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, author of the first modern periodic table of elements
thumb|right|Antoine Lavoisier (1743–94) is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".
The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning. Fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses. After gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy. The word chemist is derived from the Neo-Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista (alchemist). Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry.
Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century.
At the Washington Academy of Sciences during World War I, it was said that the side with the best chemists would win the war.
Education
Formal education
Jobs for chemists generally require at least a bachelor's degree in chemistry, which takes four years. However, many positions, especially those in research, require a Master of Science or a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD.). Most undergraduate programs emphasize mathematics and physics as well as chemistry, partly because chemistry is also known as "the central science", thus chemists ought to have a well-rounded knowledge about science. At the Master's level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field. Fields of specialization include biochemistry, nuclear chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, polymer chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, theoretical chemistry, quantum chemistry, environmental chemistry, and thermochemistry. Postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions.
Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a chemistry degree, are commonly referred to as chemical technicians. Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, having an associate degree. A chemical technologist has more education or experience than a chemical technician but less than a chemist, often having a bachelor's degree in a different field of science with also an associate degree in chemistry (or many credits related to chemistry) or having the same education as a chemical technician but more experience. There are also degrees specific to become a chemical technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional chemist. A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and instrumentation necessary to perform chemical analyzes than a chemical technician. They are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed. They also perform functions in the areas of environmental quality control and the operational phase of a chemical plant.
Training
In addition to all the training usually given to chemical technologists in their respective degree (or one given via an associate degree), a chemist is also trained to understand more details related to chemical phenomena so that the chemist can be capable of more planning on the steps to achieve a distinct goal via a chemistry-related endeavor. The higher the competency level achieved in the field of chemistry (as assessed via a combination of education, experience and personal achievements), the higher the responsibility given to that chemist and the more complicated the task might be. Chemistry, as a field, has so many applications that different tasks and objectives can be given to workers or scientists with these different levels of education or experience. The specific title of each job varies from position to position, depending on factors such as the kind of industry, the routine level of the task, the current needs of a particular enterprise, the size of the enterprise or hiring firm, the philosophy and management principles of the hiring firm, the visibility of the competency and individual achievements of the one seeking employment, economic factors such as recession or economic depression, among other factors, so this makes it difficult to categorize the exact roles of these chemistry-related workers as standard for that given level of education. Because of these factors affecting exact job titles with distinct responsibilities, some chemists might begin doing technician tasks while other chemists might begin doing more complicated tasks than those of a technician, such as tasks that also involve formal applied research, management, or supervision included within the responsibilities of that same job title. The level of supervision given to that chemist also varies in a similar manner, with factors similar to those that affect the tasks demanded for a particular chemist.
thumb|A chemist in the lab of the Warsaw University of Technology in 2011
It is important that those interested in a Chemistry degree understand the variety of roles available to them (on average), which vary depending on education and job experience. Those Chemists who hold a bachelor's degree are most commonly involved in positions related to either research assistance (working under the guidance of senior chemists in a research-oriented activity), or, alternatively, they may work on distinct (chemistry-related) aspects of a business, organization or enterprise including aspects that involve quality control, quality assurance, manufacturing, production, formulation, inspection, method validation, visitation for troubleshooting of chemistry-related instruments, regulatory affairs, "on-demand" technical services, chemical analysis for non-research purposes (e.g., as a legal request, for testing purposes, or for government or non-profit agencies); chemists may also work in environmental evaluation and assessment. Other jobs or roles may include sales and marketing of chemical products and chemistry-related instruments or technical writing. The more experience obtained, the more independence and leadership or management roles these chemists may perform in those organizations. Some chemists with relatively higher experience might change jobs or job position to become a manager of a chemistry-related enterprise, a supervisor, an entrepreneur or a chemistry consultant. Other chemists choose to combine their education and experience as a chemist with a distinct credential to provide different services (e.g., forensic chemists, chemistry-related software development, patent law specialists, environmental law firm staff, scientific news reporting staff, engineering design staff, etc.).
In comparison, chemists who have obtained a Master of Science (M.S.) in chemistry or in a very related discipline may find chemist roles that allow them to enjoy more independence, leadership and responsibility earlier in their careers with less years of experience than those with a bachelor's degree as highest degree. Sometimes, M.S. chemists receive more complex tasks duties in comparison with the roles and positions found by chemists with a bachelor's degree as their highest academic degree and with the same or close-to-same years of job experience. There are positions that are open only to those that at least have a degree related to chemistry at the master's level. Although good chemists without a Ph.D. degree but with relatively many years of experience may be allowed some applied research positions, the general rule is that Ph.D. chemists are preferred for research positions and are typically the preferred choice for the highest administrative positions on big enterprises involved in chemistry-related duties. Some positions, especially research oriented, will only allow those chemists who are Ph.D. holders. Jobs that involve intensive research and actively seek to lead the discovery of completely new chemical compounds under specifically assigned monetary funds and resources or jobs that seek to develop new scientific theories require a Ph.D. more often than not. Chemists with a Ph.D. as the highest academic degree are found typically on the research-and-development department of an enterprise and can also hold university positions as professors. Professors for research universities or for big universities usually have a Ph.D., and some research-oriented institutions might require post-doctoral training. Some smaller colleges (including some smaller four-year colleges or smaller non-research universities for undergraduates) as well as community colleges usually hire chemists with a M.S. as professors too (and rarely, some big universities who need part-time or temporary instructors, or temporary staff), but when the positions are scarce and the applicants are many, they might prefer Ph.D. holders instead.
Skills
Skills that a chemist may need on the job include:
Knowledge of chemistry
Familiarity with product development
Using scientific rules, strategies, or concepts to solve problems
Putting together small parts using hands and fingers with dexterity
Employment
Most chemists begin their lives in research laboratories.
Increasingly, chemists may also find themselves using artificial intelligence, such as for drug discovery.
Subdisciplines
Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry. There is a great deal of overlap between different branches of chemistry, as well as with other scientific fields such as biology, medicine, physics, radiology, and several engineering disciplines.
Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, for example, in medicinal chemistry.
right|frame|A chemist prepares a new fuel cell for testing at Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois.
right|frame|A chemist pours from a round-bottom flask at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California.
Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. The Inorganic chemistry is also the study of atomic and molecular structure and bonding.
Medicinal chemistry is the science involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. Medicinal chemistry involves the identification, synthesis and development of new chemical entities suitable for therapeutic use. It also includes the study of existing drugs, their biological properties, and their quantitative structure-activity relationships.
Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and chemical reaction of carbon compounds.
Physical chemistry is the study of the physical fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, and spectroscopy. Physical chemistry has a large overlap with theoretical chemistry and molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of calculus in deriving equations.
Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular, the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with condensed matter physics and molecular physics. See reductionism.
All the above major areas of chemistry employ chemists. Other fields where chemical degrees are useful include astrochemistry (and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemo-informatics, electrochemistry, environmental science, forensic science, geochemistry, green chemistry, history of chemistry, materials science, medical science, molecular biology, molecular genetics, nanotechnology, nuclear chemistry, oenology, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, pharmacology, photochemistry, phytochemistry, polymer chemistry, supramolecular chemistry and surface chemistry.
Professional societies
Chemists may belong to professional societies specifically for professionals and researchers within the field of chemistry, such as the Royal Society of Chemistry in the United Kingdom, the American Chemical Society (ACS) in the United States, or the Institution of Chemists in India.
Ethics
The "Global Chemists' Code of Ethics" suggests several ethical principles that all chemists should follow:
Promoting the general public's appreciation of chemistry
The importance of sustainability and protecting the environment
The importance of scientific research and publications
Respecting safety, such as by using proper personal protective equipment
Respecting chemical security throughout the chemical supply chain, especially for labs and industrial facilities
This code of ethics was codified in a 2016 conference held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, run by the American Chemical Society. The points listed are inspired by the 2015 Hague Ethical Guidelines.
Honors and awards
The highest honor awarded to chemists is the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, awarded since 1901, by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
See also
List of chemistry topics
List of chemists
List of Chemistry Societies
References
External links
American Chemical Society
Chemical Abstracts Service indexes and abstracts the world's chemistry-related literature and patents
Chemists and Materials Scientists from the U.S. Department of Labor's Occupational Outlook Handbook
Royal Society of Chemistry
History of Chemistry links for chemists
Luminaries of the Chemical Sciences accomplishments, biography, and publications from 44 of the most influential chemists
Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry
Links for Chemists guide to web sites related to chemistry
ChemistryViews.org
Category:Science occupations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist | 2025-04-05T18:27:23.939378 |
5637 | Cypress Hill | Cypress Hills}}
| years_active 1988–present
| alias = DVX (1988)
| label =
| spinoffs =
| website =
| current_members = * B-Real
* Sen Dog
* Eric Bobo
* DJ Muggs
| past_members = * Mellow Man Ace
}}
Cypress Hill is an American hip hop group formed in South Gate, California in 1988. They have sold over 20 million albums worldwide, and they have obtained multi-platinum and platinum certifications. The group has been critically acclaimed for their first five albums. They are considered to be among the main progenitors of West Coast hip hop and 1990s hip hop. All of the group members advocate for medical and recreational use of cannabis in the United States. In 2019, Cypress Hill became the first hip hop group to have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.HistoryFormation (1988)Senen Reyes (also known as Sen Dog) and Ulpiano Sergio Reyes (also known as Mellow Man Ace) are brothers born in Pinar del Río, Cuba. In 1971, their family immigrated to the United States and initially lived in South Gate, California. In 1988, the two brothers teamed up with New York City native Lawrence Muggerud (also known as DJ Muggs, previously in a rap group named 7A3) and Louis Freese (also known as B-Real) to form a hip-hop group named DVX (Devastating Vocal Excellence). The band soon lost Mellow Man Ace to a solo career, and changed their name to Cypress Hill, after a street in South Gate.
Mainstream success with Cypress Hill and Black Sunday, addition of Eric Bobo, and III: Temples of Boom (1989–1996)
After recording a demo in 1989, Cypress Hill signed a record deal with Ruffhouse Records. Their self-titled first album was released in August 1991. The lead single was the double A-side "The Phuncky Feel One"/"How I Could Just Kill a Man" which received heavy airplay on urban and college radio, most notably peaking at No. 1 on Billboard Hot Rap Tracks chart and at No. 77 on the Billboard Hot 100. The other two singles released from the album were "Hand on the Pump" and "Latin Lingo", the latter of which combined English and Spanish lyrics, a trait that was continued throughout their career. The success of these singles led Cypress Hill to sell two million copies in the U.S. alone, and it peaked at No. 31 on the Billboard 200 and was certified double platinum by the RIAA. In 1992, Cypress Hill's first contribution to a soundtrack was the song "Shoot 'Em Up" for the film Juice. Cypress Hill's songs started to appear more frequently in major Hollywood films, such as Lethal Weapon 3 ("Latin Lingo") and ''White Men Can't Jump'' ("A to the K") also from 1992. The group made their first appearance at Lollapalooza on the side stage in 1992. It was the festival's second year of touring, and featured a diverse lineup of acts such as Red Hot Chili Peppers, Ice Cube, Lush, Tool, Stone Temple Pilots, among others. The trio also supported the Cypress Hill album by touring with the Beastie Boys, who were touring behind their third album Check Your Head.
Black Sunday, the group's second album, debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 in 1993, recording the highest Soundscan for a rap group up until that time. "Insane in the Brain" became a crossover hit, peaking at No. 19 on the Billboard Hot 100, at No. 16 on the Dance Club Songs chart, and at No. 1 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart. "Insane in the Brain" also garnered the group their first Grammy nomination. Black Sunday went triple platinum in the U.S. and sold about 3.26 million copies. On October 2, 1993, Cypress Hill performed on the comedy show Saturday Night Live, broadcast by NBC. Prior to their performances, studio executives, label representatives, and the group's own associates constantly asked the trio to not smoke marijuana on-stage. DJ Muggs became irritated due to the constant inquisitions, and he subsequently lit a joint during the group's second song. Up until that point, it was extremely uncommon to see marijuana usage on a live televised broadcast. The incident prompted NBC to ban the group from returning on the show, a distinction shared only by six other artists.
The group later played at Woodstock 94, officially making percussionist Eric Bobo a member of the group during the performance. Eric Bobo was known as the son of Willie Bobo and as a touring member of the Beastie Boys, who Cypress Hill previously toured with in 1992. That same year, Rolling Stone named the group as the Best Rap Group in their music awards voted by critics and readers. Cypress Hill then played at Lollapalooza for two successive years, topping the bill in 1995. They also appeared on the "Homerpalooza" episode of The Simpsons. The group received their second Grammy nomination in 1995 for "I Ain't Goin' Out Like That". "Throw Your Set in the Air" was the most successful single off the album, peaking at No. 45 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 11 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart. The single also earned Cypress Hill's third Grammy nomination. Later on in 1996, Cypress Hill appeared on the first Smokin' Grooves tour, featuring Ziggy Marley, the Fugees, Busta Rhymes, and A Tribe Called Quest. The group also released a nine track EP, Unreleased and Revamped with rare mixes.
Focus on solo projects, IV, crossover appeal with Skull & Bones, and Stoned Raiders (1997–2002)
In 1997, the members focused on their solo careers. DJ Muggs released Soul Assassins: Chapter 1, with features from Dr. Dre, KRS-One, Wyclef Jean, and Mobb Deep. B-Real appeared with Busta Rhymes, Coolio, LL Cool J, and Method Man on "Hit 'Em High" from the multi-platinum Space Jam Soundtrack. He also appeared with RBX, Nas, and KRS-One on "East Coast Killer, West Coast Killer" from Dr. Dre's Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath album, and contributed to an album entitled The Psycho Realm with the group of the same name. Sen Dog also released the Get Wood sampler as part of SX-10 on the label Flip Records. In addition, Eric Bobo contributed drums to various rock bands on their albums, such as 311 and Soulfly.
In early 1998, Sen Dog returned to Cypress Hill. He cited his therapist and also his creative collaborations with the band SX-10 as catalysts for his rejoining. The quartet then embarked on the third annual Smokin' Grooves tour with Public Enemy, Wyclef Jean, Busta Rhymes, and Gang Starr. The group also did voice work for some of the game's characters. Also in 1999, the band released a greatest hits album in Spanish, Los Grandes Éxitos en Español.
In 2000, Cypress Hill fused genres with their fifth album, Skull & Bones, which consisted of two discs. The first disc Skull was composed of rap tracks while Bones explored further the group's forays into rock. The album peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 3 on the Canadian Albums Chart, and the album was eventually certified platinum by the RIAA. The first two singles were "(Rock) Superstar" for rock radio and "(Rap) Superstar" for urban radio. Both singles received heavy airplay on both rock and urban radio, enabling Cypress Hill to crossover again. "(Rock) Superstar" peaked at No. 18 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart and "(Rap) Superstar" peaked at No. 43 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart.
Due to the rock genre's prominent appearance on Skull & Bones, Cypress Hill employed the members of Sen Dog's band SX-10 as backing musicians for the live shows. Cypress Hill supported Skull & Bones by initially playing a summer tour with Limp Bizkit and Cold called the Back 2 Basics Tour. The tour was controversial as it was sponsored by the file sharing service Napster. In addition, Napster enabled each show of the tour to be free to the fans, and no security guards were employed during the performances. After the tour's conclusion, the acts had not reported any disturbances. Towards the end of 2000, Cypress Hill and MxPx landed a slot opening for The Offspring on the Conspiracy of One Tour. The group also released Live at the Fillmore, a concert disc recorded at San Francisco's The Fillmore in 2000. Cypress Hill continued their experimentation with rock on the Stoned Raiders album in 2001; however, its sales were a disappointment. The album peaked at No. 64 on the Billboard 200, the group's lowest position to that point. Also in 2001, the group made a cameo appearance as themselves in the film How High. Cypress Hill then recorded the track "Just Another Victim" for WWF as a theme song for Tazz, borrowing elements from the 2000 single "(Rock) Superstar". The song would later be featured on the compilation WWF Forceable Entry in March 2002, which peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 and was certified gold by the RIAA.Till Death Do Us Part, DJ Muggs' hiatus, and extensive collaborations on Rise Up (2003–2012)
Cypress Hill released Till Death Do Us Part in March 2004 as it peaked at No. 21 on the Billboard 200. It featured appearances by Bob Marley's son Damian Marley, Prodigy of Mobb Deep, and producers The Alchemist and Fredwreck. The album represented a further departure from the group's signature sound. Reggae was a strong influence on its sound, especially on the lead single "What's Your Number?". The track featured Tim Armstrong of Rancid on guitar and backup vocals. It was based on the classic song "The Guns of Brixton" from The Clash's album London Calling. "What's Your Number?" saw Cypress Hill crossover into the rock charts again, as the single peaked at No. 23 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart.
Afterwards, DJ Muggs took a hiatus from the group to focus on other projects, such as Soul Assassins and his DJ Muggs vs. collaboration albums. In December 2005 another compilation album titled Greatest Hits From the Bong was released. It included nine hits from previous albums and two new tracks. In the summer of 2006, B-Real appeared on Snoop Dogg's single "Vato", which was produced by Pharrell Williams. The group's next album was tentatively scheduled for an early 2007 release, but it was pushed back numerous times. In 2007 Cypress Hill toured as a part of the Rock the Bells tour. They headlined with Public Enemy, Wu-Tang Clan, Nas, and a reunited Rage Against the Machine.
On July 25, 2008, Cypress Hill performed at a benefit concert at the House of Blues Chicago, where a majority of the proceeds went to the Chicago Alliance to End Homelessness. In August 2009, a new song by Cypress Hill titled "Get 'Em Up" was made available on iTunes. The song was also featured in the Madden NFL 2010 video game. It was the first sampling of the group's then-upcoming album.
Cypress Hill's eighth studio album Rise Up featured contributions from Everlast, Tom Morello, Daron Malakian, Pitbull, Marc Anthony, and Mike Shinoda. Previously, the vast majority of the group's albums were produced by DJ Muggs; however, Rise Up instead featured a large array of guest features and producers, with DJ Muggs only appearing on two tracks. The album was released on Priority Records/EMI Entertainment, as the group was signed to the label by new creative chairman Snoop Dogg. Rise Up was released on April 20, 2010, and it peaked at No. 19 on the Billboard 200. The single "Rise Up" was featured at WWE's pay-per-view Elimination Chamber as the official theme song for the event. It also appeared in the trailer for the movie The Green Hornet. "Rise Up" managed to peak at No. 20 on both the Modern Rock Tracks and Mainstream Rock Tracks charts. "Armada Latina", which featured Pitbull and Marc Anthony, was Cypress Hill's last song to chart in the U.S. to date, peaking at No. 25 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart.
Cypress Hill commenced its Rise Up tour in Philadelphia on April 10, 2010. In one particular instance, the group was supposed to stop in Tucson, Arizona but canceled the show in protest of the recent immigration legislation. At the Rock en Seine festival in Paris on August 27, 2010, they had said in an interview that they would anticipate the outcome of the legislation before returning. Also in 2010, Cypress Hill performed at the Reading and Leeds Festivals on August 28 at Leeds and August 29 at Reading. On June 5, 2012, Cypress Hill and dubstep artist Rusko released a collaborative EP entitled Cypress X Rusko. DJ Muggs, who was still on a hiatus, and Eric Bobo were absent on the release. Also in 2012, Cypress Hill collaborated with Deadmau5 on his sixth studio album Album Title Goes Here, lending vocals on "Failbait".Elephants on Acid, Hollywood Walk of Fame, and Back in Black (2013–2022)During the interval between Cypress Hill albums, the four members commenced work on various projects. B-Real formed the band Prophets of Rage alongside three members of Rage Against the Machine and two members of Public Enemy. He also released The Prescription EP under his Dr. Greenthumb persona. Sen Dog formed the band Powerflo alongside members of Fear Factory, downset., and Biohazard. DJ Muggs revived his Soul Assassins project as its main producer. Eric Bobo formed a duo named Ritmo Machine. He also contributed to an unreleased album by his father Willie Bobo. In April 2019 Cypress Hill received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Although various solo hip hop artists had received stars, Cypress Hill became the first collective hip hop group to receive a star. The entire lineup of B-Real, Sen Dog, Eric Bobo, and DJ Muggs had all attended the ceremony. In addition, Cypress Hill planned to support the album by joining Slipknot alongside Ho99o9 for the second half of the 2022 Knotfest Roadshow. They had previously invited Slipknot to join their Great Smoke-Out festival back in 2009. Back in Black was released on March 18, 2022. It was the group's first album to not feature DJ Muggs on any of the tracks, as producing duties were handled by Black Milk. Back in Black was the lowest charting album of the group's career, and the first to not reach the Billboard 200 chart; however, it peaked at No. 69 on the Top Current Album Sales chart. In relation to the Cypress Hill: Insane in the Brain documentary, Cypress Hill digitally released the single "Crossroads" in September 2022. The single featured the return of DJ Muggs on production.Future plans and tentative final album (2023–present)In an interview, Sen Dog claimed that the group will fully reunite with DJ Muggs for an 11th album; however, he stated that it will be the group's final album of their career.
The group performed at various festivals in 2023 such as the Festival d'été de Québec, and in celebrating the 30th anniversary of their second studio album Black Sunday, they also announced several standalone concerts in North America and Europe. They also performed alongside The Pharcyde and Souls of Mischief in May 2024. They also played in Italy, Austria, and Germany throughout July. In a callback to Cypress Hill's appearance in the 1996 "Homerpalooza" episode of The Simpsons (which contained a skit of the group realizing they must have ordered the London Symphony Orchestra while high to perform with), it was announced that the group would actually perform with the London Symphony Orchestra at London's Royal Albert Hall in July 2024. The band was joined by long-time collaborator Christian Olde Wolbers on double bass.StyleRappingOne of the band's most striking aspects is B-Real's exaggeratedly high-pitched nasal vocals. and talking about the nasal style in the book How to Rap, B-Real said "you want to stand out from the others and just be distinct...when you got something that can separate you from everybody else, you gotta use it to your advantage."
Production
The sound and groove of their music, mostly produced by DJ Muggs, has spooky sounds and a stoned aesthetic; with its bass-heavy rhythms and odd sample loops ("Insane in the Brain" has a blues guitar pitched looped in its chorus), it carries a psychedelic value, which is lessened in their rock-oriented albums. 2018's Elephants on Acid marked the return of DJ Muggs, and the album featured a more psychedelic and hip-hop approach.LegacyCypress Hill are often credited for being one of the few Latin American hip hop groups to break through with their own stylistic impact on rap music, in addition to finding a crossover audience among the rock community. Cypress Hill have been cited as an influence by artists such as Eminem, Baby Bash, Paul Wall, Post Malone, Luniz, and Fat Joe. Cypress Hill have also been cited as a strong influence on nu metal bands such as Deftones, Limp Bizkit, System of a Down, Linkin Park, Rage Against the Machine and Korn. Famously, the bassline during the outro of Korn's 1994 single "Blind" was a direct tribute to Cypress Hill's 1993 track "Lick a Shot".Members
<!--- Please do not change the order of members, as they are in alphabetical order by the year when they originally joined the group. --->
Current
* Louis "B-Real" Freese – vocals (1988–present)
* Senen "Sen Dog" Reyes – vocals (1988–1995, 1998–present)
* Eric "Eric Bobo" Correa – drums, percussion (1994–present)
* Lawrence "DJ Muggs" Muggerud – turntables, samples (1988–2004, 2014–present)
Former
* Ulpiano "Mellow Man Ace" Reyes – vocals (1988)
Former touring
* Panchito "Ponch" Gomez – drums, percussion (1993–1994)
* Frank Mercurio – bass (2000–2002)
* Jeremy Fleener – guitar (2000–2002)
* Andy Zambrano – guitar (2000–2002)
* Julio "Julio G" González – turntables, samples (2004–2018)
* Michael "Mix Master Mike" Schwartz – turntables, samples (2018–2019)
Timeline
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Legend = orientation:horizontal position:bottom
ScaleMajor = increment:5 start:1988
ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1988
Colors =
id:Band value:skyblue legend:Band_name
id:Vocals value:red legend:Vocals
id:DJ value:lavender legend:Turntables,_samples
id:Drums value:orange legend:Drums,_percussion
id:Studio value:black legend:Studio_album
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color:Studio
at:08/13/1991
at:07/20/1993
at:10/31/1995
at:10/06/1998
at:04/25/2000
at:12/04/2001
at:03/24/2004
at:04/20/2010
at:09/28/2018
at:03/18/2022
BarData =
bar:DVX text:"DVX"
bar:CH text:"Cypress Hill"
bar:Freese text:"B-Real"
bar:SReyes text:"Sen Dog"
bar:UReyes text:"Mellow Man Ace"
bar:Muggerud text:"DJ Muggs"
bar:Correa text:"Eric Bobo"
PlotData=
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bar:DVX from:start till:01/01/1989 color:Band
bar:CH from:01/01/1989 till:end color:Band
bar:Freese from:start till:end color:Vocals
bar:SReyes from:start till:11/05/1995 color:Vocals
bar:SReyes from:03/01/1998 till:end color:Vocals
bar:UReyes from:start till:01/01/1989 color:Vocals
bar:Muggerud from:start till:05/11/2004 color:DJ
bar:Muggerud from:05/11/2014 till:end color:DJ
bar:Correa from:08/01/1994 till:end color:Drums
}}
Discography
Studio albums
* Cypress Hill (1991)
* Black Sunday (1993)
* III: Temples of Boom (1995)
* IV (1998)
* Skull & Bones (2000)
* Stoned Raiders (2001)
* Till Death Do Us Part (2004)
* Rise Up (2010)
* Elephants on Acid (2018)
* Back in Black (2022)
Awards and nominations
Billboard Music Awards
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Nominated work
!Award
!Result
|-
|align=center|1992
|"The Phuncky Feel One"
|Top Rap Song
|
|}
Grammy Awards
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Nominated work
!Award
!Result
|-
|align=center|1994
|"Insane in the Brain"
|Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group
|
|-
|align=center|1995
|"I Ain't Goin' Out Like That"
|Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group
|
|-
|align=center|1996
|"Throw Your Set in the Air"
|Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group
|
|}
MTV Video Music Awards
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Nominated work
!Award
!Result
|-
|align=center|1994
|"Insane in the Brain"
|Best Rap Video
|
|}
Hollywood Walk of Fame
|-
|2019
|Cypress Hill
|Star
|
|}
References
}}
External links
*
*
*
Category:1988 establishments in California
Category:American cannabis activists
Category:American rap rock groups
Category:Bloods
Category:Cannabis music
Category:Columbia Records artists
Category:Gangsta rap groups
Category:West Coast hip-hop groups
Category:Hispanic and Latino American rappers
Category:Musical groups established in 1988
Category:Musical groups from California
Category:People from South Gate, California
Category:Priority Records artists
Category:Psychedelic rap groups
Category:Rappers from Los Angeles
Category:Hip-hop groups from California | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypress_Hill | 2025-04-05T18:27:23.964105 |
5638 | Combustion | thumb|The flames caused as a result of a fuel undergoing combustion (burning)
thumb|Air pollution abatement equipment provides combustion control for industrial processes.
Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combustion does not always result in fire, because a flame is only visible when substances undergoing combustion vaporize, but when it does, a flame is a characteristic indicator of the reaction. While activation energy must be supplied to initiate combustion (e.g., using a lit match to light a fire), the heat from a flame may provide enough energy to make the reaction self-sustaining. The study of combustion is known as combustion science.
Combustion is often a complicated sequence of elementary radical reactions. Solid fuels, such as wood and coal, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that incandescent light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced. A simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen into water vapor, a reaction which is commonly used to fuel rocket engines. This reaction releases 242kJ/mol of heat and reduces the enthalpy accordingly (at constant temperature and pressure):
2H_2(g){+}O_2(g)\rightarrow 2H_2O\uparrow
Uncatalyzed combustion in air requires relatively high temperatures. Complete combustion is stoichiometric concerning the fuel, where there is no remaining fuel, and ideally, no residual oxidant. Thermodynamically, the chemical equilibrium of combustion in air is overwhelmingly on the side of the products. However, complete combustion is almost impossible to achieve, since the chemical equilibrium is not necessarily reached, or may contain unburnt products such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen and even carbon (soot or ash). Thus, the produced smoke is usually toxic and contains unburned or partially oxidized products. Any combustion at high temperatures in atmospheric air, which is 78 percent nitrogen, will also create small amounts of several nitrogen oxides, commonly referred to as NOx, since the combustion of nitrogen is thermodynamically favored at high, but not low temperatures. Since burning is rarely clean, fuel gas cleaning or catalytic converters may be required by law.
Fires occur naturally, ignited by lightning strikes or by volcanic products. Combustion (fire) was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of campfires and bonfires, and continues to be the main method to produce energy for humanity. Usually, the fuel is carbon, hydrocarbons, or more complicated mixtures such as wood that contain partially oxidized hydrocarbons. The thermal energy produced from the combustion of either fossil fuels such as coal or oil, or from renewable fuels such as firewood, is harvested for diverse uses such as cooking, production of electricity or industrial or domestic heating. Combustion is also currently the only reaction used to power rockets. Combustion is also used to destroy (incinerate) waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous.
Oxidants for combustion have high oxidation potential and include atmospheric or pure oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, chlorine trifluoride, nitrous oxide and nitric acid. For instance, hydrogen burns in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride with the liberation of heat and light characteristic of combustion. Although usually not catalyzed, combustion can be catalyzed by platinum or vanadium, as in the contact process.
Types
Complete and incomplete
Complete
thumb|The combustion of methane, a hydrocarbon
In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen and produces a limited number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will primarily yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides. Carbon will yield carbon dioxide, sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron(III) oxide. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the oxidant. Still, small amounts of various nitrogen oxides (commonly designated species) form when the air is the oxidative.
Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur. species appear in significant amounts above about , and more is produced at higher temperatures. The amount of is also a function of oxygen excess.
In most industrial applications and in fires, air is the source of oxygen (). In the air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high temperatures, some nitrogen will be converted to (mostly , with much smaller amounts of ). On the other hand, when there is insufficient oxygen to combust the fuel completely, some fuel carbon is converted to carbon monoxide, and some of the hydrogens remain unreacted. A complete set of equations for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in the air, therefore, requires an additional calculation for the distribution of oxygen between the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel.
The amount of air required for complete combustion is known as the "theoretical air" or "stoichiometric air". The amount of air above this value actually needed for optimal combustion is known as the "excess air", and can vary from 5% for a natural gas boiler, to 40% for anthracite coal, to 300% for a gas turbine.
Incomplete
Incomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. As is the case with complete combustion, water is produced by incomplete combustion; however, carbon and carbon monoxide are produced instead of carbon dioxide.
For most fuels, such as diesel oil, coal, or wood, pyrolysis occurs before combustion. In incomplete combustion, products of pyrolysis remain unburnt and contaminate the smoke with noxious particulate matter and gases. Partially oxidized compounds are also a concern; partial oxidation of ethanol can produce harmful acetaldehyde, and carbon can produce toxic carbon monoxide.
The designs of combustion devices can improve the quality of combustion, such as burners and internal combustion engines. Further improvements are achievable by catalytic after-burning devices (such as catalytic converters) or by the simple partial return of the exhaust gases into the combustion process. Such devices are required by environmental legislation for cars in most countries. They may be necessary to enable large combustion devices, such as thermal power stations, to reach legal emission standards.
The degree of combustion can be measured and analyzed with test equipment. HVAC contractors, firefighters and engineers use combustion analyzers to test the efficiency of a burner during the combustion process. Also, the efficiency of an internal combustion engine can be measured in this way, and some U.S. states and local municipalities use combustion analysis to define and rate the efficiency of vehicles on the road today.
Carbon monoxide is one of the products from incomplete combustion. The formation of carbon monoxide produces less heat than formation of carbon dioxide so complete combustion is greatly preferred especially as carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. When breathed, carbon monoxide takes the place of oxygen and combines with some of the hemoglobin in the blood, rendering it unable to transport oxygen.
Problems associated with incomplete combustion
Environmental problems
These oxides combine with water and oxygen in the atmosphere, creating nitric acid and sulfuric acids, which return to Earth's surface as acid deposition, or "acid rain." Acid deposition harms aquatic organisms and kills trees. Due to its formation of certain nutrients that are less available to plants such as calcium and phosphorus, it reduces the productivity of the ecosystem and farms. An additional problem associated with nitrogen oxides is that they, along with hydrocarbon pollutants, contribute to the formation of ground level ozone, a major component of smog.
Human health problems
Breathing carbon monoxide causes headache, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea. If carbon monoxide levels are high enough, humans become unconscious or die. Exposure to moderate and high levels of carbon monoxide over long periods is positively correlated with the risk of heart disease. People who survive severe carbon monoxide poisoning may suffer long-term health problems. Carbon monoxide from the air is absorbed in the lungs which then binds with hemoglobin in human's red blood cells. This reduces the capacity of red blood cells that carry oxygen throughout the body.
Smoldering
Smoldering is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. It is a typically incomplete combustion reaction. Solid materials that can sustain a smoldering reaction include coal, cellulose, wood, cotton, tobacco, peat, duff, humus, synthetic foams, charring polymers (including polyurethane foam) and dust. Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on upholstered furniture by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire) and the persistent combustion of biomass behind the flaming fronts of wildfires.
Spontaneous
Spontaneous combustion is a type of combustion that occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to exothermic internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self-heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, ignition.
For example, phosphorus self-ignites at room temperature without the application of heat. Organic materials undergoing bacterial composting can generate enough heat to reach the point of combustion.
Turbulent
Combustion resulting in a turbulent flame is the most used for industrial applications (e.g. gas turbines, gasoline engines, etc.) because the turbulence helps the mixing process between the fuel and oxidizer.
Micro-gravity
thumb|Colourized gray-scale composite image of the individual frames from a video of a backlit fuel droplet burning in microgravity
The term 'micro' gravity refers to a gravitational state that is 'low' (i.e., 'micro' in the sense of 'small' and not necessarily a millionth of Earth's normal gravity) such that the influence of buoyancy on physical processes may be considered small relative to other flow processes that would be present at normal gravity. In such an environment, the thermal and flow transport dynamics can behave quite differently than in normal gravity conditions (e.g., a candle's flame takes the shape of a sphere.). Microgravity combustion research contributes to the understanding of a wide variety of aspects that are relevant to both the environment of a spacecraft (e.g., fire dynamics relevant to crew safety on the International Space Station) and terrestrial (Earth-based) conditions (e.g., droplet combustion dynamics to assist developing new fuel blends for improved combustion, materials fabrication processes, thermal management of electronic systems, multiphase flow boiling dynamics, and many others).
Micro-combustion
Combustion processes that happen in very small volumes are considered micro-combustion. The high surface-to-volume ratio increases specific heat loss. Quenching distance plays a vital role in stabilizing the flame in such combustion chambers.
Chemical equations
Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen
Generally, the chemical equation for stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is:
\ce{C}_x \ce{H}_y + \left(x+{y\over 4}\right)\ce{O2->} x\ce{CO2} + {y\over 2} \ce{H2O}
For example, the stoichiometric combustion of methane in oxygen is:
\underset{methane}{CH4} + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O
Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in air
If the stoichiometric combustion takes place using air as the oxygen source, the nitrogen present in the air (Atmosphere of Earth) can be added to the equation (although it does not react) to show the stoichiometric composition of the fuel in air and the composition of the resultant flue gas. Treating all non-oxygen components in air as nitrogen gives a 'nitrogen' to oxygen ratio of 3.77, i.e. (100% − %) / % where % is 20.95% vol:
\ce{C}_x \ce{H}_y + z\ce{O2} + 3.77z\ce{N2 ->} x\ce{CO2} + {y\over 2} \ce{H2O} + 3.77z\ce{N2}
where z = x + {y\over 4}.
For example, the stoichiometric combustion of methane in air is:
\ce{\underset{methane}{CH4} + 2O2} + 7.54\ce{N2-> CO2 + 2H2O} + 7.54\ce{N2}
The stoichiometric composition of methane in air is 1 / (1 + 2 + 7.54) = 9.49% vol.
The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHO in air:
\ce{C_\mathit{\alpha}H_\mathit{\beta}O_\mathit{\gamma}} + \left ( \alpha + \frac{\beta}{4} -\frac{\gamma}{2} \right ) \left ( \ce{O_2} + 3.77 \ce{N_2} \right ) \longrightarrow \alpha \ce{CO_2} + \frac{\beta}{2} \ce{H_2O} + 3.77 \left ( \alpha + \frac{\beta}{4} -\frac{\gamma}{2} \right ) \ce{N_2}
The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHOS:
\ce{C_\mathit{\alpha}H_\mathit{\beta}O_\mathit{\gamma}S_\mathit{\delta}} + \left ( \alpha + \frac{\beta}{4} -\frac{\gamma}{2} + \delta \right ) \left ( \ce{O_2} + 3.77 \ce{N_2} \right ) \longrightarrow \alpha \ce{CO_2} + \frac{\beta}{2} \ce{H_2O} + \delta \ce{SO_2} + 3.77 \left ( \alpha + \frac{\beta}{4} -\frac{\gamma}{2} + \delta \right ) \ce{N_2}
The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHONS:
\ce{C_\mathit{\alpha}H_\mathit{\beta}O_\mathit{\gamma}N_\mathit{\delta}S_\mathit{\epsilon}} + \left ( \alpha + \frac{\beta}{4} -\frac{\gamma}{2} + \epsilon \right ) \left ( \ce{O_2} + 3.77 \ce{N_2} \right ) \longrightarrow \alpha \ce{CO_2} + \frac{\beta}{2} \ce{H_2O} + \epsilon \ce{SO_2} + \left ( 3.77 \left ( \alpha + \frac{\beta}{4} -\frac{\gamma}{2} + \epsilon \right ) + \frac{\delta}{2} \right ) \ce{N_2}
The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHOF:
\ce{C_\mathit{\alpha}H_\mathit{\beta}O_\mathit{\gamma}F_\mathit{\delta}} + \left ( \alpha + \frac{\beta-\delta}{4} -\frac{\gamma}{2} \right ) \left ( \ce{O_2} + 3.77 \ce{N_2} \right ) \longrightarrow \alpha \ce{CO_2} + \frac{\beta-\delta}{2} \ce{H_2O} + \delta \ce{HF} + 3.77 \left ( \alpha + \frac{\beta-\delta}{4} -\frac{\gamma}{2} \right ) \ce{N_2}
Trace combustion products
Various other substances begin to appear in significant amounts in combustion products when the flame temperature is above about . When excess air is used, nitrogen may oxidize to and, to a much lesser extent, to . forms by disproportionation of , and and form by disproportionation of .
For example, when of propane is burned with of air (120% of the stoichiometric amount), the combustion products contain 3.3% . At , the equilibrium combustion products contain 0.03% and 0.002% . At , the combustion products contain 0.17% , 0.05% , 0.01% , and 0.004% .
Diesel engines are run with an excess of oxygen to combust small particles that tend to form with only a stoichiometric amount of oxygen, necessarily producing nitrogen oxide emissions. Both the United States and European Union enforce limits to vehicle nitrogen oxide emissions, which necessitate the use of special catalytic converters or treatment of the exhaust with urea (see Diesel exhaust fluid).
Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen
The incomplete (partial) combustion of a hydrocarbon with oxygen produces a gas mixture containing mainly , , , and . Such gas mixtures are commonly prepared for use as protective atmospheres for the heat-treatment of metals and for gas carburizing. The general reaction equation for incomplete combustion of one mole of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is:
\underset{fuel}{C_\mathit{x} H_\mathit{y}} + \underset{oxygen}{\mathit{z} O2} -> \underset{carbon \ dioxide}{\mathit{a}CO2} + \underset{carbon\ monoxide}{\mathit{b}CO} + \underset{water}{\mathit{c}H2O} + \underset{hydrogen}{\mathit{d}H2}
When z falls below roughly 50% of the stoichiometric value, can become an important combustion product; when z falls below roughly 35% of the stoichiometric value, elemental carbon may become stable.
The products of incomplete combustion can be calculated with the aid of a material balance, together with the assumption that the combustion products reach equilibrium. For example, in the combustion of one mole of propane () with four moles of , seven moles of combustion gas are formed, and z is 80% of the stoichiometric value. The three elemental balance equations are:
Carbon: a + b = 3
Hydrogen: 2c + 2d = 8
Oxygen: 2a + b + c = 8
These three equations are insufficient in themselves to calculate the combustion gas composition.
However, at the equilibrium position, the water-gas shift reaction gives another equation:
CO + H2O -> CO2 + H2; K_{eq} = \frac{a \times d}{b \times c}
For example, at the value of K is 0.728. Solving, the combustion gas consists of 42.4% , 29.0% , 14.7% , and 13.9% . Carbon becomes a stable phase at and pressure when z is less than 30% of the stoichiometric value, at which point the combustion products contain more than 98% and and about 0.5% .
Substances or materials which undergo combustion are called fuels. The most common examples are natural gas, propane, kerosene, diesel, petrol, charcoal, coal, wood, etc.
Liquid fuels
Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapor that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its flash point. The flash point of liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion.
Gaseous fuels
Combustion of gaseous fuels may occur through one of four distinctive types of burning: diffusion flame, premixed flame, autoignitive reaction front, or as a detonation. The type of burning that actually occurs depends on the degree to which the fuel and oxidizer are mixed prior to heating: for example, a diffusion flame is formed if the fuel and oxidizer are separated initially, whereas a premixed flame is formed otherwise. Similarly, the type of burning also depends on the pressure: a detonation, for example, is an autoignitive reaction front coupled to a strong shock wave giving it its characteristic high-pressure peak and high detonation velocity. There are many avenues of loss in the operation of a heating process. Typically, the dominant loss is sensible heat leaving with the offgas (i.e., the flue gas). The temperature and quantity of offgas indicates its heat content (enthalpy), so keeping its quantity low minimizes heat loss.
In a perfect furnace, the combustion air flow would be matched to the fuel flow to give each fuel molecule the exact amount of oxygen needed to cause complete combustion. However, in the real world, combustion does not proceed in a perfect manner. Unburned fuel (usually and ) discharged from the system represents a heating value loss (as well as a safety hazard). Since combustibles are undesirable in the offgas, while the presence of unreacted oxygen there presents minimal safety and environmental concerns, the first principle of combustion management is to provide more oxygen than is theoretically needed to ensure that all the fuel burns. For methane () combustion, for example, slightly more than two molecules of oxygen are required.
The second principle of combustion management, however, is to not use too much oxygen. The correct amount of oxygen requires three types of measurement: first, active control of air and fuel flow; second, offgas oxygen measurement; and third, measurement of offgas combustibles. For each heating process, there exists an optimum condition of minimal offgas heat loss with acceptable levels of combustibles concentration. Minimizing excess oxygen pays an additional benefit: for a given offgas temperature, the NOx level is lowest when excess oxygen is kept lowest. The material balance directly relates the air/fuel ratio to the percentage of in the combustion gas. The heat balance relates the heat available for the charge to the overall net heat produced by fuel combustion. Additional material and heat balances can be made to quantify the thermal advantage from preheating the combustion air, or enriching it in oxygen.
Reaction mechanism
Combustion in oxygen is a chain reaction in which many distinct radical intermediates participate. The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the dioxygen molecule. The lowest-energy configuration of the dioxygen molecule is a stable, relatively unreactive diradical in a triplet spin state. Bonding can be described with three bonding electron pairs and two antibonding electrons, with spins aligned, such that the molecule has nonzero total angular momentum. Most fuels, on the other hand, are in a singlet state, with paired spins and zero total angular momentum. Interaction between the two is quantum mechanically a "forbidden transition", i.e. possible with a very low probability. To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or singlet oxygen. This intermediate is extremely reactive. The energy is supplied as heat, and the reaction then produces additional heat, which allows it to continue.
Combustion of hydrocarbons is thought to be initiated by hydrogen atom abstraction (not proton abstraction) from the fuel to oxygen, to give a hydroperoxide radical (HOO). This reacts further to give hydroperoxides, which break up to give hydroxyl radicals. There are a great variety of these processes that produce fuel radicals and oxidizing radicals. Oxidizing species include singlet oxygen, hydroxyl, monatomic oxygen, and hydroperoxyl. Such intermediates are short-lived and cannot be isolated. However, non-radical intermediates are stable and are produced in incomplete combustion. An example is acetaldehyde produced in the combustion of ethanol. An intermediate in the combustion of carbon and hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, is of special importance because it is a poisonous gas, but also economically useful for the production of syngas.
Solid and heavy liquid fuels also undergo a great number of pyrolysis reactions that give more easily oxidized, gaseous fuels. These reactions are endothermic and require constant energy input from the ongoing combustion reactions. A lack of oxygen or other improperly designed conditions result in these noxious and carcinogenic pyrolysis products being emitted as thick, black smoke.
The rate of combustion is the amount of a material that undergoes combustion over a period of time. It can be expressed in grams per second (g/s) or kilograms per second (kg/s).
Detailed descriptions of combustion processes, from the chemical kinetics perspective, require the formulation of large and intricate webs of elementary reactions. For instance, combustion of hydrocarbon fuels typically involve hundreds of chemical species reacting according to thousands of reactions.
The inclusion of such mechanisms within computational flow solvers still represents a pretty challenging task mainly in two aspects. First, the number of degrees of freedom (proportional to the number of chemical species) can be dramatically large; second, the source term due to reactions introduces a disparate number of time scales which makes the whole dynamical system stiff. As a result, the direct numerical simulation of turbulent reactive flows with heavy fuels soon becomes intractable even for modern supercomputers.
Therefore, a plethora of methodologies have been devised for reducing the complexity of combustion mechanisms without resorting to high detail levels. Examples are provided by:
The Relaxation Redistribution Method (RRM)
The Intrinsic Low-Dimensional Manifold (ILDM) approach and further developments
The invariant-constrained equilibrium edge preimage curve method.
A few variational approaches
The Computational Singular perturbation (CSP) method and further developments.
The Rate Controlled Constrained Equilibrium (RCCE) and Quasi Equilibrium Manifold (QEM) approach.
The G-Scheme.
The Method of Invariant Grids (MIG).
Kinetic modelling
The kinetic modelling may be explored for insight into the reaction mechanisms of thermal decomposition in the combustion of different materials by using for instance Thermogravimetric analysis.
Temperature
thumb|Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sunlight
Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete combustion under adiabatic conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the first law of thermodynamics and takes note of the fact that the heat of combustion is used entirely for heating the fuel, the combustion air or oxygen, and the combustion product gases (commonly referred to as the flue gas).
In the case of fossil fuels burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on all of the following:
the heating value;
the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio {\lambda};
the specific heat capacity of fuel and air;
the air and fuel inlet temperatures.
The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the adiabatic flame temperature) increases for higher heating values and inlet air and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios approaching one.
Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around (for inlet air and fuel at ambient temperatures and for \lambda = 1.0), around for oil and for natural gas.
In industrial fired heaters, power station steam generators, and large gas-fired turbines, the more common way of expressing the usage of more than the stoichiometric combustion air is percent excess combustion air. For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used.
Instabilities
Combustion instabilities are typically violent pressure oscillations in a combustion chamber. These pressure oscillations can be as high as 180dB, and long-term exposure to these cyclic pressure and thermal loads reduces the life of engine components. In rockets, such as the F1 used in the Saturn V program, instabilities led to massive damage to the combustion chamber and surrounding components. This problem was solved by re-designing the fuel injector. In liquid jet engines, the droplet size and distribution can be used to attenuate the instabilities. Combustion instabilities are a major concern in ground-based gas turbine engines because of emissions. The tendency is to run lean, an equivalence ratio less than 1, to reduce the combustion temperature and thus reduce the emissions; however, running the combustion lean makes it very susceptible to combustion instability.
The Rayleigh Criterion is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic combustion instability and is evaluated using the Rayleigh Index over one cycle of instability
G(x)=\frac{1}{T}\int_{T}q'(x,t)p'(x,t)dt
where q' is the heat release rate perturbation and p' is the pressure fluctuation.
When the heat release oscillations are in phase with the pressure oscillations, the Rayleigh Index is positive and the magnitude of the thermoacoustic instability is maximised. On the other hand, if the Rayleigh Index is negative, then thermoacoustic damping occurs. The Rayleigh Criterion implies that thermoacoustic instability can be optimally controlled by having heat release oscillations 180 degrees out of phase with pressure oscillations at the same frequency. This minimizes the Rayleigh Index.
See also
Related concepts
Air–fuel ratio
Autoignition temperature
Chemical looping combustion
Deflagration
Detonation
Dust explosion
Explosion
Fire
Flame
Global warming
Heterogeneous combustion
Markstein number
Phlogiston theory (historical)
Spontaneous combustion
Machines and equipment
Boiler
Bunsen burner
External combustion engine
Furnace
Gas turbine
Internal combustion engine
Rocket engine
Scientific and engineering societies
International Flame Research Foundation
The Combustion Institute
Other
Combustible dust
Biomass burning
List of light sources
Open burning of waste
Stubble burning
References
Further reading
Category:Chemical reactions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion | 2025-04-05T18:27:24.068683 |
5639 | Cyrillic script | –
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| states | footnotes Names: , , , , ,
| fam1 = Egyptian hieroglyphs
| fam2 = Proto-Sinaitic
| fam3 = Phoenician
| fam4 = Ancient South Arabian
| fam5 = Greek script augmented by Glagolitic
| fam6 = Early Cyrillic script
| sisters =
| children = Old Permic script
| unicode |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0500.pdf U+0500–U+052F] |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2DE0.pdf U+2DE0–U+2DFF] |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UA640.pdf U+A640–U+A69F] |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1C80.pdf U+1C80–U+1C8F] |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1E030.pdf U+1E030–U+1E08F] }}
| iso15924 = Cyrl
| iso15924 note = <br/><code>Cyrs</code> (Old Church Slavonic variant)
| sample = Romanian Cyrillic - Lord's Prayer text.svg
| caption = 1850s Romanian text (Lord's Prayer), written with the Cyrillic script
}}The Cyrillic script ( ) is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia. It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking countries in Southeastern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, North Asia, and East Asia, and used by many other minority languages.
, around 250 million people in Eurasia use Cyrillic as the official script for their national languages, with Russia accounting for about half of them. With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the third official script of the European Union, following the Latin and Greek alphabets.
The Early Cyrillic alphabet was developed during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School in the First Bulgarian Empire during the reign of Tsar Simeon I the Great, probably by the disciples of the two Byzantine brothers Cyril and Methodius, who had previously created the Glagolitic script. Among them were Clement of Ohrid, Naum of Preslav, Constantine of Preslav, Joan Ekzarh, Chernorizets Hrabar, Angelar, Sava and other scholars. The script is named in honor of Saint Cyril.
Etymology
Since the script was conceived and popularised by the followers of Cyril and Methodius in Bulgaria, rather than by Cyril and Methodius themselves, its name denotes homage rather than authorship.
History
thumb|
Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana attributed Cyrillic script to Saint Cyril and Methodius,14th century
, Opaka Municipality in Bulgaria. Found here is the oldest Cyrillic inscription, dated to 921.]]
in 1574 in Lviv. This page features the Cyrillic alphabet.]]The Cyrillic script was created during the First Bulgarian Empire. Modern scholars believe that the Early Cyrillic alphabet was created at the Preslav Literary School, the most important early literary and cultural center of the First Bulgarian Empire and of all Slavs:
<blockquote>Unlike the Churchmen in Ohrid, Preslav scholars were much more dependent upon Greek models and quickly abandoned the Glagolitic scripts in favor of an adaptation of the Greek uncial to the needs of Slavic, which is now known as the Cyrillic alphabet.</blockquote>
A number of prominent Bulgarian writers and scholars worked at the school, including Naum of Preslav until 893; Constantine of Preslav; Joan Ekzarh (also transcr. John the Exarch); and Chernorizets Hrabar, among others. The school was also a center of translation, mostly of Byzantine authors. The Cyrillic script is derived from the Greek uncial script letters, augmented by ligatures and consonants from the older Glagolitic alphabet for sounds not found in Greek. Glagolitic and Cyrillic were formalized by the Byzantine Saints Cyril and Methodius and their Bulgarian disciples, such as Saints Naum, Clement, Angelar, and Sava. They spread and taught Christianity in the whole of Bulgaria. Paul Cubberley posits that although Cyril may have codified and expanded Glagolitic, it was his students in the First Bulgarian Empire under Tsar Simeon the Great that developed Cyrillic from the Greek letters in the 890s as a more suitable script for church books.
Cyrillic in modern-day Bosnia is an extinct and disputed variant of the Cyrillic alphabet that originated in medieval period. Paleographers consider the earliest features of script had likely begun to appear between the 10th or 11th century, with the Humac tablet to be the first such document using this type of script and is believed to date from this period. It was used continuously until the 18th century, with sporadic usage extending into the 20th century.
With the orthographic reform of Saint Evtimiy of Tarnovo and other prominent representatives of the Tarnovo Literary School of the 14th and 15th centuries, such as Gregory Tsamblak and Constantine of Kostenets, the school influenced Russian, Serbian, Wallachian and Moldavian medieval culture. This is known in Russia as the second South-Slavic influence.
In 170810, the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by Peter the Great, who had recently returned from his Grand Embassy in Western Europe. The new letterforms, called the Civil script, became closer to those of the Latin alphabet; several archaic letters were abolished and several new letters were introduced designed by Peter himself. Letters became distinguished between upper and lower case. West European typography culture was also adopted. The pre-reform letterforms, called poluustav (), were notably retained in Church Slavonic and are sometimes used in Russian even today, especially if one wants to give a text a 'Slavic' or 'archaic' feel.
The alphabet used for the modern Church Slavonic language in Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic rites still resembles early Cyrillic. However, over the course of the following millennium, Cyrillic adapted to changes in spoken language, developed regional variations to suit the features of national languages, and was subjected to academic reform and political decrees. A notable example of such linguistic reform can be attributed to Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, who updated the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet by removing certain graphemes no longer represented in the vernacular and introducing graphemes specific to Serbian (i.e., Љ Њ Ђ Ћ Џ Ј), distancing it from the Church Slavonic alphabet in use prior to the reform. Today, many languages in the Balkans, Eastern Europe, and northern Eurasia are written in Cyrillic alphabets.
Letters
Cyrillic script spread throughout the East Slavic and some South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic. Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, discussed below.
{| cellpadding4 style"font-size:larger; text-align:center;" class"Unicode" summary"Letters of the early Cyrillic alphabet"
|+ style="font-size:smaller;" | The early Cyrillic alphabet
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| }} || || || || || Є|| || || || ||
|Ꙉ|| || || || || ||
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| Ф|| || || Ѿ|| || || || || || ||
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Majuscule and minuscule
Capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts.
(1619)]]
Yeri () was originally a ligature of Yer and I ( + ). Iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І: (not an ancestor of modern Ya, Я, which is derived from ), , (ligature of and ), , . Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example , as were typographical variants like . There were also commonly used ligatures like . Numbers The letters also had numeric values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order, but inherited from the letters' Greek ancestors.
{| cellpadding4 style"text-align:center;" class"Unicode" summary"Letters of the Early Cyrillic alphabet"
|+ Cyrillic numerals
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| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
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| || || || || () || (, ) || () || ||
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| 10|| 20|| 30|| 40|| 50|| 60|| 70|| 80|| 90
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| () || || || || || () || () || || ()
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|colspan="9"|
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|100||200||300||400||500||600||700||800||900
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| || || || (, , ) || || || || (, ) || ()
|}
Computer support
Computer fonts for early Cyrillic alphabets are not routinely provided. Many of the letterforms differ from those of modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal between manuscripts, and changed over time. In accordance with Unicode policy, the standard does not include letterform variations or ligatures found in manuscript sources unless they can be shown to conform to the Unicode definition of a character: this aspect is the responsibility of the typeface designer.
The Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improved computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language. In Microsoft Windows, the Segoe UI user interface font is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8.Currency signs
Some currency signs have derived from Cyrillic letters:
* The Ukrainian hryvnia sign (₴) is from the cursive minuscule Ukrainian Cyrillic letter He (<span style="font-family: times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">г</span>).
* The Russian ruble sign (₽) from the majuscule Р.
* The Kyrgyzstani som sign (⃀) from the majuscule С (es)
* The Kazakhstani tenge sign (₸) from Т
* The Mongolian tögrög sign (₮) from Т
Letterforms and type design
The development of Cyrillic letter forms passed directly from the medieval stage to the late Baroque, without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters (categorized as vyaz' and still found on many icon inscriptions today) show a marked tendency to be very tall and narrow, with strokes often shared between adjacent letters.
Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms (ru) in the early 18th century. Over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. Thus, unlike the majority of modern Greek typefaces that retained their own set of design principles for lower-case letters (such as the placement of serifs, the shapes of stroke ends, and stroke-thickness rules, although Greek capital letters do use Latin design principles), modern Cyrillic types are much the same as modern Latin types of the same typeface family. The development of some Cyrillic computer fonts from Latin ones has also contributed to a visual Latinization of Cyrillic type. Lowercase forms
, De, I, Short I, Em, Te, Tse, Be and Ve in upright (printed) and cursive (handwritten) variants. (Top is set in Georgia type, bottom in Odesa Script.)]]
Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography. Upright Cyrillic lowercase letters are essentially small capitals (with exceptions: Cyrillic , , , , , and adopted Latin lowercase shapes, lowercase is typically based on from Latin typefaces, lowercase , and are traditional handwritten forms), although a good-quality Cyrillic typeface will still include separate small-caps glyphs.
Cyrillic typefaces, as well as Latin ones, have roman and italic forms (practically all popular modern computer fonts include parallel sets of Latin and Cyrillic letters, where many glyphs, uppercase as well as lowercase, are shared by both). However, the native typeface terminology in most Slavic languages (for example, in Russian) does not use the words "roman" and "italic" in this sense. (Italian type) refers to a particular typeface family, whereas (roman type) is just a synonym for Latin type, Latin alphabet.}} Instead, the nomenclature follows German naming patterns:<!-- When a citation is found, please recycle at Typeface#Style of typefaces -->
thumb|right|200px|
Alternative variants of lowercase (cursive) Cyrillic letters: Б/б, Д/д, Г/г, И/и, П/п, Т/т, Ш/ш.
See also:<br>
* Roman type is called ("upright type")compare with ("regular type") in German
* Italic type is called ("cursive") or ("cursive type")from the German word , meaning italic typefaces and not cursive writing
* Cursive handwriting is ("handwritten type")in German: or , both meaning literally 'running type'
* A (mechanically) sloped oblique type of sans-serif faces is ("sloped" or "slanted type").
* A boldfaced type is called ("semi-bold type"), because there existed fully boldfaced shapes that have been out of use since the beginning of the 20th century.
Italic and cursive forms
Similarly to Latin typefaces, italic and cursive forms of many Cyrillic letters (typically lowercase; uppercase only for handwritten or stylish types) are very different from their upright roman types. In certain cases, the correspondence between uppercase and lowercase glyphs does not coincide in Latin and Cyrillic types: for example, italic Cyrillic <span style="font-family: times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: larger"></span> is the lowercase counterpart of not of .
{| border0 cellpadding4 cellspacing1 style"padding:0 .5em .2em; border:1px solid #999; margin:1em 0;"
|+ Differences between upright and italic Cyrillic letters of the Russian alphabet; italic forms significantly different from their upright analogues, or especially confusing to users of a Latin alphabet, are highlighted; also available as a graphical image.
|- style"font-family:Vollkorn,FreeSerif,Cambria,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; " lang"ru"
!lang="en"| upright
| а || б || в || г || д || е || ё || ж || з || и || й || к || л || м || н || о || п || р || с || т || у || ф || х || ц || ч || ш || щ || ъ || ы || ь || э || ю || я
|- style"font-family:Vollkorn,FreeSerif,Cambria,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; " lang"ru"
!lang="en"| italic
||а || б ||style"background:#BBF"| в ||style"background:#BBF"| г ||style"background:#BBF"| д || е || ё || ж || з ||style"background:#BBF"| и ||style"background:#BBF"| й || к || л || м || н || о ||style"background:#BBF"| п || р || с ||style"background:#BBF"| т || у || ф || х ||style"background:#BBF"| ц || ч ||style"background:#BBF"| ш ||style"background:#BBF"| щ || ъ || ы || ь || э || ю || я
|}
Note: in some typefaces or styles, , i.e. the lowercase italic Cyrillic , may look like Latin , and , i.e. lowercase italic Cyrillic , may look like small-capital italic .
In Standard Serbian, as well as in Macedonian, some italic and cursive letters are allowed to be different, to more closely resemble the handwritten letters. The regular (upright) shapes are generally standardized in small caps form.
{| border0 cellpadding4 cellspacing1 style"padding:0 .5em .2em; border:1px solid #999; margin:1em 0;"
|+ Mandatory (blue) and optional (green) italic lowercase variants, alongside unique letters (red), in South-European orthography
|- style"font-family:Vollkorn,FreeSerif,Cambria,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; " lang"ru"
!lang="en"| Russian
||а || б || в || г || д || — || е || ж || з || и || й || — || к || л || — || м || н || — || о || п || р || с || т || — || у || ф || х || ц || ч || — || ш || щ || ъ || ы || ь || э || ю || я
|- style"font-family:Vollkorn,FreeSerif,Cambria,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; " lang"sr"
!lang="en"| Serbian
||а ||style"background:#BBF"|б || в ||style"background:#BBF"| г ||style"background:#BBF"| д ||style"background:#FBB"| ђ || е || ж || з || и || — ||style"background:#FBB"| ј || к || л ||style"background:#FBB"| љ || м || н ||style"background:#FBB"| њ || о ||style"background:#BBF"| п || р || с ||style"background:#BBF"| т ||style"background:#FBB"| ћ || у || ф || х || ц || ч ||style"background:#FBB"| џ ||style"background:#BFB"| ш || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|- style"font-family:Vollkorn,FreeSerif,Cambria,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; " lang"ru"
!lang="en"| Simulation
||а ||style"background:#BBF"|δ || в ||style"background:#BBF"| ī ||style"background:#BBF"| ɡ ||style"background:#FBB"| ђ || е || ж || з || и || — ||style"background:#FBB"| ј || к || л ||style"background:#FBB"| љ || м || н ||style"background:#FBB"| њ || о ||style"background:#BBF"| ū || р || с ||style"background:#BBF"| ш̄ ||style"background:#FBB"| ћ || у || ф || х || ц || ч ||style"background:#FBB"| џ ||style"background:#BFB"| ш̱ || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|}
Notes: Depending on fonts available, the Serbian row may appear identical to the Russian row. Unicode approximations are used in the faux row to ensure it can be rendered properly across all systems.
In the Bulgarian alphabet, many lowercase letterforms may more closely resemble the cursive forms on the one hand and Latin glyphs on the other hand, e.g. by having an ascender or descender or by using rounded arcs instead of sharp corners. Sometimes, uppercase letters may have a different shape as well, e.g. more triangular, Д and Л, like Greek delta Δ and lambda Λ.
{| border0 cellpadding4 cellspacing1 style"padding:0 .5em .2em; border:1px solid #999; margin:1em 0;"
|+ Differences between Russian and Bulgarian glyphs of upright Cyrillic lowercase letters; Bulgarian glyphs significantly different from their Russian analogues or different from their italic form are highlighted
|- style"font-family:Vollkorn,FreeSerif,Cambria,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; " lang"ru"
!lang="en"| default
| а || б || в || г || д || е || ж || з || и || й || к || л || м || н || о || п || р || с || т || у || ф || х || ц || ч || ш || щ || ъ || ь || ю || я
|- style"font-family:Vollkorn,FreeSerif,Cambria,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; " lang"bg"
!lang="en"| Bulgarian
| а || б ||style"background:#BFB"| в ||style"background:#BBF"| г ||style"background:#BBF"| д || е ||style"background:#BFB"| ж ||style"background:#BFB"| з ||style"background:#BBF"| и ||style"background:#BBF"| й ||style"background:#BFB"| к ||style"background:#BFB"| л || м || н || о ||style"background:#BBF"| п || р || с ||style"background:#BBF"| т || у ||style"background:#BFB"| ф || х ||style"background:#BBF"| ц || ч ||style"background:#BBF"| ш ||style"background:#BBF"| щ || ъ ||style"background:#BFB"| ь ||style="background:#BFB"| ю || я
|- style"font-family:Vollkorn,FreeSerif,Cambria,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; " lang"ru"
!lang="en"| Simulation
| а || б ||style"background:#BFB"| ||style"background:#BBF"| ƨ ||style"background:#BBF"| ɡ || е ||style"background:#BFB"| <span style"position: relative;">ж<span style"position: absolute; right: 50%; bottom: 0"><span style"position: relative; right: -50%; bottom: 0">l</span></span></span> ||style"background:#BFB"| ȝ ||style"background:#BBF"| u ||style"background:#BBF"| ŭ ||style"background:#BFB"| k ||style"background:#BFB"| ʌ || м || н || o ||style"background:#BBF"| n || р || с ||style"background:#BBF"| m || у ||style"background:#BFB"| ɸ || х ||style"background:#BBF"| u̡ || ч ||style"background:#BBF"| ɯ ||style"background:#BBF"| ɯ̡ || ъ ||style"background:#BFB"| ƅ ||style"background:#BFB"| lo || я
|}
Notes: Depending on fonts available, the Bulgarian row may appear identical to the Russian row. Unicode approximations are used in the faux row to ensure it can be rendered properly across all systems; in some cases, such as ж with k-like ascender, no such approximation exists.
Accessing variant forms
Computer fonts typically default to the Central/Eastern, Russian letterforms, and require the use of OpenType Layout (OTL) features to display the Western, Bulgarian or Southern, Serbian/Macedonian forms. Depending on the choices made by the (computer) font designer, they may either be automatically activated by the local variant <code>locl</code> feature for text tagged with an appropriate language code, or the author needs to opt-in by activating a stylistic set <code>ss##</code> or character variant <code>cv##</code> feature. These solutions only enjoy partial support and may render with default glyphs in certain software configurations, and the reader may not see the same result as the author intended.Cyrillic alphabets
Among others, Cyrillic is the standard script for writing the following languages:
Slavic languages:
*Belarusian
*Bulgarian
*Macedonian
*Russian
*Rusyn
*Serbo-Croatian (Bosnian, Montenegrin and Serbian)
*Ukrainian
Non-Slavic languages of Russia:
*Abaza
*Adyghe
*Avar
*Azerbaijani (in Dagestan)
*Bashkir
*Buryat
*Chechen
*Chuvash
*Erzya
*Ingush
*Kabardian
*Kalmyk
*Karachay-Balkar
*Kildin Sami
*Komi
*Mari
*Moksha
*Nogai
*Ossetian (in North Ossetia–Alania)
*Romani
*Sakha/Yakut
*Tatar
*Tuvan
*Udmurt
*Yuit (Yupik)
Non-Slavic languages in other countries:
*Abkhaz
*Aleut (now mostly in church texts)
*Dungan
*Kazakh (to be replaced by Latin script by 2031)
*Kyrgyz
*Mongolian (to also be written with traditional Mongolian script by 2025)
*Tajik
*Tlingit (now only in church texts)
*Turkmen (officially replaced by Latin script)
*Uzbek (also officially replaced by Latin script, but still in wide use)
*Yupik (in Alaska)
The Cyrillic script has also been used for languages of Alaska, Slavic Europe (except for Western Slavic and Slovenian), the Caucasus, the languages of Idel-Ural, Siberia, and the Russian Far East.
The first alphabet derived from Cyrillic was Abur, used for the Komi language. Other Cyrillic alphabets include the Molodtsov alphabet for the Komi language and various alphabets for Caucasian languages.
Usage of Cyrillic versus other scripts
near the Bulgarian base St. Kliment Ohridski]]
Latin script
A number of languages written in a Cyrillic alphabet have also been written in a Latin alphabet, such as Azerbaijani, Uzbek, Serbian, and Romanian (in the Moldavian SSR until 1989 and in the Danubian Principalities throughout the 19th century). After the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, some of the former republics officially shifted from Cyrillic to Latin. The transition is complete in most of Moldova (except the breakaway region of Transnistria, where Moldovan Cyrillic is official), Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan. Uzbekistan still uses both systems, and Kazakhstan has officially begun a transition from Cyrillic to Latin (scheduled to be complete by 2025). The Russian government has mandated that Cyrillic must be used for all public communications in all federal subjects of Russia, to promote closer ties across the federation. This act was controversial for speakers of many Slavic languages; for others, such as Chechen and Ingush speakers, the law had political ramifications. For example, the separatist Chechen government mandated a Latin script which is still used by many Chechens.
}}
]]
Standard Serbian uses both the Cyrillic and Latin scripts. Cyrillic is nominally the official script of Serbia's administration according to the Serbian constitution; however, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language, or standard language itself by any means. In practice the scripts are equal, with Latin being used more often in a less official capacity.
The Zhuang alphabet, used between the 1950s and 1980s in portions of the People's Republic of China, used a mixture of Latin, phonetic, numeral-based, and Cyrillic letters. The non-Latin letters, including Cyrillic, were removed from the alphabet in 1982 and replaced with Latin letters that closely resembled the letters they replaced.Romanization
There are various systems for romanization of Cyrillic text, including transliteration to convey Cyrillic spelling in Latin letters, and transcription to convey pronunciation.
Standard Cyrillic-to-Latin transliteration systems include:
*Scientific transliteration, used in linguistics, is based on the Serbo-Croatian Latin alphabet.
*The Working Group on Romanization Systems of the United Nations recommends different systems for specific languages. These are the most commonly used around the world.
*ISO 9:1995, from the International Organization for Standardization.
*American Library Association and Library of Congress Romanization tables for Slavic alphabets (ALA-LC Romanization), used in North American libraries.
*BGN/PCGN Romanization (1947), United States Board on Geographic Names & Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use).
*GOST 16876, a now defunct Soviet transliteration standard. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000, which is based on ISO 9.
*Various informal romanizations of Cyrillic, which adapt the Cyrillic script to Latin and sometimes Greek glyphs for compatibility with small character sets.
See also Romanization of Belarusian, Bulgarian, Kyrgyz, Russian, Macedonian and Ukrainian.
Cyrillization
Representing other writing systems with Cyrillic letters is called Cyrillization.
Summary table
{| border"0" cellpadding"5" cellspacing"0" class"Unicode" style="vertical-align:top; border-collapse:collapse; border:1px solid #999; text-align:center; clear:both;"
|-
! colspan12 style"background-color:#fbec5d; font-family:inherit; font-weight:normal;" | Slavic Cyrillic letters
|- style="vertical-align:top; background:#f8f8f8;"
| style="width:7%;"| <big>А</big><br/><small>A</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>А́</big><br/><small>A with acute</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>А̀</big><br /><small>A with grave</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>А̂</big><br /><small>A with circumflex</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>А̄</big><br /><small>A with macron</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>Ӑ</big><br /><small>A with<br />breve</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>Ӓ</big><br /><small>A with diaeresis</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>Б</big><br /><small>Be</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>В</big><br /><small>Ve</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>Г</big><br><small>Ge (Ghe)</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>Ґ</big><br><small>Ghe upturn</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>Д</big><br><small>De</small>
|- valign=top
| style="width:7%;"| <big>Ђ</big><br><small>Dje</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>Ѓ</big><br><small>Gje</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>Е</big><br><small>Ye</small>
| style="width:7%;"| <big>Е́</big><br><small>Ye with acute</small>
| <big>Ѐ</big><br><small>Ye with grave</small>
| <big>Е̂</big><br><small>Ye with circumflex</small>
| <big>Е̄</big><br><small>Ye with macron</small>
| <big>Ё</big><br><small>Yo</small>
| <big>Є</big><br><small>Ukrainian Ye</small>
| <big>Є́</big><br><small>Ukrainian Ye with acute</small>
| <big>Ж</big><br><small>Zhe</small>
| <big>З</big><br><small>Ze</small>
|- valign=top
| <big>З́</big><br><small>Zje</small>
| <big>Ѕ</big><br><small>Dze</small>
| <big>И</big><br><small>I</small>
| <big>І</big><br><small>Dotted I</small>
| <big>І́</big><br><small>Dotted I with acute</small>
| <big>Ї</big><br><small>Yi</small>
| <big>Ꙇ</big><br><small>Iota</small>
| <big>И́</big><br><small>I with acute</small>
| <big>Ѝ</big><br><small>I with grave</small>
| <big>И̂</big><br><small>I with circumflex</small>
| <big>Ӣ</big><br><small>I with macron</small>
| <big>Й</big><br><small>Short I</small>
|- valign=top
| <big>Ӥ</big><br><small>I with diaeresis</small>
| <big>Ј</big><br><small>Je</small>
| <big>К</big><br><small>Ka</small>
| <big>Л</big><br><small>El</small>
| <big>Љ</big><br><small>Lje</small>
| <big>М</big><br><small>Em</small>
| <big>Н</big><br><small>En</small>
| <big>Њ</big><br><small>Nje</small>
| <big>О</big><br><small>O</small>
| <big>О́</big><br><small>O with acute</small>
| <big>О̀</big><br><small>O with grave</small>
| <big>О̂</big><br><small>O with circumflex</small>
|- valign=top
| <big>О̄</big><br><small>O with macron</small>
| <big>Ӧ</big><br><small>O with diaeresis</small>
| <big>П</big><br><small>Pe</small>
| <big>Р</big><br><small>Er</small>
| <big>С</big><br><small>Es</small>
| <big>С́</big><br><small>Sje</small>
| <big>Т</big><br><small>Te</small>
| <big>Ћ</big><br><small>Tje</small>
| <big>Ќ</big><br><small>Kje</small>
| <big>У</big><br><small>U</small>
| <big>У́</big><br><small>U with acute</small>
| <big>У̀</big><br><small>U with grave</small>
|- valign=top
| <big>У̂</big><br><small>U with circumflex</small>
| <big>Ӯ</big><br><small>U with macron</small>
| <big>Ў</big><br><small>Short U</small>
| <big>Ӱ</big><br><small>U with<br>diaeresis</small>
| <big>Ф</big><br><small>Ef</small>
| <big>Х</big><br><small>Kha</small>
| <big>Ц</big><br><small>Tse</small>
| <big>Ч</big><br><small>Che</small>
| <big>Џ</big><br><small>Dzhe</small>
| <big>Ш</big><br><small>Sha</small>
| <big>Щ</big><br><small>Shcha</small>
| <big>Ꙏ</big><br><small>Neutral Yer</small>
|- valign=top
| <big>Ъ</big><br><small>Hard sign (Yer)</small>
| <big>Ъ̀</big><br><small>Hard sign with grave</small>
| <big>Ы</big><br><small>Yery</small>
| <big>Ы́</big><br><small>Yery</small>
| <big>Ь</big><br><small>Soft sign (Yeri)</small>
| <big>Э</big><br><small>E</small>
| <big>Э́</big><br><small>E with acute</small>
| <big>Ю</big><br><small>Yu</small>
| <big>Ю́</big><br><small>Yu with acute</small>
| <big>Ю̀</big><br><small>Yu with grave</small>
| <big>Я</big><br><small>Ya</small>
|- valign=top
| <big>Я́</big><br><small>Ya with acute</small>
| <big>Я̀</big><br><small>Ya with grave</small>
|- valign=top
| colspan12 style"background-color:#b0bf1a; font-family:inherit; font-weight:normal;"| Examples of non-Slavic Cyrillic letters (see List of Cyrillic letters for more)
|- style="vertical-align:top; background:#f8f8f8;"
| <big>А̊</big><br /><small>A with<br />ring</small>
| <big>Ә</big><br><small>Schwa</small>
| <big>Ӛ</big><br><small>Schwa with<br>diaeresis</small>
| <big>Ӕ</big><br><small>Ae</small>
| <big>Ғ</big><br><small>Ghayn</small>
| <big>Ҕ</big><br><small>Ge with<br>middle hook</small>
| <big>Ӻ</big><br><small>Ghayn with<br>hook</small>
| <big>Ӷ</big><br><small>Ge with<br>descender</small>
| <big>Ӂ</big><br><small>Zhe with<br>breve</small>
| <big>Ӝ</big><br><small>Zhe with<br>diaeresis</small>
| <big>Ҙ</big><br><small>Dhe</small>
| <big>Ӡ</big><br><small>Abkhazian<br>Dze</small>
|- valign=top
| <big>Ҡ</big><br><small>Bashkir Qa</small>
| <big>Ҟ</big><br><small>Ka with<br>stroke</small>
| <big>Ӊ</big><br><small>En with<br>tail</small>
| <big>Ң</big><br><small>En with<br>descender</small>
| <big>Ӈ</big><br><small>En with<br>hook</small>
| <big>Ҥ</big><br><small>En-ge</small>
| <big>О̆</big><br><small>O with breve</small>
| <big>Ө</big><br><small>Oe</small>
| <big>Ҩ</big><br><small>O-hook</small>
| <big>Ҏ</big><br><small>Er with<br>tick</small>
| <big>Ҫ</big><br><small>The</small>
| <big>Ҭ</big><br><small>Te with<br>descender</small>
|- valign=top
| <big>Ӳ</big><br><small>U with<br>double acute</small>
| <big>Ү</big><br><small>Ue</small>
| <big>Ұ</big><br><small>Kazakh Short U</small>
| <big>Ҳ</big><br><small>Kha with<br>descender</small>
| <big>Ӽ</big><br><small>Kha with<br>hook</small>
| <big>Ӿ</big><br><small>Kha with<br>stroke</small>
| <big>Һ</big><br><small>Shha (He)</small>
| <big>Ҵ</big><br><small>Te Tse</small>
| <big>Ҷ</big><br><small>Che with<br>descender</small>
| <big>Ӌ</big><br><small>Khakassian<br>Che</small>
|<big>Ҹ</big><br><small>Che with<br>vertical stroke</small>
|<big>Ҽ</big><br><small>Abkhazian<br />Che</small>
|- valign=top
|<big>Ҍ</big><br><small>Semisoft<br />sign</small>
|<big>Ӏ</big><br><small>Palochka</small>
|- valign=top
| colspan12 style"background-color:#87ceeb;font-family:inherit; font-weight:normal;" | Cyrillic letters used in the past
|- style="vertical-align:top; background:#f8f8f8;"
| <big>Ѣ</big><br><small>Yat</small>
| <big>Ꙗ</big><br><small>Iotated A</small>
| <big>Ѥ</big><br><small>Iotated E</small>
| <big>Ѧ</big><br><small>Small yus</small>
| <big>Ѫ</big><br><small>Big yus</small>
| <big>Ѩ</big><br><small>Iotated small yus</small>
| <big>Ѭ</big><br><small>Iotated big yus</small>
| <big>Ѯ</big><br><small>Ksi</small>
| <big>Ѱ</big><br><small>Psi</small>
| <big>Ꙟ</big><br><small>Yn</small>
| <big>Ѳ</big><br><small>Fita</small>
| <big>Ѵ</big><br><small>Izhitsa</small>
|- valign=top
| <big>Ѷ</big><br><small>Izhitsa okovy</small>
| <big>Ҁ</big><br><small>Koppa</small>
| <big>ОУ</big><br><small>Uk</small>
| <big>Ѡ</big><br><small>Omega</small>
| <big>Ѿ</big><br><small>Ot</small>
|}
<div>
{| style"text-align: left; empty-cells: hide; font-size: 0.9em" class"wikitable"
|+ Cyrillic alphabets comparison table
! colspan"73" style"text-align: center" |Early scripts
|-
! Church Slavonic
!А
!
!Б
!В
!Г
!
!Д
!
!(Ѕ)
!Е
!
!
!Ж
!
!Ѕ/З
!
!И
!І
!
!
!
!К
!
!Л
!
!М
!
!Н
!
!
!О
!
!П
!
!Р
!
!С
!
!Т
!
!Оу
!
!(Ѡ)
!Ф
!Х
!
!Ц
!
!Ч
!
!Ш
!Щ
!Ъ
!Ы
!Ѣ
!Ь
!
!
!Ю
!Ꙗ
!
!
!Ѥ
!Ѧ
!Ѩ
!Ѫ
!Ѭ
!Ѯ
!Ѱ
!Ѳ
!Ѵ
!Ҁ
|-
! colspan"73" style"text-align: center" | Most common shared letters
|-
! Common
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! colspan"73" style"text-align: center" | South Slavic languages
|-
! Bulgarian
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || || || Ь || || || Ю || Я
|-
!Macedonian
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || Ѓ || Ѕ || Е || || || Ж || || З
| || И || || Ј || ||
| К || || Л || Љ || М || || Н || Њ || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || Ќ || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || Џ || Ш
|-
! Serbian
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || Ђ || || Е || || || Ж || || З
| || И || || Ј || ||
| К || || Л || Љ || М || || Н || Њ || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || Ћ || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || Џ || Ш
|-
! Montenegrin
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || Ђ || || Е || || || Ж || || З
| З́ || И || || Ј || ||
| К || || Л || Љ || М || || Н || Њ || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || С́ || Т || Ћ || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || Џ || Ш
|-
! colspan"73" style"text-align: center" | East Slavic languages
|-
! Russian
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
! Belarusian
| А || || Б || В || Г || Ґ || Д || Дж || Дз || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || || І || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || Ў || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || || ’ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Ukrainian
| А || || Б || В || Г || Ґ || Д || || || Е || Є || Йо || Ж || || З
| || И || І || || Ї || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || ’ || || || Ь || || || Ю || Я
|-
! Rusyn
| А || || Б || В || Г || Ґ || Д || || || Е || Є || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || І || || Ї || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || || || Ю || Я
|-
! colspan"73" style"text-align: center" | Iranian languages
|-
! Kurdish
| А || || Б || В || Г || Г' || Д || || || Е || Ә || Ә' || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || К' || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || Ӧ || П || П'
| Р || Р' || С || || Т || Т' || У || || || Ф || Х || Һ
| Һ' || || Ч || Ч' || Ш || Щ || || || || Ь || Э || || || || Ԛ || Ԝ
| colspan="10" |
|-
! Ossetian
| А || Ӕ || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Tajik
| А || || Б || В || Г || Ғ || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || Ӣ || || Й
| К || Қ || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || Ӯ || || Ф || Х || Ҳ
| || || Ч || Ҷ || Ш || || Ъ || || || || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! colspan"73" style"text-align: center" | Romance languages
|-
! Moldovan<br />
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || || Ж || Ӂ || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || || || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! colspan"73" style"text-align: center" | Uralic languages
|-
! Komi-Permyak
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || І || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || Ӧ || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Meadow Mari
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || Ҥ || || О || Ӧ || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || Ӱ || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Hill Mari
| А || Ӓ || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || Ӧ || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || Ӱ || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || Ӹ || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Kildin Sami
| А || Ӓ || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || Й || Ҋ || Ј
| К || || Л || Ӆ || М || Ӎ || Н || Ӊ || Ӈ || О || || П ||
| Р || Ҏ || С || || Т || || У || || || Ф || Х || Һ
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || Ь || Ҍ || Э || Ӭ || Ю || Я
|-
! Udmurt
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || Ӝ || З || Ӟ || И || Ӥ || Й || || || К || (К̈) || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || Ӧ || П || || Р || || С || || Т || || | У || || || Ф || Х || || Ц || || Ч || Ӵ || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! colspan"73" style"text-align: center" | Turkic languages
|-
! Azerbaijani
| А || || Б || В || Г || Ғ || Д || || || Е || Ә || Ё || Ж || || З || || И || Ј || || || Й || К || Ҝ || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || Ө || П || || Р || || С || || Т || || У || || Ү || Ф || Х || Һ || Ц || || Ч || Ҹ || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Bashkir
| А || || Б || В || Г || Ғ || Д || || Ҙ || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || Ҡ || Л || || М || || Н || Ң || || О || Ө || П ||
| Р || || С || Ҫ || Т || || У || || Ү || Ф || Х || Һ
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || Ә || Ю || Я
|-
! Chuvash
| А || Ӑ || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || Ё || Ӗ || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || Ҫ || Т || || У || Ӳ || || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Kazakh
| А || Ә || Б || В || Г || Ғ || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || І || || || Й
| К || Қ || Л || || М || || Н || Ң || || О || Ө || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || Ұ || Ү || Ф || Х || Һ
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Kyrgyz
| А || || Б || || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || Ң || || О || Ө || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || Ү || || Х ||
| || || Ч || || Ш || || || Ы || || || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Tatar
| А || Ә || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || Җ || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || Ң || || О || Ө || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || Ү || Ф || Х || Һ
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Uzbek
| А || || Б || В || Г || Ғ || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || Қ || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || Ў || || Ф || Х || Ҳ
| || || Ч || || Ш || || Ъ || || || || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! colspan73 style"text-align: center" | Mongolian languages
|-
! Buryat
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || Ө || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || Ү || || Х || Һ
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || || || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Khalkha
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || || || О || Ө || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || Ү || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! Kalmyk
| А || Ә || Б || В || Г || Һ || Д || || || Е || || || Ж || Җ || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || Ң || || О || Ө || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || || Ү || || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || || || || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|-
! colspan73 style"text-align: center" | Caucasian languages
|-
! Abkhaz
| А || || Б || В || Г || Ҕ || Д || || Џ || Е || Ҽ || Ҿ || Ж || || З
| Ӡ || И || || || Й || К || Қ || Ҟ
| Л || || М || || Н || || || О || Ҩ || П || Ҧ
| Р || || С || || Т || Ҭ || У || || || Ф || Х || Ҳ
| Ц || Ҵ || Ч || Ҷ || Ш || Щ || || Ы
|-
! colspan"73" style"text-align: center" | Sino-Tibetan languages
|-
! Dungan
| А || || Б || В || Г || || Д || || || Е || || Ё || Ж || Җ || З
| || И || || || || Й
| К || || Л || || М || || Н || Ң || Ә || О || || П ||
| Р || || С || || Т || || У || Ў || Ү || Ф || Х ||
| Ц || || Ч || || Ш || Щ || Ъ || Ы || || Ь || Э || || Ю || Я
|}
</div>
*Ё in Russian is usually spelled as Е; Ё is typically printed in texts for learners and in dictionaries, and in word pairs which are differentiated only by that letter (все – всё).Computer encodingUnicode
As of Unicode version , Cyrillic letters, including national and historical alphabets, are encoded across several blocks:
*Cyrillic: [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0400.pdf U+0400–U+04FF]
*Cyrillic Supplement: [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0500.pdf U+0500–U+052F]
*Cyrillic Extended-A: [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2DE0.pdf U+2DE0–U+2DFF]
*Cyrillic Extended-B: [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UA640.pdf U+A640–U+A69F]
*Cyrillic Extended-C: [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1C80.pdf U+1C80–U+1C8F]
*Cyrillic Extended-D: [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1E030.pdf U+1E030–U+1E08F]
*Phonetic Extensions: [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1D00.pdf U+1D2B, U+1D78]
*Combining Half Marks: [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UFE20.pdf U+FE2E–U+FE2F]
The characters in the range U+0400 to U+045F are essentially the characters from ISO 8859-5 moved upward by 864 positions. The characters in the range U+0460 to U+0489 are historic letters, not used now. The characters in the range U+048A to U+052F are additional letters for various languages that are written with Cyrillic script.
Unicode as a general rule does not include accented Cyrillic letters. A few exceptions include:
*combinations that are considered as separate letters of respective alphabets, like Й, Ў, Ё, Ї, Ѓ, Ќ (as well as many letters of non-Slavic alphabets);
*two most frequent combinations orthographically required to distinguish homonyms in Bulgarian and Macedonian: Ѐ, Ѝ;
*a few Old and New Church Slavonic combinations: Ѷ, Ѿ, Ѽ.
To indicate stressed or long vowels, combining diacritical marks can be used after the respective letter (for example, : е́ у́ э́ etc.).
Some languages, including Church Slavonic, are still not fully supported.
Unicode 5.1, released on 4 April 2008, introduces major changes to the Cyrillic blocks. Revisions to the existing Cyrillic blocks, and the addition of Cyrillic Extended A (2DE0 ... 2DFF) and Cyrillic Extended B (A640 ... A69F), significantly improve support for the early Cyrillic alphabet, Abkhaz, Aleut, Chuvash, Kurdish, and Moksha.
Other
Other character encoding systems for Cyrillic:
*CP8668-bit Cyrillic character encoding established by Microsoft for use in MS-DOS also known as GOST-alternative. Cyrillic characters go in their native order, with a "window" for pseudographic characters.
*ISO/IEC 8859-58-bit Cyrillic character encoding established by International Organization for Standardization
*KOI8-R8-bit native Russian character encoding. Invented in the USSR for use on Soviet clones of American IBM and DEC computers. The Cyrillic characters go in the order of their Latin counterparts, which allowed the text to remain readable after transmission via a 7-bit line that removed the most significant bit from each bytethe result became a very rough, but readable, Latin transliteration of Cyrillic. Standard encoding of early 1990s for Unix systems and the first Russian Internet encoding.
*KOI8-UKOI8-R with addition of Ukrainian letters.
*MIK8-bit native Bulgarian character encoding for use in DOS.
*Windows-12518-bit Cyrillic character encoding established by Microsoft for use in Microsoft Windows. The simplest 8-bit Cyrillic encoding32 capital chars in native order at 0xc0–0xdf, 32 usual chars at 0xe0–0xff, with rarely used "YO" characters somewhere else. No pseudographics. Former standard encoding in some Linux distributions for Belarusian and Bulgarian, but currently displaced by UTF-8.
*GOST-main.
*GB 2312Principally simplified Chinese encodings, but there are also the basic 33 Russian Cyrillic letters (in upper- and lower-case).
*JIS and Shift JISPrincipally Japanese encodings, but there are also the basic 33 Russian Cyrillic letters (in upper- and lower-case).
Keyboard layouts
Each language has its own standard keyboard layout, adopted from traditional national typewriters. With the flexibility of computer input methods, there are also transliterating or phonetic/homophonic keyboard layouts made for typists who are more familiar with other layouts, like the common English QWERTY keyboard. When practical Cyrillic keyboard layouts are unavailable, computer users sometimes use transliteration (translit) or look-alike (volapuk encoding) to type in languages that are normally written with the Cyrillic alphabet. Potentially, these proxy versions could be transformed programmatically into Cyrillic at a later date.
See also
* Cyrillic Alphabet Day
* Cyrillic digraphs
* Cyrillic script in Unicode
* Faux Cyrillic, real or fake Cyrillic letters used to give Latin-alphabet text a Soviet or Russian feel
* List of Cyrillic digraphs and trigraphs
* Russian Braille
* Russian cursive
* Russian manual alphabet
* Bulgarian Braille
* Vladislav the Grammarian
* Yugoslav Braille
* Yugoslav manual alphabet
Internet top-level domains in Cyrillic
* gTLDs
* .мон
* .бг
* .қаз
* .рф
* .срб
* .укр
* .мкд
* .бел
Notes
Footnotes
References
*
*
Further reading
*
* [cited in Šmid, 2002]
*
* in .
*'The Lives of St. Tsurho and St. Strahota', Bohemia, 1495, Vatican Library
*
External links
*[http://czyborra.com/charsets/cyrillic.html The Cyrillic Charset Soup] overview and history of Cyrillic charsets.
*[http://transliteration.eki.ee/ Transliteration of Non-Roman Scripts], a collection of writing systems and transliteration tables
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/cyrillic.htm History and development of the Cyrillic alphabet]
*[http://localfonts.eu/cyrillic-alphabets-of-slavic-languages/ Cyrillic Alphabets of Slavic Languages] review of Cyrillic charsets in Slavic Languages.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140222042759/http://andregarzia.on-rev.com/richmond/LANGTOOLS.html data entry in Old Cyrillic / Стара Кирилица] (archived 22 February 2014)
*[http://blog-en.namepedia.org/2015/04/cyrillic-and-its-long-journey-east/ Cyrillic and its Long Journey East – NamepediA Blog], article about the Cyrillic script
*
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/collation/ Unicode collation charts]—including Cyrillic letters, sorted by shape
}}
Category:Bulgarian inventions
Category:Eastern Europe
Category:Central Asia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_script | 2025-04-05T18:27:24.235798 |
5641 | Consonant | In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract, except for the h sound, which is pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Examples are and [b], pronounced with the lips; and [d], pronounced with the front of the tongue; and [g], pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced throughout the vocal tract; , [v], , and [z] pronounced by forcing air through a narrow channel (fricatives); and and , which have air flowing through the nose (nasals). Most consonants are pulmonic, using air pressure from the lungs to generate a sound. Very few natural languages are non-pulmonic, making use of ejectives, implosives, and clicks. Contrasting with consonants are vowels.
Since the number of speech sounds in the world's languages is much greater than the number of letters in any one alphabet, linguists have devised systems such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique and unambiguous symbol to each attested consonant. The English alphabet has fewer consonant letters than the English language has consonant sounds, so digraphs like , , , and are used to extend the alphabet, though some letters and digraphs represent more than one consonant. For example, the sound spelled in "this" is a different consonant from the sound in "thin". (In the IPA, these are and , respectively.)
Etymology
The word consonant comes from Latin oblique stem , from 'sounding-together', a calque of Greek (plural , ).
Dionysius Thrax calls consonants ( 'sounded with') because in Greek they can only be pronounced with a vowel.
:The remaining seventeen are consonants: b, g, d, z, th, k, l, m, n, x, p, r, s, t, ph, ch, ps. They are called 'sounded with' because they do not have a sound on their own, but, when arranged with vowels, they produce a sound.}} He divides them into two subcategories: ( 'half-sounded'), which are the continuants,
:Of these, eight are half-sounded: z, x, ps, l, m, n, r, s. They are called 'half-sounded' because, though a little weaker than the vowels, they are still harmonious [well-sounding] in their moaning and hissing. which correspond to plosives.
:Nine are unsounded: b, g, d, k, p, t, th, ph, ch. They are called 'unsounded' because, more than the others, they are discordant [ill-sounding], just as we call the ill-sounding tragedist 'unsounded'. call these "fricative vowels" and say that "they can usually be thought of as syllabic fricatives that are allophones of vowels". That is, phonetically they are consonants, but phonemically they behave as vowels.
Many Slavic languages allow the trill and the lateral as syllabic nuclei (see Words without vowels). In languages like Nuxalk, it is difficult to know what the nucleus of a syllable is, or if all syllables even have nuclei. If the concept of 'syllable' applies in Nuxalk, there are syllabic consonants in words like (?) 'seal fat'. Miyako in Japan is similar, with 'to build' and 'to pull'.
Each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic features:
* The manner of articulation is how air escapes from the vocal tract when the consonant or approximant (vowel-like) sound is made. Manners include stops, fricatives, and nasals.
* The place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved. Places include bilabial (both lips), alveolar (tongue against the gum ridge), and velar (tongue against soft palate). In addition, there may be a simultaneous narrowing at another place of articulation, such as palatalisation or pharyngealisation. Consonants with two simultaneous places of articulation are said to be coarticulated.
* The phonation of a consonant is how the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. When the vocal cords vibrate fully, the consonant is called voiced; when they do not vibrate at all, it is voiceless.
* The voice onset time (VOT) indicates the timing of the phonation. Aspiration is a feature of VOT.
* The airstream mechanism is how the air moving through the vocal tract is powered. Most languages have exclusively pulmonic egressive consonants, which use the lungs and diaphragm, but ejectives, clicks, and implosives use different mechanisms.
* The length is how long the obstruction of a consonant lasts. This feature is borderline distinctive in English, as in "wholly" vs. "holy" , but cases are limited to morpheme boundaries. Unrelated roots are differentiated in various languages such as Italian, Japanese, and Finnish, with two length levels, "single" and "geminate". Estonian and some Sami languages have three phonemic lengths: short, geminate, and long geminate, although the distinction between the geminate and overlong geminate includes suprasegmental features.
* The articulatory force is how much muscular energy is involved. This has been proposed many times, but no distinction relying exclusively on force has ever been demonstrated.
All English consonants can be classified by a combination of these features, such as "voiceless alveolar stop" . In this case, the airstream mechanism is omitted.
Some pairs of consonants like p::b, t::d are sometimes called fortis and lenis, but this is a phonological rather than phonetic distinction.
Consonants are scheduled by their features in a number of IPA charts:
Examples
The recently extinct Ubykh language had only 2 or 3 vowels but 84 consonants; the Taa language has 87 consonants under one analysis, 164 under another, plus some 30 vowels and tone. The types of consonants used in various languages are by no means universal. For instance, nearly all Australian languages lack fricatives; a large percentage of the world's languages lack voiced stops such as , , as phonemes, though they may appear phonetically. Most languages, however, do include one or more fricatives, with being the most common, and a liquid consonant or two, with the most common. The approximant is also widespread, and virtually all languages have one or more nasals, though a very few, such as the Central dialect of Rotokas, lack even these. This last language has the smallest number of consonants in the world, with just six.
Most common
In rhotic American English, the consonants spoken most frequently are . ( is less common in non-rhotic accents.)
The most frequent consonant in many other languages is .
The most universal consonants around the world (that is, the ones appearing in nearly all languages) are the three voiceless stops , , , and the two nasals , . However, even these common five are not completely universal. Several languages in the vicinity of the Sahara Desert, including Arabic, lack . Several languages of North America, such as Mohawk, lack both of the labials and . The Wichita language of Oklahoma and some West African languages, such as Ijo, lack the consonant on a phonemic level, but do use it phonetically, as an allophone of another consonant (of in the case of Ijo, and of in Wichita). A few languages on Bougainville Island and around Puget Sound, such as Makah, lack both of the nasals and altogether, except in special speech registers such as baby-talk. The 'click language' Nǁng lacks , instead. Hawaiian is often said to lack , but it actually has a consonant that varies between and .}} and colloquial Samoan lacks both alveolars, and . and except in formal speech. However, Samoan does have another alveolar consonant, .}} Despite the 80-odd consonants of Ubykh, it lacks the plain velar in native words, as do the related Adyghe and Kabardian languages. But with a few striking exceptions, such as Xavante and Tahitian—which have no dorsal consonants whatsoever—nearly all other languages have at least one velar consonant: most of the few languages that do not have a simple (that is, a sound that is generally pronounced ) have a consonant that is very similar., but as in other dialects of Hawaiian it has a consonant that varies between and .}} For instance, an areal feature of the Pacific Northwest coast is that historical *k has become palatalized in many languages, so that Saanich for example has and but no plain ; similarly, historical *k in the Northwest Caucasian languages became palatalized to in extinct Ubykh and to in most Circassian dialects.
See also
* IPA consonant chart with audio
*Articulatory phonetics
*List of consonants
*List of phonetics topics
*Words without vowels
Notes
References
Sources
*Ian Maddieson, Patterns of Sounds, Cambridge University Press, 1984.
External links
*
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071220011219/http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~danhall/phonetics/sammy.html Interactive manner and place of articulation]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130513063441/http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/Consonants.aspx Consonants (Journal of West African Languages)] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant | 2025-04-05T18:27:24.250696 |
5642 | Costume jewelry | Bijoux Jewelry]]
Costume or fashion jewelry includes a range of decorative items worn for personal adornment that are manufactured as less expensive ornamentation to complement a particular fashionable outfit or garment as opposed to "real" (fine) jewelry, which is more costly and which may be regarded primarily as collectibles, keepsakes, or investments. From the outset, costume jewelry — also known as fashion jewelry — paralleled the styles of its more precious fine counterparts.
Terminology
It is also known as artificial jewellery, imitation jewellery, imitated jewelry, trinkets, fashion jewelry, junk jewelry, fake jewelry, or fallalery.
Etymology
The term costume jewelry dates back to the early 20th century. It reflects the use of the word "costume" to refer to what is now called an "outfit".
Components
Originally, costume or fashion jewelry was made of inexpensive simulated gemstones, such as rhinestones or lucite, set in pewter, silver, nickel, or brass. During the depression years, some manufacturers even downgraded rhinestones to meet the cost of production.
According to Schiffer, some of the characteristics of the costume jewelry in the Art Deco period were: While Kim Craftsmen closed in the early 1990s, many collectors still forage for their items at antique shows and flea markets.
General history
Costume jewelry has been part of the culture for almost 300 years. During the 18th century, jewelers began making pieces with inexpensive glass. In the 19th century, costume jewelry made of semi-precious material came into the market. Jewels made of semi-precious material were more affordable, allowing common people to own costume jewelry.
However, the real golden era for costume jewelry began in the middle of the 20th century. The new middle class wanted beautiful, but affordable jewelry. The demand for jewelry of this type coincided with the machine age and the Industrial Revolution. The revolution made the production of carefully executed replicas of admired heirloom pieces possible.
A significant factor in the popularization of costume jewelry was Hollywood movies. The leading female stars of the 1940s and 1950s often wore and endorsed the pieces produced by various designers. If you admired a necklace worn by Bette Davis in The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex, you could buy a copy from Joseff of Hollywood, who made the original. Stars such as Vivien Leigh, Elizabeth Taylor, and Jane Russell appeared in adverts for the pieces and the availability of the collections in shops such as Woolworth made it possible for ordinary women to own and wear such jewelry.
Coco Chanel greatly popularized the use of faux jewelry in her years as a fashion designer, bringing costume jewelry to life with gold and faux pearls. Chanel's designs drew from various historical styles, including Byzantine and Renaissance influences, often featuring crosses and intricate metalwork. Her collaboration with glassmakers, such as the Gripoix family, introduced richly colored glass beads and simulated gemstones, which added depth to her creations without the high cost of traditional precious stones.
Kenneth Jay Lane has since the 1960s been known for creating unique pieces for Jackie Onassis, Elizabeth Taylor, Diana Vreeland, and Audrey Hepburn. He is probably best known for his three-strand faux pearl necklace worn by Barbara Bush to her husband's inaugural ball. Celebrated names who wore Lane's creations include Jackie Kennedy, Babe Paley, the Duchess of Windsor, and Nancy Reagan.
Elsa Schiaparelli brought surrealist influences into costume jewelry design, collaborating with artists such as Salvador Dalí.
In many instances, high-end fashion jewelry has achieved a "collectible" status and increased value over time. Today, there is a substantial secondary market for vintage fashion jewelry. The main collecting market is for 'signed pieces', which have the maker's mark, usually stamped on the reverse. Amongst the most sought after are Miriam Haskell, Sherman, Coro, Butler and Wilson, Crown Trifari, and Sphinx. However, there is also demand for good quality 'unsigned' pieces, especially if they are of an unusual design.
Business and industry
Costume jewelry is considered a discrete category of fashion accessory and displays many characteristics of a self-contained industry. Costume jewelry manufacturers are located throughout the world, with a particular concentration in parts of China and India, where the trade of these goods dominates entire citywide and region-wide economies. There has been considerable controversy in the United States and elsewhere about the lack of regulations in the manufacture of such jewelry—these range from human rights issues surrounding the treatment of labor, to the use of manufacturing processes in which small, but potentially harmful, amounts of toxic metals are added during production. In 2010, the Associated Press released the story that toxic levels of the metal cadmium were found in children's jewelry. An Associated Press investigation found some pieces contained more than 80 percent of cadmium. The broader issues surrounding imports, exports, trade laws, and globalization also apply to the costume jewelry trade.
As part of the supply chain, wholesalers in the United States and other nations purchase costume jewelry from manufacturers. They typically import or export it to wholesale distributors and suppliers who deal directly with retailers. Wholesale costume jewelry merchants traditionally seek new suppliers at trade shows. The trade-show model has changed as the Internet has become increasingly important in global trade. Retailers can now select from many wholesalers with sites on the World Wide Web. The wholesalers purchase from international suppliers available on the Web from different parts of the world, like Chinese, Korean, Indonesian, Thai, and Indian jewelry companies, with their wide range of products in bulk quantities. Some sites also market directly to consumers who can purchase costume jewelry at significantly reduced prices. Some websites categorize fashion jewelry separately, while others use this term instead of costume jewelry. The trend of jewelry-making at home by hobbyists for personal enjoyment or sale on sites like Etsy has resulted in the common practice of buying wholesale costume jewelry in bulk and using it for parts.
There is a rise in demand for artificial or imitation jewelry by 85% due to the increase in gold prices, according to a 2011 report.
See also
* Marcasite jewelry
* Gustave Sherman
References
External links
Category:Jewellery components | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costume_jewelry | 2025-04-05T18:27:24.258275 |
5643 | Channel Islands | <br />
| sobriquet = <!-- or nickname -->
| image_name = Channel Islands by Sentinel-2.jpg
| image_caption = Satellite photograph of the Channel Islands in 2018
| image_alt | map_image Channel Islands in its region.svg
| map_caption = Location of the Channel Islands
| location = Northwestern Europe
| coordinates
| waterbody = English Channel
| archipelago | total_islands 7 inhabited
| major_islands =
| area_km2 = 198
| area_footnotes | rank
| length_km | length_footnotes
| width_km | width_footnotes
| coastline_km | coastline_footnotes
| elevation_m | elevation_footnotes
| highest_mount = Les Platons
| country = Bailiwick of Guernsey
| country_capital_and_largest_city = Saint Peter Port, Guernsey
| country_capital_type = settlement
| country_area_km2 = 78
| country1 = Bailiwick of Jersey
| country1_capital_and_largest_city = Saint Helier, Jersey
| country1_capital_type = settlement
| country1_area_km2 = 118
| demonym = Channel Islander<br />Channelean
| population =
| population_as_of =
| density_km2 = 844.6
| density_footnotes | ethnic_groups
| website | timezone1 Greenwich Mean Time
| utc_offset1 = ±0UTC
| timezone1_DST = British Summer Time
| utc_offset1_DST = +1
| additional_info Internet TLD GG and JE
}}
The Channel Islands; or . The term is the official French appellation in the islands themselves, whereas in France the usual term is .}} are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They are divided into two Crown Dependencies: the Bailiwick of Jersey, which is the largest of the islands; and the Bailiwick of Guernsey, consisting of Guernsey, Alderney, Sark, Herm and some smaller islands. Historically, they are the remnants of the Duchy of Normandy. Although they are not part of the United Kingdom, the UK is responsible for the defence and international relations of the islands as it is for the other Crown Dependency, the Isle of Man, and the British Overseas Territories. The Crown Dependencies are neither members of the Commonwealth of Nations, nor part of the European Union. They have a total population of about , and the bailiwicks' capitals, Saint Helier and Saint Peter Port, have populations of 33,500 and 18,207 respectively.
"Channel Islands" is a geographical term, not a political unit. The two bailiwicks have been administered separately since the late 13th century. Each has its own independent laws, elections, and representative bodies (although in modern times, politicians from the islands' legislatures are in regular contact). Any institution common to both is the exception rather than the rule.
The Bailiwick of Guernsey is divided into three jurisdictions – Guernsey, Alderney and Sark – each with its own legislature. Although there are a few pan-island institutions (such as the Channel Islands Brussels Office, the Director of Civil Aviation and the Channel Islands Financial Ombudsman, which are actually joint ventures between the bailiwicks), these tend to be established structurally as equal projects between Guernsey and Jersey. Otherwise, entities whose names imply membership of both Guernsey and Jersey might in fact be from one bailiwick only. For instance, The International Stock Exchange is in Saint Peter Port and therefore is in Guernsey.
The term "Channel Islands" began to be used around 1830, possibly first by the Royal Navy as a collective name for the islands. The term refers only to the archipelago to the west of the Cotentin Peninsula. Other populated islands located in the English Channel, and close to the coast of Britain, such as the Isle of Wight, Hayling Island and Portsea Island, are not regarded as "Channel Islands". Geography The two major islands are Jersey and Guernsey. They make up 99% of the population and 92% of the area.List of islands
]]
]]
{|class="wikitable"
!Bailiwick of Jersey!!Bailiwick of Guernsey
|-
!colspan2 style"background:#ffffee;"|Permanently inhabited islands, with population and area
|-
| valign="top"|
*Jersey (106,080) ()
| valign="top"|
*Guernsey (63,026) ()
*Alderney (2,039) ()
*Sark (600) ()
*Herm (60) ()
*Jethou (3) ()
*Brecqhou (Brechou) (1) ()
|-
!colspan2 style"background:#ffffee;"|Uninhabited islets
|-
| valign="top"|
*The Minquiers
*Écréhous
*Les Dirouilles
*Les Pierres de Lecq (the Paternosters)
| valign="top"|
These lie off Alderney:
*Burhou
*Casquets
*Ortac
*Renonquet
These lie off Guernsey:
*Caquorobert
*Crevichon
*Grande Amfroque
*Les Houmets
*Lihou (occupied for part of the year)
|}
Names
The names of the larger islands in the archipelago in general have the -ey suffix, whilst those of the smaller ones have the -hou suffix. These are believed to be from the Old Norse ey (island) and holmr (islet).
The Chausey Islands
The Chausey Islands south of Jersey are not generally included in the geographical definition of the Channel Islands but are occasionally described in English as 'French Channel Islands' in view of their French jurisdiction. They were historically linked to the Duchy of Normandy, but they are part of the French territory along with continental Normandy, and not part of the British Isles or of the Channel Islands in a political sense. They are an incorporated part of the commune of Granville (Manche). While they are popular with visitors from France, Channel Islanders can only visit them by private or charter boats as there are no direct transport links from the other islands.
In official Jersey Standard French, the Channel Islands are called 'Îles de la Manche', while in France, the term 'Îles Anglo-normandes' (Anglo-Norman Isles) is used to refer to the British 'Channel Islands' in contrast to other islands in the Channel. Chausey is referred to as an 'Île normande' (as opposed to Anglo-normande). 'Îles Normandes' and 'Archipel Normand' have also, historically, been used in Channel Island French to refer to the islands as a whole.
Waters
The very large tidal variation provides an environmentally rich inter-tidal zone around the islands, and some islands such as Burhou, the Écréhous, and the Minquiers have been designated Ramsar sites.
The waters around the islands include the following:
*The Swinge (between Alderney and Burhou)
*The Little Swinge (between Burhou and Les Nannels)
*La Déroute (between Jersey and Sark, and Jersey and the Cotentin)
*Le Raz Blanchard, or Race of Alderney (between Alderney and the Cotentin)
*The Great Russel (between Sark, Jéthou and Herm)
*The Little Russel (between Guernsey, Herm and Jéthou)
*Souachehouais (between Le Rigdon and L'Étacq, Jersey)
*Le Gouliot (between Sark and Brecqhou)
*La Percée (between Herm and Jéthou)
Highest point
The highest point in the islands is Les Platons in Jersey at 143 metres (469 ft) above sea level. The lowest point is the English Channel (sea level).
Climate
{|
|-
|
|}
History
Prehistory
, Saint Martin, Guernsey|upright]]
The earliest evidence of human occupation of the Channel Islands has been dated to 250,000 years ago when they were attached to the landmass of continental Europe. The islands became detached by rising sea levels in the Mesolithic period. The numerous dolmens and other archaeological sites extant and recorded in history demonstrate the existence of a population large enough and organised enough to undertake constructions of considerable size and sophistication, such as the burial mound at La Hougue Bie in Jersey or the statue menhirs of Guernsey.
From the Iron Age
Stater about 75 BC Celtic coin, the obverse showing a stylised head]]
r. and boar below]]
Hoards of Armorican coins have been excavated, providing evidence of trade and contact in the Iron Age period. Evidence for Roman settlement is sparse, although evidently the islands were visited by Roman officials and traders. The Roman name for the Channel Islands was I. Lenuri (Lenur Islands) and is included in the Peutinger Table. The traditional Latin names used for the islands (Caesarea for Jersey, Sarnia for Guernsey, Riduna for Alderney) derive (possibly mistakenly) from the Antonine Itinerary. Gallo-Roman culture was adopted to an unknown extent in the islands.
In the sixth century, Christian missionaries visited the islands. Samson of Dol, Helier, Marculf and Magloire are among saints associated with the islands. In the sixth century, they were already included in the diocese of Coutances where they remained until the Reformation.
There were probably some Celtic Britons who settled on the Islands in the 5th and 6th centuries AD (the indigenous Celts of Great Britain, and the ancestors of the modern Welsh, Cornish, and Bretons) who had emigrated from Great Britain in the face of invading Anglo-Saxons. But there were not enough of them to leave any trace, and the islands continued to be ruled by the king of the Franks and its church remained part of the diocese of Coutances.
From the beginning of the ninth century, Norse raiders appeared on the coasts. Norse settlement eventually succeeded initial attacks, and it is from this period that many place names of Norse origin appear, including the modern names of the islands.
From the Duchy of Normandy
In 933, the islands were granted to William I Longsword by Raoul, the King of Western Francia, and annexed to the Duchy of Normandy. In 1066, William II of Normandy invaded and conquered England, becoming William I of England, also known as William the Conqueror. In the period 1204–1214, King John lost the Angevin lands in northern France, including mainland Normandy, to King Philip II of France, but managed to retain control of the Channel Islands. In 1259, his successor, Henry III of England, by the Treaty of Paris, officially surrendered his claim and title to the Duchy of Normandy, while retaining the Channel Islands, as peer of France and feudal vassal of the King of France. Since then, the Channel Islands have been governed as two separate bailiwicks and were never absorbed into the Kingdom of England nor its successor kingdoms of Great Britain or the United Kingdom. During the Hundred Years' War, the Channel Islands were part of the French territory recognizing the claims of the English kings to the French throne.
The islands were invaded by the French in 1338, who held some territory until 1345. Edward III of England granted a Charter in July 1341 to Jersey, Guernsey, Sark and Alderney, confirming their customs and laws to secure allegiance to the English Crown. Owain Lawgoch, a mercenary leader of a Free Company in the service of the French Crown, attacked Jersey and Guernsey in 1372, and in 1373 Bertrand du Guesclin besieged Mont Orgueil. The young King Richard II of England reconfirmed in 1378 the Charter rights granted by his grandfather, followed in 1394 with a second Charter granting, because of great loyalty shown to the Crown, exemption forever, from English tolls, customs and duties.
After the loss of Calais in 1558, the Channel Islands were the last remaining English holdings in France and the only French territory that was controlled by the English kings as Kings of France. This situation lasted until the English kings dropped their title and claims to the French throne in 1801, confirming the Channel Islands in a situation of a crown dependency under the sovereignty of neither Great Britain nor France but of the British crown directly.
Sark in the 16th century was uninhabited until colonised from Jersey in the 1560s. The grant of seigneurship from Elizabeth I of England in 1565 forms the basis of Sark's constitution today.
From the 17th century
During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Jersey held out strongly for the Royalist cause, providing refuge for Charles, Prince of Wales in 1646 and 1649–1650, while the more strongly Presbyterian Guernsey more generally favoured the parliamentary cause (although Castle Cornet was held by Royalists and did not surrender until October 1651). }}
The islands acquired commercial and political interests in the North American colonies. Islanders became involved with the Newfoundland fisheries in the 17th century. In recognition for all the help given to him during his exile in Jersey in the 1640s, Charles II gave George Carteret, Bailiff and governor, a large grant of land in the American colonies, which he promptly named New Jersey, now part of the United States of America. Sir Edmund Andros, bailiff of Guernsey, was an early colonial governor in North America, and head of the short-lived Dominion of New England.
In the late 18th century, the islands were dubbed "the French Isles". Wealthy French émigrés fleeing the French Revolution sought residency in the islands. Many of the town domiciles existing today were built in that time. In Saint Peter Port, a large part of the harbour had been built by 1865.20th centuryWorld War II
s, built during the Second World War, are still scattered throughout the landscape of the Channel Islands.]]
, a stonemason repairing the paving of the Royal Square incorporated a V for victory under the noses of the occupiers. This was later amended to refer to the Red Cross ship Vega. The addition of the date 1945 and a more recent frame has transformed it into a monument.]]
The islands were occupied by the German Army during World War II.
The British Government demilitarised the islands in June 1940, and the lieutenant-governors were withdrawn on 21 June, leaving the insular administrations to continue government as best they could under impending military occupation. Thousands of children were evacuated with their schools to England and Scotland.
in 1945]]
The population of Sark largely remained where they were; Others have pointed out that, technically, Alderney was not British soil.
The Royal Navy blockaded the islands from time to time, particularly following the Invasion of Normandy in June 1944. There was considerable hunger and privation during the five years of German occupation, particularly in the final months when the population was close to starvation. Intense negotiations resulted in some humanitarian aid being sent via the Red Cross, leading to the arrival of Red Cross parcels in the supply ship SS Vega in December 1944.
The German occupation of 1940–45 was harsh: over 2,000 islanders were deported by the Germans, and some Jews were sent to concentration camps; partisan resistance and retribution, accusations of collaboration, and slave labour also occurred. Many Spaniards, initially refugees from the Spanish Civil War, were brought to the islands to build fortifications. Many land mines were laid, with 65,718 land mines laid in Jersey alone.
There was no resistance movement in the Channel Islands on the scale of that in mainland France. This has been ascribed to a range of factors including the physical separation of the islands, the density of troops (up to one German for every two Islanders), the small size of the islands precluding any hiding places for resistance groups, and the absence of the Gestapo from the occupying forces. Moreover, much of the population of military age had already joined the British Army.
The end of the occupation came after VE-Day on 8 May 1945, with Jersey and Guernsey being liberated on 9 May. The German garrison in Alderney was left until 16 May, and it was one of the last of the Nazi German remnants to surrender. The first evacuees returned on the first sailing from Great Britain on 23 June, The islands decided not to join the European Economic Community when the UK joined. Since the 1990s, declining profitability of agriculture and tourism has challenged the governments of the islands.
Flag gallery
<gallery>
File:Flag of Alderney.svg|Flag of Alderney
File:Flag of Brecqhou.svg|Flag of Brecqhou
File:Flag of Guernsey.svg|Flag of Guernsey
File:Flag of Herm.svg|Flag of Herm
File:Flag of Jersey.svg|Flag of Jersey
File:Flag of Sark.svg|Flag of Sark
</gallery>
Governance
The Channel Islands fall into two separate self-governing bailiwicks, the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey. Each of these is a British Crown Dependency, and neither is a part of the United Kingdom. They have been parts of the Duchy of Normandy since the 10th century, and Queen Elizabeth II was often referred to by her traditional and conventional title of Duke of Normandy. However, pursuant to the Treaty of Paris (1259), she governed in her right as The Queen (the "Crown in right of Jersey", and the "Crown in right of the république of the Bailiwick of Guernsey"), and not as the Duke. This notwithstanding, it is a matter of local pride for monarchists to treat the situation otherwise: the Loyal toast at formal dinners was to 'The Queen, our Duke', rather than to 'Her Majesty, The Queen' as in the UK. The Queen died in 2022 and her son Charles III became the King.
A bailiwick is a territory administered by a bailiff. Although the words derive from a common root ('bail' = 'to give charge of') there is a vast difference between the meanings of the word 'bailiff' in Great Britain and in the Channel Islands; a bailiff in Britain is a court-appointed private debt-collector authorised to collect judgment debts, in the Channel Islands, the Bailiff in each bailiwick is the civil head, presiding officer of the States, and also head of the judiciary, and thus the most important citizen in the bailiwick.
In the early 21st century, the existence of governmental offices such as the bailiffs' with multiple roles straddling the different branches of government came under increased scrutiny for their apparent contravention of the doctrine of separation of powers—most notably in the Guernsey case of McGonnell -v- United Kingdom (2000) 30 EHRR 289. That case, following final judgement at the European Court of Human Rights, became part of the impetus for much recent constitutional change, particularly the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 (2005 c.4) in the UK, including the separation of the roles of the Lord Chancellor, the abolition of the House of Lords' judicial role, and its replacement by the UK Supreme Court. The islands' bailiffs, however, still retain their historic roles.
The systems of government in the islands date from Norman times, which accounts for the names of the legislatures, the States, derived from the Norman 'États' or 'estates' (i.e. the Crown, the Church, and the people). The States have evolved over the centuries into democratic parliaments.
The UK Parliament has power to legislate for the islands, but Acts of Parliament do not extend to the islands automatically. Usually, an Act gives power to extend its application to the islands by an Order in Council, after consultation. For the most part the islands legislate for themselves. Each island has its own primary legislature, known as the States of Guernsey and the States of Jersey, with Chief Pleas in Sark and the States of Alderney. The Channel Islands are not represented in the UK Parliament. Laws passed by the States are given royal assent by the King-in-Council, to whom the islands' governments are responsible.
The islands have never been part of the European Union, and thus were not a party to the 2016 referendum on the EU membership, but were part of the Customs Territory of the European Community by virtue of Protocol Three to the Treaty on European Union. In September 2010, a Channel Islands Brussels Office was set up jointly by the two Bailiwicks to develop the Channel Islands' influence with the EU, to advise the Channel Islands' governments on European matters, and to promote economic links with the EU.
Both bailiwicks are members of the British–Irish Council, and Jèrriais and Guernésiais are recognised regional languages of the islands.
The legal courts are separate; separate courts of appeal have been in place since 1961. Among the legal heritage from Norman law is the Clameur de haro. The basis of the legal systems of both Bailiwicks is Norman customary law (Coutume) rather than the English Common Law, although elements of the latter have become established over time.
Islanders are full British citizens, but were not classed as European citizens unless by descent from a UK national. Any British citizen who applies for a passport in Jersey or Guernsey receives a passport bearing the words "British Islands, Bailiwick of Jersey" or "British Islands, Bailiwick of Guernsey". Under the provisions of Protocol Three, Channel Islanders who do not have a close connection with the UK (no parent or grandparent from the UK, and have never been resident in the UK for a five-year period) did not automatically benefit from the EU provisions on free movement within the EU, and their passports received an endorsement to that effect. This affected only a minority of islanders.
Under the UK Interpretation Act 1978, the Channel Islands are deemed to be part of the British Islands, not to be confused with the British Isles. For the purposes of the British Nationality Act 1981, the "British Islands" include the United Kingdom (Great Britain and Northern Ireland), the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, taken together, unless the context otherwise requires.
Economy
Tourism is still important. However, Jersey and Guernsey have, since the 1960s, become major offshore financial centres. Historically Guernsey's horticultural and greenhouse activities have been more significant than in Jersey, and Guernsey has maintained light industry as a higher proportion of its economy than Jersey. In Jersey, potatoes are an important export crop, shipped mostly to the UK.
Jersey is heavily reliant on financial services, with 39.4% of Gross Value Added (GVA) in 2018 contributed by the sector. Rental income comes second at 15.1% with other business activities at 11.2%. Tourism 4.5% with agriculture contributing just 1.2% and manufacturing even lower at 1.1%. GVA has fluctuated between £4.5 and £5 billion for 20 years.
Jersey has had a steadily rising population, increasing from below 90,000 in 2000 to over 105,000 in 2018 which combined with a flat GVA has resulted in GVA per head of population falling from £57,000 to £44,000 per person. and with a stable population of around 66,000 has had a steadily rising GDP, and a GVA per head of population which in 2018 surpassed £52,000.
Transport and communications
Post
Since 1969, Jersey and Guernsey have operated postal administrations independently of the UK's Royal Mail, with their own postage stamps, which can be used for postage only in their respective Bailiwicks. UK stamps are no longer valid, but mail to the islands, and to the Isle of Man, is charged at UK inland rates. It was not until the early 1990s that the islands joined the UK's postcode system, Jersey postcodes using the initials JE and Guernsey GY.
Transport
Road
Each of the three largest islands has a distinct vehicle registration scheme:
*Guernsey (GBG): a number of up to five digits;
*Jersey (GBJ): J followed by up to six digits (JSY vanity plates are also issued);
*Alderney (GBA): AY followed by up to five digits (four digits are the most that have been used, as redundant numbers are re-issued).
In Sark, where most motor traffic is prohibited, the few vehicles – nearly all tractors – do not display plates. Bicycles display tax discs.
Sea
In the 1960s, names used for the cross-Channel ferries plying the mail route between the islands and Weymouth, Dorset, were taken from the popular Latin names for the islands: (Jersey), (Guernsey) and (Alderney). Fifty years later, the ferry route between the Channel Islands and the UK is operated by Condor Ferries from both St Helier, Jersey and St Peter Port, Guernsey, using high-speed catamaran fast craft to Poole in the UK. A regular passenger ferry service on the Commodore Clipper goes from both Channel Island ports to Portsmouth daily, and carries both passengers and freight.
Ferry services to Normandy are operated by , and services between Jersey and Saint-Malo are operated by and Condor Ferries. The Isle of Sark Shipping Company operates small ferries to Sark. Normandy Trader operates an ex military tank landing craft for transporting freight between the islands and France.
On 20 August 2013, , which had operated a "lift-on lift-off" container service for 80 years between the Port of Southampton and the Port of Jersey, ceased trading. Senator Alan Maclean, a Jersey politician, had previously tried to save the 90-odd jobs furnished by the company to no avail. On 20 September, it was announced that Channel Island Lines would continue this service, and would purchase the MV Huelin Dispatch from Associated British Ports who in turn had purchased them from the receiver in the bankruptcy. The new operator was to be funded by Rockayne Limited, a closely held association of Jersey businesspeople.
There are two broadcast transmitters serving Jersey – at Frémont Point and Les Platons – as well as one at Les Touillets in Guernsey and a relay in Alderney.
There are several local newspapers including the Guernsey Press and the Jersey Evening Post and magazines.
Telephone
Jersey always operated its own telephone services independently of Britain's national system, Guernsey established its own telephone service in 1968. Both islands still form part of the British telephone numbering plan, but Ofcom on the mainlines does not have responsibility for telecommunications regulatory and licensing issues on the islands. It is responsible for wireless telegraphy licensing throughout the islands, and by agreement, for broadcasting regulation in the two large islands only. Submarine cables connect the various islands and provide connectivity with England and France.
Internet
Modern broadband speeds are available on all of the islands, including full-fibre (FTTH) in Jersey (offering speeds of up to 1 Gbit/s on all broadband connections) and VDSL and some business and homes with fibre connectivity in Guernsey. Providers include Sure and JT.
The two Bailiwicks each have their own internet domain, .GG (Guernsey, Alderney, Sark) and .JE (Jersey), which are managed by channelisles.net. Culture
]]
The Norman language predominated in the islands until the nineteenth century, when increasing influence from English-speaking settlers and easier transport links led to Anglicisation. There are four main dialects/languages of Norman in the islands, Auregnais (Alderney, extinct in late twentieth century), Dgèrnésiais (Guernsey), Jèrriais (Jersey) and Sercquiais (Sark, an offshoot of Jèrriais).
Victor Hugo spent many years in exile, first in Jersey and then in Guernsey, where he finished Les Misérables. Guernsey is the setting of Hugo's later novel Les Travailleurs de la Mer (Toilers of the Sea). A "Guernsey-man" also makes an appearance in chapter 91 of Herman Melville's Moby-Dick.
The annual "Muratti", the inter-island football match, is considered the sporting event of the year, although, due to broadcast coverage, it no longer attracts the crowds of spectators, travelling between the islands, that it did during the twentieth century.
Cricket is popular in the Channel Islands. The Jersey cricket team and the Guernsey cricket team are both associate members of the International Cricket Council. The teams have played each other in the inter-insular match since 1957. In 2001 and 2002, the Channel Islands entered a team into the MCCA Knockout Trophy, the one-day tournament of the minor counties of English and Welsh cricket.
Channel Island sportsmen and women compete in the Commonwealth Games for their respective islands and the islands have also been enthusiastic supporters of the Island Games. Shooting is a popular sport, in which islanders have won Commonwealth medals.
Guernsey's traditional colour for sporting and other purposes is green and Jersey's is red.
(toad) in St Helier represents the traditional nickname for Jersey people]]
The main islanders have traditional animal nicknames:
*Guernsey: les ânes ("donkeys" in French and Norman): the steepness of St Peter Port streets required beasts of burden, but Guernsey people also claim it is a symbol of their strength of characterwhich Jersey people traditionally interpret as stubbornness.
*Jersey: les crapauds ("toads" in French and Jèrriais): Jersey has toads and snakes, which Guernsey lacks.
*Sark: les corbins ("crows" in Sercquiais, Dgèrnésiais and Jèrriais, les corbeaux'' in French): crows could be seen from the sea on the island's coast.
*Alderney: les lapins ("rabbits" in French and Auregnais): the island is noted for its warrens.
Religion
Christianity was brought to the islands around the sixth century; according to tradition, Jersey was evangelised by St Helier, Guernsey by St Samson of Dol, and the smaller islands were occupied at various times by monastic communities representing strands of Celtic Christianity. At the Reformation, the previously Catholic islands converted to Calvinism under the influence of an influx of French-language pamphlets published in Geneva. Anglicanism was imposed in the seventeenth century, but the Nonconformist local tendency returned with a strong adoption of Methodism. In the late twentieth century, a strong Catholic presence re-emerged with the arrival of numerous Portuguese workers (both from mainland Portugal and the island of Madeira). Their numbers have been reinforced by recent migrants from Poland and elsewhere in Eastern Europe. Today, Evangelical churches have been established. Services are held in a number of languages.
According to 2015 statistics, 39% of the population was non-religious. Other islands in the English Channel
A number of islands in the English Channel are part of France. Among these are Bréhat, Île de Batz, Chausey, Tatihou and the Îles Saint-Marcouf.
The Isle of Wight, which is part of England, lies just off the coast of Great Britain, between the Channel and the Solent.
Hayling and Portsea islands, both being near or part of Portsmouth, are also part of England (and thus part of the United Kingdom).
See also
*German occupation of the Channel Islands
*List of churches, chapels and meeting halls in the Channel Islands
*Places named after the Channel Islands
Notes
References Bibliography
*Encyclopædia Britannica Vol. 5 (1951), Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., Chicago – London – Toronto
* – Republished
*Hamlin, John F. "No 'Safe Haven': Military Aviation in the Channel Islands 1939–1945" Air Enthusiast, No. 83, September/October 1999, pp. 6–15
*
* External links
*
*[http://www.alderney.gov.gg/ States of Alderney]
*[http://www.gov.gg/ States of Guernsey]
*[http://www.gov.je/ States of Jersey]
*[http://www.gov.sark.gg/ Government of Sark]
}}
Category:British Isles
Category:Northwestern Europe
Category:Geography of Europe
Category:English-speaking countries and territories
Category:Special territories of the European Union | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_Islands | 2025-04-05T18:27:24.287730 |
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