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Ingame theory, anextensive-form gameis a specification of agameallowing for the explicit representation of a number of key aspects, like the sequencing of players' possible moves, theirchoices at every decision point, the (possiblyimperfect) information each player has about the other player's moves when they make a de... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensive-form_game |
Game classificationis the classification of games, forming agame taxonomy. Many different methods of classifying games exist.
There are four basic approaches to classifying the games used inphysical education:[1]
Games further divided as per the physical activity are mainly divided into three categories: soft active ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_classification |
Grundy's gameis a two-player mathematical game of strategy. The starting configuration is a single heap of objects, and the two players take turn splitting a single heap into two heaps of different sizes. The game ends when only heaps of size two and smaller remain, none of which can be split unequally. The game is usu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundy%27s_game |
Apositional game[1][2]ingame theoryis a kind of acombinatorial gamefor two players. It is described by:
During the game, players alternately claim previously-unclaimed positions, until one of the players wins. If all positions inX{\displaystyle X}are taken while no player wins, the game is considered a draw.
The clas... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positional_game |
Sylver coinageis amathematical gamefor two players, invented byJohn H. Conway.[1]The two players take turns naming positiveintegersthat are not the sum of nonnegative multiples of previously named integers. The player who names 1 loses. For instance, if player A opens with 2, B can win by naming 3 as A is forced to na... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylver_coinage |
Wythoff's gameis a two-player mathematicalsubtraction game, played with two piles of counters. Players take turns removing counters from one or both piles; when removing counters from both piles, the numbers of counters removed from each pile must be equal. The game ends when one player removes the last counter or coun... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wythoff%27s_game |
Inmathematics, atopological gameis an infinite game ofperfect informationplayed between two players on atopological space. Players choose objects with topological properties such as points,open sets,closed setsandopen coverings. Time is generally discrete, but the plays may havetransfinitelengths, and extensions to con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_game |
Zugzwang(fromGerman'compulsion to move';pronounced[ˈtsuːktsvaŋ]) is a situation found inchessand otherturn-based gameswherein oneplayeris put at a disadvantage because of their obligation to make a move; a player is said to be "in zugzwang" when any legal move will worsen their position.[1]
Although the term is used l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zugzwang |
odis acommandon variousoperating systemsfor displaying ("dumping") data in varioushuman-readableoutput formats. The name is an acronym for "octaldump" since it defaults to printing in theoctaldata format.
Theodprogram can display output in a variety of formats, includingoctal,hexadecimal,decimal, andASCII. It is use... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Od_(Unix) |
Theaviation transponder interrogation modesare the standard formats of pulsed sequences from an interrogatingSecondary Surveillance Radar(SSR) or similarAutomatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast(ADS-B) system. The reply format is usually referred to as a "code" from atransponder, which is used to determine detailed in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_transponder_interrogation_modes |
Theair traffic control radar beacon system(ATCRBS) is a system used inair traffic control(ATC) to enhance surveillanceradarmonitoring and separation of air traffic. It consists of a rotating ground antenna andtranspondersin aircraft. The ground antenna sweeps a narrow vertical beam ofmicrowavesaround the airspace. W... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control_radar_beacon_system |
Identification, friend or foe(IFF) is acombat identificationsystem designed forcommand and control. It uses atransponderthat listens for aninterrogationsignal and then sends aresponsethat identifies the broadcaster. IFF systems usually useradarfrequencies, but other electromagnetic frequencies, radio or infrared, may b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_Identification_Feature |
Identification, friend or foe(IFF) is acombat identificationsystem designed forcommand and control. It uses atransponderthat listens for aninterrogationsignal and then sends aresponsethat identifies the broadcaster. IFF systems usually useradarfrequencies, but other electromagnetic frequencies, radio or infrared, may b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFF_code |
Inaviation, aflight level(FL) is an aircraft'saltitudeas determined by a pressure altimeter using theInternational Standard Atmosphere. It is expressed in hundreds offeetormetres. The altimeter setting used is theISAsea level pressure of 1013hPaor 29.92inHg. The actual surface pressure will vary from this at different ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_level |
ARINC 429,[1]the "Mark 33 Digital Information Transfer System (DITS)," is theARINCtechnical standard for the predominantavionicsdata busused on most higher-end commercial and transport aircraft.[2]It defines the physical and electrical interfaces of a two-wiredata busand a data protocol to support an aircraft's avionic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARINC_429 |
Abinary numberis anumberexpressed in thebase-2numeral systemorbinary numeral system, a method for representingnumbersthat uses only two symbols for thenatural numbers: typically "0" (zero) and "1" (one). Abinary numbermay also refer to arational numberthat has a finite representation in the binary numeral system, that ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base2 |
Quaternary/kwəˈtɜːrnəri/is anumeral systemwithfouras itsbase. It uses thedigits0, 1, 2, and 3 to represent anyreal number. Conversion frombinaryis straightforward.
Four is the largest number within thesubitizingrange and one of two numbers that is both a square and ahighly composite number(the other being thirty-six),... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base4 |
Hexadecimal(also known asbase-16or simplyhex) is apositional numeral systemthat represents numbers using aradix(base) of sixteen. Unlike thedecimalsystem representing numbers using ten symbols, hexadecimal uses sixteen distinct symbols, most often the symbols "0"–"9" to represent values 0 to 9 and "A"–"F" to represent ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base16 |
TheSimple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP) is anInternet standardcommunication protocolforelectronic mailtransmission. Mail servers and othermessage transfer agentsuse SMTP to send and receive mail messages. User-levelemail clientstypically use SMTP only for sending messages to a mail server for relaying, and typically sub... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8BITMIME |
Ascii85, also calledBase85, is a form ofbinary-to-text encodingdeveloped by Paul E. Rutter for thebtoautility. By using fiveASCIIcharacters to represent four bytes ofbinary data(making the encoded size1⁄4larger than the original, assuming eight bits per ASCII character), it is more efficient thanuuencodeorBase64, which... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascii85 |
Base36is abinary-to-text encodingscheme that representsbinary datain anASCIIstring format by translating it into aradix-36 representation. The choice of 36 is convenient in that the digits can be represented using theArabic numerals0–9 and theLatin lettersA–Z[1](theISO basic Latin alphabet).
Each base36 digit needs le... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base36 |
Thebase62encoding scheme uses 62 characters. The characters consist of the capital letters A-Z, the lower case letters a-z and the numbers 0–9. It is abinary-to-text encodingscheme that representsbinary datain anASCIIstring format.[1][2]
The Base62 index table: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base62 |
Auniform resource locator(URL), colloquially known as anaddresson theWeb,[1]is a reference to aresourcethat specifies its location on acomputer networkand a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type ofUniform Resource Identifier(URI),[2][3]although many people use the two terms interchangeably.[4][a]URLs oc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URL |
Abinary clockis aclockthat displays the time of day in abinaryformat. Originally, such clocks showedeach decimal digitofsexagesimaltime as a binary value, but presently binary clocks also exist which display hours, minutes, and seconds as binary numbers. Most binary clocks aredigital, althoughanalogvarieties exist. Tr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_time |
The following is a comparison of notablehex editors.
ao:ANSIis the Windows character set,OEMis the DOS character set. Both are based onASCII. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_hex_editors |
Adisk editoris acomputer programthat allows its user to read, edit, and write raw data (atcharacterorhexadecimal,byte-levels) on disk drives (e.g.,hard disks,USB flash disksorremovable mediasuch as afloppy disks); as such, they are sometimes calledsector editors,since the read/write routines built into the electronics ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_editor |
Approximationsfor themathematical constantpi(π) in thehistory of mathematicsreached an accuracy within 0.04% of the true value before the beginning of theCommon Era. InChinese mathematics, this was improved to approximations correct to what corresponds to about seven decimal digits by the 5th century.
Further progress... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximations_of_%CF%80 |
Bellard's formulais used to calculate thenth digit ofπinbase 16.
Bellard's formula was discovered byFabrice Bellardin 1997. It is about 43% faster than theBailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula(discovered in 1995).[1][2]It has been used inPiHex, the now-completeddistributed computingproject.
One important application is veri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellard%27s_formula |
fileis ashellcommandfor reporting the type of data contained in afile. It is commonly supported inUnixandUnix-likeoperating systems.
As the command uses relatively quick-runningheuristicsto determinefile type, it can report misleading information. The command can be fooled, for example, by including a magic number in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_(command) |
Apunched card sorteris a machine forsortingdecks ofpunched cards.
Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards usingunit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards. T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_80_series_Card_Sorters |
Incomputer science, asorting algorithmis analgorithmthat puts elements of alistinto anorder. The most frequently used orders arenumerical orderandlexicographical order, and either ascending or descending. Efficientsortingis important for optimizing theefficiencyof other algorithms (such assearchandmergealgorithms) that... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_sort |
Kirkpatrick–Reisch sortingis a fastsorting algorithmfor items with limited-size integer keys. It is notable for having anasymptotic time complexitythat is better thanradix sort.[1][2]
Thiscomputer sciencearticle is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkpatrick-Reisch_sorting |
In the mathematical theory ofnon-standard positional numeral systems, theKomornik–Loreti constantis amathematical constantthat represents the smallest baseqfor which the number 1 has a unique representation, called itsq-development. The constant is named afterVilmos KomornikandPaola Loreti, who defined it in 1998.[1]
... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komornik%E2%80%93Loreti_constant |
Number systems have progressed from theuse of fingersandtally marks, perhaps more than 40,000 years ago, to the use of sets ofglyphsable to represent any conceivable number efficiently. The earliest known unambiguous notations for numbers emerged inMesopotamiaabout 5000 or 6000 years ago.
Counting initially involves t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_ancient_numeral_systems |
This is a list of Wikipedia articles on topics ofnumeral systemand "numeric representations"
See also:computer numbering formatsandnumber names. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_numeral_system_topics |
In apositional numeral system, theradix(pl.:radices) orbaseis the number of uniquedigits, including the digit zero, used to represent numbers. For example, for thedecimal system(the most common system in use today) the radix is ten, because it uses the ten digits from 0 through 9.
In any standard positional numeral sy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radix |
Atimelineofnumeralsandarithmetic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_numerals_and_arithmetic |
This list compiles notable works that explore the history and development of number systems across various civilizations and time periods. These works cover topics ranging from ancient numeral systems and arithmetic methods to the evolution of mathematical notations and the impact of numerals on science, trade, and cul... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_history_of_number_systems |
Inprobability theoryandstatistics,Wallenius' noncentral hypergeometric distribution(named after Kenneth Ted Wallenius) is a generalization of thehypergeometric distributionwhere items are sampled withbias.
This distribution can be illustrated as anurn modelwith bias. Assume, for example, that an urn containsm1red ball... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallenius%27_noncentral_hypergeometric_distribution |
Inprobability theoryandstatistics,Fisher's noncentral hypergeometric distributionis a generalization of thehypergeometric distributionwhere sampling probabilities are modified by weight factors. It can also be defined as theconditional distributionof two or morebinomially distributedvariables dependent upon their fixed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher%27s_noncentral_hypergeometric_distribution |
Inprobabilityandstatistics, anurn problemis an idealizedmental exercisein which some objects of real interest (such as atoms, people, cars, etc.) are represented as colored balls in anurnor other container. One pretends to remove one or more balls from the urn; the goal is to determine the probability of drawing one co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urn_problem |
In thefield of statistics,biasis a systematic tendency in which the methods used to gatherdataandestimateasample statisticpresent an inaccurate, skewed or distorted (biased) depiction of reality. Statistical bias exists in numerous stages of the data collection and analysis process, including: the source of the data, t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias_(statistics) |
Instatistics,sampling biasis abiasin which a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intendedpopulationhave a lower or highersampling probabilitythan others. It results in abiased sample[1]of a population (or non-human factors) in which all individuals, or instances, were not equally likely to have b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biased_sample |
In mathematics,Appellseriesare a set of fourhypergeometric seriesF1,F2,F3,F4of twovariablesthat were introduced byPaul Appell(1880) and that generalizeGauss's hypergeometric series2F1of one variable. Appell established the set ofpartial differential equationsof which thesefunctionsare solutions, and found various reduc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appell_series |
In mathematics,Humbert seriesare a set of sevenhypergeometric seriesΦ1, Φ2, Φ3, Ψ1, Ψ2, Ξ1, Ξ2of twovariablesthat generalizeKummer's confluent hypergeometric series1F1of one variable and theconfluent hypergeometric limit function0F1of one variable. The first of these double series was introduced byPierre Humbert(1920)... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humbert_series |
Inmathematics, theKampé de Fériet functionis a two-variable generalization of thegeneralized hypergeometric series, introduced byJoseph Kampé de Fériet.
The Kampé de Fériet function is given by
The generalsextic equationcan be solved in terms of Kampé de Fériet functions.[1]
Thismathematical analysis–related article... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamp%C3%A9_de_F%C3%A9riet_function |
In 1893Giuseppe Lauricelladefined and studied fourhypergeometric seriesFA,FB,FC,FDof three variables. They are (Lauricella 1893):
for |x1| + |x2| + |x3| < 1 and
for |x1| < 1, |x2| < 1, |x3| < 1 and
for |x1|1/2+ |x2|1/2+ |x3|1/2< 1 and
for |x1| < 1, |x2| < 1, |x3| < 1. Here thePochhammer symbol(q)iindicates thei-th ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauricella_hypergeometric_series |
TheMcDonald's Monopolygame is a sales promotion run byfast foodrestaurant chainMcDonald's, with a theme based on theHasbroboard gameMonopoly. The game first ran in the U.S. in 1987 and has since been used worldwide.
The promotion has used other names, such asMonopoly: Pick Your Prize!(2001),Monopoly Best Chance Game(2... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonald%27s_Monopoly |
Inpopulation genetics, theWatterson estimatoris a method for describing thegenetic diversityin a population. It was developed byMargaret Wuand G. A. Watterson in the 1970s.[1][2]It is estimated by counting the number of polymorphic sites. It is a measure of the "population mutation rate" (the product of the effective p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watterson_estimator |
Apermutation test(also called re-randomization test or shuffle test) is anexactstatistical hypothesis test.
A permutation test involves two or more samples. The (possiblycounterfactual) null hypothesis is that all samples come from the same distributionH0:F=G{\displaystyle H_{0}:F=G}. Under thenull hypothesis, the dist... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation_test |
Random assignmentorrandom placementis anexperimentaltechnique for assigninghuman participantsoranimal subjectsto different groups in an experiment (e.g.,a treatment group versus a control group) usingrandomization, such as by a chance procedure (e.g.,flipping a coin) or arandom number generator.[1]This ensures that eac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_assignment |
Instatistics,resamplingis the creation of new samples based on one observed sample.
Resampling methods are:
Permutation tests rely on resampling the original data assuming the null hypothesis. Based on the resampled data it can be concluded how likely the original data is to occur under the null hypothesis.
Bootstrap... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomization_test |
Boolean grammars, introduced byOkhotin[Wikidata], are a class offormal grammarsstudied informal languagetheory. They extend the basic type of grammars, thecontext-free grammars, withconjunctionandnegationoperations. Besides these explicit operations, Boolean grammars allow implicitdisjunctionrepresented by multiple rul... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_grammar |
Compiler Description Language (CDL)is aprogramming languagebased onaffix grammars. It is very similar toBackus–Naur form(BNF) notation. It was designed for the development ofcompilers. It is very limited in its capabilities and control flow, and intentionally so. The benefits of these limitations are twofold.
On the o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler_Description_Language |
Aformal grammaris a set ofsymbolsand theproduction rulesfor rewriting some of them into every possible string of aformal languageover analphabet. A grammar does not describe themeaningof the strings — only their form.
Inapplied mathematics, formal language theory is the discipline that studies formal grammars and lang... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_grammar |
Top-Down Parsing Language(TDPL) is a type ofanalyticformal grammardeveloped byAlexander Birmanin the early 1970s[1][2][3]in order to study formally the behavior of a common class of practicaltop-down parsersthat support a limited form ofbacktracking. Birman originally named his formalismthe TMG Schema(TS), afterTMG, a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-down_parsing_language |
This is a list of notablelexer generatorsandparser generatorsfor various language classes.
Regular languagesare a category of languages (sometimes termedChomsky Type 3) which can be matched by a state machine (more specifically, by adeterministic finite automatonor anondeterministic finite automaton) constructed from ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_parser_generators |
Incomputer programming, aparser combinatoris ahigher-order functionthat accepts several parsers as input and returns a new parser as its output. In this context, aparseris a function accepting strings as input and returning some structure as output, typically aparse treeor a set of indices representing locations in the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parser_combinator |
Incomputer science, agrammaris informally called arecursive grammarif it containsproduction rulesthat arerecursive, meaning that expanding a non-terminal according to these rules can eventually lead to a string that includes the same non-terminal again. Otherwise it is called anon-recursive grammar.[1]
For example, a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-recursive_grammar |
Incomputer science,augmented Backus–Naur form(ABNF) is ametalanguagebased onBackus–Naur form(BNF) but consisting of its own syntax and derivation rules. The motive principle for ABNF is to describe aformal systemof a language to be used as a bidirectionalcommunications protocol. It is defined byInternet Standard 68("ST... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmented_Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form |
Adefinite clause grammar(DCG) is a way of expressing grammar, either fornaturalorformallanguages, in a logic programming language such asProlog. It is closely related to the concept ofattribute grammars/affix grammars.
DCGs are usually associated with Prolog, but similar languages such asMercuryalso include DCGs. They ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definite_clause_grammar |
META IIis adomain-specificprogramming languagefor writingcompilers. It was created in 1963–1964 by Dewey Val Schorre atUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA). META II uses what Schorre calledsyntaxequations. Its operation is simply explained as:
Eachsyntax equationis translated into a recursivesubroutinewhich tes... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-II |
Syntax diagrams(orrailroad diagrams) are a way to represent acontext-free grammar. They represent a graphical alternative toBackus–Naur form,EBNF,Augmented Backus–Naur form, and other text-based grammars asmetalanguages. Early books using syntax diagrams include the "Pascal User Manual" written byNiklaus Wirth[1](diagr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax_diagram |
Translational Backus–Naur Form(TBNForTranslational BNF) refers toBackus–Naur form, which is aformal grammarnotation used to define the syntax of computer languages, such asAlgol,Ada,C++,COBOL,Fortran,Java,Perl,Python, and many others. TBNF goes beyond BNF andextended BNF(EBNF) grammar notation because it not only defi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form |
Incomputer science, aVan Wijngaarden grammar(alsovW-grammarorW-grammar[1]) is a formalism for definingformal languages. The name derives from the formalism invented byAdriaan van Wijngaarden[2]for the purpose of defining theALGOL 68programming language.
The resulting specification[3]remains its most notable application... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Wijngaarden_grammar |
ALGOL 68(short forAlgorithmic Language 1968) is animperativeprogramming languagemember of theALGOLfamily that was conceived as a successor to theALGOL 60language, designed with the goal of a much wider scope of application and more rigorously definedsyntaxand semantics.
The complexity of the language's definition, whi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algol68 |
Wirth syntax notation(WSN) is ametasyntax, that is, a formal way to describeformal languages. Originally proposed byNiklaus Wirthin 1977 as an alternative toBackus–Naur form(BNF). It has several advantages over BNF in that it contains an explicit iteration construct, and it avoids the use of an explicit symbol for the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirth_syntax_notation |
AFibonacci wordis a specific sequence ofbinarydigits (or symbols from any two-letteralphabet). The Fibonacci word is formed by repeatedconcatenationin the same way that theFibonacci numbersare formed by repeated addition.
It is a paradigmatic example of aSturmian wordand specifically, amorphic word.
The name "Fibonac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_word |
Inmathematics, theKolakoski sequence, sometimes also known as theOldenburger–Kolakoski sequence,[1]is aninfinite sequenceof symbols {1,2} that is the sequence of run lengths in its ownrun-length encoding.[2]It is named after therecreational mathematicianWilliam Kolakoski(1944–97) who described it in 1965,[3]but it was ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolakoski_sequence |
Intheoretical computer scienceandmathematics, especially in the area ofcombinatorics on words, theLevi lemmastates that, for allstringsu,v,xandy, ifuv=xy, then there exists a stringwsuch that either
or
That is, there is a stringwthat is "in the middle", and can be grouped to one side or the other. Levi's lemma is nam... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi%27s_lemma |
Incomputer scienceand the study ofcombinatorics on words, apartial wordis astringthat may contain a number of "do not know" or "do not care" symbols i.e. placeholders in the string where the symbol value is not known or not specified. More formally, a partial word is apartial functionu:{0,…,n−1}→A{\displaystyle u:\{0,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_word |
Insymbolic dynamicsand related branches ofmathematics, ashift spaceorsubshiftis a set ofinfinitewordsthat represent the evolution of adiscrete system. In fact, shift spaces andsymbolic dynamical systemsare often consideredsynonyms. The most widely studied shift spaces are thesubshifts of finite typeand thesofic shifts.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_space |
Ingroup theory, aword metricon adiscrete groupG{\displaystyle G}is a way to measure distance between any two elements ofG{\displaystyle G}. As the name suggests, the word metric is ametriconG{\displaystyle G}, assigning to any two elementsg{\displaystyle g},h{\displaystyle h}ofG{\displaystyle G}a distanced(g,h){\displa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_metric |
Incomputability theoryandcomputational complexity theory, adecision problemis acomputational problemthat can be posed as ayes–no questionon asetof input values. An example of a decision problem is deciding whether a given natural number isprime. Another example is the problem, "given two numbersxandy, doesxevenly divid... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_problem_(computability) |
Incomputational mathematics, aword problemis theproblem of decidingwhether two given expressions are equivalent with respect to a set ofrewritingidentities. A prototypical example is theword problem for groups, but there are many other instances as well. Somedeep resultsof computational theory concern theundecidablityo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_problem_(mathematics) |
Inmathematics, especially in the area ofabstract algebraknown ascombinatorial group theory, theword problemfor afinitely generated groupG{\displaystyle G}is the algorithmic problem of deciding whether two words in the generators represent the same element ofG{\displaystyle G}. The word problem is a well-known example ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_problem_for_groups |
Inmathematics, theYoung–Fibonacci graphandYoung–Fibonacci lattice, named afterAlfred YoungandLeonardo Fibonacci, are two closely related structures involving sequences of the digits 1 and 2. Any digit sequence of this type can be assigned arank, the sum of its digits: for instance, the rank of 11212 is 1 + 1 + 2 + 1 + ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%E2%80%93Fibonacci_lattice |
Incomputer science,formal specificationsare mathematically based techniques whose purpose is to help with the implementation of systems and software. They are used to describe a system, to analyze its behavior, and to aid in its design by verifying key properties of interest through rigorous and effective reasoning too... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_specification |
Aformal systemis anabstract structureandformalizationof anaxiomatic systemused fordeducing, usingrules of inference,theoremsfromaxioms.[1]
In 1921,David Hilbertproposed to use formal systems as the foundation of knowledge inmathematics.[2]
The termformalismis sometimes a rough synonym forformal system, but it also re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_system |
Christianity•Protestantism
Methodism, also called theMethodist movement, is aProtestantChristiantraditionwhose origins,doctrineand practice derive from the life and teachings ofJohn Wesley.[1]George Whitefieldand John's brotherCharles Wesleywere also significant early leaders in the movement. They were namedMethodists... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodism |
In its most common sense,methodologyis the study ofresearchmethods. However, the term can also refer to the methods themselves or to thephilosophicaldiscussion of associated background assumptions. A method is a structured procedure for bringing about a certain goal, like acquiringknowledgeor verifying knowledge claims... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology |
Thescientific methodis anempiricalmethod for acquiringknowledgethat has been referred to while doingsciencesince at least the 17th century. Historically, it was developed through the centuries from the ancient and medieval world. The scientific method involves carefulobservationcoupled with rigorousskepticism, becausec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method |
Aspecification languageis aformal languageincomputer scienceused duringsystems analysis,requirements analysis, andsystems designto describe a system at a much higher level than aprogramming language, which is used to produce the executable code for a system.[1]
Specification languages are generally not directly execut... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specification_language |
Incomputer science, in the area offormal language theory, frequent use is made of a variety ofstring functions; however, the notation used is different from that used forcomputer programming, and some commonly used functions in the theoretical realm are rarely used when programming. This article defines some of these... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_operations |
Incomputer science, anambiguous grammaris acontext-free grammarfor which there exists astringthat can have more than oneleftmost derivationorparse tree.[1][2]Every non-emptycontext-free languageadmits an ambiguous grammar by introducing e.g. a duplicate rule. A language that only admits ambiguous grammars is called ani... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguous_grammar |
Harmonic grammaris a linguistic model proposed byGeraldine Legendre,Yoshiro Miyata, andPaul Smolenskyin 1990. It is aconnectionistapproach to modeling linguisticwell-formedness. During the late 2000s and early 2010s, the term 'harmonic grammar' has been used to refer more generally to models of language that use weight... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_grammar |
Higher order grammar(HOG) is agrammar theorybased onhigher-order logic.[1][2]It can be viewed simultaneously asgenerative-enumerative (likecategorial grammarandprinciples and parameters) ormodel theoretic(likehead-driven phrase structure grammarorlexical functional grammar). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_order_grammar |
Inapplied linguistics, anerroris an unintended deviation from the immanent rules of alanguage varietymade by asecond languagelearner. Such errors result from the learner's lack of knowledge of the correct rules of the target language variety.[1]A significant distinction is generally made[by whom?]betweenerrors(systemat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_(linguistics) |
Model-theoretic grammars, also known as constraint-based grammars, contrast withgenerative grammarsin the way they define sets of sentences: they state constraints on syntactic structure rather than providing operations for generating syntactic objects.[1]A generative grammar provides a set of operations such as rewrit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-theoretic_grammar |
Paragrammatismis the confused or incomplete use of grammatical structures, found in certain forms of speech disturbance.[1]Paragrammatism is the inability to formgrammatically correctsentences. It is characteristic offluentaphasia, most commonlyreceptive aphasia. Paragrammatism is sometimes called "extended paraphasia,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragrammatism |
Aspeech error, commonly referred to as aslip of the tongue[1](Latin:lapsus linguae, or occasionally self-demonstratingly,lipsus languae) ormisspeaking, is adeviation(conscious or unconscious) from the apparently intended form of anutterance.[2]They can be subdivided into spontaneously and inadvertently producedspeecher... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_error |
Atagmemeis the smallest functional element in thegrammaticalstructure of a language. The term was introduced in the 1930s by the linguistLeonard Bloomfield, who defined it as the smallestmeaningfulunit of grammatical form (analogous to themorpheme, defined as the smallest meaningful unit oflexicalform). The term was la... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagmeme |
Theusageof alanguageis the ways in which itswrittenandspokenvariations are routinely employed by its speakers; that is, it refers to "the collective habits of a language's native speakers",[1]as opposed to idealized models of how a language works (or should work) in the abstract. For instance,Fowlercharacterized usage ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usage_(language) |
Inmathematics,abuse of notationoccurs when an author uses amathematical notationin a way that is not entirely formally correct, but which might help simplify the exposition or suggest the correctintuition(while possibly minimizing errors and confusion at the same time). However, since the concept of formal/syntactical ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation |
Inlinguisticsandphilosophy,[1]thedenotationof a word or expression is its strictly literal meaning. For instance, theEnglishword "warm" denotes thepropertyof having high temperature. Denotation is contrasted with other aspects of meaning includingconnotation. For instance, the word "warm" may evoke calmness, coziness, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denotation |
Inmathematics,Knuth's up-arrow notationis a method of notation forvery largeintegers, introduced byDonald Knuthin 1976.[1]
In his 1947 paper,[2]R. L. Goodsteinintroduced the specific sequence of operations that are now calledhyperoperations. Goodstein also suggested the Greek namestetration,pentation, etc., for the ex... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knuth%27s_up-arrow_notation |
Thelanguage of mathematicsormathematical languageis an extension of thenatural language(for exampleEnglish) that is used inmathematicsand insciencefor expressing results (scientific laws,theorems,proofs,logical deductions, etc.) with concision, precision and unambiguity.
The main features of the mathematical language ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_of_mathematics |
Modern Arabic mathematical notationis amathematical notationbased on theArabic script, used especially atpre-universitylevels of education. Its form is mostly derived from Western notation, but has some notable features that set it apart from its Western counterpart. The most remarkable of those features is the fact th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Arabic_mathematical_notation |
Probability theoryandstatisticshave some commonly used conventions, in addition to standardmathematical notationandmathematical symbols.
Theα-level uppercritical valueof aprobability distributionis the value exceeded with probabilityα{\textstyle \alpha }, that is, the valuexα{\textstyle x_{\alpha }}such thatF(xα)=1−α{... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notation_in_probability_and_statistics |
Insemantics,mathematical logicand related disciplines, theprinciple of compositionalityis the principle that the meaning of a complex expression is determined by the meanings of its constituent expressions and the rules used to combine them. The principle is also calledFrege's principle, becauseGottlob Fregeis widely c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality |
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