text stringlengths 11 320k | source stringlengths 26 161 |
|---|---|
The IET A. F. Harvey Engineering Research Prize is a global engineering research prize awarded annually to an innovative researcher by the Institution of Engineering and Technology . It was named after an engineer, Arthur Frank Harvey .
The award was made for the first time in 2011 and one award is made each year. Between 2011 and 2015 the prize money was £300,000. From 2016, the prize increased to £350,000. [ 1 ]
The prize follows a three-year cycle, as follows:
The prize money is to be used for the furtherance of scientific research into the fields of medical, microwave, laser or radar engineering.
The IET A F Harvey Engineering Prize committee searches for potential candidates from around the world for the prize, drawing on wide international networks. The committee draws up a short-list of candidates from whom additional information is requested for further detailed consideration.
The selection takes into account outstanding achievement and potential for further substantial advances in engineering and technology to the benefit of society.
Source: IET | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IET_A_F_Harvey_Prize |
The Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) awards achievement medals [ 1 ] to recognize engineers who have been significant contribution to various fields in engineering [ 2 ] Every year, the award committee seeks [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] and evaluates nominations [ 7 ] and
makes decision on winners. [ 8 ] There is no age limit or nationality requirement. It is an international award.
The awards are made to recognize specific fields in engineering:
The IET Achievement Medals are named after prominent scientists and engineers.
They include:
The awards are sponsored by several companies, such as BAE Systems, Lockheed Martin,
BP, RS, Pace, e-ON, EDF energy networks, GCHQ , Transport for London, etc. [ 9 ]
Each year, the award is presented in London, UK. [ 10 ] The ceremony is attended
by the IET President, distinguished guests, winners and their families and
industry sponsors of the event. Also at this ceremony, winners of
the IET Faraday Medal and recipient of IET Honorary
Fellow will also be announced on this occasion. [ 11 ] Some photos taken at the award ceremony can be found here. [ 12 ]
An overview of some of the medalists since 2000 is shown below.
IET ACHIEVEMENT MEDAL
IET J J THOMSON MEDAL
IET AMBROSE FLEMING MEDAL
IET CROMPTON MEDAL
IET HEAVISIDE MEDAL
IET MENSFORTH MEDAL
A full list of winners since 1987 can be found on the IET website. [ 8 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IET_Achievement_Medal |
The Faraday Medal is a top international medal awarded by the UK Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) (previously called the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE)). [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] As one of the world's most prestigious awards in engineering, it is part of the IET Achievement Medals collection of awards. [ 4 ] The medal is named after the British physicist Michael Faraday , the father of electromagnetism.
The Faraday Medal is the IET's highest honour and one of the world's most prestigious awards for engineers and scientists. Winners include ground-breaking pioneers and inventors. First awarded in 1922, it is one of the oldest medals still being awarded today. The top medal is awarded annually to distinguished individuals who either for notable scientific or industrial achievement in engineering or for conspicuous service rendered to the advancement of science, engineering and technology, without restriction as regards to nationality, country of residence or membership of the Institution. The award was established in 1922 to commemorate the 50th Anniversary of the first Ordinary Meeting of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and is named after Michael Faraday . Each year, the recipient received his/her award at a ceremony held in London that is hosted by the IET. [ 5 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IET_Faraday_Medal |
The IET Mountbatten Medal is awarded annually for an outstanding contribution, or contributions over a period, to the promotion of electronics or information technology and their application. The Medal was established by the National Electronics Council in 1992 and named after Louis Mountbatten , The Earl Mountbatten of Burma , Admiral of the Fleet and Governor-General of India. [ 1 ] Since 2011, the medal has been awarded as one of the IET Achievement Medals . [ 2 ]
One of the IET's Prestige Achievement Medals, the Medal is awarded to an individual for an outstanding contribution, or contributions
over a period, to the promotion of electronics or information technology and in the dissemination of the understanding of electronics and information technology to young people, or adults.
In selecting a winner, the Panel give particular emphasis to: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IET_Mountbatten_Medal |
Iodine trifluoride is an interhalogen compound with the chemical formula IF 3 . It is a yellow solid which decomposes above −28 °C. It can be synthesised from the elements, but care must be taken to avoid the formation of IF 5 .
F 2 reacts with I 2 to yield IF 3 at −45 °C in CCl 3 F . Alternatively, at low temperatures, the fluorination reaction I 2 + 3 XeF 2 → 2IF 3 + 3 Xe can be used. Not much is known about iodine trifluoride as it is so unstable.
The iodine atom of iodine trifluoride has five electron pairs, of which two are lone-pairs, and the molecule is T-shaped as predicted by VSEPR Theory . [ 1 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IF3 |
Iodine pentafluoride is an interhalogen compound with chemical formula IF 5 . It is one of the fluorides of iodine . It is a colorless liquid, although impure samples appear yellow. It is used as a fluorination reagent and even a solvent in specialized syntheses. [ 3 ]
It was first synthesized by Henri Moissan in 1891 by burning solid iodine in fluorine gas. [ 4 ] This exothermic reaction is still used to produce iodine pentafluoride, although the reaction conditions have been improved. [ 5 ]
IF 5 reacts vigorously with water forming hydrofluoric acid and iodic acid :
Upon treatment with fluorine, it converts to iodine heptafluoride : [ 6 ]
It has been used as a solvent for handling metal fluorides. For example, the reduction of osmium hexafluoride to osmium pentafluoride with iodine is conducted in a solution in iodine pentafluoride: [ 7 ]
Primary amines react with iodine pentafluoride forming nitriles after hydrolysis . [ 8 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IF5 |
Iodine heptafluoride is an interhalogen compound with the chemical formula I F 7 . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] It has an unusual pentagonal bipyramidal structure, with D 5h symmetry , as predicted by VSEPR theory . [ 4 ] The molecule can undergo a pseudorotational rearrangement called the Bartell mechanism , which is like the Berry mechanism but for a heptacoordinated system. [ 5 ]
Below 4.5 °C, IF 7 forms a snow-white powder of colorless crystals, melting at 5-6 °C. However, this melting is difficult to observe, as the liquid form is thermodynamically unstable at 760 mmHg : instead, the compound begins to sublime at 4.77 °C. The dense vapor has a mouldy, acrid odour. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
IF 7 is prepared by passing F 2 through liquid IF 5 at 90 °C, then heating the vapours to 270 °C. Alternatively, this compound can be prepared from fluorine and dried palladium or potassium iodide to minimize the formation of IOF 5 , an impurity arising by hydrolysis. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Iodine heptafluoride is also produced as a by-product when dioxygenyl hexafluoroplatinate is used to prepare other platinum(V) compounds such as potassium hexafluoroplatinate(V) , using potassium fluoride in iodine pentafluoride solution: [ 10 ]
Iodine heptafluoride decomposes at 200 °C to fluorine gas and iodine pentafluoride . [ 11 ]
IF 7 is highly irritating to both the skin and the mucous membranes . It also is a strong oxidizer and can cause fire on contact with organic material. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IF7 |
The Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln) is one of the 15 departments of the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU) operated in cooperation with the Vienna University of Technology and the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna at the Campus Tulln Technopol.
The IFA-Tulln was founded in 1994 as a joint research institution of three major universities in Vienna , the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna (VetMed), the University of Technology Vienna (TUW) and the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU). The idea has been to enable the collaboration of scientists with complementary background in the interdisciplinary area of agrobiotechnology under one roof. Their expertise covers modern biotechnology in plant and animal production, environmental biotechnology , animal nutrition , food- and feed science and (bio) analytics and biopolymers . Today about 150 BOKU employees, guest scientists and students are working in 6 institutes at the IFA-Tulln which has become a department of the BOKU in 2004.
IFA-Tulln, which is a department of the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), was founded in 1994 as a joint research institution of the BOKU, the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna and the Vienna University of Technology to enable the collaboration of scientists with complementary background in the interdisciplinary area of agrobiotechnology.
The department is organised into 6 institutes:
The first 3 Institutes of the department IFA-Tulln are located in the IFA-Tulln building in Tulln an der Donau on the Campus Tulln Technopol. The 4th Institute (Institute of Animal Nutrition, Products and Nutrition Physiology) is located in Muthgasse, Vienna. The IFA-Tulln building, together with the other working groups of BOKU in the UFT-building (University Research Center Tulln), is forming the “BOKU location Tulln”. Campus Tulln Technopol is part of Technopol Tulln which was founded in 2006 by Ecoplus. Further partners of Technopol Tulln besides BOKU, are: AIT Austrian Institute of Technology, Technopark Tulln GmbH, Technologiezentrum Tulln GmbH, Agrana Research & Innovation Center , University for Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt Campus Tulln and the city of Tulln.
In its research, the Institute for Biotechnology in Plant Production focuses on basic and applied research in the areas plant breeding , plant genetics and phytopathology . The logical overlaps between these topics are plant-pathogen interaction , genetics of disease resistance and breeding research for disease resistance. The institute almost exclusively performs its own research work on agricultural crop plants.
The Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics (iBAM) is aiming to perform cutting edge scientific research and to develop advanced methods in the field of (bio)analytical chemistry. The CAC with its two Christian Doppler Laboratories is pursuing a highly interdisciplinary approach for the determination of chemical contaminants including mycotoxins and allergenic proteins in food. By employing metabolomics based approaches the CAC studies entire biological systems with a special emphasis on plant-fungi interactions.
There are five research groups within the Institute:
Focus of research activities at the Institute for Environmental Biotechnology is given to the application of microbial metabolism to safeguard the quality of life and preserve natural resources. On the one hand, emphasis is put on degradation or detoxification of pollutants (in soil, water and waste) or the development of monitoring methods to evaluate the success of restoration technologies. On the other hand, the best possible utilization of existing resources by establishment of sustainable material cycles is the central aim of research conducted.
Practical application and process development for technical implementation are a primary concern independent from fundamental investigation of the underlying microbiological activities. Examples are the scale up of fermentation processes, the development of technical remediation methods and the testing of innovative combined biological-physical processes (e.g. use of membrane bioprocesses) in environmental technology.
There are 6 research groups established at the Institute for Environmental Biotechnology:
The Institute of Animal Nutrition, Products, and Nutrition Physiology (APN) represents the start of the supply chain of food of animal origin. It focuses on adequate feeding of agricultural livestock and the significant impact of animal nutrition on quality and safety of primary products, such as milk, meat and eggs. Aside from nutrients, special emphasis is paid on secondary effects of feed and feed/food components on digestion, metabolism and health.
The Institute has condensed its mission and structure towards three intrinsic topics:
http://www.boku.ac.at/fileadmin/_/H13/Publikationen/Wissensbilanzen/Wissensbilanz_2010/BOKU_Wissensbilanz_2010.pdf | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFA_Tulln |
IFSP ( German : Interface sternförmig parallel , Russian : Интерфейс радиальный параллельный (ИРПР) ), or radial parallel interface, was a parallel interface similar to the Centronics connector (IEEE 1284) but incompatible, as it had different signal polarities and handshake protocol. It was used in printers and computers manufactured in Comecon .
All printer input signal lines were pulled up to +5V by a 220 Ohm resistor , and pulled down to ground by a 330 Ohm resistor. This allowed usage of longer cables compared to Centronics, but overloaded most usual Centronics adapters.
Some devices allowed switching between IFSP and Centronics modes, i.e. Robotron 6319—6329 were manufactured with interchangeable interface modules, allowing usage of IFSP, IFSS and Centronics.
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFSP |
The IG Bergbau, Chemie, Energie ( IG BCE ) is a trade union in Germany . It is one of eight industrial affiliations of the German Confederation of Trade Unions (DGB).
The IG BCE was created in 1997 from the merger of the Chemical, Paper and Ceramic Union , Leather Union , and Union of Mining and Energy . It covers workers in the following industries: mining (especially of coal), chemicals, natural gas, glass, rubber, ceramics, plastics, leather, petrol (and related products), paper, recycling, and water. With some 645,000 members (as of 2016) [ 1 ] IG BCE represents about one tenth of all DGB members and is the third biggest union within that confederation. There are some 1,100 locals and 900 groups of shop stewards organized in 42 regional districts, which cooperate in eight state chapters: Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse/Thuringia, North, Northeast, North Rhine, Rhineland-Palatinate/Saarland and Westphalia. [ 2 ]
In 2015, IG BCE successfully negotiated a pay rise for 550,0000 employees with Germany's chemical employers association BAVC. [ 3 ]
IG BCE has been playing a key role in Germany's energy transition . In 2014, the union proposed that Germany's utilities should pool their struggling hard coal plants into a joint entity, referring to the hard coal plants with total capacity of between 28 and 30 gigawatts (GW), most of which are owned by E.ON , RWE , EnBW , Vattenfall and STEAG . [ 4 ] By 2015, the union proposed gradually phasing out old coal-fired power stations and building combined heat and power (CHP) stations fired with gas. Its plan included taking at least 2.7 gigawatts of brown coal -fired capacity gradually out of the market rather than risking sudden closures. [ 5 ] On the initiative of IG BCE, thousands of coal miners and workers in coal-fired plants marched in Berlin in April 2015 to protest a proposed levy on the oldest, most polluting power stations, saying it could lead to losses of up to 100,000 jobs and the decline of the industry in Germany. [ 6 ]
In 2016, IG BCE, with the support of the BDI industry group, again raised concerns about plans for Germany to end its use of brown coal amid calls for it to set out a timetable for ending coal-fired power production. [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IG_Bergbau,_Chemie,_Energie |
The IJssel Line (Dutch: IJssellinie ) was the Dutch portion of the NATO Cold War line of defence for Western Europe during the 1950s and 1960s. It consisted of anti-aircraft and four-barrel machine gun bunkers, command and hospital bunkers, and many Ram and Sherman tank bunkers encased in concrete, leaving the turrets exposed. These elements were placed along the IJssel river . [ 1 ]
Movable floating dams were built in the Lower Rhine and Waal rivers. By diverting the flow of water from Germany into the IJssel River, the entire IJssel valley of 127 km (79 mi) could be inundated to form a line of defence against an anticipated Soviet invasion. Extensive flooding of the IJssel floodplains and the surrounding areas was intended as a substantial barrier between Nijmegen and Kampen. To ensure a sufficient amount of water for the area north of Deventer, a third movable floating dam was added at Olst. Flood waters were to be released from the IJssel River by means of 15 water intake works and 750 other water regulating structures. The flood water would then inundate large areas inside the winter dikes. Behind the line of defence, five motorised infantry divisions of the Dutch field army were to be positioned. The IJssel line of defense was intended to slow down a Soviet offensive, providing time for Allied support to reach the Netherlands. The IJssel Line would have been a northern extension of NATO main defences along the River Rhine, preventing an almost immediate occupation of the Randstad Holland as would have been the case in the original version of the NATO plan, envisaging a more southern defence in this area, along the Lower Rhine or Waal, abandoning the major Dutch cities and ports to the enemy. The new plan was developed by Captain Joop Haex , the later Dutch State Secretary for Defence. The line was abolished after 1968, when the NATO strategy of forward defence along the Inner German Border was adopted.
Earlier, during the 16th and 17th century, and at the time of the German invasion of 1940 , fortified defensive lines along the IJssel had been created, which also were called IJssel Line.
The IJssel Line Foundation was formed as a voluntary body in 2003 to maintain the buildings and structures as historical monuments. [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IJssel_Line |
4IZE , 4P0J , 4P0K , 4P0L
56300
215257
ENSG00000136688
ENSMUSG00000044103
Q9NZH8
Q8R460 Q3U0P4
NM_001278568 NM_019618
NM_153511
NP_001265497 NP_062564
NP_705731
Interleukin-36 gamma previously known as interleukin-1 family member 9 ( IL1F9 ) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL36G gene . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]
IL36G is well-expressed in the epithelium of the skin, gut, and lung. [ 9 ] In the skin IL36G is predominantly expressed in epidermal granular layer keratinocytes with little to no expression in basal layer keratinocytes. [ 10 ]
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the interleukin-1 cytokine family. This gene and eight other interleukin-1 family genes form a cytokine gene cluster on chromosome 2. [ 11 ] The activity of this cytokine is mediated via the interleukin-1 receptor-like 2 ( IL1RL2 /IL1R-rp2/IL-36 receptor), and is specifically inhibited by interleukin-36 receptor antagonist, ( IL-36RA /IL1F5/IL-1 delta). Interferon-gamma , tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 β ( IL-1β ) are reported to stimulate the expression of this cytokine in keratinocytes . The expression of this cytokine in keratinocytes can also be induced by a multiple Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns ( PAMPs ). [ 12 ] Both IL-36γ mRNA and protein have been linked to psoriasis lesions and has been used as a biomarker for differentiating between eczema and psoriasis. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] As with many other interleukin-1 family cytokines IL-36γ requires proteolytic cleavage of its N-terminus for full biological activity. [ 15 ] However, unlike IL-1β the activation of IL-36γ is inflammasome -independent. IL-36γ is specifically cleaved by the endogenous protease cathepsin S as well exogenous proteases derived from fungal and bacterial pathogens. [ 16 ] [ 17 ]
This article on a gene on human chromosome 2 is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IL36G |
iLCD (Lighting Cell Display) is a device developed by a research team from Universidad Politecnica de Valencia , a MIT educated bioengineer , undergraduate students of the Universidad Politéctica de Valencia and Universitat de València and several members of the faculty and research staff from Universidad de València (Manuel Porcar), UPV (Pedro De Cordoba) and University of Malaga (Emilio Navarro).
It is based on yeast cells expressing aequorin protein sensitive to change in intracellular calcium . Upon electrical stimulation , the transient calcium wave emerges inside the yeast cells and translates into a measurable light signal. Assembly of multiple electrodes over lawn of yeast cells yields
Thanks to electronic control and sub-second timescale it is one of the first examples of bioelectronic devices capable of bi-directional communication between a computer and a living system. It is also one of the first examples of design of simple synthetic biology circuits operating on orders of magnitude faster timescale than those based on gene expression . Fast response to a stimulus is essential in variety of applications such as biosensing , medical technology , or as stated before - bioelectronics .
The project has been awarded a third place in 2009 iGEM competition
Vilanova C, Hueso A, Palanca C, Marco G, Pitarch M, Otero E, Crespo J, Szablowski J, Rivera S, Domínguez-Escribà L, Navarro E, Montagud A, de Córdoba PF, González A, Ariño J, Moya A, Urchueguía J, Porcar, M. Aequorin-expressing yeast emits light under electric control.J Biotechnol. 2011 Mar 20;152(3):93-5.
J Biotechnol. 2011 Mar 20;152(3):93-5. Epub 2011 Feb 1. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILCD |
ILNumerics is a mathematical class library for Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) developers and a domain specific language (DSL) for the implementation of numerical algorithms on the .NET platform . While algebra systems with graphical user interfaces focus on prototyping of algorithms, implementation of such algorithms into distribution-ready applications is done using development environments and general purpose programming languages (GPL) . ILNumerics is an extension to Visual Studio and aims at supporting the creation of technical applications based on .NET.
ILNumerics started in 2006 as an open source project, originating from Technische Universität Berlin . [ 1 ] In 2007 ILNumerics won the BASTA! Innovation Awards 2007 [ 2 ] as most innovative .NET project in Germany , Switzerland and Austria . After 6 years of open source development, the project added a closed source, proprietary license in 2011, aiming business and academic developers at the same time. The project quickly gained popularity (download numbers and engagement at stackoverflow.com, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] download counts from website not available).
The .NET framework was selected as a managed foundation, since earlier attempts on the Java platform had been abandoned due to technical limitations. Similarly, the .NET framework has not been designed with the focus on requirements of technical application development. ILNumerics added interfaces to popular codes ( LAPACK , FFTW ), complex numbers and generic mult-dimensional array classes. In 2010 graphical capabilities have been added. Efforts to increase the performance of the technology were introduced in 2011. At the same time, a company was founded to continue the development. The technological goal is to establish the .NET framework as a feasible alternative to unmanaged languages for numeric computing.
ILNumerics implements base functionality frequently needed for application development in technical areas: N-dimensional arrays , complex numbers , linear algebra , FFT and plotting controls (2D and 3D ). The array classes are fully compatible with the array features of Matlab and numpy , including internal storage order, subarray creation, expansion, and advanced indexing. Higher level functionality is provided by toolboxes for interpolation , optimization , statistics , HDF5 and machine learning . The ILNumerics DSL is embedded into .NET. Computational algorithms are formulated using any CLI language . However, only C# and Visual Basic are officially supported. Due to the strong type system of the .NET framework algorithms created with ILNumerics are strongly typed. This deviates from the syntax of alternatives , which are often weakly typed and therefore easier to adopt.
A scene graph is used in ILNumerics to realize graphical output. Interactive 2D and 3D plots are used in Windows Forms applications. Hardware accelerated drawing is available via OpenGL . A software renderer is provided for legacy hardware, based on GDI+ and SVG .
ILNumerics is distributed as an extension to Visual Studio . It adds a tool window to the IDE for the graphical inspection of mathematical objects while stepping through user code.
Since ILNumerics comes as a CLI assembly , it targets Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) applications. Just like Java - those frameworks are often criticized for not being suitable for numerical computations. Reasons are the memory management by a garbage collector , the intermediate language execution and deficient optimizations by the compilers involved. ILNumerics approaches these limitations by performing loop unrolling , removal of bound checks on array accesses and cache optimizations . Further speed-up is gained by the auto-management of the memory of large array objects. Numerical operations are parallelized on multicore systems. Linear algebra routines rely on processor specific optimized versions of LAPACK and BLAS .
ILNumerics arrays utilize the unmanaged heap for storing data. This way, the size of ILNumerics arrays is not limited by the CLR and interoperability with 3rd party libraries is improved. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ILNumerics |
IMAGE cDNA clones are a collection of DNA vectors containing cDNAs from various organisms including human , mouse , rat , non-human primates , zebrafish , pufferfish , Xenopus (frogs), and cow . [ 1 ] Together they represent a more or less complete set of expressed genes from these organisms. IMAGE stands for integrated molecular analysis of genomes and their expression .
From 1993 to 2007, the cDNA library was maintained by the IMAGE Consortium , a joint effort of four academic groups led by Drs. Greg Lennon, Charles Auffray, Mihael Polymeropoulos , and Marcelo Bento Soares. At the end of 2007, the consortium handed over operations and stocks to a company associated with Open Biosystems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMAGE_cDNA_clones |
The IMA Journal of Mathematical Control and Information is published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications . The Journal publishes articles in control and information theory which aim to develop solutions for unsolved problems in the field. [ 1 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMA_Journal_of_Mathematical_Control_and_Information |
IMGT or the international ImMunoGeneTics information system is a collection of databases and resources for immunoinformatics , particularly the V, D, J, and C gene sequences, as well as a providing other tools and data related to the adaptive immune system . [ 1 ] IMGT/LIGM-DB, the first and still largest database hosted as part of IMGT contains reference nucleotide sequences for 360 species' T-cell receptor and immunoglobulin molecules, as of 2023. [ 2 ] These genes encode the proteins which are the foundation of adaptive immunity, which allows highly specific recognition and memory of pathogens.
IMGT was founded in June, 1989, by Marie-Paule Lefranc , an immunologist working at University of Montpellier . The project was presented to the 10th Human Genome Mapping Workshop, and resulted in the recognition of V, D, J, and C regions as genes. [ 3 ] The first resource created was IMGT/LIGM-DB, a reference for nucleotide sequences of T-cell receptor and immunoglobulin of humans, and later vertebrate species. IMGT was created under the auspices of Laboratoire d'ImmunoGénétique Moléculaire at the University of Montpellier as well as French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS).
As both T-cell receptors and immunoglobulin molecules are built through a process of recombination of nucleotide sequences, the annotation of the building block regions and their role is unique within the genome. To standardize terminology and references, the IMGT-NC was created in 1992 and recognized by the International Union of Immunological Societies as a nomenclature subcommittee. [ 4 ] Other tools include IMGT/Collier-de-Perles, a method for two dimensional representation of receptor amino acid sequences, and IMGT/mAb-DB, a database of monoclonal antibodies . Now maintained by the HLA Informatics Group , the primary reference for human HLA, IPD-IMGT/HLA Database, originated in part with IMGT. [ 5 ] It was merged with the Immuno Polymorphism Database in 2003 to form the current reference.
Since 2015, IMGT has been headed by Sofia Kossida. [ 6 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMGT |
IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem) is a set of specifications to offer multimedia services through IP protocol. This makes it possible to incorporate all kinds of services, such as voice, multimedia and data, on an accessible platform through any Internet connection (fixed or mobile).
Initially defined by 4G.IP (a set of companies belonging the telecommunications sector), it was 4G (3rd Generation Partnership Project) who definitively adopted the definition of IMS as a part of the standardization 4G system in networks UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System), specified in Release 5 and 6.
It can be divided into three layers:
Where there are AS (Application Servers), the MRF (Media Resource Function) and a HSS (Home Subscriber Server).
Formed by different subsystems among which is IMS core.
Other important devices in this layer are the CSCF (Call Session Control Function), which includes three subsystems: P-CSCF (Proxy CSCF), S-CSCF (Serving CSCF) and I-CSCF (Interrogating CSCF). These subsystems are the responsible, basically, of: processing and routing the signaling; to control the resources of the transport subsystem, to register and authenticate users; provisioning IMS services by diverting signaling application servers in question and to generate billing records.
The MRF (Media Resources Function) provides functions related to media, such as the manipulation of the media and the reproduction of tones and announcements. Each MRF divides into a MRFC (Media Resources Function Controller) and a MRFP (Media Resources Function Processor). The MRFC is a signaling plane node that interprets the information coming from an AS and S-CSCF to control the MRFP. The MRFP is a node of the plane of the media, is used to mix the source or process media streams.
Composed by the UE (User Equipment), the access network, the NASS (Network Attachment Subsystem) and the RACS (Resource Admission Control Subsystem). The transport of network is performed using either IPv6 or IPv4, allowing QoS 's implementation, integrated security, autoconfiguration…
Having seen a little of what is IMS and the devices that act, we enter IMS specifications relating to security.
From the point of view of the standardization, only exists a mechanism of authentication and access control, specified in the TS 33.203 of 3GPP (Access Security for IP-Based Services) and commonly called AKA (Authentication and Key Agreement). However, there are many other mechanisms for authentication and access control, defined to meet the needs of inherited terminals and to enable faster deployment. The most common are:
The existing variety of authentication mechanisms used in networks, causes problems related with the interoperability, the existence of networks with different security levels, the most adapted method selection during the client registration, etc. In this respect, 3GPP has developed the recommendation TR 33.803 to guide in selecting the most appropriate authentication method.
The security in IMS is based on a secret key of long duration shared between the ISIM and the AUC (Authentication Center) of the local network.
The AKA used to establish both the encryption keys ( 3DES or AES - CBC ) and the integrity keys ( HMAC - MD5 or HMAC- SHA-1 ).
Before a user can get access to IP Multimedia services, it must register at least one IMPU (IP Multimedia Public Identity), such as a telephone number. Then the IMS network must authenticate the IMPI (IP Multimedia Private Identity) at application. The registration process is initiated by the IMS terminal sending a SIP REGISTER message to the P-CSCF directed his IMPI and IMPU. This message reaches the P-CSCF, and it forwards the message to the I-CSCF. The I-CSCF sends a DIAMETER message authentication request of the user who sent the REGISTER message, DIAMETER UAR to HSS, who responds with another message DIAMETER UAA and parallel to I-CSCF informs the direction of the S-CSCF assigned to the user. Then the I- CSCF forwards the registration message to the S-CSCF, which in turn sends the message DIAMETER MAR including IMPI, which is used by the HSS to calculate the Authentication Vector (AV) and generates the quintuple < RAND, AUTN, XRES, CK, IK > and returns the S-CSCF to fivefold through DIAMETER MAA message. This message is an indication that the network is requesting that the terminal uses its security algorithms in order to authenticate. Then the S-CSCF sends the SIP 401 Unauthorized message accompanied by four of the five parameters making up the AV to I-CSCF, which forwards the message to the P-CSCF. Again, the P-CSCF forwards the message to the UE but leaving him only two parameters, the RAND and AUTN. Since the terminal has the same secret key that has a corresponding HSS, the user can calculate the AUTN. If this matches the one received from the network, the network is considered legitimate. The UE also calculates its response RES which is sent to another SIP REGISTER message with IMPI and ARPU. This message reaches the P-CSCF which forwards the I-CSCF. After the I-CSCF sends a DIAMETER UAR to HSS who responds with the address of S-CSCF through a DIAMETER UAA message. Then the I-CSCF forwards the registration message with the RES to S-CSCF. The latter sends the message DIAMETER SAR to the HSS who replies with DIAMETER SAA. If the RES parameter sent by the user is equal to XRES had calculated the HSS during the first registration attempt, then the HSS authenticates the user by means of the message DIAMETER SAA. Finally the S-CSCF sends a SIP 200 OK message to P-CSCF, which forwards it to the user.
Security processes are always executed by the Home Network, even if the user is roaming.
Support confidentiality of SIP messages between the UE and the P-CSCF through the use of is provided.
According to 3GPP specifications, user authentication must be based on Digest AKA, somewhat analogous to the UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) access authentication but for SIP. The 3GPP specification TS 33.203 exposed to signalling between the user agent and the P-CSCF should be based on IPsec ESP (Encapsulating Security Payload) in transport mode. However, the use of IPSec in this mode was not suitable for use in fixed networks. The problem lay in the intersection IPsec NAT (Network Address Translation), so TISPAN (Telecommunications and Internet Convergence Services and Protocols for Advanced Networks) mode selected UDP (User Datagram Protocol) encapsulation of IPsec.
All security mechanisms we've seen are used in access networks and IMS domains. However, it is possible to extend the above authentication mechanisms at the application or service using what is known as GAA .
The GAA is the authentication architecture that makes it possible to extend the existing authentication mechanisms in IMS application layer/service.
GAA employs two authentication mechanisms. One is based on the possession of a shared secret between the communicating entities (GBA-Generic Bootstrapping Architecture) derived from the keys used in the AKA authentication, and the other based on asymmetric cryptography (public and private key) and digital certificates or PKI (SSC - Support for Subscriber Certificates).
Of the two types of implementation, the most used is based on shared secrets. The great advantage of GAA/GBA is that it allows the creation of security associations between the user agent and the various applications. These partnerships consist primarily to share a key (the shared secret), which allows subsequent user agent authentication against the application, and, if necessary, other security features such as the guarantee of confidentiality and integrity of information (through encryption and digital signature ), non-repudiation (digital signature), etc. The problem with these mechanisms is the way to agree on this shared secret. As I mentioned earlier, the secret is derived from the authentication keys used in AKA.
A new network element called BSF (Bootstrapping Server Function) is introduced. This BSF has an interface with the HSS. The UE runs AKA with the HSS via the BSF. An application server called NAF (Network Application Function) can retrieve this session key from the BSF, with the subscriber profile information. Thus, NAF server applications and UE share a secret key that can then be used for security application, in particular to authenticate the UE and the NAF in the beginning of the application session (possibly for the integrity and/or protection of confidentiality). The communication between the UE and the BSF as well as between and among NAF and BSF and HSS, are independent of the application.
An alternative to the use of shared secrets for authentication is the use of asymmetric cryptography. This means that the entity that wants to be authenticated must have a key pair (public and private) and validating a digital certificate key pair. Once in possession of the key and the certificate, the UE can use them to produce digital signatures. The main disadvantage of this type of authentication is that you need a PKI and asymmetric key operations require more computational effort.
If a customer wishes to use asymmetric encryption technology, you need a digital certificate issued by a CA (Certification Authority). The certificate binds a public key to the identity of their respective owners. If a mobile subscriber wants to have and use a pair of keys (private and public), the certificate must be pre-installed or the subscriber must have the means to generate or obtain a key pair and, likewise, to dynamically obtain one digital certificate. To obtain a digital certificate dynamically a UE should send an application for a site certificate to PKI, and PKI portal must authenticate the certificate request. The key pair and digital certificate can also be used for the integrity and protection, but these are not part of the scope of the GAA.
The Liberty Alliance is a group of companies dedicated to creating specifications related to authentication, privacy and identity management applications users online. One of the concepts handled is the SSO (Single Sign On), in which a user needs to authenticate only once to access various applications or services.
The 3GPP has introduced a recommendation for the combination of GAA/GBA and SSO and authentication mechanisms defined by Liberty Alliance and SAML v2.0. Thus, it is possible to benefit from strong authentication based on AKA, the mechanisms defined by Liberty Alliance and SAML v2.0 SSO to provide. However, the biggest disadvantage of GAA / GBA is designed for user agents that have some kind of support card. OMA specified authentication solutions, for example based on HTTP Digest with user credentials, for terminals that do not have an ISIM card.
Breaking confidentiality. Without the protection with SSL/TLS or IPSec, it will be easy for an attacker to capture the SIP signalling and RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol) traffic using tools like Wireshark . Another attack against confidentiality can be realized by using scan tools to gather sensitive and valuable information about IMS components, operating systems and network topology.
Directed integrity of session. The attacker can insert malicious packets in a session and can even replace some of the traffic. For example, the attacker can send SIP Re-Invite to modify the parameters of the session.
Attack against availability. The attacker sends a large number of datagrams in a short period of time, causing degradation of performance or completely stopping services. Examples include TCP SYN floods, UDP floods...
Concerns integrity and availability. The P-CSCF is the entry point to the UE. DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol) and DNS (Domain Name System) are commonly used to discover the P-CSCF. An attacker can break the process of P-CSCF discovery cache poisoning DNS for a domain name or IP false is returned to the UE. The result is that the UE cannot be registered to the network or is registered to a fake server.
Impact availability and integrity of IMS. Authorized users can use the services more than expected or gain access to services that are not allowed for them.
Attack on the accounting. An attacker can forge a UE and send a Bye request to CSCF. The CSCF will think that the session is end, and stop accounting at this time the UE don’t release the media streams. This means that the UE continues exchanging flows without being counted. This threat calls media theft, and use the weakness of lack of effective control of media streams.
Attack authentication. An attacker can obtain the password authentication due to a crack or other methods. Basically, a UE does not have a SIM card used, as mentioned above, HTTP Digest. This method is based on a username and password, which usually is not high security level. HTTP Digest lists several attacks, such as brute force or a replay attack.
To mitigate these attacks on the IMS network that must be met: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMS_security |
IMT-2000 ( International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 ) is the global standard for third generation ( 3G ) wireless communications as defined by the International Telecommunication Union . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
In 1999 ITU approved five radio interfaces for IMT-2000 as a part of the ITU-R M.1457 Recommendation. [ 4 ] The five standards are: [ 5 ]
To meet the IMT-2000 standards, a system must provide peak data rates of at 384 kbit/s for mobile stations and 2 Mbit/s for fixed stations. [ 2 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ]
This mobile technology related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMT-2000 |
The IMU Abacus Medal , known before 2022 as the Rolf Nevanlinna Prize , [ 1 ] is awarded once every four years at the International Congress of Mathematicians , hosted by the International Mathematical Union (IMU), for outstanding contributions in Mathematical Aspects of Information Sciences including:
The prize was established in 1981 by the Executive Committee of the International Mathematical Union and named for the Finnish mathematician Rolf Nevanlinna . It consists of a gold medal and cash prize. The prize is targeted at younger theoretical computer scientists, and only those younger than 40 on January 1, in the year the award is given away, are eligible. [ 2 ] It is awarded along with other IMU prizes, including the Fields Medal . [ 3 ]
The prize was originally named to honour the Finnish mathematician Rolf Nevanlinna who had died a year before the prize's creation in 1981. The medal featured a profile of Nevanlinna, the text "Rolf Nevanlinna Prize", and very small characters "RH 83" on its obverse. RH refers to Raimo Heino , the medal's designer, and 83 to the year of first minting. On the reverse, two figures related to the University of Helsinki , the prize sponsor, are engraved. The rim bears the name of the prizewinner. [ 4 ]
Alexander Soifer , president of the World Federation of National Mathematics Competitions, complained about the prize's honouring of Nevanlinna, as he was a supporter of Hitler and had acted as a representative for the Finnish Volunteer Battalion of the Waffen-SS during World War II. Soifer discussed Nevanlinna's wartime activities in a 2015 book, and forwarded his personal and his organization’s requests to the Executive Committee of IMU to change the Prize's name. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] In July 2018, the 18th General Assembly of the IMU decided to remove the name of Rolf Nevanlinna from the prize. [ 7 ] It was later announced that the prize would be named the IMU Abacus Medal. [ 1 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMU_Abacus_Medal |
IMUnified , formed in 2000, is a coalition of companies that intend to develop open standards for instant messaging (IM). The founding members are AT&T , Excite@Home, iCAST, Microsoft , Odigo, Phone.com, Prodigy , Tribal Voice and Yahoo! . Notably absent from the list of members is AOL , who was not invited to join the coalition. Some analysts believe the goal of the coalition was to try to force AOL toward a more open IM standard. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMUnified |
IMUnited was a coalition of instant messaging service providers, including Yahoo! and Microsoft , that wanted AOL to open its proprietary AIM network to them. It appears to have disappeared, possibly because both Yahoo!'s and Microsoft's instant messaging services started to gain popularity.
This article about a business, industry, or trade-related organization is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This technology-related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMUnited |
The IMViC tests are a group of individual tests used in microbiology lab testing to identify an organism in the coliform group . A coliform is a gram negative , aerobic, or facultative anaerobic rod, which produces gas from lactose within 48 hours. The presence of some coliforms indicate fecal contamination.
The term "IMViC" is an acronym for each of these tests. "I" is for indole test ; "M" is for methyl red test ; "V" is for Voges-Proskauer test, and "C" is for citrate test . The lower case "i" is merely for "in" as the Citrate test requires coliform samples to be placed "in Citrate".
These tests are useful in distinguishing members of Enterobacteriaceae .
In this test, the organism under consideration is grown in peptone water broth. It contains tryptophan , which under the action of enzyme tryptophanase is converted to an Indole molecule, pyruvate and ammonium. The indole is then extracted from the broth by means of xylene. The broth is sterilized for 15 minutes at around 121 °C. To test the broth for indole production, Kovac's reagent . Kovac's reagent consist of amyl alcohol and para-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde and concentrated hydrochloric acid . Kovac's reagent is actually used to determine ability of an organism to separate indole from amino acid tryptophan and it is added after incubation. A positive result is indicated by a pink/red layer forming on top of the liquid.
These tests both use the same broth for bacterial growth. The broth is called MR-VP broth. After growth, the broth is separated into two different tubes, one for the methyl red (MR) test and one for the Voges-Proskauer (VP) test .
The methyl red test detects production of acids formed during metabolism using mixed acid fermentation pathway using pyruvate as a substrate. The pH indicator Methyl Red is added to one tube and a red color appears at pH's lower than 4.2, indicating a positive test (mixed acid fermentation is used). The solution remaining yellow (pH = 6.2 or above) indicates a negative test, meaning the butanediol fermentation is used.
The VP test uses alpha-naphthol and potassium hydroxide to test for the presence of acetylmethylcarbinol (acetoin), an intermediate of the 2,3-butanediol fermentation pathway. After adding both reagents, the tube is shaken vigorously then allowed to sit for 5–10 minutes. A pinkish-red color indicates a positive test, meaning the 2,3-butanediol fermentation pathway is used.
In the 1930's, S.A. Koser conducted experiments that were used to study bacterial catabolism of organic acids. [ 1 ] Koser found that citrate metabolism could be an indicator for bacteria found in natural environments. Additionally, citrate could be used to distinguish bacterial coilforms found in soil, and aquatic environments, such as Enterobacteiacea , and coilforms with fecal contamination. It was found that coilforms without fecal contamination grew, while the coilforms with fecal contamination did not grow.
This test uses Simmon's citrate agar to determine the ability of a microorganism to use citrate as its sole carbon and energy source. The agar contains citrate and ammonium ions (nitrogen source) and bromothymol blue (BTB) as a pH indicator. [ 2 ] Bromothymol blue was added in order to reduce false positives. The citrate agar is green before inoculation, and turns blue, because of BTB as a positive test indicator, meaning citrate is utilized. The test is also prepared on a slant to maximize bacterial growth for an even better indication of the use of citrate.
These IMViC tests are useful for differentiating the family Enterobacteriaceae , especially when used alongside the Urease test .
The IMViC results of some important species are shown below. [ 3 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMViC |
IMes is an abbreviation for an organic compound that is a common ligand in organometallic chemistry . It is an N -heterocyclic carbene (NHC). The compound, a white solid, is often not isolated but instead is generated upon attachment to the metal centre. [ 1 ]
First prepared by Arduengo , [ 2 ] the heterocycle is synthesized by condensation of 2,4,6-trimethylaniline and glyoxal to give the diimine . In the presence of acid, the resulting glyoxal-bis(mesitylimine) condenses with formaldehyde to give the dimesityl imidazolium cation. This cation is the conjugate acid of the NHC. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
Bulkier than IMes is the NHC ligand IPr ( CAS 244187-81-3). IPr features diisopropylphenyl in place of the mesityl substituents. [ 5 ]
Some variants of IMes and IPr have saturated backbones, two such ligands are SIMes and SIPr. [ 1 ] They are prepared by alkylation of substituted anilines with dibromoethane followed by ring closure and dehydrohalogenation of the dihydroimidazolium salt. [ 6 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMes |
INAH-3 is the short form for the third interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus , and is the sexually dimorphic nucleus of humans. The INAH-3 is significantly larger in males than in females regardless of age [ 1 ] and larger in heterosexual males than in homosexual males and heterosexual females. [ 2 ] Homologs of the INAH-3 have been found to play a direct role in sexual behavior in quails , [ 3 ] rhesus macaques , [ 4 ] sheep , [ 5 ] rats , [ 6 ] mice , [ 7 ] and ferrets . [ 8 ]
The term INAH (interstitial nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus), first proposed in 1989 by a group of the University of California at Los Angeles , refers to 4 previously undescribed cell groups of the preoptic-anterior hypothalamic area (PO-AHA) of the human brain, which is a structure that influences gonadotropin secretion, maternal behavior, and sexual behavior in several mammalian species. There are four nuclei in the PO-AHA (INAH1-4). One of these nuclei, INAH-3, was found to be 2.8 times larger in the male brain than in the female brain regardless of age. [ 9 ]
A study authored by Simon LeVay and published in the journal Science suggests that the region is an important biological substrate with regard to sexual orientation . This article reported the INAH-3 to be smaller on average in homosexual men than in heterosexual men, and in fact has approximately the same size in homosexual men as in heterosexual women. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Further research has found that the INAH3 is smaller in volume in homosexual men than in heterosexual men because homosexual men have a higher neuronal packing density (the
number of neurons per cubic millimeter) in the INAH3 than heterosexual men; there is no difference in the number or cross-sectional area of neurons in the INAH3 of homosexual versus heterosexual men. [ 12 ] [ note 1 ] It has also been found that there is no effect of HIV infection on the size of INAH3, that is, HIV infection cannot account for the observed difference in INAH3 volume between homosexual and heterosexual men. [ 12 ]
LeVay noted three possibilities that could account for his findings: 1. The structural differences in INAH3 between homosexual and heterosexual males were present prenatally or in early life and aided in establishment of the men’s sexual orientation; 2. The differences appeared postnatally as a result of the men’s sexual feelings or behavior and; 3. Both the differences in INAH3 and sexual orientation are linked to some third confounding variable (such as a developmental event in prenatal or early life). LeVay found the first possibility most probable and noted that the second possibility was unlikely in light of various homologous studies in other species. [ 14 ] It has been suggested that the human INAH-3 is the homologue of the rat’s SDN-POA. [ 15 ] [ 16 ]
Other researchers have studied correlations between INAH-3 volume and other aspects of sexual identity. A study of transgender individuals by neuroanatomist Dick Swaab found male-to-female transgender people to have a size and number of neurons of INAH-3 closer to a normal female range, and that female-to-male transgender people have a size and number of INAH-3 neurons closer to a normal male range. This finding that the size of the INAH-3 more closely corresponded to the gender the subject identified with rather than their biological or chromosomal gender has since been repeated, but is still controversial due to potential confounds of hormone replacement therapy. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INAH_3 |
INFOhio , the Information Network for Ohio schools , is the state's virtual PreK-12 library that uses the existing school telecommunications infrastructure to address equity issues by providing electronic resources, library automation , and other services to Ohio schools. These resources are linked to student achievement and performance, standards-based instruction, teacher effectiveness, and technological competency and are accessible from not only the school library, but also from classroom, lab, and home computers.
INFOhio provides the standardized library automation software to put card catalogs online, which makes it possible for students and educators to access a variety of materials, including books and other resources in the school library as well as other libraries across the state.
Since 1994, INFOhio has automated more than 2,343 school libraries serving more than 1.1 million students.
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INFOhio |
Iodine nitrate is a chemical with formula INO 3 . [ 1 ] It is a covalent molecule with a structure of I–O–NO 2 . [ 2 ]
The compound was first produced by the reaction of mercury(II) nitrate and iodine in ether . [ 1 ]
Other nitrate salts and solvents can also be used. [ 1 ]
As a gas it is slightly unstable, decaying with a rate constant of −3.2×10 −2 s −1 . [ 2 ] The possible formation of this chemical in the atmosphere and its ability to destroy ozone have been studied. Potential reactions in this context are: [ 3 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INO3 |
The INOC-DBA (Inter-Network Operations Center Dial-By- ASN ) hotline phone system is a global voice telephony network that connects the network operations centers and security incident response teams of critical Internet infrastructure providers such as backbone carriers, Internet service providers , and Internet exchanges as well as critical individuals within the policy, regulatory , Internet governance , security and vendor communities. [ 1 ] It was built by Packet Clearing House in 2001, was publicly announced at NANOG in October 2002, [ 2 ] and the secretariat function was transferred from PCH to the Brazilian CERT in 2015. [ 3 ]
INOC-DBA is a closed system, ensuring secure and authenticated communications, and uses a combination of redundant directory services and direct peer-to-peer communications between stations to create a resilient, high-survivability network. It carries both routine operational traffic and emergency-response traffic. The INOC-DBA network uses IETF -standard SIP Voice over IP protocols to ensure interoperability between thousands of users across more than 2,800 NOCs and CERTs, which use dozens of different varieties of station and switch devices. [ 4 ] It was the first production implementation of inter-carrier SIP telephony, when voice over IP had previously consisted exclusively of H.323 gateway-to-gateway call transport. INOC-DBA became the first telephone network of any kind to provide service on all seven continents when Michael Holstine of Raytheon Polar Services installed terminals at the South Pole Station in March 2001. [ 5 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INOC-DBA |
The INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory ( INTEGRAL ) is a retired space telescope for observing gamma rays of energies up to 8 MeV. It was launched by the European Space Agency (ESA) into Earth orbit in 2002, and is designed to provide imaging and spectroscopy of cosmic sources. In the MeV energy range, it is the most sensitive gamma ray observatory in space. [ 3 ] It is sensitive to higher energy photons than X-ray instruments such as NuSTAR , the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory , XMM-Newton , and lower than other gamma-ray instruments such Fermi and HESS .
Photons in INTEGRAL's energy range are emitted by relativistic and supra-thermal [ clarification needed ] particles in violent sources, radioactivity from unstable isotopes produced during nucleosynthesis , X-ray binaries , and astronomical transients of all types, including gamma-ray bursts . The spacecraft's instruments have very wide fields of view , which is particularly useful for detecting gamma-ray emission from transient sources as they can continuously monitor large parts of the sky.
INTEGRAL is an ESA mission with additional contributions from European member states including Italy, France, Germany, and Spain. Cooperation partners are the Russian Space Agency with IKI (military CP Command Punkt KW) and NASA .
From June 2023 until the spacecraft's retirement in 2025 INTEGRAL was able to operate despite the loss of its thrusters through the use of its reaction wheels and solar radiation pressure . [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
Radiation more energetic than optical light, such as ultraviolet, X-rays , and gamma rays , cannot penetrate Earth's atmosphere, and direct observations must be made from space. INTEGRAL is an observatory, scientists can propose for observing time of their desired target regions, data are public after a proprietary period of up to one year.
INTEGRAL was launched from the Russian Baikonur spaceport, in Kazakhstan . The 2002 launch aboard a Proton -DM2 rocket achieved a 3-day elliptical orbit with an apogee of nearly 160,000 km and a perigee of above 2,000 km, hence mostly beyond radiation belts which would otherwise lead to high instrumental backgrounds from charged-particle activation. The spacecraft and instruments are controlled from ESOC in Darmstadt , Germany, ESA's control centre, through ground stations in Belgium ( Redu ) and California ( Goldstone ).
2015: Fuel usage is much lower than predictions. INTEGRAL has far exceeded its 2+3-year planned lifetime, and is set to enter Earth atmosphere in 2029 as a definite end of the mission. Its orbit was adjusted in Jan/Feb 2015 to cause such a safe (southern) reentry (due to lunar/solar perturbations, predicted for 2029), using half the remaining fuel then. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
In July 2020 INTEGRAL put itself in safe-mode, and it seemed the thrusters had failed. Since then alternative algorithms to slew and unload the reaction wheels have been developed and tested. [ 8 ]
In September 2021 a single event upset triggered a sequence of events that put INTEGRAL into an uncontrolled tumbling state, considered to be a 'mission critical anomaly'. The operations team used the reaction wheels to recover attitude control. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
In March 2023, INTEGRAL science operations were extended to the end of 2024, which will be followed by a two-year post-operations phase and further monitoring of the spacecraft until its estimated reentry in February 2029. [ 9 ]
Also in March 2023, a new software based safe mode was tested that would use reaction wheels (rather than the failed thrusters). [ 10 ]
On 28 February 2025, science observations with the INTEGRAL spacecraft were officially ended. [ 11 ]
The spacecraft body ("service module") is a copy of the XMM-Newton body. This saved development costs and simplified integration with infrastructure and ground facilities. An adapter was necessary to mate with the different launch vehicle, though. However, the denser instruments used for gamma rays and hard X-rays make INTEGRAL the heaviest scientific payload ever flown by ESA.
The body is constructed largely of composites. Propulsion is by a hydrazine monopropellant system, containing 544 kg of fuel in four exposed tanks. The titanium tanks were charged with gas to 24 bar (2.4 MPa ) at 30 °C, and have tank diaphragms. Attitude control is via a star tracker , multiple Sun sensors (ESM), and multiple momentum wheels . The dual solar arrays, spanning 16 meters when deployed and producing 2.4 kW at beginning of life (BoL), are backed up by dual nickel-cadmium battery sets.
The instrument structure ("payload module") is also composite. A rigid base supports the detector assemblies, and an H-shaped structure holds the coded masks approximately 4 meters above their detectors. The payload module can be built and tested independently from the service module, reducing cost.
Alenia Spazio (now Thales Alenia Space Italia) was the spacecraft prime contractor.
Four instruments with large fields-of-view are co-aligned on this platform, to study targets across such a wide energy range of almost two orders of magnitude in energy (other astronomy instruments in X-rays or optical cover much smaller ranges of factors of a few at most). Imaging is achieved by coded masks casting a shadowgram onto pixelised cameras; the tungsten masks were provided by the University of Valencia, Spain.
The INTEGRAL imager, IBIS (Imager on-Board the INTEGRAL Satellite) observes from 15 keV (hard X-rays) to 10 MeV (gamma rays). Angular resolution is 12 arcmin, enabling a bright source to be located to better than 1 arcmin. A 95 x 95 mask of rectangular tungsten tiles sits 3.2 meters above the detectors. The detector system contains a forward plane of 128 x 128 Cadmium-Telluride tiles (ISGRI- Integral Soft Gamma-Ray Imager), backed by a 64 x 64 plane of Caesium-Iodide tiles (PICsIT- Pixellated Caesium-Iodide Telescope). ISGRI is sensitive up to 1 MeV, while PICsIT extends to 10 MeV. Both are surrounded by passive shields of tungsten and lead. IBIS was provided by PI institutes in Rome/Italy and Paris/France.
The spectrometer aboard INTEGRAL is SPI , the SPectrometer of INTEGRAL. It was conceived and assembled by the French Space Agency CNES , with PI institutes in Toulouse/France and Garching/Germany. It observes radiation between 20 keV and 8 MeV . SPI has a coded mask of hexagonal tungsten tiles, above a detector plane of 19 germanium crystals (also packed hexagonally). The high energy resolution of 2 keV at 1 MeV is capable to resolve all candidate gamma-ray lines. The Ge crystals are actively cooled with a mechanical system of Stirling coolers to about 80K.
IBIS and SPI use active detectors to detect and veto charged particles that lead to background radiation. The SPI ACS (AntiCoincidence Shield) consists of a BGO scintillator blocks surrounding the camera and aperture, detecting all charged particles, and photons exceeding an energy of about 75 keV, that would hit the instrument from directions different from the aperture. A thin layer of plastic scintillator behind the tungsten tiles serves as additional charged-particle detector within the aperture.
The large effective area of the ACS turned out to be useful as an instrument in its own right. Its all-sky coverage and sensitivity make it a natural gamma-ray burst detector, and a valued component of the IPN (InterPlanetary Network).
Dual JEM-X units provide additional information on sources at soft and hard X-rays, from 3 to 35 keV. Aside from broadening the spectral coverage, imaging is more precise due to the shorter wavelength. Detectors are gas scintillators ( xenon plus methane ) in a microstrip layout, below a mask of hexagonal tiles.
INTEGRAL includes an Optical Monitor ( OMC ) instrument, sensitive from 500 to 580 nm . It acts as both a framing aid, and can note the activity and state of some brighter targets, e.g. it had been useful to monitor supernova light over months from SN2014J.
The spacecraft also includes a radiation monitor, INTEGRAL Radiation Environment Monitor ( IREM ), to note the orbital background for calibration purposes. IREM has an electron and a proton channel, though radiation up to cosmic rays can be sensed. Should the background exceed a preset threshold, IREM can shut down the instruments.
INTEGRAL contributes to multi-messenger astronomy, detecting gamma rays from the first merger of two neutron stars observed in gravitational waves, and from a fast radio burst . [ 12 ] [ 13 ] By 2025, 2258 refereed papers were published that benefit from INTEGRAL data which corresponds on average to one paper every 3.5 days. [ 14 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INTEGRAL |
INTERBUS is a serial bus system which transmits data between control systems (e.g., PCs , PLCs , VMEbus computers, robot controllers etc.) and spatially distributed I/O modules that are connected to sensors and actuators (e.g., temperature sensors, position switches).
The INTERBUS system was developed by Phoenix Contact and has been available since 1987. It is one of the leading Fieldbus systems in the automation industry and is fully standardized according to European Standard EN 50254 and IEC 61158 .
At the moment, more than 600 manufacturers are involved in the implementation of INTERBUS technology in control systems and field devices.
Since 2011 the INTERBUS technology is hosted by the industry association Profibus and Profinet International . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INTERBUS |
INTLAB (INTerval LABoratory) is an interval arithmetic library [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] using MATLAB and GNU Octave , available in Windows and Linux , macOS . It was developed by S.M. Rump from Hamburg University of Technology . INTLAB was used to develop other MATLAB-based libraries such as VERSOFT [ 5 ] and INTSOLVER, [ 6 ] and it was used to solve some problems in the Hundred-dollar, Hundred-digit Challenge problems . [ 7 ]
INTLAB can help users to solve the following mathematical/numerical problems with interval arithmetic.
INTLAB is based on the previous studies of the main author, including his works with co-authors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INTLAB |
INT ( iodonitrotetrazolium or 2-(4-iodophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-phenyl-2 H -tetrazolium ) is a commonly used tetrazolium salt (usually prepared with chloride ions), similar to tetrazolium chloride that on reduction produces a red formazan dye that can be used for quantitative redox assays . It is also toxic to prokaryotes. [ 1 ]
INT is an artificial electron acceptor that can be utilized in a colorimetric assay to determine the concentration of protein in a solution. It can be reduced by succinate dehydrogenase to furazan, the formation of which can be measured by absorbance at 490 nm . The activity of succinate dehydrogenase is readily observed by the naked eye as the solution turns from colorless to rusty red.
This electrochemistry -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This article about an organic compound is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INT_(chemical) |
Iodine dioxide is a binary inorganic compound of iodine and oxygen with the chemical formula IO 2 . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Only stable as a dilute gas, [ 3 ] this compound is one of many iodine oxides , [ 4 ] [ 5 ] and "iodine dioxide" is sometimes used to describe its formal dimer , the salt diiodine tetroxide (I 2 O 4 , [IO] + [IO 3 ] − ).
It is formed, in parts-per-trillion quantities, [ 6 ] at the marine boundary layer and believed to mediate particulate nucleation therein. The iodine , originally from algaeic diiodomethane , is photooxidized to iodine monoxide , which then disproportionates to free iodine atoms and iodine dioxide. At a sufficiently large concentration, the particles then combine to form small grains of diiodine tetroxide . [ 3 ] [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IO2 |
Iodosyl pentafluoride is an inorganic compound of iodine , fluorine , and oxygen with the chemical formula I O F 5 .
Iodosyl pentafluoride forms a colorless liquid. [ 5 ] The molecule of IOF 5 is a distorted octahedron O=I(F 4 )−F . [ 6 ] Its melting point 4.5 °C. [ 3 ]
The compound reacts with graphite to form a black graphite intercalation compound. [ 7 ] Iodosyl pentafluoride also forms adducts with arsenic pentafluoride and antimony pentafluoride . [ 8 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOF5 |
IOIO (pronounced yo-yo ) is a series of open source PIC microcontroller -based boards that allow Android mobile applications to interact with external electronics. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] The device was invented by Ytai Ben-Tsvi in 2011, and was first manufactured by SparkFun Electronics . [ 2 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] The name "IOIO" is inspired by the function of the device, which enables applications to receive external input ("I") and produce external output ("O"). [ 4 ]
The IOIO board contains a single PIC MCU that acts as a USB host / USB slave and communicates with an Android app running on a connected Android device. [ 8 ] The board provides connectivity via USB , USB-OTG or Bluetooth , and is controllable from within an Android application using the Java API. [ 1 ] [ 4 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ]
In addition to basic digital input/output and analog input , the IOIO library also handles PWM , I2C , SPI , UART , Input capture, Capacitive sensing and advanced motor control . [ 3 ] To connect to older Android devices that use USB 2.0 in slave mode, newer IOIO models use USB On-The-Go to act as a host for such devices. [ 1 ] Some models also support the Google Open Accessory USB protocol. [ 4 ]
The IOIO motor control API can drive up to 9 motors and any number of binary actuators in synchronization and cycle-accurate precision. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Developers may send a sequence of high-level commands to the IOIO, which performs the low-level waveform generation on-chip. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] The IOIO firmware supports 3 different kinds of motors; stepper motors , DC motors and servo motors . [ 12 ] [ 13 ]
Device firmware may be updated on-site by the user. [ 3 ] For first-generation devices updating is performed using an Android device and the IOIO Manager application available on Google Play . [ 3 ] [ 14 ] Second-generation IOIO-OTG devices must be updated using a desktop computer running the IOIODude application. [ 15 ]
The IOIO supports both computers and Android devices as first-class hosts, and provides the exact API on both types of devices. [ 3 ] First-generation devices can only communicate with PCs over Bluetooth, while IOIO-OTG devices can use either Bluetooth or USB. [ 3 ] PC applications may use APIs for Java or C# to communicate with the board; Java being the official API. [ 11 ] [ 16 ]
The IOIO hardware and software is entirely open source, [ 17 ] and enabled the creation of hundreds of DIY robotic projects around the world. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ]
The board has been featured in various learning kits, which aim to help students write Android applications that can interact with the external world. [ 3 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ]
The Qualcomm Snapdragon Micro Rover is a 3D printed robot that leverages an Android smartphone and the IOIO to control the robot's motors and sensors. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] A team led by Israeli inventor Dr. Guy Hoffman created an emotionally-sensitive robot, that relies on the IOIO to control the robot's hardware. [ 28 ]
The IOIO has been variously described as a "geek's paradise", "an easy way to get I/O from an Android device’s USB connection" and "a USB I/O breakout board for Android smartphones which turns your handset into a super-Arduino of sorts". [ 18 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] It featured as a recommended "gift for geeks" in a Scientific Computing article. [ 25 ]
According to SlashGear, an online electronics magazine:
You could hook up the IOIO for Android and a couple of heat sensors, and whip up an app that measures room temperature and then emails you if it’s getting too hot. Thanks to a range of I/O choices – including Digital Input/Output, PWM, Analog Input, I2C, SPI and UART control – you could also connect your home thermostat to automatically adjust the heating in response.
According to SparkFun , the first manufacturer of the device:
You can combine the awesome computing power, Internet/Bluetooth connectivity, touch screen, and a variety of sensors from your Android device with the ability to easily add peripheral devices to interact with the outside world. Also, using the IOIO does not require any hardware or software modifications to your Android device, thus preserving the warranty as well as making the functionality available to non-hackers.
According to Ytai Ben-Tsvi, the inventor of the device:
Android phones are powerful mobile computers having internet connectivity and a rich variety of built-in sensors (camera, GPS, IMU, touch screen). They are also very easy to write applications for, thanks to the great work done by the Android SDK developers. For many applications, all they are really missing is connectivity to external peripherals. This is exactly where IOIO fits in: it enriches the inherent capabilities of the Android device with the ability to communicate with external circuits.
The first-generation IOIO boards (known as IOIO V1 ) contain the following on-board features: [ 34 ] [ 35 ] This generation only supports USB slave mode, and requires a USB master as the host (PC or newer Android phones). [ 2 ] [ 7 ]
The IOIO V1 is a 3.3 V logic level device, and features a 5 V DC/DC switching regulator and a 3.3V linear regulator . [ 36 ] The 5 V regulator supports a 5–15 V input range and up to 1.5 A load. [ 7 ] This facilitates charging a connected Android device as well as driving several small motors or similar loads.
The second-generation IOIO boards (known as IOIO-OTG ) contain the following on-board features: [ 37 ] [ 38 ] [ 39 ] As the name suggests, a key feature of this generation is the introduction of USB-OTG , supporting USB master or slave mode. This enables the IOIO to connect to older Android phones that only support USB slave mode, in addition. [ 1 ] [ 9 ]
The IOIO-OTG is a 3.3 V logic level device, with some of the pins being 5 V tolerant. It features a 5 V DC/DC switching regulator and a 3.3 V linear regulator . The 5 V regulator supports a 5–15 V input range and up to 3 A load. [ 1 ] This facilitates charging a connected Android device as well as driving several small motors or similar loads. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOIO |
IONIS-GCCR Rx , also known as ISIS-426115 , is an antiglucocorticoid which is under development by Ionis Pharmaceuticals (formerly Isis Pharmaceuticals) for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2 . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] It has also been under investigation for the treatment of Cushing's syndrome , but no development has been reported. [ 1 ] The drug is an antisense oligonucleotide against the glucocorticoid receptor . [ 1 ] As of December 2017, it is in phase II clinical trials for diabetes mellitus type 2. [ 1 ]
This hormonal preparation article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IONIS-GCCRRx |
Cao Z, Song JH, Kang YW, Yoon JH, Nam SW, et al. (2010) Genetic and Expression Analysis of the SIRT1 Gene in Gastric Cancers. J Gastric Cancer 10(3): 91-98.
ION LMD system is one of the laser microdissection systems and a name of device that follows Gravity-Assisted Microdissection method, also known as GAM method. This non-contact laser microdissection system makes cell isolation for further genetic analysis possible. It is the first developed laser microdissection system in Asia .
At first, proto type of ION LMD system was developed in 2004. The first generation of ION LMD was developed in 2005 and then the second generation(so-called G2) was developed in 2008. At last, the third generation(so-called ION LMD Pro) was developed in 2012. [ 1 ]
JungWoo F&B was founded in 1994, and offers various factory automation products for clients in semiconductor , consumer electronics , LCD , automotive manufacturing and ship-building industries. In 2003, the company entered the bio-mechanics business for the medical laboratory market and developed an ION LMD system which is utilized in cancer research . [ 2 ]
This ION LMD system has got some reliable awards. [ 1 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ION_LMD |
IP-XACT , also known as IEEE 1685, [ 1 ] is an XML format that defines and describes individual, re-usable electronic circuit designs (individual pieces of intellectual property, or IPs) to facilitate their use in creating integrated circuits (i.e. microchips ). IP-XACT was created by the SPIRIT Consortium as a standard to enable automated configuration and integration through tools [ 2 ] and evolving into an IEEE standard.
The goals of the standard are
Approved as IEEE 1685-2009 on December 9, 2009, published on February 18, 2010. [ 3 ] Superseded by IEEE 1685-2014. IEEE 1685-2009 was adopted as IEC 62014-4:2015. In June 2023, the supplemental material for standard IEEE 1685-2022 IP-XACT was approved by Accellera. [ 4 ]
Conformance checks for eXtensible Markup Language (XML) data designed to describe electronic systems are formulated by this standard. The meta-data forms that are standardized include components, systems, bus interfaces and connections, abstractions of those buses, and details of the components including address maps, register and field descriptions, and file set descriptions for use in automating design, verification, documentation, and use flows for electronic systems. A set of XML schemas of the form described by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C(R)) and a set of semantic consistency rules (SCRs) are included. A generator interface that is portable across tool environments is provided. The specified combination of methodology-independent meta-data and the tool-independent mechanism for accessing that data provides for portability of design data, design methodologies, and environment implementations.
All documents will have the following basic titular attributes spirit:vendor, spirit:library, spirit:name, spirit:version.
A document typically represents one of:
For each port of a component there will be a spirit:busInterface element in the document. This may have a spirit:signalMap
that gives the mapping of the formal net names in the interface to the names used in a corresponding formal specification of the port.
A simple wiring tool will use the signal map to know which net on one interface to connect to which net on another instance
of the same formal port on another component.
There may be various versions of a component referenced in the document, each as a spirit:view element, relating to different versions of a design: typical levels are gate-level, RTL and TLM.
Each view typically contains a list of filenames as a spirit:fileSet that implement the design at that level of abstraction in appropriate language, like Verilog,
C++ or PSL.
Non-functional data present includes the programmer's view with a list of spirit:register declarations inside a spirit:memoryMap or spirit:addressBlock. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP-XACT |
The IP500 Alliance , with its seat in Berlin , Germany, is an international organization of manufacturers of products and systems for building automation and system integration . Members include Bosch , Honeywell , Siemens , Omron and Toyota Tsusho . [ 1 ] A goal of the IP500 Alliance is to define and develop a wireless, manufacturer-neutral and safe data transfer IP500 communication platform for large buildings.
The alliance was created in 2007 in Berlin. Since 2011 the IP500 Alliance has been a registered non-profit organization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP500_Alliance |
The IPCS Health and Safety Guides are monographs prepared by the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) and published by the World Health Organization (WHO). They aim to provide "concise information in non-technical language, for decision-makers on risks from exposure to chemicals, with practical advice on medical and administrative issues." [ 1 ] Just over 100 HSGs have been published.
An HSG usually accompanies an Environmental Health Criteria (EHC) monograph. The two documents cover similar material, but the HSG is much shorter and unreferenced (citations to the original sources can be found in the corresponding EHC). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPCS_Health_and_Safety_Guide |
IPTC 7901 is a news service text markup specification published by the International Press Telecommunications Council that was designed to standardize the content and structure of text news articles. It was formally approved in 1979, and is still the world's most common way of transmitting news articles to newspapers, web sites and broadcasters from news services.
Using fixed metadata fields and a series of control and other special characters, IPTC 7901 was designed to feed text stories to both teleprinters and computer-based news editing systems. Stories can be assigned to broad categories (such as sports or culture) and be given a higher or lower priority based upon importance.
Although superseded in the early 1990s by IPTC Information Interchange Model and later by the XML-based News Industry Text Format , 7901's huge existing user base has persisted.
IPTC 7901 is closely related to ANPA-1312 (also known as ANPA 84-2 and later 89-3) of the Newspaper Association of America .
The standard replaces several of the ASCII control codes: [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPTC_7901 |
In computational complexity theory , the class IP (which stands for interactive proof ) is the class of problems solvable by an interactive proof system . It is equal to the class PSPACE . The result was established in a series of papers: the first by Lund, Karloff, Fortnow, and Nisan showed that co-NP had multiple prover interactive proofs; [ 1 ] and the second, by Shamir , employed their technique to establish that IP=PSPACE. [ 2 ] The result is a famous example where the proof does not relativize . [ 3 ]
The concept of an interactive proof system was first introduced by Shafi Goldwasser , Silvio Micali , and Charles Rackoff in 1985. An interactive proof system consists of two machines, a prover, P , which presents a proof that a given string n is a member of some language , and a verifier, V , that checks that the presented proof is correct. The prover is assumed to be infinite in computation and storage, while the verifier is a probabilistic polynomial-time machine with access to a random bit string whose length is polynomial on the size of n . These two machines exchange a polynomial number, p ( n ), of messages and once the interaction is completed, the verifier must decide whether or not n is in the language, with only a 1/3 chance of error. (So any language in BPP is in IP , since then the verifier could simply ignore the prover and make the decision on its own.)
A language L belongs to IP if there exist V , P such that for all Q , w :
The Arthur–Merlin protocol , introduced by László Babai , is similar in nature, except that the number of rounds of interaction is bounded by a constant rather than a polynomial.
Goldwasser et al. have shown that public-coin protocols, where the random numbers used by the verifier are provided to the prover along with the challenges, are no less powerful than private-coin protocols. At most two additional rounds of interaction are required to replicate the effect of a private-coin protocol. The opposite inclusion is straightforward, because the verifier can always send to the prover the results of their private coin tosses, which proves that the two types of protocols are equivalent.
In the following section we prove that IP = PSPACE , an important theorem in computational complexity, which demonstrates that an interactive proof system can be used to decide whether a string is a member of a language in polynomial time, even though the traditional PSPACE proof may be exponentially long.
The proof can be divided in two parts, we show that IP ⊆ PSPACE and PSPACE ⊆ IP .
In order to demonstrate that IP ⊆ PSPACE , we present a simulation of an interactive proof system by a polynomial space machine. Now, we can define:
and for every 0 ≤ j ≤ p and every message history M j , we inductively define the function N M j :
where:
where Pr r is the probability taken over the random string r of length p . This expression is the average of N M j+1 , weighted by the probability that the verifier sent message m j+1 .
Take M 0 to be the empty message sequence, here we will show that N M 0 can be computed in polynomial space, and that N M 0 = Pr[ V accepts w ]. First, to compute N M 0 , an algorithm can recursively calculate the values N M j for every j and M j . Since the depth of the recursion is p , only polynomial space is necessary. The second requirement is that we need N M 0 = Pr[ V accepts w ], the value needed to determine whether w is in A. We use induction to prove this as follows.
We must show that for every 0 ≤ j ≤ p and every M j , N M j = Pr[ V accepts w starting at M j ], and we will do this using induction on j . The base case is to prove for j = p . Then we will use induction to go from p down to 0.
The base case of j = p is fairly simple. Since m p is either accept or reject, if m p is accept, N M p is defined to be 1 and Pr[ V accepts w starting at M j ] = 1 since the message stream indicates acceptance, thus the claim is true. If m p is reject, the argument is very similar.
For the inductive hypothesis, we assume that for some j +1 ≤ p and any message sequence M j+1 , N M j+1 = Pr[ V accepts w starting at M j+1 ] and then prove the hypothesis for j and any message sequence M j .
If j is even, m j+1 is a message from V to P . By the definition of N M j ,
Then, by the inductive hypothesis, we can say this is equal to
Finally, by definition, we can see that this is equal to Pr[ V accepts w starting at M j ].
If j is odd, m j+1 is a message from P to V . By definition,
Then, by the inductive hypothesis, this equals
This is equal to Pr[ V accepts w starting at M j ] since:
because the prover on the right-hand side could send the message m j+1 to maximize the expression on the left-hand side. And:
Since the same Prover cannot do any better than send that same message. Thus, this holds whether i is even or odd and the proof that IP ⊆ PSPACE is complete.
Here we have constructed a polynomial space machine that uses the best prover P for a particular string w in language A . We use this best prover in place of a prover with random input bits because we are able to try every set of random input bits in polynomial space. Since we have simulated an interactive proof system with a polynomial space machine, we have shown that IP ⊆ PSPACE , as desired.
In order to illustrate the technique that will be used to prove PSPACE ⊆ IP , we will first prove a weaker theorem, which was proven by Lund, et al.: #SAT ∈ IP . Then using the concepts from this proof we will extend it to show that TQBF ∈ IP . Since TQBF ∈ PSPACE -complete, and TQBF ∈ IP then PSPACE ⊆ IP .
We begin by showing that #SAT is in IP , where:
Note that this is different from the normal definition of #SAT , in that it is a decision problem, rather than a function.
First we use arithmetization to map the boolean formula with n variables, φ( b 1 , ..., b n ) to a polynomial p φ ( x 1 , ..., x n ), where p φ mimics φ in that p φ is 1 if φ is true and 0 otherwise provided that the variables of p φ are assigned Boolean values. The Boolean operations ∨, ∧ and ¬ used in φ are simulated in p φ by replacing the operators in φ as shown in the table below.
As an example, ϕ = a ∧ ( b ∨ ¬ c ) {\displaystyle \phi =a\land (b\lor \neg c)} would be converted into a polynomial as follows:
The operations ab and a ∗ b each result in a polynomial with a degree bounded by the sum of the degrees of the polynomials for a and b and hence, the degree of any variable is at most the length of φ.
Now let F be a finite field with order q > 2 n ; also demand that q be at least 1000. For each 0 ≤ i ≤ n , define a function f i on F , having parameters a 1 , … , a i − 1 ∈ F {\displaystyle a_{1},\dots ,a_{i-1}\in F} , and a single variable a i ∈ F {\displaystyle a_{i}\in F} : For 0 ≤ i ≤ n and for a 1 , … , a i ∈ F {\displaystyle a_{1},\dots ,a_{i}\in F} let
Note that the value of f 0 is the number of satisfying assignments of φ. f 0 is a void function, with no variables.
Now the protocol for #SAT works as follows:
Note that this is a public-coin algorithm.
If φ has k satisfying assignments, clearly V will accept. If φ does not have k satisfying assignments we assume there is a prover P ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {P}}} that tries to convince V that φ does have k satisfying assignments. We show that this can only be done with low probability.
To prevent V from rejecting in phase 0, P ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {P}}} has to send an incorrect value f ~ 0 ( ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {f}}_{0}()} to P . Then, in phase 1, P ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {P}}} must send an incorrect polynomial f ~ 1 {\displaystyle {\tilde {f}}_{1}} with the property that f ~ 1 ( 0 ) + f ~ 1 ( 1 ) = f ~ 0 ( ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {f}}_{1}(0)+{\tilde {f}}_{1}(1)={\tilde {f}}_{0}()} . When V chooses a random r 1 to send to P ,
This is because a polynomial in a single variable of degree at most d can have no more than d roots (unless it always evaluates to 0). So, any two polynomials in a single variable of degree at most d can be equal only in d places. Since | F | > 2 n the chances of r 1 being one of these values is at most n / 2 n < n / n 3 {\displaystyle n/2^{n}<n/n^{3}} if n > 10, or at most ( n /1000) ≤ ( n / n 3 ) if n ≤ 10.
Generalizing this idea for the other phases we have for each 1 ≤ i ≤ n if
then for r i chosen randomly from F ,
There are n phases, so the probability that P ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {P}}} is lucky because V selects at some stage a convenient r i is at most 1/ n . So, no prover can make the verifier accept with probability greater than 1/ n . We can also see from the definition that the verifier V operates in probabilistic polynomial time. Thus, #SAT ∈ IP .
In order to show that PSPACE is a subset of IP , we need to choose a PSPACE-complete problem and show that it is in IP . Once we show this, then it clear that PSPACE ⊆ IP . The proof technique demonstrated here is credited to Adi Shamir .
We know that TQBF is in PSPACE-Complete . So let ψ be a quantified boolean expression:
where φ is a CNF formula. Then Q i is a quantifier, either ∃ or ∀. Now f i is the same as in the previous proof, but now it also includes quantifiers.
Here, φ( a 1 , ..., a i ) is φ with a 1 to a i substituted for x 1 to x i . Thus f 0 is the truth value of ψ. In order to arithmetize ψ we must use the following rules:
where as before we define x ∗ y = 1 − (1 − x )(1 − y ).
By using the method described in #SAT, we must face a problem that for any f i the degree of the resulting polynomial may double with each quantifier. In order to prevent this, we must introduce a new reduction operator R which will reduce the degrees of the polynomial without changing their behavior on Boolean inputs.
So now before we arithmetize ψ = Q 1 x 1 … Q m x m [ φ ] {\displaystyle \psi ={\mathsf {Q}}_{1}x_{1}\dots {\mathsf {Q}}_{m}x_{m}[\varphi ]} we introduce a new expression:
or put another way:
Now for every i ≤ k we define the function f i . We also define f k ( x 1 , … , x m ) {\displaystyle f_{k}(x_{1},\dots ,x_{m})} to be the polynomial p ( x 1 , ..., x m ) which is obtained by arithmetizing φ. Now in order to keep the degree of the polynomial low, we define f i in terms of f i+1 :
Now we can see that the reduction operation R, doesn't change the degree of the polynomial. Also it is important to see that the R x operation doesn't change the value of the function on boolean inputs. So f 0 is still the truth value of ψ, but the R x value produces a result that is linear in x . Also after any Q i x i {\displaystyle {\mathsf {Q}}_{i}x_{i}} we add R x 1 … R x i {\displaystyle \mathrm {R} _{x_{1}}\dots \mathrm {R} _{x_{i}}} in ψ′ in order to reduce the degree down to 1 after arithmetizing Q i {\displaystyle {\mathsf {Q}}_{i}} .
Now let's describe the protocol. If n is the length of ψ, all arithmetic operations in the protocol are over a field of size at least n 4 where n is the length of ψ.
V uses coefficients to evaluate f i ( r 1 , … , r i − 1 , 0 ) {\displaystyle f_{i}(r_{1},\dots ,r_{i-1},0)} and f i ( r 1 , … , r i − 1 , 1 ) {\displaystyle f_{i}(r_{1},\dots ,r_{i-1},1)} . Then it checks that the polynomial degree is at most n and that the following identities are true:
If either fails then reject.
V → P : V picks a random r in F and sends it to P. (If S = R {\displaystyle {\mathsf {S}}=\mathrm {R} } then this r replaces the previous r ).
Goto phase i + 1 where P must persuade V that f i ( r 1 , … , r ) {\displaystyle f_{i}(r_{1},\dots ,r)} is correct.
This is the end of the protocol description.
If ψ is true then V will accept when P follows the protocol. Likewise if P ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {P}}} is a malicious prover which lies, and if ψ is false, then P ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {P}}} will need to lie at phase 0 and send some value for f 0 . If at phase i , V has an incorrect value for f i − 1 ( r 1 , … ) {\displaystyle f_{i-1}(r_{1},\dots )} then f i ( r 1 , … , 0 ) {\displaystyle f_{i}(r_{1},\dots ,0)} and f i ( r 1 , … , 1 ) {\displaystyle f_{i}(r_{1},\dots ,1)} will likely also be incorrect, and so forth. The probability for P ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {P}}} to get lucky on some random r is at most the degree of the polynomial divided by the field size: n / n 4 {\displaystyle n/n^{4}} . The protocol runs through O ( n 2 ) phases, so the probability that P ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {P}}} gets lucky at some phase is ≤ 1/ n . If P ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {P}}} is never lucky, then V will reject at phase k +1.
Since we have now shown that both IP ⊆ PSPACE and PSPACE ⊆ IP , we can conclude that IP = PSPACE as desired. Moreover, we have shown that any IP algorithm may be taken to be public-coin, since the reduction from PSPACE to IP has this property.
There are a number of variants of IP which slightly modify the definition of the interactive proof system. We summarize some of the better-known ones here.
A subset of IP is the deterministic Interactive Proof class, which is similar to IP but has a deterministic verifier (i.e. with no randomness).
This class is equal to NP .
An equivalent definition of IP replaces the condition that the interaction succeeds with high probability on strings in the language with the requirement that it always succeeds:
This seemingly stronger criterion of "perfect completeness" does not change the complexity class IP , since any language with an interactive proof system may be given an interactive proof system with perfect completeness. [ 4 ]
In 1988, Goldwasser et al. created an even more powerful interactive proof system based on IP called MIP in which there are two independent provers. The two provers cannot communicate once the verifier has begun sending messages to them. Just as it's easier to tell if a criminal is lying if he and his partner are interrogated in separate rooms, it's considerably easier to detect a malicious prover trying to trick the verifier if there is another prover it can double-check with. In fact, this is so helpful that Babai, Fortnow, and Lund were able to show that MIP = NEXPTIME , the class of all problems solvable by a nondeterministic machine in exponential time , a very large class. Moreover, all languages in NP have zero-knowledge proofs in an MIP system, without any additional assumptions; this is only known for IP assuming the existence of one-way functions.
IPP ( unbounded IP ) is a variant of IP where we replace the BPP verifier by a PP verifier. More precisely, we modify the completeness and soundness conditions as follows:
Although IPP also equals PSPACE , IPP protocols behaves quite differently from IP with respect to oracles : IPP = PSPACE with respect to all oracles, while IP ≠ PSPACE with respect to almost all oracles. [ 5 ]
QIP is a version of IP replacing the BPP verifier by a BQP verifier, where BQP is the class of problems solvable by quantum computers in polynomial time. The messages are composed of qubits. [ 6 ] In 2009, Jain, Ji, Upadhyay, and Watrous proved that QIP also equals PSPACE , [ 7 ] implying that this change gives no additional power to the protocol. This subsumes a previous result of Kitaev and Watrous that QIP is contained in EXPTIME because QIP = QIP [3], so that more than three rounds are never necessary. [ 8 ]
Whereas IPP and QIP give more power to the verifier, a compIP system ( competitive IP proof system ) weakens the completeness condition in a way that weakens the prover:
Essentially, this makes the prover a BPP machine with access to an oracle for the language, but only in the completeness case, not the soundness case. The concept is that if a language is in compIP , then interactively proving it is in some sense as easy as deciding it. With the oracle, the prover can easily solve the problem, but its limited power makes it much more difficult to convince the verifier of anything. In fact, compIP isn't even known or believed to contain NP .
On the other hand, such a system can solve some problems believed to be hard. Somewhat paradoxically, though such a system is not believed to be able to solve all of NP , it can easily solve all NP-complete problems due to self-reducibility. This stems from the fact that if the language L is not NP -hard, the prover is substantially limited in power (as it can no longer decide all NP problems with its oracle).
Additionally, the graph nonisomorphism problem (which is a classical problem in IP ) is also in compIP , since the only hard operation the prover has to do is isomorphism testing, which it can use the oracle to solve. Quadratic non-residuosity and graph isomorphism are also in compIP . [ 9 ] Note, quadratic non-residuosity (QNR) is likely an easier problem than graph isomorphism as QNR is in UP intersect co-UP . [ 10 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_(complexity) |
In computer networking , IP over Avian Carriers ( IPoAC ) is an ostensibly functional proposal to carry Internet Protocol (IP) traffic by birds such as homing pigeons . IP over Avian Carriers was initially described in RFC 1149 issued by the Internet Engineering Task Force , written by David Waitzman, and released on April 1, 1990. It is one of several April Fools' Day Request for Comments .
Waitzman described an improvement of his protocol in RFC 2549 , IP over Avian Carriers with Quality of Service (1 April 1999). Later, in RFC 6214 —released on 1 April 2011, and 13 years after the introduction of IPv6 — Brian Carpenter and Robert Hinden published Adaptation of RFC 1149 for IPv6 . [ 1 ]
IPoAC has been successfully implemented, but for only nine packets of data , with a packet loss ratio of 55% (due to operator error), [ 2 ] and a response time ranging from 3,000 seconds (50 min) to over 6,000 seconds (100 min). Thus, this technology suffers from extremely high latency . [ 3 ]
On 28 April 2001, IPoAC was implemented by the Bergen Linux user group, under the name CPIP (for Carrier Pigeon Internet Protocol). [ 4 ] They sent nine packets over a distance of approximately 5 km (3 mi), each carried by an individual pigeon and containing one ping ( ICMP echo request ), and received four responses.
This real-life implementation was mentioned by the French member of parliament Martine Billard in the French National Assembly , [ 5 ] during debates about HADOPI .
In December 2005, a Gartner report on bird flu that concluded "A pandemic wouldn't affect IT systems directly" was humorously criticized for neglecting to consider RFC 1149 and RFC 2549 in its analysis. [ 6 ]
Known risks to the protocol include:
Rafting photographers already use pigeons as a sneakernet to transport digital photos on flash media from the camera to the tour operator. [ 7 ] Over a 30-mile (48 km) distance, a single pigeon may be able to carry tens of gigabytes of data in around an hour, which on an average bandwidth basis compared very favorably to early ADSL standards, even when accounting for lost drives. [ 8 ]
On March 12, 2004, Yossi Vardi , Ami Ben-Bassat, and Guy Vardi sent three homing pigeons a distance of 100 kilometres (62 mi), "each carrying 20–22 tiny memory cards containing 1.3 GB, amounting in total of 4 GB of data." An effective throughput of 2.27 Mbit/s was achieved. The purpose of the test was to measure and confirm an improvement over RFC 2549. [ 8 ] Since the developers used flash memory instead of paper notes as specified by RFC 2549, the experiment was widely criticized as an example in which an optimized implementation breaks an official standard. [ citation needed ]
Inspired by RFC 2549, on 9 September 2009, the marketing team of The Unlimited, a regional company in South Africa, decided to host a tongue-in-cheek pigeon race between their pet pigeon Winston and local telecom company Telkom SA . The race was to send 4 gigabytes of data from Howick to Hillcrest , approximately 60 kilometres (37 mi) apart. The pigeon carried a microSD card and competed against a Telkom ADSL line. [ 9 ] Winston beat the data transfer over Telkom's ADSL line, with a total time of two hours, six minutes and 57 seconds from uploading data on the microSD card to completion of download from the card. At the time of Winston's victory, the ADSL transfer was just under 4% complete. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]
In November 2009, the Australian comedy/current-affairs television program Hungry Beast repeated this experiment. The Hungry Beast team took up the challenge after a fiery parliament session wherein the government of the time blasted the opposition for not supporting telecommunications investments, saying that if the opposition had their way, Australians would be doing data transfer over carrier pigeons. The Hungry Beast team had read about the South African experiment and assumed that, as a developed Western country , Australia would have higher speeds. The experiment had the team transfer a 700 MB file via three delivery methods to determine which was the fastest: a carrier pigeon with a microSD card, a car carrying a USB stick , and a Telstra (Australia's largest telecom provider) ADSL line. The data was to be transferred from Tarana in rural New South Wales to the western- Sydney suburb of Prospect, New South Wales , a distance of 132 kilometres (82 mi) by road. Approximately halfway through the race, the internet connection unexpectedly dropped and the transfer had to be restarted. The pigeon won the race with a time of approximately 1 hour 5 minutes, the car came in second at 2 hours 10 minutes, while the internet transfer did not finish, having dropped out a second time and not come back. The estimated time to upload completion at one point was as high as 9 hours, and at no point did the estimated upload time fall below 4 hours. [ 13 ]
A similar pigeon race was conducted in September 2010 by tech blogger (trefor.net) and ISP Timico CTO Trefor Davies with farmer Michelle Brumfield in rural Yorkshire, England : delivering a five-minute video to a BBC correspondent 75 miles away in Skegness . The pigeon (carrying a memory card with a 300 MB HD video of Davies having a haircut) was pitted against an upload to YouTube via British Telecom broadband; the pigeon was released at 11:05 am and arrived in the loft one hour and fifteen minutes later while the upload was still incomplete, having failed once in the interim. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_over_Avian_Carriers |
iPassMe is a mobile technology firm based in Italy, using the digital wallet technology to open up a new 1-to-1 dynamic communication channel between businesses and consumers and enhance customer relationship.
iPassMe is a web platform allowing small- and medium-sized enterprises, agencies and developers to create and manage mobile passes (store cards, coupons, event tickets, & more...) with no prior technical knowledge, no upfront investment or complex setup required.
iPassMe provides B2B service integrated with Apple Passbook technology and not only, creating new business communication opportunities between customers and retailers, and bridging the gap between consumers and companies who want to innovate by taking advantage of the potential of mobile digital wallet. [ 2 ] iPassMe makes the world of mobile commerce accessible to all businesses with a broad range of software and hardware including iBeacons technology, to provide in-store mobile communication. [ 3 ]
In 2013, iPassMe was founded by Davide Starnone and Luigi Castiglione. The company received 30k€ in Seed funding in October 2013 [ 4 ] [ 5 ] from the Italian Incubator ComoNExT. [ 6 ]
This article about a technological corporation or company is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPassMe |
List of iPhone models
The iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus are smartphones developed and marketed by Apple . They are the seventeenth generation of iPhones , succeeding the iPhone 14 and iPhone 14 Plus . The devices were announced on September 12, 2023, during the Apple Event at Apple Park in Cupertino, California , alongside the higher-priced flagship iPhone 15 Pro and 15 Pro Max . Pre-orders began on September 15, 2023, and the devices were made available on September 22, 2023.
Like the iPhone 15 Pro and Pro Max, the 15 and 15 Plus are the first iPhones to replace the proprietary Lightning connector with USB-C to comply with European Union mandates.
The iPhone 15 and 15 Plus are the last iPhones to feature 6 GB of RAM and the mute switch, as they do not feature the Action Button, unlike the 15 Pro series and subsequent models.
With the launch of the iPhone 16 series on September 20, 2024, the Action Button become standard on both the regular iPhone 16 models and the iPhone 16 Pro models. The iPhone 16e (an entry-level model of the iPhone 16 series, and the spiritual successor to the iPhone SE (3rd generation) ) which was launched on February 28, 2025 also featured the Action Button.
In September 2021, the European Commission began considering a proposal to mandate USB-C on all devices in the European Union , including iPhones. [ 11 ] Apple analyst Ming-Chi Kuo claimed that Apple would drop its proprietary Lightning connector by 2023. At the time of those claims, Apple was considering switching to USB-C due to the likelihood that the EU proposal would pass. [ 12 ] The proposal was passed into law in October 2022, becoming the Radio Equipment Directive . Apple confirmed it would comply with the regulations later that month. [ 13 ]
Two weeks prior to the formal introduction of the iPhone 15, it was announced that some of the devices which were made in India would for the first time be sold around the world on the launch day. [ 14 ]
The iPhone 15 is the first major redesign since the iPhone 12, featuring rounder edges and a slightly curved display, and back glass. Both models are available in five colors: blue, pink, yellow, green and black. [ 1 ] This makes it the first entry level iPhone since the iPhone XR to not ship with a Product Red variant at launch.
The iPhone 15 features a 6.1-inch (155 mm) display with Super Retina XDR OLED technology at a resolution of 2556×1179 pixels and a pixel density of about 460 PPI with a refresh rate of 60 Hz. The iPhone 15 Plus features a 6.7-inch (170 mm) display with the same technology at a resolution of 2796×1290 pixels and a pixel density of about 460 PPI. Both models have an improved typical brightness of up to 1,000 nits , a peak HDR brightness of up to 1,600 nits, and a peak outdoor brightness of up to 2,000 nits. [ 9 ] The Dynamic Island feature, previously exclusive to iPhone 14 Pro , is now standard on iPhone 15, replacing the notch that was introduced in the iPhone X. [ 15 ]
The iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus use USB-C with USB 2.0 transfer speeds (up to 480 Mb/s or 60 MB/s), [ 16 ] compared to the iPhone 15 Pro and iPhone 15 Pro Max which have faster USB 3.2 Gen 2 transfer speeds (up to 10 Gb/s or 1.25 GB/s). [ 17 ] The iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus, as well as the iPhone 15 Pro and iPhone 15 Pro Max, are the first iPhone models to use USB-C, as well as the first iPhones since the iPhone 5 to switch to a new charging port.
All iPhone 15 models have support for DisplayPort Alternate Mode over USB-C video output with HDR up to 4K resolution . [ 9 ]
Previous iPhone models (from iPhone 5 until iPhone 14 ) had a maximum supported resolution of 1600 x 900 (slightly less than 1080p FHD) with the Lightning Digital AV Adapter due to technical constraints of the Lightning connector. [ 18 ]
The iPhone 15 offers users up to 20 hours of video playback and up to 80 hours of audio playback, and the iPhone 15 Plus offers around 25 to 30% more, with up to 26 hours of video playback and up to 100 hours of audio playback. [ 19 ] Starting with iPhone 15, iPhone allows users to limit the battery charge level, in order to help with natural battery aging over time. [ 20 ]
The iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus launched with iOS 17 and is compatible with iOS 18 . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ]
Apple announced that the iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus as well as its predecessors especially the iPhone 14 , iPhone 14 Plus , iPhone 14 Pro and iPhone 14 Pro Max are not compatible with Apple Intelligence released with iOS 18.1 in October 2024. [ 24 ]
iOS 17 brought many new features, including Contact Posters to personalize specific contacts and satellite Emergency SOS for emergency situations. [ 25 ]
Consistent with the UK Product Security and Telecommunications Infrastructure regulation, it will continue to receive major software updates for a minimum of five years to at least 2028. [ 26 ]
6.33 by 3.06 in (161 by 78 mm)
5.81 by 2.82 in (148 by 72 mm)
(15.8 TOPS)
No physical SIM card form factor in U.S. models
12 MP Ultra Wide
f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)
2 μm (quad pixel 12 MP)
Six-element lens (Ultra Wide)
1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps
1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps
Some owners claimed that their iPhone 15s were experiencing overheating issues, [ 30 ] reportedly reaching temperatures as high as 47 °C (117 °F). [ 31 ] Apple later stated that there were several reasons why the phones heat up, mainly hinting at a software issue. [ 32 ] It was stated that it would be fixed with an update to iOS 17.0.3. [ 33 ] The overheating issues were reported to persist after the update. [ 34 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_15 |
List of iPhone models
The iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus are smartphones developed and marketed by Apple . They are the seventeenth generation of iPhones , succeeding the iPhone 14 and iPhone 14 Plus . The devices were announced on September 12, 2023, during the Apple Event at Apple Park in Cupertino, California , alongside the higher-priced flagship iPhone 15 Pro and 15 Pro Max . Pre-orders began on September 15, 2023, and the devices were made available on September 22, 2023.
Like the iPhone 15 Pro and Pro Max, the 15 and 15 Plus are the first iPhones to replace the proprietary Lightning connector with USB-C to comply with European Union mandates.
The iPhone 15 and 15 Plus are the last iPhones to feature 6 GB of RAM and the mute switch, as they do not feature the Action Button, unlike the 15 Pro series and subsequent models.
With the launch of the iPhone 16 series on September 20, 2024, the Action Button become standard on both the regular iPhone 16 models and the iPhone 16 Pro models. The iPhone 16e (an entry-level model of the iPhone 16 series, and the spiritual successor to the iPhone SE (3rd generation) ) which was launched on February 28, 2025 also featured the Action Button.
In September 2021, the European Commission began considering a proposal to mandate USB-C on all devices in the European Union , including iPhones. [ 11 ] Apple analyst Ming-Chi Kuo claimed that Apple would drop its proprietary Lightning connector by 2023. At the time of those claims, Apple was considering switching to USB-C due to the likelihood that the EU proposal would pass. [ 12 ] The proposal was passed into law in October 2022, becoming the Radio Equipment Directive . Apple confirmed it would comply with the regulations later that month. [ 13 ]
Two weeks prior to the formal introduction of the iPhone 15, it was announced that some of the devices which were made in India would for the first time be sold around the world on the launch day. [ 14 ]
The iPhone 15 is the first major redesign since the iPhone 12, featuring rounder edges and a slightly curved display, and back glass. Both models are available in five colors: blue, pink, yellow, green and black. [ 1 ] This makes it the first entry level iPhone since the iPhone XR to not ship with a Product Red variant at launch.
The iPhone 15 features a 6.1-inch (155 mm) display with Super Retina XDR OLED technology at a resolution of 2556×1179 pixels and a pixel density of about 460 PPI with a refresh rate of 60 Hz. The iPhone 15 Plus features a 6.7-inch (170 mm) display with the same technology at a resolution of 2796×1290 pixels and a pixel density of about 460 PPI. Both models have an improved typical brightness of up to 1,000 nits , a peak HDR brightness of up to 1,600 nits, and a peak outdoor brightness of up to 2,000 nits. [ 9 ] The Dynamic Island feature, previously exclusive to iPhone 14 Pro , is now standard on iPhone 15, replacing the notch that was introduced in the iPhone X. [ 15 ]
The iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus use USB-C with USB 2.0 transfer speeds (up to 480 Mb/s or 60 MB/s), [ 16 ] compared to the iPhone 15 Pro and iPhone 15 Pro Max which have faster USB 3.2 Gen 2 transfer speeds (up to 10 Gb/s or 1.25 GB/s). [ 17 ] The iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus, as well as the iPhone 15 Pro and iPhone 15 Pro Max, are the first iPhone models to use USB-C, as well as the first iPhones since the iPhone 5 to switch to a new charging port.
All iPhone 15 models have support for DisplayPort Alternate Mode over USB-C video output with HDR up to 4K resolution . [ 9 ]
Previous iPhone models (from iPhone 5 until iPhone 14 ) had a maximum supported resolution of 1600 x 900 (slightly less than 1080p FHD) with the Lightning Digital AV Adapter due to technical constraints of the Lightning connector. [ 18 ]
The iPhone 15 offers users up to 20 hours of video playback and up to 80 hours of audio playback, and the iPhone 15 Plus offers around 25 to 30% more, with up to 26 hours of video playback and up to 100 hours of audio playback. [ 19 ] Starting with iPhone 15, iPhone allows users to limit the battery charge level, in order to help with natural battery aging over time. [ 20 ]
The iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus launched with iOS 17 and is compatible with iOS 18 . [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ]
Apple announced that the iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus as well as its predecessors especially the iPhone 14 , iPhone 14 Plus , iPhone 14 Pro and iPhone 14 Pro Max are not compatible with Apple Intelligence released with iOS 18.1 in October 2024. [ 24 ]
iOS 17 brought many new features, including Contact Posters to personalize specific contacts and satellite Emergency SOS for emergency situations. [ 25 ]
Consistent with the UK Product Security and Telecommunications Infrastructure regulation, it will continue to receive major software updates for a minimum of five years to at least 2028. [ 26 ]
6.33 by 3.06 in (161 by 78 mm)
5.81 by 2.82 in (148 by 72 mm)
(15.8 TOPS)
No physical SIM card form factor in U.S. models
12 MP Ultra Wide
f/2.4 (Ultra Wide)
2 μm (quad pixel 12 MP)
Six-element lens (Ultra Wide)
1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps
1080p HD at 25 fps, 30 fps or 60 fps
Some owners claimed that their iPhone 15s were experiencing overheating issues, [ 30 ] reportedly reaching temperatures as high as 47 °C (117 °F). [ 31 ] Apple later stated that there were several reasons why the phones heat up, mainly hinting at a software issue. [ 32 ] It was stated that it would be fixed with an update to iOS 17.0.3. [ 33 ] The overheating issues were reported to persist after the update. [ 34 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_15_Plus |
List of iPhone models
The iPhone 16 and iPhone 16 Plus are smartphones developed and marketed by Apple . They are the eighteenth -generation iPhones , succeeding the iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus . The devices were released alongside the higher-priced iPhone 16 Pro and 16 Pro Max during the Apple Event at Apple Park in Cupertino, California , on September 9, 2024. [ 4 ]
The devices were unveiled during an event on September 9, 2024, marking the first time an iPhone release had been announced on a Monday. [ 5 ] It is also the first iPhone not to include Apple stickers in the box, as Apple removed them for environmental reasons. Stickers can be included if a customer asks for them at an Apple Store. [ 6 ]
The iPhone 16 is equipped with an aluminum design with a color infused (all but White) glass back. Like the iPhone 15, the device features rounded edges, a slightly curved display, and back glass. The iPhone 16 and 16 Plus have a vertical camera layout, similar to the iPhone 12 , as opposed to the diagonal layout for iPhone 13 , iPhone 14 , and iPhone 15 . The iPhone 16 and 16 Plus come in five colors: Ultramarine, Teal, Pink, White, and Black. [ 7 ]
The iPhone 16 and the iPhone 16 Plus use an Apple A18 system on a chip . The chip is optimized for running generative artificial intelligence and features a Neural Engine that is twice as fast as its predecessor.
The iPhone 16 includes an updated 48-megapixel Fusion camera, the same resolution as the iPhone 15 , with 2 μm, quad pixel PDAF, sensor-shift OIS, 100% Focus Pixels, support for super-high-resolution photos (24MP and 48MP). It has a new ultrawide camera with a wider aperture , automatic focus and 1.4 μm, 100% Focus Pixels. [ 8 ]
The iPhone 16 International model supports Nano-SIM + eSIM + eSIM, while the US model is eSIM only and the China model does not have any eSIM support. [ 9 ] [ 10 ]
All iPhone 16 models have an improved thermal design. The main logic board has been updated, centralizing chip placement and optimizing the surrounding architecture. The recycled aluminum substructure dissipates heat for up to 30 percent higher sustained performance for gaming. [ 11 ]
Every model in the iPhone 16 lineup has support for WiFi 7 . [ 12 ]
The iPhone 16 and iPhone 16 Plus retain their screen sizes of 6.1 inches and 6.7 inches, respectively. They use Super Retina XDR OLED display technology and feature a full-edge screen design with slim borders. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The iPhone 16 has a resolution of 2556x1179 pixels, while the iPhone 16 Plus has a resolution of 2796x1290 pixels. Both run on a 60 hz refresh rate and neither are flicker free due to the use of pulse-width modulation for brightness control. [ 15 ] [ 16 ]
iPhone 16 features a more refined dual-lens array on the back, with a 48 megapixel Fusion wide-angle lens and 12 megapixel ultra-wide lens. [ 13 ] The cameras are now aligned vertically for the first time since the iPhone 12, instead of diagonally like on the iPhone 15, enabling spatial video capture.
There is also an improved Photographic Styles feature for real-time lighting and color adjustments, allowing specific tones and colors to be manipulated. [ 17 ]
The iPhone 16 and iPhone 16 Plus come with the Action Button, which was first featured on the iPhone 15 Pro lineup. By default, the Action Button toggles silent mode. However, users can change the button's feature to do different things other than silent mode, like open the Camera app or toggle a focus mode.
All iPhone 16 models now come with a new button called Camera Control. This button is on the right side of the device and allows the user to open the camera app, switch between different camera controls and features, and take photos and videos. The button can distinguish between light and hard presses. By pressing the button once, it opens the camera app. By lightly pressing it twice, it opens a small menu with different camera controls, such as zoom or tone. Pressing the button hard once takes a photo, while holding for a few seconds starts a video. The button can also be customized to open other apps that use the iPhone’s cameras, such as Magnifier, Code Scanner, or third party camera apps. [ 18 ]
The iPhone 16 has been upgraded in terms of battery capacity. [ 19 ]
The base iPhone 16 has a video playback duration of up to 22 hours, while the iPhone 16 Plus has a video playback of up to 27 hours. The iPhone 16 has a duration of audio playback of up to 80 hours, 20% less than the iPhone 16 Plus with 100 hours of audio playback. The MagSafe wireless charging standard has been refreshed with a longer cable as an option, allowing the iPhone 16 and iPhone 16 Plus to charge at a faster speed of 25W with a 30W power adapter.
The iPhone 16 launched with iOS 18. While the device was announced alongside Apple Intelligence, these features were delayed until after release. [ 20 ]
iOS 18 includes RecoveryOS on the iPhone 16 series that allows users to recover and restore firmware wirelessly using another iPhone. [ 21 ]
Prior to the launch of iOS 18.4, Apple added the ability to open Visual Intelligence by customizing the Action button or Lock Screen, or opening Control Center on the iPhone 16 or iPhone 16 Plus, in addition to the ability to press and hold the Camera Control button to open the Visual Intelligence.
The iPhone 16 has a starting price of US$799 , while the iPhone 16 Plus starts at US$899 . Pre-orders began on September 13, 2024, and sales started September 20. [ 22 ]
On October 20, 2024, the Indonesian Ministry of Industry announced a formal ban on the sale and use of iPhone 16 models in Indonesia, citing that Apple has not fulfilled their promised investments in the country, and failing to meet the 40% local content requirement threshold for certification. [ 23 ] Apple subsequently offered a $100 million investment in exchange for lifting of the ban, but the Ministry of Industry rejected this offer, stating that it "has not met principles of fairness" [ 24 ] and demanded a larger amount, [ 25 ] which later said to be at least $1 billion. [ 26 ]
After further negotiations, which included the plan to build manufacturing, research and development facilities, the Ministry of Industry lifted the ban on February 26, 2025, with Apple now in the process of obtaining a local content certificate for selling the iPhone 16 models in Indonesia, starting from April 11. [ 27 ] [ 28 ]
The iPhone 16 has received positive feedback for several aspects but also shows a few limitations. The upgraded design is a favourite, bringing a refreshed aesthetic with the available vibrant color options, which feel more dynamic than past models. The display maintains Apple's Super Retina HDR quality but is limited to a 60 Hz refresh rate, which some users find outdated compared to faster displays on cheaper competitor phones. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] The iPhone 16 Plus has been praised, weighing 30 grams less and having longer battery life than the iPhone 16 Pro Max , while having a similar screen size to the Pro Max. [ 31 ] The "base model iPhone has often felt like a notable downgrade from its Pro counterparts, but that’s not the case this year", with the iPhone 16 and 16 Plus having enough features to make the 16 Pro and 16 Pro Max somewhat redundant. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_16 |
List of iPhone models
The iPhone 16 and iPhone 16 Plus are smartphones developed and marketed by Apple . They are the eighteenth -generation iPhones , succeeding the iPhone 15 and iPhone 15 Plus . The devices were released alongside the higher-priced iPhone 16 Pro and 16 Pro Max during the Apple Event at Apple Park in Cupertino, California , on September 9, 2024. [ 4 ]
The devices were unveiled during an event on September 9, 2024, marking the first time an iPhone release had been announced on a Monday. [ 5 ] It is also the first iPhone not to include Apple stickers in the box, as Apple removed them for environmental reasons. Stickers can be included if a customer asks for them at an Apple Store. [ 6 ]
The iPhone 16 is equipped with an aluminum design with a color infused (all but White) glass back. Like the iPhone 15, the device features rounded edges, a slightly curved display, and back glass. The iPhone 16 and 16 Plus have a vertical camera layout, similar to the iPhone 12 , as opposed to the diagonal layout for iPhone 13 , iPhone 14 , and iPhone 15 . The iPhone 16 and 16 Plus come in five colors: Ultramarine, Teal, Pink, White, and Black. [ 7 ]
The iPhone 16 and the iPhone 16 Plus use an Apple A18 system on a chip . The chip is optimized for running generative artificial intelligence and features a Neural Engine that is twice as fast as its predecessor.
The iPhone 16 includes an updated 48-megapixel Fusion camera, the same resolution as the iPhone 15 , with 2 μm, quad pixel PDAF, sensor-shift OIS, 100% Focus Pixels, support for super-high-resolution photos (24MP and 48MP). It has a new ultrawide camera with a wider aperture , automatic focus and 1.4 μm, 100% Focus Pixels. [ 8 ]
The iPhone 16 International model supports Nano-SIM + eSIM + eSIM, while the US model is eSIM only and the China model does not have any eSIM support. [ 9 ] [ 10 ]
All iPhone 16 models have an improved thermal design. The main logic board has been updated, centralizing chip placement and optimizing the surrounding architecture. The recycled aluminum substructure dissipates heat for up to 30 percent higher sustained performance for gaming. [ 11 ]
Every model in the iPhone 16 lineup has support for WiFi 7 . [ 12 ]
The iPhone 16 and iPhone 16 Plus retain their screen sizes of 6.1 inches and 6.7 inches, respectively. They use Super Retina XDR OLED display technology and feature a full-edge screen design with slim borders. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] The iPhone 16 has a resolution of 2556x1179 pixels, while the iPhone 16 Plus has a resolution of 2796x1290 pixels. Both run on a 60 hz refresh rate and neither are flicker free due to the use of pulse-width modulation for brightness control. [ 15 ] [ 16 ]
iPhone 16 features a more refined dual-lens array on the back, with a 48 megapixel Fusion wide-angle lens and 12 megapixel ultra-wide lens. [ 13 ] The cameras are now aligned vertically for the first time since the iPhone 12, instead of diagonally like on the iPhone 15, enabling spatial video capture.
There is also an improved Photographic Styles feature for real-time lighting and color adjustments, allowing specific tones and colors to be manipulated. [ 17 ]
The iPhone 16 and iPhone 16 Plus come with the Action Button, which was first featured on the iPhone 15 Pro lineup. By default, the Action Button toggles silent mode. However, users can change the button's feature to do different things other than silent mode, like open the Camera app or toggle a focus mode.
All iPhone 16 models now come with a new button called Camera Control. This button is on the right side of the device and allows the user to open the camera app, switch between different camera controls and features, and take photos and videos. The button can distinguish between light and hard presses. By pressing the button once, it opens the camera app. By lightly pressing it twice, it opens a small menu with different camera controls, such as zoom or tone. Pressing the button hard once takes a photo, while holding for a few seconds starts a video. The button can also be customized to open other apps that use the iPhone’s cameras, such as Magnifier, Code Scanner, or third party camera apps. [ 18 ]
The iPhone 16 has been upgraded in terms of battery capacity. [ 19 ]
The base iPhone 16 has a video playback duration of up to 22 hours, while the iPhone 16 Plus has a video playback of up to 27 hours. The iPhone 16 has a duration of audio playback of up to 80 hours, 20% less than the iPhone 16 Plus with 100 hours of audio playback. The MagSafe wireless charging standard has been refreshed with a longer cable as an option, allowing the iPhone 16 and iPhone 16 Plus to charge at a faster speed of 25W with a 30W power adapter.
The iPhone 16 launched with iOS 18. While the device was announced alongside Apple Intelligence, these features were delayed until after release. [ 20 ]
iOS 18 includes RecoveryOS on the iPhone 16 series that allows users to recover and restore firmware wirelessly using another iPhone. [ 21 ]
Prior to the launch of iOS 18.4, Apple added the ability to open Visual Intelligence by customizing the Action button or Lock Screen, or opening Control Center on the iPhone 16 or iPhone 16 Plus, in addition to the ability to press and hold the Camera Control button to open the Visual Intelligence.
The iPhone 16 has a starting price of US$799 , while the iPhone 16 Plus starts at US$899 . Pre-orders began on September 13, 2024, and sales started September 20. [ 22 ]
On October 20, 2024, the Indonesian Ministry of Industry announced a formal ban on the sale and use of iPhone 16 models in Indonesia, citing that Apple has not fulfilled their promised investments in the country, and failing to meet the 40% local content requirement threshold for certification. [ 23 ] Apple subsequently offered a $100 million investment in exchange for lifting of the ban, but the Ministry of Industry rejected this offer, stating that it "has not met principles of fairness" [ 24 ] and demanded a larger amount, [ 25 ] which later said to be at least $1 billion. [ 26 ]
After further negotiations, which included the plan to build manufacturing, research and development facilities, the Ministry of Industry lifted the ban on February 26, 2025, with Apple now in the process of obtaining a local content certificate for selling the iPhone 16 models in Indonesia, starting from April 11. [ 27 ] [ 28 ]
The iPhone 16 has received positive feedback for several aspects but also shows a few limitations. The upgraded design is a favourite, bringing a refreshed aesthetic with the available vibrant color options, which feel more dynamic than past models. The display maintains Apple's Super Retina HDR quality but is limited to a 60 Hz refresh rate, which some users find outdated compared to faster displays on cheaper competitor phones. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] The iPhone 16 Plus has been praised, weighing 30 grams less and having longer battery life than the iPhone 16 Pro Max , while having a similar screen size to the Pro Max. [ 31 ] The "base model iPhone has often felt like a notable downgrade from its Pro counterparts, but that’s not the case this year", with the iPhone 16 and 16 Plus having enough features to make the 16 Pro and 16 Pro Max somewhat redundant. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_16_Plus |
List of iPhone models
The iPhone 16 Pro and iPhone 16 Pro Max are high-end smartphones developed and marketed by Apple Inc. Alongside the iPhone 16 and iPhone 16 Plus , they form the eighteenth generation of the iPhone , succeeding the iPhone 15 Pro and iPhone 15 Pro Max , and were announced on September 9, 2024, and released on September 20, 2024. The iPhone 16 Pro and iPhone 16 Pro Max include a larger 6.3-inch and 6.9-inch display, a faster processor, upgraded wide and ultra-wide cameras, support for Wi-Fi 7 , larger batteries, and come pre-installed with iOS 18 (operating system).
The iPhone 16 Pro models continue the edge-to-edge display design but introduce thinner display borders, giving them the thinnest borders of any Apple product to date; iPhone 16 Pro and iPhone 16 Pro Max feature larger 6.3-inch and 6.9-inch Super Retina XDR OLED displays, respectively, with iPhone 16 Pro Max offering the largest iPhone display ever. [ 5 ] Both models have always-on 13:6 aspect ratio displays, with 460 ppi density from a 2622 × 1206 (Pro) and 2868 × 1320 (Pro Max) resolution. Both include a dynamic refresh rate of up to 120 Hz, HDR10 , with 1000 nits brightness typical and 2000 nits at peak.
Both Pro models come in four colors, the new Desert Titanium, Natural Titanium, White Titanium and Black Titanium, offering a lightweight, scratch-resistant exterior. [ 6 ] The Desert Titanium color replaced the Blue Titanium color used on the iPhone 15 Pro and iPhone 15 Pro Max.
The iPhone 16 Pro models are powered by the Apple A18 Pro chip, built using a second-generation 3-nanometer process (TSMC N3E), significantly enhancing performance, especially in AI related tasks. The chip includes a 6-core CPU, 6-core GPU, and a 16-core Neural Engine with a speed of 35 trillion-operations-per-second (TOPS) that accelerates machine learning capabilities, allowing for seamless integration of Apple Intelligence features. Both models offer 8 GB of memory and storage options ranging from 128 GB (256 GB for Pro Max) to 1 TB. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ]
All iPhone 16 models have an improved thermal design. The main logic board has been updated, centralizing chip placement and optimizing the surrounding architecture. The iPhone 16 Pro lineup maximizes thermal capacity with a machined chassis that uses 100 percent recycled aluminum, bonded to the titanium frame using solid state diffusion. This is combined with a graphite clad aluminum substructure. The new thermal architecture enables a 20 percent improvement in sustained gaming performance compared to the A17 Pro . [ 10 ]
Every model in the iPhone 16 lineup has support for Wi-Fi 7 ( 802.11a / b / g / n / ac / ax / be ). [ 11 ] In a teardown by iFixit , the US model's modem was shown to be a Qualcomm X71 (SDX71M-000). [ 12 ]
The iPhone 16 Pro introduces an upgraded camera system, with three rear cameras and a lidar scanner. It features " wide ", " ultrawide " and " telephoto " lenses. The wide camera is 48 megapixels, with sensor-shift optical image stabilization (OIS) and dual-pixel phase detection autofocus (PDAF). The ultrawide camera is 48 MP with a 120-degree field of view, optimized for low-light conditions. A 5× optical zoom telephoto camera, which was previously exclusive to the iPhone 15 Pro Max, now comes standard on both models. In addition, video recording now supports 4K at 120 frames per second (fps), offering the iPhone's highest resolution and frame rate combination yet and is the only iPhone to record in 4K in slow motion. [ 13 ]
All iPhone 16 models now come with a new button called Camera Control. This button is on the right side of the device, and allows the user to open the camera app, switch between different camera controls and features, and taking photos and videos. The button can distinguish between light and hard presses. By pressing the button once, it opens the camera app. By lightly pressing it twice, it opens a small menu with different camera controls, such as zoom or tone, and if a user presses it hardly once, it takes a photo. If a user holds it for a few seconds, it starts a video. [ 14 ]
One of the iPhone 16 Pro's features is its integration with Apple Intelligence , a suite of AI -driven capabilities. Apple Intelligence enhances Siri 's functionality, improving natural language understanding and introduces generative features such as custom emojis and Visual Intelligence, which can analyze photos and identify objects in real-time.
Prior to the launch of iOS 18.4, Apple added the ability to open Visual Intelligence by customizing the Action button or Lock Screen, or opening Control Center on the iPhone 16 Pro or iPhone 16 Pro Max, in addition to the ability to press and hold the Camera Control button to open the Visual Intelligence.
Pre-orders for iPhone 16 Pro and iPhone 16 Pro Max began on September 13, 2024, and they became available on September 20, 2024. The iPhone 16 Pro model starts at $999, while the Pro Max model starts at $1,199. [ 15 ]
On October 20, 2024, the Indonesian Ministry of Industry announced a formal ban on the sale and use of iPhone 16 models in Indonesia, citing that Apple has not fulfilled their promised investments in the country, and failing to meet the 40% local content requirement threshold for certification. [ 16 ] Apple subsequently offered a $100 million investment in exchange for lifting of the ban, but the Ministry of Industry rejected this offer, stating that it "has not met principles of fairness" [ 17 ] and demanded a larger amount, [ 18 ] which was later said to be at least $1 billion. [ 19 ]
After further negotiations, which included the plan to build manufacturing, research and development facilities, the Ministry of Industry lifted the ban on February 26, 2025, with Apple now in the process of obtaining a local content certificate for selling the iPhone 16 models in Indonesia, starting from April 11. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_16_Pro |
List of iPhone models
The iPhone 16 Pro and iPhone 16 Pro Max are high-end smartphones developed and marketed by Apple Inc. Alongside the iPhone 16 and iPhone 16 Plus , they form the eighteenth generation of the iPhone , succeeding the iPhone 15 Pro and iPhone 15 Pro Max , and were announced on September 9, 2024, and released on September 20, 2024. The iPhone 16 Pro and iPhone 16 Pro Max include a larger 6.3-inch and 6.9-inch display, a faster processor, upgraded wide and ultra-wide cameras, support for Wi-Fi 7 , larger batteries, and come pre-installed with iOS 18 (operating system).
The iPhone 16 Pro models continue the edge-to-edge display design but introduce thinner display borders, giving them the thinnest borders of any Apple product to date; iPhone 16 Pro and iPhone 16 Pro Max feature larger 6.3-inch and 6.9-inch Super Retina XDR OLED displays, respectively, with iPhone 16 Pro Max offering the largest iPhone display ever. [ 5 ] Both models have always-on 13:6 aspect ratio displays, with 460 ppi density from a 2622 × 1206 (Pro) and 2868 × 1320 (Pro Max) resolution. Both include a dynamic refresh rate of up to 120 Hz, HDR10 , with 1000 nits brightness typical and 2000 nits at peak.
Both Pro models come in four colors, the new Desert Titanium, Natural Titanium, White Titanium and Black Titanium, offering a lightweight, scratch-resistant exterior. [ 6 ] The Desert Titanium color replaced the Blue Titanium color used on the iPhone 15 Pro and iPhone 15 Pro Max.
The iPhone 16 Pro models are powered by the Apple A18 Pro chip, built using a second-generation 3-nanometer process (TSMC N3E), significantly enhancing performance, especially in AI related tasks. The chip includes a 6-core CPU, 6-core GPU, and a 16-core Neural Engine with a speed of 35 trillion-operations-per-second (TOPS) that accelerates machine learning capabilities, allowing for seamless integration of Apple Intelligence features. Both models offer 8 GB of memory and storage options ranging from 128 GB (256 GB for Pro Max) to 1 TB. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ]
All iPhone 16 models have an improved thermal design. The main logic board has been updated, centralizing chip placement and optimizing the surrounding architecture. The iPhone 16 Pro lineup maximizes thermal capacity with a machined chassis that uses 100 percent recycled aluminum, bonded to the titanium frame using solid state diffusion. This is combined with a graphite clad aluminum substructure. The new thermal architecture enables a 20 percent improvement in sustained gaming performance compared to the A17 Pro . [ 10 ]
Every model in the iPhone 16 lineup has support for Wi-Fi 7 ( 802.11a / b / g / n / ac / ax / be ). [ 11 ] In a teardown by iFixit , the US model's modem was shown to be a Qualcomm X71 (SDX71M-000). [ 12 ]
The iPhone 16 Pro introduces an upgraded camera system, with three rear cameras and a lidar scanner. It features " wide ", " ultrawide " and " telephoto " lenses. The wide camera is 48 megapixels, with sensor-shift optical image stabilization (OIS) and dual-pixel phase detection autofocus (PDAF). The ultrawide camera is 48 MP with a 120-degree field of view, optimized for low-light conditions. A 5× optical zoom telephoto camera, which was previously exclusive to the iPhone 15 Pro Max, now comes standard on both models. In addition, video recording now supports 4K at 120 frames per second (fps), offering the iPhone's highest resolution and frame rate combination yet and is the only iPhone to record in 4K in slow motion. [ 13 ]
All iPhone 16 models now come with a new button called Camera Control. This button is on the right side of the device, and allows the user to open the camera app, switch between different camera controls and features, and taking photos and videos. The button can distinguish between light and hard presses. By pressing the button once, it opens the camera app. By lightly pressing it twice, it opens a small menu with different camera controls, such as zoom or tone, and if a user presses it hardly once, it takes a photo. If a user holds it for a few seconds, it starts a video. [ 14 ]
One of the iPhone 16 Pro's features is its integration with Apple Intelligence , a suite of AI -driven capabilities. Apple Intelligence enhances Siri 's functionality, improving natural language understanding and introduces generative features such as custom emojis and Visual Intelligence, which can analyze photos and identify objects in real-time.
Prior to the launch of iOS 18.4, Apple added the ability to open Visual Intelligence by customizing the Action button or Lock Screen, or opening Control Center on the iPhone 16 Pro or iPhone 16 Pro Max, in addition to the ability to press and hold the Camera Control button to open the Visual Intelligence.
Pre-orders for iPhone 16 Pro and iPhone 16 Pro Max began on September 13, 2024, and they became available on September 20, 2024. The iPhone 16 Pro model starts at $999, while the Pro Max model starts at $1,199. [ 15 ]
On October 20, 2024, the Indonesian Ministry of Industry announced a formal ban on the sale and use of iPhone 16 models in Indonesia, citing that Apple has not fulfilled their promised investments in the country, and failing to meet the 40% local content requirement threshold for certification. [ 16 ] Apple subsequently offered a $100 million investment in exchange for lifting of the ban, but the Ministry of Industry rejected this offer, stating that it "has not met principles of fairness" [ 17 ] and demanded a larger amount, [ 18 ] which was later said to be at least $1 billion. [ 19 ]
After further negotiations, which included the plan to build manufacturing, research and development facilities, the Ministry of Industry lifted the ban on February 26, 2025, with Apple now in the process of obtaining a local content certificate for selling the iPhone 16 models in Indonesia, starting from April 11. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_16_Pro_Max |
IP over DWDM ( IPoDWDM ) is a technology used in telecommunications networks to integrate IP routers and network switches in the OTN ( Optical Transport Network ).
A true IPoDWDM solution is implemented only when the IP Routers and Switches support ITU-T G.709. [ 1 ] In this way IP devices can monitor the optical path and implement the transport functionality as FEC ( Forward Error Correction ) specified by ITU-T G.709/Y.1331 [ 1 ] or Super FEC functionality defined in ITU-T G.975.1. [ 2 ]
This approach saves network components including shelves, processors, interfaces cards and hence it permits to reduce the power consumption, OPEX ( Operational expenditure ) and CAPEX ( capital expenditure ).
This approach brings also a simplification of the network, eliminating the SDH / SONET intermediate layer. [ 3 ]
A DWDM network can be implemented using different vendor technology from the IP devices as long as they support alien wavelength transmission specified by ITU-T G.698.2. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
This computer networking article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPoDWDM |
iPulse Medical is an Israeli start-up company that makes femtech products. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The company's brand and main product, Livia , is a menstrual pain relief wearable device . [ 3 ]
iPulse Medical was founded by Israeli tech entrepreneur Chen Nachum in 2015. The idea for Livia came from his father, Zvi Nachum, [ 4 ] [ 5 ] a medical products inventor. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] In April 2016, The company launched Livia on crowdfunding site Indiegogo , where it had generated sales of $1,741,622 as of December 19, 2018. [ 8 ]
On April 11, 2018, the product received the Gold prize for Health & Wellness: Women's Wellbeing category at the Edison Awards . [ 9 ] [ 10 ]
Livia is used during menstruation to eliminate cramps and pain. It employs the principle of gate control theory to organically block pain receptors by sending continuous electrical pulses through electrodes along the body's nerve pathways in order to block out the pain signals before they reach the central nervous system. This is done using a specific frequency and length of its electrical pulses, which block out the specific type of pain associated with menstruation. [ 11 ] The device has undergone a clinical trial, of which no results have been published. [ 12 ]
This article about an Israeli company is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPulse_Medical |
IPv4 address exhaustion is the depletion of the pool of unallocated IPv4 addresses . Because the original Internet architecture had fewer than 4.3 billion addresses available, depletion has been anticipated since the late 1980s when the Internet started experiencing dramatic growth. This depletion is one of the reasons for the development and deployment of its successor protocol , IPv6 . [ 1 ] IPv4 and IPv6 coexist on the Internet.
The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and by five regional Internet registries (RIRs) responsible in their designated territories for assignment to end users and local Internet registries , such as Internet service providers . The main market forces that accelerated IPv4 address depletion included the rapidly growing number of Internet users, always-on devices, and mobile devices.
The anticipated shortage has been the driving factor in creating and adopting several new technologies, including network address translation (NAT), Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993, and IPv6 in 1998. [ 2 ]
The top-level exhaustion occurred on 31 January 2011. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] All RIRs have exhausted their address pools, except those reserved for IPv6 transition ; this occurred on 15 April 2011 for the Asia-Pacific ( APNIC ), [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] on 10 June 2014 for Latin America and the Caribbean ( LACNIC ), [ 10 ] on 24 September 2015 for North America ( ARIN ), [ 11 ] on 21 April 2017 for Africa ( AfriNIC ), [ 12 ] and on 25 November 2019 for Europe, Middle East and Central Asia ( RIPE NCC ). [ 13 ] These RIRs still allocate recovered addresses or addresses reserved for a special purpose. Individual ISPs still have pools of unassigned IP addresses, and could recycle addresses no longer needed by subscribers.
Vint Cerf co-created TCP/IP thinking it was an experiment, and has admitted he thought 32 bits was enough. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ]
Every node of an Internet Protocol (IP) network, such as a computer , router , or network printer , is assigned an IP address for each network interface, used to locate and identify the node in communications with other nodes on the network. Internet Protocol version 4 provides 2 32 (4,294,967,296) addresses. However, large blocks of IPv4 addresses are reserved for special uses and are unavailable for public allocation.
The IPv4 addressing structure provides an insufficient number of publicly routable addresses to provide a distinct address to every Internet device or service. This problem has been mitigated for some time by changes in the address allocation and routing infrastructure of the Internet. The transition from classful network addressing to Classless Inter-Domain Routing delayed the exhaustion of addresses substantially. In addition, network address translation (NAT) permits Internet service providers and enterprises to masquerade private network address space with only one publicly routable IPv4 address on the Internet interface of a main Internet router, instead of allocating a public address to each network device.
While the primary reason for IPv4 address exhaustion is insufficient capacity in the design of the original Internet infrastructure, several additional driving factors have aggravated the shortcomings. Each of them increased the demand on the limited supply of addresses, often in ways unanticipated by the original designers of the network.
Efforts to delay address space exhaustion started with the recognition of the problem in the early 1990s, and the introduction of a number of stop-gap refinements to make the existing structure operate more efficiently, such as CIDR methods and strict usage-based allocation policies.
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) created the Routing and Addressing Group (ROAD) in November 1991 to respond to the scalability problem caused by the classful network allocation system in place at the time. [ 20 ] [ 2 ]
IPv6, the successor technology to IPv4, was designed to address this problem. It supports approximately 3.4 × 10 38 network addresses. [ 21 ] Although as of 2008 [update] the predicted depletion was already approaching its final stages, most providers of Internet services and software vendors were just beginning IPv6 deployment at that time. [ 22 ]
Other mitigation efforts and technologies include:
On 31 January 2011, the last two unreserved IANA /8 address blocks were allocated to APNIC according to RIR request procedures. This left five reserved but unallocated /8 blocks. [ 7 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] In accord with ICANN policies, IANA proceeded to allocate one of those five /8 s to each RIR, exhausting the IANA pool, [ 27 ] at a ceremony and press conference on 3 February 2011.
The various legacy address blocks with administration historically split among the RIRs were distributed to the RIRs in February 2011. [ 28 ]
APNIC was the first regional Internet registry to run out of freely allocated IPv4 addresses, on 15 April 2011. This date marked the point where not everyone who needed an IPv4 address could be allocated one. As a consequence of this exhaustion, end-to-end connectivity as required by specific applications will not be universally available on the Internet until IPv6 is fully implemented. However, IPv6 hosts cannot directly communicate with IPv4 hosts, and have to communicate using special gateway services. This means that general-purpose computers must still have IPv4 access, for example through NAT64, in addition to the new IPv6 address, which is more effort than just supporting IPv4 or IPv6. [ 29 ]
In early 2011, only 16–26% of computers were IPv6 capable, while only 0.2% preferred IPv6 addressing [ 30 ] with many using transition methods such as Teredo tunneling . [ 31 ] About 0.15% of the top million websites were IPv6 accessible in 2011. [ 32 ] Complicating matters, 0.027% to 0.12% of visitors could not reach dual-stack sites, [ 33 ] [ 34 ] but a larger percentage (0.27%) could not reach IPv4-only sites. [ 35 ] IPv4 exhaustion mitigation technologies include IPv4 address sharing to access IPv4 content, IPv6 dual-stack implementation, protocol translation to access IPv4 and IPv6-addressed content, and bridging and tunneling to bypass single protocol routers. Early signs of accelerated IPv6 adoption after IANA exhaustion are evident [ needs update ] . [ 36 ]
All the RIRs have set aside a small pool of IP addresses for the transition to IPv6 (for example carrier-grade NAT ), from which each RIR can typically get at most 1024 in total. ARIN [ 37 ] and LACNIC [ 38 ] reserves the last /10 for IPv6 transition. APNIC, and RIPE NCC have reserved the last obtained /8 block for IPv6 transition. AFRINIC reserves a /11 block for this purpose. [ 39 ] When only this last block remains, the RIR's supply of IPv4 addresses is said to be "exhausted".
APNIC was the first RIR to restrict allocations to 1024 addresses for each member, as its pool reached critical levels of one /8 block on 14 April 2011. [ 7 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ 44 ] The APNIC RIR is responsible for address allocation in the area of fastest Internet expansion, including the emerging markets of China and India.
RIPE NCC , the regional Internet registry for Europe, was the second RIR to deplete its address pool on 14 September 2012. [ 45 ]
On 10 June 2014, LACNIC , the regional Internet registry for Latin America and the Caribbean, was the third RIR to deplete its address pool. [ 46 ] [ 47 ]
ARIN was exhausted on 24 September 2015. [ 48 ] ARIN has been unable to allocate large requests since July 2015, but smaller requests were still being met. [ 49 ] After IANA exhaustion, IPv4 address space requests became subject to additional restrictions at ARIN, [ 50 ] and became even more restrictive after reaching the last /8 in April 2014. [ 37 ]
On 31 March 2017, AFRINIC became the last regional Internet registry to run down to its last /8 block of IPv4 addresses (102/8), thus triggering the first phase of its IPv4 exhaustion policy. [ 51 ] "On 13 January 2020, AFRINIC approved an IPv4 prefix that resulted in no more than a /11 of non-reserved space to be available in the Final /8," which triggered its IPv4 Exhaustion Phase 2. [ 52 ]
On 25 November 2019, RIPE NCC announced [ 53 ] that it had made its "final /22 IPv4 allocation from the last remaining addresses in our available pool. We have now run out of IPv4 addresses." RIPE NCC will continue to allocate IPv4 addresses, but only "from organisations that have gone out of business or are closed, or from networks that return addresses they no longer need. These addresses will be allocated to our members (LIRs) according to their position on a new waiting list…" The announcement also called for support for the implementation of the IPv6 roll-out.
Systems that require inter-continental connectivity will have to deal with exhaustion mitigation already due to APNIC exhaustion.
At APNIC, existing LIRs could apply for twelve months stock before exhaustion when they were using more than 80% of allocated space allocated to them. [ 54 ] Since 15 April 2011, the date when APNIC reached its last /8 block, each (current or future) member will only be able to get one allocation of 1024 addresses (a /22 block) once. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] As the slope of the APNIC pool line on the "Geoff Huston's projection of the evolution of the IP pool for each RIR" chart to the right shows, the last /8 block would have been emptied within one month without this policy. By APNIC policy, each current or future member can receive only one /22 block from this last /8 (there are 16384 /22 blocks in the last /8 block). Since there are around 3000 current APNIC members, and around 300 new APNIC members each year, APNIC expects this last /8 block to last for many years [ needs update ] . [ 57 ] Since the redistribution of recovered space, APNIC is distributing an additional /22 to each member upon request.
The 1,024 addresses in the /22 block can be used by APNIC members to supply NAT44 or NAT64 as a service on an IPv6 network. However at a new large ISP, 1,024 IPv4 addresses might not be enough to provide IPv4 connectivity to all the customers due to the limited number of ports available per IPv4 address. [ 58 ]
The regional Internet registries (RIRs) for Asia (APNIC) and North America have a policy called the Inter-RIR IPv4 Address Transfer Policy, which allows IPv4 addresses to be transferred from North America to Asia. [ 59 ] [ 60 ] The ARIN policy was implemented on 31 July 2012. [ 60 ]
IPv4 broker businesses have been established to facilitate these transfers. [ 61 ]
Estimates of the time of complete IPv4 address exhaustion varied widely in the early 2000s. In 2003, Paul Wilson (director of APNIC ) stated that, based on then-current rates of deployment, the available space would last for one or two decades. [ 62 ] In September 2005, a report by Cisco Systems suggested that the pool of available addresses would deplete in as little as 4 to 5 years. [ 63 ] In the last year before exhaustion, IPv4 allocations were accelerating, resulting in exhaustion trending to earlier dates.
By 2008 policy planning for the end-game and post-exhaustion era was underway. [ 72 ] Several proposals have been discussed to delay shortages of IPv4 addresses:
Before and during the time when classful network design was still used as allocation model, large blocks of IP addresses were allocated to some organizations . Since the use of CIDR the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) could potentially reclaim these ranges and reissue the addresses in smaller blocks. [ citation needed ] ARIN, RIPE NCC and APNIC have a transfer policy, such that addresses can get returned, with the purpose to be reassigned to a specific recipient. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 75 ] However, it can be expensive in terms of cost and time to renumber a large network, so these organizations are likely to object, with legal conflicts possible. However, even if all of these were reclaimed, it would only result in postponing the date of address exhaustion.
Similarly, IP address blocks have been allocated to entities that no longer exist and some allocated IP address blocks or large portions of them have never been used. No strict accounting of IP address allocations has been undertaken, and it would take a significant amount of effort to track down which addresses really are unused, as many are in use only on intranets . [ citation needed ]
Some address space previously reserved by IANA has been added to the available pool. There have been proposals to use the class E network range of IPv4 addresses [ 76 ] [ 77 ] (which would add 268.4 million IP addresses to the available pool) but many computer and router operating systems and firmware do not allow the use of these addresses. [ 63 ] [ 78 ] [ 79 ] [ 80 ] For this reason, the proposals have sought not to designate the class E space for public assignment, but instead propose to permit its private use for networks that require more address space than is currently available through RFC 1918.
Several organizations have returned large blocks of IP addresses. Notably, Stanford University relinquished their Class A IP address block in 2000, making 16 million IP addresses available. [ 81 ] Other organizations that have done so include the United States Department of Defense , BBN Technologies , and Interop . [ 82 ]
The creation of markets to buy and sell IPv4 addresses has been considered to be a solution to the problem of IPv4 scarcity and a means of redistribution. The primary benefits of an IPv4 address market are that it allows buyers to maintain undisrupted local network functionality. [ 83 ] [ 84 ] IPv6 adoption, while in progress, is currently still [ when? ] in early stages. [ 85 ] It requires a significant investment of resources, and poses incompatibility issues with IPv4, as well as certain security and stability risks. [ 86 ] [ 87 ]
As the IPv4 address pool depletes, some ISPs will not be able to provide globally routable IPv4 addresses to customers. Nevertheless, customers are likely to require access to services on the IPv4 Internet. Several technologies have been developed for providing IPv4 service over an IPv6 access network.
In ISP-level IPv4 NAT, ISPs may implement IPv4 network address translation within their networks and assign private IPv4 addresses to customers. This approach may allow customers to keep using existing hardware. Some estimates for NAT argue that US ISPs have 5-10 times the number of IPs they need in order to serve their existing customers. [ 95 ]
However the allocation of private IPv4 addresses to customers may conflict with private IP allocations on the customer networks. Furthermore, some ISPs may have to divide their network into subnets to allow them to reuse private IPv4 addresses, complicating network administration. There are also concerns that features of consumer-grade NAT such as DMZs , STUN , UPnP and application-level gateways might not be available at the ISP level. ISP-level NAT may result in multiple-level address translation which is likely to further complicate the use of technologies such as port forwarding used to run Internet servers within private networks. [ citation needed ]
NAT64 translates IPv6 requests from clients to IPv4 requests. This avoids the need to provision any IPv4 addresses to clients and allows clients that only support IPv6 to access IPv4 resources. However this approach requires a DNS server with DNS64 capability and cannot support IPv4-only client devices.
DS-Lite (Dual-Stack Light) uses tunnels from the customer premises equipment to a network address translator at the ISP. [ 96 ] The consumer premises equipment encapsulates the IPv4 packets in an IPv6 wrapper and sends them to a host known as the AFTR element . The AFTR element de-encapsulates the packets and performs network address translation before sending them to the public Internet. The NAT in the AFTR uses the IPv6 address of the client in its NAT mapping table. This means that different clients can use the same private IPv4 addresses, therefore avoiding the need for allocating private IPv4 IP addresses to customers or using multiple NATs.
Address plus Port allows stateless sharing of public IP addresses based on TCP/UDP port numbers. Each node is allocated both an IPv4 address and a range of port numbers to use. Other nodes may be allocated the same IPv4 address but a different range of ports. The technique avoids the need for stateful address translation mechanisms in the core of the network, thus leaving end users in control of their own address translation. [ 97 ]
Deployment of IPv6 is the standards-based solution to the IPv4 address shortage. [ 8 ] IPv6 is endorsed and implemented by all Internet technical standards bodies and network equipment vendors. It encompasses many design improvements, including the replacement of the 32-bit IPv4 address format with a 128-bit address which provides an addressing space without limitations for the foreseeable future. IPv6 has been in active production deployment since June 2006, after organized worldwide testing and evaluation in the 6bone project ceased. Interoperability for hosts using only IPv4 protocols is implemented with a variety of IPv6 transition mechanisms . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4_address_exhaustion |
In the field of IPv6 deployment , IPv6 brokenness was bad behavior seen in early tunneled or dual stack IPv6 deployments where unreliable or bogus IPv6 connectivity is chosen in preference to working IPv4 connectivity. This often resulted in long delays in web page loading, where the user had to wait for each attempted IPv6 connection to time out before the IPv4 connection was tried. [ 1 ] These timeouts ranged from being near-instantaneous in the best cases, to taking anywhere between four seconds to three minutes. [ 2 ]
IPv6 brokenness is now generally regarded as a solved problem for almost all practical purposes, following improvements at both the transport and application layers. [ 3 ]
As of May 2011, IPv6 brokenness as measured by instrumenting a set of mainstream Norwegian websites was down to ~0.015%, [ 4 ] most of which was caused by older versions of Mac OS X which would often prefer non-working IPv6 connectivity when it was not justified. [ 5 ] This behavior was fixed in Mac OS X 10.6.5, and is likely to decline further as Mac OS X 10.6.5 and subsequent versions roll out to a wider audience. However, there was no upgrade path for PowerPC -based Macs. [ 6 ]
The main remaining problem for Mac OS X was the presence of rogue routers, such as wrongly configured Windows Internet Connection Sharing devices pretending to have IPv6 connectivity, while 6to4 tunneled IPv6 traffic is blocked at a firewall. [ citation needed ] Another problem was pre-10.50 versions of Opera. [ citation needed ]
Following World IPv6 Day in July 2011, there were reports of a substantial reduction in IPv6 brokenness as a result of that experiment. [ 7 ] In the year following the trial, but prior to the World IPv6 Launch date, brokenness levels were reported to have risen slowly back upwards again towards 0.03%. [ 8 ]
Google , a major provider of services on the Internet, experimented with using a type of DNS allowlisting on a per-ISP basis to prevent this [ 9 ] [ 10 ] until the World IPv6 Launch. In the DNS allowlisting approach, ISPs are determined from DNS lookup source IP addresses by correlating them with network prefixes derived from routing tables . There is an IETF draft entitled "IPv6 AAAA DNS Allowlisting Implications" that describes the issues around allowlisting. AAAA records are only sent to ISPs that can demonstrate that they are providing reliable IPv6 to their customers. Other ISPs are sent only A records, thus preventing users from attempting to connect over IPv6 when hostnames are used instead of ipv6-addresses.
Numerous concerns were raised about the practicality of DNS allowlisting as a long-term large-scale solution, such as scalability and maintenance issues relating to the maintenance of large numbers of bilateral agreements. [ 11 ] In 2010, several of the major web service providers met to discuss pooling their DNS allowlisting information in an attempt to avoid these scaling problems. [ 12 ]
It appears that no major content providers eventually ended up using the allowlisting approach, given that all that had previously declared an interest began serving AAAA records to generic DNS queries following World IPv6 Launch Day . Google now provides AAAA records to all DNS servers except for those on a limited list of subnets which Google excludes from AAAA record service. [ 13 ] [ 14 ]
As of 2017, IPv6 brokenness is now generally regarded as a non-problem. This is due to two factors: firstly, IPv6 transport is much improved, so that the underlying error rate is much reduced, and secondly, that common applications such as web browsers now use fast fallback methods such as the " Happy Eyeballs " algorithm to select whichever protocol works best. [ 3 ] Some operating system vendors have rolled fast fallback algorithms into their higher-level network stack APIs, thus making the solution available for all programs that use those APIs to make connections. [ 15 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6_brokenness_and_DNS_whitelisting |
IQAN is a trademark [ 1 ] for electronic control systems for mobile machinery, owned by Parker Hannifin corporation.
The CAN bus based system IQAN was developed by a small Swedish company around 1990-95. First version was introduced on the market 1995. Shortly after, around 1995 the Swedish company VOAC Hydraulics Co. bought this company and in February 1996 VOAC Hydraulics was acquired by Parker Hannifin . The IQAN-system was integrated into Parkers product range of system components for mobile machinery. The system has been further developed within the Parker organization.
IQAN 4.0 was released approximately 2015
IQAN 5.0 was released approximately 2017
IQAN 6.0 was released October 7th, 2019
IQAN 7.0 was released October 8th, 2023
With the release of the new XC I/O modules, users now have more I/O options. The development system IQANdesign is now at version 7.02. An active user forum is present at https://forum.iqan.se/ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQAN |
IQVIA , formerly Quintiles and IMS Health, Inc. , [ 2 ] is an American Fortune 500 and S&P 500 multinational company serving the combined industries of health information technology and clinical research . IQVIA is a provider of biopharmaceutical development, professional consulting and commercial outsourcing services, focused primarily on Phase I-IV clinical trials and associated laboratory and analytical services, including investment strategy and management consulting services. It has a network of more than 88,000 employees in more than 100 countries and a market capitalization of US$49 billion as of August 2021. [ 2 ] As of 2023, IQVIA was reported to be one of the world's largest contract research organizations (CRO). [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
IQVIA is the result of the 2016 merger of Quintiles, a leading global contract research organization, and IMS Health, a leading healthcare data and analytics provider [ 5 ] The name of the modern company honors the legacy organizations. IQVIA: I (IMS Health), Q (Quintiles), and VIA (by way of).
IMS Health was best known for its collection of healthcare information spanning sales, de-identified prescription data, medical claims, electronic medical records [ 6 ] and social media . [ 7 ] IMS Health's products and services were used by companies to develop commercialization plans [ 8 ] and portfolio strategies, [ 9 ] to select patient and physician populations for specific therapies, and to measure the effectiveness of pharmaceutical marketing and sales resources. [ 10 ] The firm used its data to produce syndicated reports such as market forecasts and market intelligence.
The original name of the company was I ntercontinental M arketing S tatistics, hence the IMS name. IMS Health's corporate headquarters were located in Danbury , Connecticut , in the United States. Ari Bousbib was the chairman and CEO of IMS Health before the merger.
Quintiles was the world's largest provider of biopharmaceutical development and commercial outsourcing services. The company offered clinical data management, clinical trial execution services, pharmaceuticals, drug development, financial partnering, and commercialization expertise to companies in the biotechnology, pharmaceutical and healthcare sectors.
In 1982, Dennis Gillings founded and incorporated Quintiles Transnational in North Carolina . [ 19 ] Quintiles Transnational established Quintiles Pacific Inc. and Quintiles Ireland Ltd. in 1990. [ 20 ] In 1991 Quintiles GmbH was established in Germany and Quintiles Laboratories Ltd. was established in Atlanta, Georgia. [ 21 ] In September 1996, Quintiles purchased Innovex Ltd. of Britain for $747.5 million in stock. [ 22 ] Quintiles went public in 1997 and completed a successful secondary stock offering. [ 23 ]
In May 2016, Quintiles agreed to merge with IMS Health in a deal worth $9 billion. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] IMS Health shareholders received 0.384 shares of Quintiles common stock for each share of IMS Health common stock they held, leaving the split of ownership at 51.4% IMS and 48.6% Quintiles. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] The merger was completed in October and the resulting company was a $17.6 billion company called QuintilesIMS. [ 5 ] In November 2017, the company adopted the new name of IQVIA, and changed its ticker symbol on the NYSE from Q to IQV. [ 2 ]
Throughout its history, the legacy IMS Health's business of collecting anonymized pharmaceutical sales data came under scrutiny from both the media and the legal system. [ 28 ]
IMS Health v. Ayotte was a free speech case involving IMS Health. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ]
Sorrell v. IMS Health Inc. was a case about physician- data privacy , which went to the U.S. Supreme Court. The High Court ruled in favor of the company. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ]
IQVIA was contracted by the UK government's Office of National Statistics to provide data on the prevalence of COVID-19 infection in the population. Some users of the survey reported problems contacting IQVIA and arranging for testing. [ 36 ] The problems with how the survey results were collected were criticised for potentially leading to biased data by New Scientist . [ 37 ]
On July 17, 2023, the Federal Trade Commission sued to block IQVIA’s acquisition of Propel Media alleging in an administrative complaint that the acquisition would give IQVIA a market-leading position in health care programmatic advertising and would raise health-care prices for consumers. In December 2023, U.S. District Court Judge Edgardo Ramos issued an order granting the FTC’s motion for preliminary injunction to block the merger. Speaking in favor of the FTC, Ramos said, "The FTC has shown that there is a reasonable probability that the proposed acquisition will substantially impair competition in the relevant market and that the equities weigh in favor of injunctive relief." An administrative trial was scheduled to start on January 18, 2024. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] [ 40 ] However, on January 5, 2024, IQVIA and Propel Media announced that they had mutually agreed to abandon the proposed merger. [ 41 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQVIA |
The IQ 151 was a personal computer produced by ZPA Nový Bor in the former Czechoslovakia . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
It had a Tesla MHB8080A (copy of Intel 8080 ) CPU running at 2 MHz, 32 KB RAM (later on 64 KB), 4 KB ROM , with semigraphic text mode video output and the BASIC programming language. [ 2 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
The mainboard contained only CPU, supporting ICs and memory. Everything else was added by expansion modules, with five available slots. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
Like mentioned above, elementary expansion modules are Basic 6, a BASIC language interpreter and Video 32 , a video generator, producing 32 columns and 32 rows of text and semigraphic characters.
Advanced expansion modules include V ideo 64, allowing 64 x 32 character text display; Grafik, adding true 512 x 256 monochromatic graphics and Basic G, with additional graphical functions to BASIC; Pascal , and editor and compiler of the PASCAL programming language; Assembler , a low level programming language; AD/DA , a ADC / DAC converter interface; MS 151 and MINIGRAPH, a drivers for Czechoslovak plotters XY4130 and Aritma 0507; STAPPER , a driver for a punched tape unit; SESTYK, adding a serial port for networking and DISC 2, a controller for a 8" floppy drive using on an unlicensed CP/M clone. Due to an EPROM address conflict, DISC 2 couldn't be used with the Basic G or Pascal modules.
It IQ 151 was primarily used in Czech schools, while in Slovakia the PMD 85 series was used instead. [ 5 ] [ 8 ] This computer was produced locally due to a lack of foreign currency with which to buy systems from the West . [ citation needed ]
This computer had a persistent tendency to overheat under even a light workload and thus the common joke about it was "it's an excellent coffee mug heater." It also had a poor membrane in its keyboard, in comparison with slightly more advanced PMD 85.
After the fall of Communism in 1989, production of the IQ 151 was stopped, since it was not competitive in terms of price, quality or features compared to more modern computers.
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ_151 |
IQ imbalance is a performance-limiting issue in the design of a class of radio receivers known as direct conversion receivers . [ a ] These translate the received radio frequency (RF, or pass-band ) signal directly from the carrier frequency f c {\displaystyle f_{c}} to baseband using a single mixing stage. [ b ]
Direct conversion receivers contain a local oscillator (LO) which generates both a sine wave at f c {\displaystyle f_{c}} and a copy delayed by 90°. These are individually mixed with the RF signal, producing what are known respectively as the in-phase and quadrature signals , labelled I {\displaystyle I} and Q {\displaystyle Q} .
However, in the analog domain, the phase difference is never exactly 90°. Neither is the gain perfectly matched between the parallel sections of circuitry dealing with the two signal paths.
IQ imbalance results from these two imperfections, and is one of the two major drawbacks of direct-conversion receivers compared to traditional superheterodyne receivers . (The other is DC offset .) Their design must include measures to
control IQ imbalance, so as to limit errors in the demodulated signal.
A direct-conversion receiver uses two quadrature sinusoidal signals to perform the so-called quadrature down-conversion . This process requires shifting the LO signal by 90° to produce a quadrature sinusoidal component, and a matched pair of mixers converting the same input signal with the two versions of the LO . Mismatches between the two LO signals and/or along the two branches of down-conversion mixers, and any following amplifiers, and low-pass filters , cause the quadrature baseband signals to be corrupted, either due to amplitude or phase differences. Suppose the received pass-band signal is identical to the transmitted signal and is given by: y ( t ) = Re { x ( t ) e j 2 π f c t } = x I ( t ) cos ( 2 π f c t ) − x Q ( t ) sin ( 2 π f c t ) {\displaystyle y(t)=\operatorname {Re} \{x(t)e^{j2\pi f_{c}t}\}=x_{I}(t)\cos(2\pi f_{c}t)-x_{Q}(t)\sin(2\pi f_{c}t)} where x ( t ) = x I ( t ) + j x Q ( t ) {\displaystyle x(t)=x_{I}(t)+jx_{Q}(t)} is the transmitted base-band signal. Assume that the gain error is 20 log [ ( 1 + ε A ) / ( 1 − ε A ) ] {\displaystyle 20\log[(1+\varepsilon _{A})/(1-\varepsilon _{A})]} dB and the phase error is ε θ {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\theta }} degrees. Then we can model such imbalance using mismatched local oscillator output signals: 2 ( 1 + ε A ) cos ( 2 π f c t − ε θ / 2 ) , − 2 ( 1 − ε A ) sin ( 2 π f c t + ε θ / 2 ) . {\displaystyle 2(1+\varepsilon _{A})\cos(2\pi f_{c}t-\varepsilon _{\theta }/2),\quad -2(1-\varepsilon _{A})\sin(2\pi f_{c}t+\varepsilon _{\theta }/2).} Multiplying the pass-band signal by the two LO signals and passing through a pair of low-pass filters, one obtains the demodulated base-band signals as: { x ~ I ( t ) = ( 1 + ε A ) [ x I ( t ) cos ( ε θ / 2 ) − x Q ( t ) sin ( ε θ / 2 ) ] x ~ Q ( t ) = ( 1 − ε A ) [ x Q ( t ) cos ( ε θ / 2 ) − x I ( t ) sin ( ε θ / 2 ) ] {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}{\tilde {x}}_{I}(t)&=(1+\varepsilon _{A})[x_{I}(t)\cos(\varepsilon _{\theta }/2)-x_{Q}(t)\sin(\varepsilon _{\theta }/2)]\\[6pt]{\tilde {x}}_{Q}(t)&=(1-\varepsilon _{A})[x_{Q}(t)\cos(\varepsilon _{\theta }/2)-x_{I}(t)\sin(\varepsilon _{\theta }/2)]\end{cases}}} The above equations clearly indicate that IQ imbalance causes interference between the I {\displaystyle I} and Q {\displaystyle Q} base-band signals. To analyze IQ imbalance in the frequency domain, the above equation can be rewritten as: x ~ ( t ) = x ~ I ( t ) + j x ~ Q ( t ) = [ cos ( ε θ / 2 ) + j ε A sin ( ε θ / 2 ) ] x ( t ) + [ ε A cos ( ε θ / 2 ) − j sin ( ε θ / 2 ) ] x ∗ ( t ) = η α x ( t ) + η β x ∗ ( t ) {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{3}{\tilde {x}}(t)&={\tilde {x}}_{I}(t)+j{\tilde {x}}_{Q}(t)\\[6pt]&=[\cos(\varepsilon _{\theta }/2)+j\varepsilon _{A}\sin(\varepsilon _{\theta }/2)]x(t)+[\varepsilon _{A}\cos(\varepsilon _{\theta }/2)-j\sin(\varepsilon _{\theta }/2)]x^{*}(t)\\[6pt]&=\eta _{\alpha }x(t)+\eta _{\beta }x^{*}(t)\end{alignedat}}} where x ∗ {\displaystyle x^{*}} denotes the complex conjugate of x {\displaystyle x} . In an OFDM system, the base-band signal consists of several sub-carriers. Complex-conjugating the base-band signal of the kth sub-carrier carrying data X k {\displaystyle X_{k}} is identical to carrying X k ∗ {\displaystyle X_{k}^{*}} on the ( − k ) {\displaystyle (-k)} th sub-carrier: ( ( X k , I + j X k , Q ) e j 2 π k f S t ) ∗ = ( X k , I − j X k , Q ) e − j 2 π k f S t = X k ∗ e j 2 π ( − k ) f S t {\displaystyle ((X_{k,I}+jX_{k,Q})e^{j2\pi kf_{S}t})^{*}=(X_{k,I}-jX_{k,Q})e^{-j2\pi kf_{S}t}=X_{k}^{*}e^{j2\pi (-k)f_{S}t}} where f S {\displaystyle f_{S}} is the sub-carrier spacing. Equivalently, the received base-band OFDM signal under the IQ imbalance effect is given by: X ~ k = η α X k + η β X − k ∗ {\displaystyle {\tilde {X}}_{k}=\eta _{\alpha }X_{k}+\eta _{\beta }X_{-k}^{*}} In conclusion, besides a complex gain imposed on the current sub-carrier data X k {\displaystyle X_{k}} , IQ imbalance also introduces Inter Carrier Interference (ICI) from the adjacent carrier or sub-carrier. The ICI term makes OFDM receivers very sensitive to IQ imbalances. To solve this problem, the designer can request a stringent specification of the matching of the two branches in the frond-end or compensate for the imbalance in the base-band receiver. On the other hand, a digital Odd-Order I/Q-demodulator with only one input can be used, [ 1 ] [ 2 ] but such design has a bandwidth limitation.
IQ imbalance can be simulated by computing the gain and phase imbalance and applying them to the base-band signal by means of several real multipliers and adders.
The time domain base-band signals with IQ imbalance can be represented by z i , n = η α z ( t ) + η β z ∗ ( t ) | t = i ( N + N ∣ g ) T s + N g T s + n T s {\displaystyle z_{i,n}=\eta _{\alpha }z(t)+\eta _{\beta }z^{*}(t){\Bigg |}_{t\,=\,i(N\,+\,N\,\mid \,g)T_{s}\,+\,N_{g}T_{s}\,+\,nT_{s}}} Note that η α {\displaystyle \eta _{\alpha }} and η β {\displaystyle \eta _{\beta }} can be assumed to be time-invariant and frequency-invariant, meaning that they are constant over several sub carriers and symbols. With this property, multiple OFDM sub-carriers and symbols can be used to jointly estimate η α {\displaystyle \eta _{\alpha }} and η β {\displaystyle \eta _{\beta }} to increase the accuracy. Transforming to the frequency domain , we have the frequency domain OFDM signals under the influence of IQ imbalance given by: z i , k = η α H i , k X i , k + η β H i , − k ∗ X i , − k ∗ + V i , k {\displaystyle z_{i,k}=\eta _{\alpha }H_{i,k}X_{i,k}+\eta _{\beta }H_{i,-k}^{*}X_{i,-k}^{*}+V_{i,k}} Note that the second term represents interference coming from the mirrored sub-carrier X i , − k {\displaystyle X_{i,-k}}
In MIMO - OFDM systems, each RF channel has its own down-converting circuit. Therefore, the IQ imbalance for each RF channel is independent of those for the other RF channels. Considering a 2 × 2 {\displaystyle 2\times 2} MIMO system as an example, the received frequency domain signal is given by: { Z i , k ( 0 ) = η α ( 0 ) ( H i , k ( 0 , 0 ) X i , k ( 0 ) + H i , k ( 0 , 1 ) X i , k ( 1 ) ) + η β ( 0 ) ( H i , − k ( 0 , 0 ) X i , − k ( 0 ) + H i , − k ( 0 , 1 ) X i , − k ( 1 ) ) ∗ + V i , k ( 0 ) Z i , k ( 1 ) = η α ( 1 ) ( H i , k ( 1 , 0 ) X i , k ( 0 ) + H i , k ( 1 , 1 ) X i , k ( 1 ) ) + η β ( 1 ) ( H i , − k ( 1 , 0 ) X i , − k ( 0 ) + H i , − k ( 1 , 1 ) X i , − k ( 1 ) ) ∗ + V i , k ( 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}Z_{i,k}^{(0)}&=\eta _{\alpha }^{(0)}(H_{i,k}^{(0,0)}X_{i,k}^{(0)}+H_{i,k}^{(0,1)}X_{i,k}^{(1)})+\eta _{\beta }^{(0)}(H_{i,-k}^{(0,0)}X_{i,-k}^{(0)}+H_{i,-k}^{(0,1)}X_{i,-k}^{(1)})^{*}+V_{i,k}^{(0)}\\[6pt]Z_{i,k}^{(1)}&=\eta _{\alpha }^{(1)}(H_{i,k}^{(1,0)}X_{i,k}^{(0)}+H_{i,k}^{(1,1)}X_{i,k}^{(1)})+\eta _{\beta }^{(1)}(H_{i,-k}^{(1,0)}X_{i,-k}^{(0)}+H_{i,-k}^{(1,1)}X_{i,-k}^{(1)})^{*}+V_{i,k}^{(1)}\end{cases}}} where η α ( q ) {\displaystyle \eta _{\alpha }^{(q)}} and η β ( q ) {\displaystyle \eta _{\beta }^{(q)}} are the IQ imbalance coefficients of the qth receive RF channel. Estimation of η α ( q ) {\displaystyle \eta _{\alpha }^{(q)}} and η β ( q ) {\displaystyle \eta _{\beta }^{(q)}} is the same for each RF channel. Therefore, we take the first RF channel as an example. The received signals at the pilot sub-carriers of the first RF channel are stacked into a vector z i , α ( q ) {\displaystyle z_{i,\alpha }^{(q)}} ,
z i , α ( 0 ) = [ z i , α 0 ( 0 ) z i , α 1 ( 0 ) ⋮ z i , α J − 1 ( 0 ) ] = A i , α ( 0 ) [ η α ( 0 ) η β ( 0 ) ] + v i , α ( 0 ) , {\displaystyle \mathbf {z} _{i,\alpha }^{(0)}={\begin{bmatrix}z_{i,\alpha 0}^{(0)}\\z_{i,\alpha 1}^{(0)}\\\vdots \\z_{i,\alpha J-1}^{(0)}\end{bmatrix}}=\mathbf {A} _{i,\alpha }^{(0)}{\begin{bmatrix}\eta _{\alpha }^{(0)}\\\eta _{\beta }^{(0)}\end{bmatrix}}+\mathbf {v} _{i,\alpha }^{(0)},} where A i , α ( 0 ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{i,\alpha }^{(0)}} is the J × 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} \times 2} matrix defined by: A i , α ( 0 ) = [ ( H i , α 0 ( 0 , 0 ) X i , α 0 ( 0 ) + H i , α 0 ( 0 , 1 ) X i , α 0 ( 1 ) ) ( H i , α J − 1 ( 0 , 0 ) X i , α J − 1 ( 0 ) + H i , α J − 1 ( 0 , 1 ) X i , α J − 1 ( 1 ) ) ∗ ( H i , α 1 ( 0 , 0 ) X i , α 1 ( 0 ) + H i , α 1 ( 0 , 1 ) X i , α 1 ( 1 ) ) ( H i , α J − 2 ( 0 , 0 ) X i , α J − 2 ( 0 ) + H i , α J − 2 ( 0 , 1 ) X i , α J − 2 ( 1 ) ) ∗ ⋮ ⋮ ( H i , α J − 1 ( 0 , 0 ) X i , α J − 1 ( 0 ) + H i , α J − 1 ( 0 , 1 ) X i , α J − 1 ( 1 ) ) ( H i , α 0 ( 0 , 0 ) X i , α 0 ( 0 ) + H i , α 0 ( 0 , 1 ) X i , α 0 ( 1 ) ) ∗ ] {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{i,\alpha }^{(0)}={\begin{bmatrix}(H_{i,\alpha 0}^{(0,0)}X_{i,\alpha 0}^{(0)}+H_{i,\alpha 0}^{(0,1)}X_{i,\alpha 0}^{(1)})&(H_{i,\alpha _{J-1}}^{(0,0)}X_{i,\alpha _{J-1}}^{(0)}+H_{i,\alpha _{J-1}}^{(0,1)}X_{i,\alpha _{J-1}}^{(1)})^{*}\\(H_{i,\alpha 1}^{(0,0)}X_{i,\alpha 1}^{(0)}+H_{i,\alpha 1}^{(0,1)}X_{i,\alpha 1}^{(1)})&(H_{i,\alpha _{J-2}}^{(0,0)}X_{i,\alpha _{J-2}}^{(0)}+H_{i,\alpha _{J-2}}^{(0,1)}X_{i,\alpha _{J-2}}^{(1)})^{*}\\\vdots &\vdots \\(H_{i,\alpha _{J-1}}^{(0,0)}X_{i,\alpha _{J-1}}^{(0)}+H_{i,\alpha _{J-1}}^{(0,1)}X_{i,\alpha _{J-1}}^{(1)})&(H_{i,\alpha _{0}}^{(0,0)}X_{i,\alpha _{0}}^{(0)}+H_{i,\alpha _{0}}^{(0,1)}X_{i,\alpha _{0}}^{(1)})^{*}\end{bmatrix}}}
Clearly, the above formula is similar to that of the SISO case and can be solved using the LS method. Moreover, the estimation complexity can be reduced by using fewer pilot sub-carriers in the estimation.
The IQ imbalance can be compensated in either the time domain [ 3 ] or the frequency domain . In the time domain , the compensated signal Z m {\displaystyle Z_{m}} in the current mth sample point is given by: z ¯ m = η ^ α ∗ z m − η ^ β z m ∗ | η ^ α | 2 − | η ^ β | 2 = η ^ α ∗ | η ^ α | 2 − | η ^ β ∗ | 2 ( z m − η ^ β η ^ α ∗ z m ∗ ) {\displaystyle {\overline {z}}_{m}={\frac {{\widehat {\eta }}_{\alpha }^{*}z_{m}-{\widehat {\eta }}_{\beta }z_{m}^{*}}{|{\widehat {\eta }}_{\alpha }|^{2}-|{\widehat {\eta }}_{\beta }|^{2}}}={\frac {{\widehat {\eta }}_{\alpha }^{*}}{|{\widehat {\eta }}_{\alpha }|^{2}-|{\widehat {\eta }}_{\beta }^{*}|^{2}}}(z_{m}-{\frac {{\widehat {\eta }}_{\beta }}{{\widehat {\eta }}_{\alpha }^{*}}}z_{m}^{*})} We can see that, by using the ratio η ^ β / η ^ α ∗ {\displaystyle {\widehat {\eta }}_{\beta }/{\widehat {\eta }}_{\alpha }^{*}} to mitigate the IQ imbalance, there is a loss factor η ^ α ∗ / ( | η ^ α | 2 − | η ^ β | 2 ) {\displaystyle {\widehat {\eta }}_{\alpha }^{*}/(|{\widehat {\eta }}_{\alpha }|^{2}-|{\widehat {\eta }}_{\beta }|^{2})} . When the noise is added before the IQ imbalance, the SNR remains the same, because both noise and signal suffer this loss. However, if the noise is added after IQ imbalance, the effective SNR degrades. In this case, η α {\displaystyle \eta _{\alpha }} and η β {\displaystyle \eta _{\beta }} , respectively, should be computed. [ 3 ] Compared with the time domain approach, compensating in the frequency domain is more complicated because the mirrored sub-carrier is needed. The frequency domain compensated signal at the i th symbol and the k th sub-carrier: Z ¯ i , k = η ^ α ∗ Z i , k − η ^ β Z i , k ∗ | η ^ α | 2 − | η ^ β | 2 {\displaystyle {\overline {Z}}_{i,k}={\frac {{\widehat {\eta }}_{\alpha }^{*}Z_{i,k}-{\widehat {\eta }}_{\beta }Z_{i,k}^{*}}{|{\widehat {\eta }}_{\alpha }|^{2}-|{\widehat {\eta }}_{\beta }|^{2}}}} Nevertheless, in reality, the time domain compensation is less preferred because it introduces larger latency between IQ imbalance estimation and compensation.
Frequency domain OFDM signals under the influence of IQ imbalance is given by: z i , k = η α H i , k X i , k + η β H i , − k ∗ X i , − k ∗ + V i , k {\displaystyle z_{i,k}=\eta _{\alpha }H_{i,k}X_{i,k}+\eta _{\beta }H_{i,-k}^{*}X_{i,-k}^{*}+V_{i,k}} The IQ imbalance coefficients η α {\displaystyle \eta _{\alpha }} and η β {\displaystyle \eta _{\beta }} are mixed with the channel frequency responses , making both the IQ imbalance estimation and channel estimation difficult. In the first half of the training sequence, only sub-carriers ranging from 1 {\displaystyle 1} to N /2 − 1 transmit pilot symbols; the remaining sub-carriers are not used. In the second half, the sub-carriers from -1 to -N/2 are used for pilot transmission. Such a training scheme easily decouples the IQ imbalance and the channel frequency response . Assuming the value of the pilot symbols is +1, the received signals at sub-carriers from 1 to N /2 − 1 are given by Z i , k = η α H i , k + V i , k , ∀ k = 1 , … , N / 2 − 1 {\displaystyle Z_{i,k}=\eta _{\alpha }H_{i,k}+V_{i,k},\;\forall k=1,\ldots ,N/2-1} , while the received signals at the mirrored sub-carriers take the form Z i , − k = η β H i , k ∗ + V i , − k , ∀ k = 1 , … , N / 2 − 1 {\displaystyle Z_{i,-k}=\eta _{\beta }H_{i,k}^{*}+V_{i,-k},\;\forall k=1,\ldots ,N/2-1} .
From the two sets of received signals, the ratio η β / η α ∗ {\displaystyle \eta _{\beta }/\eta _{\alpha }^{*}} can be easily estimated by Z i , − k / Z i , k ∗ {\displaystyle Z_{i,-k}/Z_{i,k}^{*}} . The second half of the training sequence can be used in a similar way. Furthermore, the accuracy of this ratio estimation can be improved by averaging over several training symbols and several sub-carriers . Although the IQ imbalance estimation using this training symbol is simple, this method suffers from low spectrum efficiency , as quite a few OFDM symbols must be reserved for training. Note that, when the thermal noise is added before the IQ imbalance, the ratio η β / η α ∗ {\displaystyle \eta _{\beta }/\eta _{\alpha }^{*}} is sufficient to compensate the IQ imbalance. However, when the noise is added after the IQ imbalance, compensation using only η β / η α ∗ {\displaystyle \eta _{\beta }/\eta _{\alpha }^{*}} can degrade the ensuing demodulation performance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ_imbalance |
International relativistic astrophysics PhD program , or IRAP PhD program is the international joint doctorate program in relativistic astrophysics initiated and co-sponsored by ICRANet . During 2010-2017 IRAP PhD takes part in the Erasmus Mundus program of the European Commission . For the first time in Europe the IRAP PhD program grants a joint PhD degree among the participating institutions.
In 2005 a new international organization was founded: the International Center for Relativistic Astrophysics Network ( ICRANet ), dedicated to the theoretical aspects of relativistic astrophysics. Together with the University of Arizona, the University of Stanford and the International Centre for Relativistic Astrophysics (ICRA) , such states as Armenia, Brazil, Italy and the Vatican are the founding members of ICRANet. [ 1 ] As a first step, the international relativistic astrophysics Ph.D. program (IRAP Ph.D.) was established in 2005. [ 2 ] Among the proponents of the IRAP Ph.D. program are Riccardo Giacconi , Roy Kerr and Remo Ruffini .
The IRAP Ph.D. program grants a joint Ph.D. degree among the participating institutions. [ 3 ]
The core of the program is the international consortium. It assembles expertise of its members for preparation of scientists in the field of relativistic astrophysics, and related fields of general relativity, cosmology and quantum field theory. [ 4 ]
One of the goals of the program is mobility: every student admitted to the IRAP Ph.D. is part of a team at one of the consortium members, and each year visits the other centers to keep track of developments in the other fields. Within the IRAP Ph.D. program, students are systematically trained in the techniques of research management and in the nature and organization of scientific projects. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
Since 2005 ICRANet has co-organized the IRAP Ph.D. program together with:
As of 2015, the faculty of the IRAP Ph.D. program consists of:
(Erasmus Mundus Coordinator)
(CAPES-ICRANet coordinator)
(Director)
Launched in 2004 under the Bologna Declaration , the Erasmus Mundus programs have supported academic cooperation and mobility with partner countries to form the joint European Higher Education Area. During 2010-2017 the IRAP Ph.D. has taken part in the Erasmus Mundus program of the European Commission [ 6 ] and has enrolled 5 cycles of students [ 7 ] with the total number of 44 students. The Nice University was the host organization. [ 8 ]
In 2013 CAPES and ICRANet have signed a Memorandum of Understanding regarding the establishment of the CAPES-ICRANet Program . Each year five fellowships for Brazilian students are granted. Each fellowship lasts for three years with the final Ph.D. degree jointly delivered by the academic institutions participating in the program.
Within IRAP Ph.D. program ICRANet organizes Ph.D. schools. In particular 15 schools were held in Nice and Les Houches, France, within the EMJD program:
ICRANet co-organizes a Joint Astrophysics Seminar at the Department of Physics of the University of Rome "La Sapienza" and ICRA in Rome. All institutions collaborating with ICRANet as well as the ICRANet centers participate in these seminars via video conferencing.
The official language of the program is English, but students have the opportunity to learn the language of their host country, following a variety of courses at the partner universities.
As of 2015, the IRAP-Ph.D. has seen the enrollment of 111 students : 1 from Albania, 3 from Argentina, 5 from Armenia, 1 from Austria, 2 from Belarus, 16 from Brazil, 5 from China, 9 from Colombia, 2 from Croatia, 5 from France, 5 from Germany, 7 from India, 2 from Iran, 34 from Italy, 2 from Kazakhstan, 1 from Mexico, 1 from Pakistan, 4 from Russia, 1 from Serbia, 1 from Sweden, 1 from Switzerland, 1 from Taiwan, 1 from Turkey, 1 from Ukraine.
During 2011–2015, more than 500 applications from 70 countries from all over the world were considered and 44 Ph.D. candidates were selected including roughly 30% female candidates. [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRAP_PhD_Program |
The Infrared Astronomical Satellite ( Dutch : Infrarood Astronomische Satelliet ) ( IRAS ) was the first space telescope to perform a survey of the entire night sky at infrared wavelengths . [ 6 ] Launched on 25 January 1983, [ 3 ] its mission lasted ten months. [ 7 ] The telescope was a joint project of the United States ( NASA ), the Netherlands ( NIVR ), and the United Kingdom ( SERC ). Over 250,000 infrared sources were observed at 12, 25, 60, and 100 micrometer wavelengths. [ 7 ]
Support for the processing and analysis of data from IRAS was contributed from the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center at the California Institute of Technology . Currently, the Infrared Science Archive at IPAC holds the IRAS archive. [ 8 ] [ 9 ]
The success of IRAS led to interest in the 1985 Infrared Telescope (IRT) mission on the Space Shuttle, and the planned Shuttle Infrared Telescope Facility which eventually transformed into the Space Infrared Telescope Facility, SIRTF, which in turn was developed into the Spitzer Space Telescope , launched in 2003. [ 10 ] The success of early infrared space astronomy led to further missions, such as the Infrared Space Observatory (1990s) and the Hubble Space Telescope 's NICMOS instrument.
IRAS was the first observatory to perform an all-sky survey at infrared wavelengths. It mapped 96% of the sky four times, at 12, 25, 60 and 100 micrometers, with resolutions ranging from 30 arcseconds at 12 micrometers to 2 arcminutes at 100 micrometers. It discovered about 350,000 sources, many of which are still awaiting identification. About 75,000 of those are believed to be starburst galaxies , still enduring their star-formation stage. Many other sources are normal stars with disks of dust around them, possibly the early stage of planetary system formation. New discoveries included a dust disk around Vega and the first images of the Milky Way 's core.
IRAS's life, like that of most infrared satellites that followed, was limited by its cooling system. To effectively work in the infrared domain, a telescope must be cooled to cryogenic temperatures. In IRAS's case, 73 kilograms (161 lb) of superfluid helium kept the telescope at a temperature of 2 K (−271 °C ; −456 °F ), keeping the satellite cool by evaporation . IRAS was the first use of superfluids in space. [ 11 ] The on-board supply of liquid helium was depleted after 10 months on 21 November 1983, causing the telescope temperature to rise, preventing further observations. The spacecraft continues to orbit the Earth.
IRAS was designed to catalog fixed sources, so it scanned the same region of sky several times. Jack Meadows led a team at Leicester University, including John K. Davies and Simon F. Green , which searched the rejected sources for moving objects. This led to the discovery of three asteroids , including 3200 Phaethon (an Apollo asteroid and the parent body of the Geminid meteor shower ), six comets , and a huge dust trail associated with comet 10P/Tempel . The comets included 126P/IRAS , 161P/Hartley–IRAS , and comet IRAS–Araki–Alcock (C/1983 H1), which made a close approach to the Earth in 1983. Out of the six comets IRAS found, four were long period and two were short period comets. [ 7 ]
The Supplemental IRAS Minor Planet Survey (SIMPS) would also later use the archived data to search for more minor planets , asteroids. [ 12 ]
Overall, over a quarter million discrete targets were observed during its operations, both inside and beyond the Solar System . [ 7 ] In addition, new objects were discovered including asteroids and comets. [ 7 ] The observatory made headlines briefly with the announcement on 10 December 1983 of the discovery of an "unknown object" at first described as "possibly as large as the giant planet Jupiter and possibly so close to Earth that it would be part of this solar system". [ 13 ] [ 14 ] Further analysis revealed that, of several unidentified objects, nine were distant galaxies and the tenth was " intergalactic cirrus ". [ 15 ] None were found to be Solar System bodies. [ 15 ] [ 16 ]
During its mission, IRAS (and later the Spitzer Space Telescope) detected odd infrared signatures around several stars. This led to the systems being targeted by the Hubble Space Telescope's NICMOS instrument between 1999 and 2006, but nothing was detected. In 2014, using new image processing techniques on the Hubble data, researchers discovered planetary disks around these stars. [ 17 ]
IRAS discovered six comets, out of total of 22 discoveries and recoveries of all comets that year. [ 7 ] [ 18 ] This was a lot for this period, before the launch of SOHO in 1995, which would allow the discovery of many more comets in the next decade (it would detect 1000 comets in ten years). [ 19 ]
Several infrared space telescopes have continued and greatly expanded the study of the infrared Universe, such as the Infrared Space Observatory launched in 1995, the Spitzer Space Telescope launched in 2003, and the Akari Space Telescope launched in 2006.
A next generation of infrared space telescopes began when NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer launched on 14 December 2009 aboard a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base . Known as WISE, the telescope provided results hundreds of times more sensitive than IRAS at the shorter wavelengths; it also had an extended mission dubbed NEOWISE beginning in October 2010 after its coolant supply ran out.
A planned mission is NASA's Near-Earth Object Surveillance Mission (NEOSM), which is a successor to the NEOWISE mission.
On 29 January 2020, 23:39:35 UTC, [ 21 ] IRAS was expected to pass as closely as 12 meters [ 22 ] from the U.S. Air Force's Gravity Gradient Stabilization Experiment ( GGSE-4 ) of 1967, another un-deorbited satellite left aloft; the 14.7-kilometer per second pass [ 23 ] had an estimated risk of collision of 5%. Further complications arose from the fact that GGSE-4 was outfitted with an 18 meter long stabilization boom that was in an unknown orientation and may have struck the satellite even if the spacecraft's main body did not. [ 24 ] Initial observations from amateur astronomers seemed to indicate that both satellites had survived the pass, with the California-based debris tracking organization LeoLabs later confirming that they had detected no new tracked debris following the incident. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRAS |
IRC ( Internet Relay Chat ) is a text-based chat system for instant messaging . IRC is designed for group communication in discussion forums, called channels , [ 1 ] but also allows one-on-one communication via private messages [ 2 ] as well as chat and data transfer , [ 3 ] including file sharing . [ 4 ]
Internet Relay Chat is implemented as an application layer protocol to facilitate communication in the form of text. The chat process works on a client–server networking model . Users connect, using a client—which may be a web app , a standalone desktop program , or embedded into part of a larger program—to an IRC server, which may be part of a larger IRC network. Examples of programs used to connect include Mibbit , IRCCloud , KiwiIRC , and mIRC .
IRC usage has been declining steadily since 2003, losing 60 percent of its users by 2012. [ 5 ] In April 2011, the top 100 IRC networks served more than 200,000 users at a time. [ 6 ]
IRC was created by Jarkko Oikarinen in August 1988 to replace a program called MUT (MultiUser Talk) on a BBS called OuluBox at the University of Oulu in Finland , where he was working at the Department of Information Processing Science. Jarkko intended to extend the BBS software he administered, to allow news in the Usenet style, real time discussions and similar BBS features. The first part he implemented was the chat part, which he did with borrowed parts written by his friends Jyrki Kuoppala and Jukka Pihl. The first IRC network was running on a single server named tolsun.oulu.fi. [ 7 ] Oikarinen found inspiration in a chat system known as Bitnet Relay , which operated on the BITNET . [ 8 ]
Jyrki Kuoppala pushed Oikarinen to ask Oulu University to free the IRC code so that it also could be run outside of Oulu, and after they finally got it released, Jyrki Kuoppala immediately installed another server. This was the first "IRC network". Oikarinen got some friends at the Helsinki University of Technology and Tampere University of Technology [ 8 ] to start running IRC servers when his number of users increased and other universities soon followed. At this time Oikarinen realized that the rest of the BBS features probably would not fit in his program. [ 7 ]
Oikarinen contacted people at the University of Denver and Oregon State University . They had their own IRC network running and wanted to connect to the Finnish network. They had obtained the program from one of Oikarinen's friends, Vijay Subramaniam—the first non-Finnish person to use IRC. IRC then grew larger and got used on the entire Finnish national network— FUNET —and then connected to Nordunet , the Scandinavian branch of the Internet. In November 1988, IRC had spread across the Internet and in the middle of 1989, there were some 40 servers worldwide. [ 7 ]
In August 1990, the first major disagreement took place in the IRC world. The "A-net" (Anarchy net) included a server named eris.berkeley.edu. It was all open, required no passwords and had no limit on the number of connects. As Greg "wumpus" Lindahl explains: [ 9 ] "it had a wildcard server line, so people were hooking up servers and nick-colliding everyone". The "Eris Free Network", EFnet , made the eris machine the first to be Q-lined (Q for quarantine) from IRC. In wumpus' words again: [ 9 ] "Eris refused to remove that line, so I formed EFnet. It wasn't much of a fight; I got all the hubs to join, and almost everyone else got carried along." A-net was formed with the eris servers, while EFnet was formed with the non-eris servers. History showed most servers and users went with EFnet. Once A-net disbanded, the name EFnet became meaningless, and once again it was the one and only IRC network. [ 7 ]
Around that time IRC was used to report on the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt throughout a media blackout . [ 10 ] It was previously used in a similar fashion during the Gulf War . [ 11 ] Chat logs of these and other events are kept in the ibiblio archive. [ 12 ]
Another fork effort, the first that made a lasting difference, was initiated by "Wildthang" in the United States in October 1992. (It forked off the EFnet ircd version 2.8.10). It was meant to be just a test network to develop bots on but it quickly grew to a network "for friends and their friends". In Europe and Canada a separate new network was being worked on and in December the French servers connected to the Canadian ones, and by the end of the month, the French and Canadian network was connected to the US one, forming the network that later came to be called "The Undernet ". [ 7 ]
The "undernetters" wanted to take ircd further in an attempt to make it use less bandwidth and to try to sort out the channel chaos ( netsplits and takeovers ) that EFnet started to suffer from. For the latter purpose, the Undernet implemented timestamps, new routing and offered the CService—a program that allowed users to register channels and then attempted to protect them from troublemakers. The first server list presented, from 15 February 1993, includes servers from the U.S., Canada, France, Croatia and Japan. On 15 August, the new user count record was set to 57 users. [ 7 ]
In May 1993, RFC 1459 [ 13 ] was published and details a simple protocol for client/server operation, channels, one-to-one and one-to-many conversations. [ 7 ] A significant number of extensions like CTCP, colors and formats are not included in the protocol specifications, nor is character encoding, [ 14 ] which led various implementations of servers and clients to diverge. Software implementation varied significantly from one network to the other, each network implementing their own policies and standards in their own code bases.
During the summer of 1994, the Undernet was itself forked. The new network was called DALnet (named after its founder: dalvenjah), formed for better user service and more user and channel protections. One of the more significant changes in DALnet was use of longer nicknames (the original ircd limit being 9 letters). DALnet ircd modifications were made by Alexei "Lefler" Kosut. DALnet was thus based on the Undernet ircd server, although the DALnet pioneers were EFnet abandoners. According to James Ng, the initial DALnet people were "ops in #StarTrek sick from the constant splits/lags/takeovers/etc". [ 7 ]
DALnet quickly offered global WallOps (IRCop messages that can be seen by users who are +w (/mode NickName +w)), longer nicknames, Q:Lined nicknames (nicknames that cannot be used i.e. ChanServ, IRCop, NickServ, etc.), global K:Lines (ban of one person or an entire domain from a server or the entire network), IRCop only communications: GlobOps, +H mode showing that an IRCop is a "helpop" etc. Much of DALnet's new functions were written in early 1995 by Brian "Morpher" Smith and allow users to own nicknames, control channels, send memos, and more. [ 7 ]
In July 1996, after months of flame wars and discussions on the mailing list, there was yet another split due to disagreement in how the development of the ircd should evolve. Most notably, the "European" (most of those servers were in Europe) side that later named itself IRCnet argued for nick and channel delays whereas the EFnet side argued for timestamps. [ 7 ] There were also disagreements about policies: the European side had started to establish a set of rules directing what IRCops could and could not do, a point of view opposed by the US side. [ 15 ]
Most (not all) of the IRCnet servers were in Europe, while most of the EFnet servers were in the US. This event is also known as "The Great Split" in many IRC societies. EFnet has since (as of August 1998) grown and passed the number of users it had then. In the (northern) autumn of the year 2000, EFnet had some 50,000 users and IRCnet 70,000. [ 7 ]
IRC has changed much over its life on the Internet. New server software has added a multitude of new features.
As of 2016 [update] , a new standardization effort is under way under a working group called IRCv3, which focuses on more advanced client features such as instant notifications, better history support and improved security. [ 19 ] As of 2019 [update] , no major IRC networks have fully adopted the proposed standard. [ 20 ]
As of June 2021, [update] there are 481 different IRC networks known to be operating, [ 21 ] of which the open source Libera Chat , founded in May 2021, has the most users, with 20,374 channels on 26 servers; between them, the top 100 IRC networks share over 100 thousand channels operating on about one thousand servers. [ 22 ]
After its golden era during the 1990s and early 2000s (240,000 users on QuakeNet in 2004), IRC has seen a significant decline, losing around 60% of users between 2003 and 2012, with users moving to social media platforms such as Facebook or Twitter , [ 5 ] but also to open platforms such as XMPP which was developed in 1999. Certain networks such as Freenode have not followed the overall trend and have more than quadrupled in size during the same period. [ 5 ] However, Freenode, which in 2016 had around 90,000 users, has since declined to about 9,300 users. [ 23 ]
The largest IRC networks have traditionally been grouped as the "Big Four" [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] —a designation for networks that top the statistics. The Big Four networks change periodically, but due to the community nature of IRC there are a large number of other networks for users to choose from.
Historically the "Big Four" were: [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ]
IRC reached 6 million simultaneous users in 2001 and 10 million users in 2004–2005, dropping to around 350k in 2021. [ citation needed ]
The top 100 IRC networks have around 230k users connected at peak hours. [ 28 ]
Timeline of major networks:
IRC is an open protocol that uses TCP [ 13 ] and, optionally, TLS . An IRC server can connect to other IRC servers to expand the IRC network. [ 29 ] Users access IRC networks by connecting a client to a server. [ 30 ] There are many client implementations, such as mIRC , HexChat and irssi , and server implementations, e.g. the original IRCd . Most IRC servers do not require users to register an account but a nickname is required before being connected. [ 31 ]
IRC was originally a plain text protocol [ 13 ] (although later extended), which on request was assigned port 194/TCP by IANA . [ 32 ] However, the de facto standard has always been to run IRC on 6667/TCP [ 33 ] and nearby port numbers (for example TCP ports 6660–6669, 7000) [ 34 ] to avoid having to run the IRCd software with root privileges .
The protocol specified that characters were 8-bit but did not specify the character encoding the text was supposed to use. [ 14 ] This can cause problems when users using different clients and/or different platforms want to converse.
All client-to-server IRC protocols in use today are descended from the protocol implemented in the irc2.4.0 version of the IRC2 server, and documented in RFC 1459. Since RFC 1459 was published, the new features in the irc2.10 implementation led to the publication of several revised protocol documents (RFC 2810, RFC 2811, RFC 2812 and RFC 2813); however, these protocol changes have not been widely adopted among other implementations. [ citation needed ]
Although many specifications on the IRC protocol have been published, there is no official specification, as the protocol remains dynamic. Virtually no clients and very few servers rely strictly on the above RFCs as a reference. [ citation needed ]
Microsoft made an extension for IRC in 1998 via the proprietary IRCX . [ 35 ] They later stopped distributing software supporting IRCX, instead developing the proprietary MSNP .
The standard structure of a network of IRC servers is a tree . [ 36 ] Messages are routed along only necessary branches of the tree but network state is sent to every server [ 37 ] and there is generally a high degree of implicit trust between servers. However, this architecture has a number of problems. A misbehaving or malicious server can cause major damage to the network [ 38 ] and any changes in structure, whether intentional or a result of conditions on the underlying network, require a net-split and net-join. This results in a lot of network traffic and spurious quit/join messages to users [ 39 ] and temporary loss of communication to users on the splitting servers. Adding a server to a large network means a large background bandwidth load on the network and a large memory load on the server. Once established, however, each message to multiple recipients is delivered in a fashion similar to multicast , meaning each message travels a network link exactly once. [ 40 ] This is a strength in comparison to non-multicasting protocols such as Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) [ citation needed ] or Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) [ citation needed ] .
An IRC daemon can be used on a local area network (LAN). IRC can thus be used to facilitate communication between people within the local area network (internal communication). [ 41 ] [ 42 ]
IRC has a line-based structure. Clients send single-line messages to the server, [ 43 ] receive replies to those messages [ 44 ] and receive copies of some messages sent by other clients. In most clients, users can enter commands by prefixing them with a '/'. Depending on the command, these may either be handled entirely by the client, or (generally for commands the client does not recognize) passed directly to the server, possibly with some modification. [ 45 ]
Due to the nature of the protocol, automated systems cannot always correctly pair a sent command with its reply with full reliability and are subject to guessing. [ 46 ]
The basic means of communicating to a group of users in an established IRC session is through a channel . [ 47 ] Channels on a network can be displayed using the IRC command LIST , [ 48 ] which lists all currently available channels that do not have the modes +s or +p set, on that particular network.
Users can join a channel using the JOIN command, [ 49 ] in most clients available as /join #channelname . Messages sent to the joined channels are then relayed to all other users. [ 47 ]
Channels that are available across an entire IRC network are prefixed with a '#', while those local to a server use '&'. [ 50 ] Other less common channel types include '+' channels—'modeless' channels without operators [ 51 ] —and '!' channels, a form of timestamped channel on normally non-timestamped networks. [ 52 ]
Users and channels may have modes that are represented by individual case-sensitive letters [ 53 ] and are set using the MODE command. [ 54 ] User modes and channel modes are separate and can use the same letter to mean different things (e.g. user mode "i" is invisible mode while channel mode "i" is invite only. [ 55 ] ) Modes are usually set and unset using the mode command that takes a target (user or channel), a set of modes to set (+) or unset (-) and any parameters the modes need.
Some channel modes take parameters and other channel modes apply to a user on a channel or add or remove a mask (e.g. a ban mask) from a list associated with the channel rather than applying to the channel as a whole. [ 56 ] Modes that apply to users on a channel have an associated symbol that is used to represent the mode in names replies [ 57 ] (sent to clients on first joining a channel [ 49 ] and use of the names command) and in many clients also used to represent it in the client's displayed list of users in a channel or to display an own indicator for a user's modes.
In order to correctly parse incoming mode messages and track channel state the client must know which mode is of which type and for the modes that apply to a user on a channel which symbol goes with which letter. In early implementations of IRC this had to be hard-coded in the client but there is now a de facto standard extension to the protocol called ISUPPORT that sends this information to the client at connect time using numeric 005. [ 58 ] [ 59 ]
There is a small design fault in IRC regarding modes that apply to users on channels: the names message used to establish initial channel state can only send one such mode per user on the channel, [ 57 ] but multiple such modes can be set on a single user. For example, if a user holds both operator status (+o) and voice status (+v) on a channel, a new client will be unable to see the mode with less priority (i.e. voice). Workarounds for this are possible on both the client and server side; a common solution is to use IRCv3 "multi-prefix" extension. [ 60 ]
Many daemons and networks have added extra modes or modified the behavior of modes in the above list. [ 62 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] [ 65 ]
A channel operator is a client on an IRC channel that manages the channel.
IRC channel operators can be easily seen by the symbol or icon next to their name (varies by client implementation, commonly a "@" symbol prefix, a green circle, or a Latin letter "+o"/"o").
On most networks, an operator can:
There are also users who maintain elevated rights on their local server, or the entire network; these are called IRC operators, [ 66 ] sometimes shortened to IRCops or Opers (not to be confused with channel operators). As the implementation of the IRCd varies, so do the privileges of the IRC operator on the given IRCd. RFC 1459 [ 66 ] claims that IRC operators are "a necessary evil" to keep a clean state of the network, and as such they need to be able to disconnect and reconnect servers. Additionally, to prevent malicious users or even harmful automated programs from entering IRC, IRC operators are usually allowed to disconnect clients and completely ban IP addresses or complete subnets. Networks that carry services (NickServ et al.) usually allow their IRC operators also to handle basic "ownership" matters. Further privileged rights may include overriding channel bans (being able to join channels they would not be allowed to join, if they were not opered), being able to op themselves on channels where they would not be able without being opered, being auto-opped on channels always and so forth.
A hostmask is a unique identifier of an IRC client connected to an IRC server . [ 67 ] [ 68 ] IRC servers , services , and other clients, including bots , can use it to identify a specific IRC session.
The format of a hostmask is nick!user@host . The hostmask looks similar to, but should not be confused with an e-mail address .
The nick part is the nickname chosen by the user and may be changed while connected.
The user part is the username reported by ident on the client. [ 69 ] If ident is not available on the client, the username specified when the client connected is used after being prefixed with a tilde . [ 70 ]
The host part is the hostname the client is connecting from. If the IP address of the client cannot be resolved to a valid hostname by the server, it is used instead of the hostname.
Because of the privacy implications of exposing the IP address or hostname of a client, some IRC daemons also provide privacy features, such as InspIRCd or UnrealIRCd's "+x" mode. This hashes a client IP address or masks part of a client's hostname, making it unreadable to users other than IRCops . Users may also have the option of requesting a "virtual host" (or "vhost"), to be displayed in the hostmask to allow further anonymity. Some IRC networks, such as Libera Chat or Freenode , use these as "cloaks" to indicate that a user is affiliated with a group or project. [ 71 ]
There are three provisional recognized uniform resource identifier (URI) schemes for Internet Relay Chat: irc , ircs , and irc6 . [ 72 ] When supported, they allow hyperlinks of various forms, including
(where items enclosed within brackets ([,]) are optional) to be used to (if necessary) connect to the specified host (or network, if known to the IRC client) and join the specified channel. [ 73 ] (This can be used within the client itself, or from another application such as a Web browser). irc is the default URI, irc6 specifies a connection to be made using IPv6, and ircs specifies a secure connection.
Per the specification, the usual hash symbol (#) will be prepended to channel names that begin with an alphanumeric character—allowing it to be omitted. Some implementations (for example, mIRC) will do so unconditionally resulting in a (usually unintended) extra (for example, ##channel), if included in the URL.
Some implementations allow multiple channels to be specified, separated by commas. [ 74 ]
Issues in the original design of IRC were the amount of shared state data [ 75 ] [ 76 ] being a limitation on its scalability, [ 77 ] the absence of unique user identifications leading to the nickname collision problem, [ 78 ] lack of protection from netsplits by means of cyclic routing, [ 79 ] [ 80 ] the trade-off in scalability for the sake of real-time user presence information, [ 81 ] protocol weaknesses providing a platform for abuse, [ 82 ] no transparent and optimizable message passing, [ 83 ] and no encryption. [ 84 ] Some of these issues have been addressed in Modern IRC .
Because IRC connections may be unencrypted and typically span long time periods, they are an attractive target for DoS/DDoS attackers and hackers . Because of this, careful security policy is necessary to ensure that an IRC network is not susceptible to an attack such as a takeover war. IRC networks may also K-line or G-line users or servers that have a harming effect.
Some IRC servers support SSL/TLS connections for security purposes. This helps stop the use of packet sniffer programs to obtain the passwords of IRC users, but has little use beyond this scope due to the public nature of IRC channels. SSL connections require both client and server support (that may require the user to install SSL binaries and IRC client specific patches or modules on their computers). Some networks also use SSL for server-to-server connections, and provide a special channel flag (such as +S ) to only allow SSL-connected users on the channel, while disallowing operator identification in clear text, to better utilize the advantages that SSL provides. [ 85 ] [ 86 ]
IRC served as an early laboratory for many kinds of Internet attacks, such as using fake ICMP unreachable messages to break TCP -based IRC connections ( nuking ) to annoy users or facilitate takeovers .
One of the most contentious technical issues surrounding IRC implementations, which survives to this day, is the merit of "Nick/Channel Delay" vs. "Timestamp" protocols. Both methods exist to solve the problem of denial-of-service attacks, but take very different approaches.
The problem with the original IRC protocol as implemented was that when two servers split and rejoined, the two sides of the network would simply merge their channels. If a user could join on a "split" server, where a channel that existed on the other side of the network was empty, and gain operator status, they would become a channel operator of the "combined" channel after the netsplit ended; if a user took a nickname that existed on the other side of the network, the server would kill both users when rejoining (a "nick collision"). This was often abused to "mass-kill" all users on a channel, thus creating "opless" channels where no operators were present to deal with abuse. Apart from causing problems within IRC, this encouraged people to conduct denial-of-service attacks against IRC servers in order to cause netsplits , which they would then abuse.
The nick delay (ND) and channel delay (CD) strategies aim to prevent abuse by delaying reconnections and renames. After a user signs off and the nickname becomes available, or a channel ceases to exist because all its users parted (as often happens during a netsplit ), the server will not allow any user to use that nickname or join that channel, until a certain period of time (the delay ) has passed. The idea behind this is that even if a netsplit occurs, it is useless to an abuser because they cannot take the nickname or gain operator status on a channel, and thus no collision of a nickname or "merging" of a channel can occur. To some extent, this inconveniences legitimate users, who might be forced to briefly use a different name after rejoining (appending an underscore is popular).
The timestamp protocol is an alternative to nick/channel delays which resolves collisions using timestamped priority. Every nickname and channel on the network is assigned a timestamp – the date and time when it was created. When a netsplit occurs, two users on each side are free to use the same nickname or channel, but when the two sides are joined, only one can survive. In the case of nicknames, the newer user, according to their TS, is killed; when a channel collides, the members (users on the channel) are merged, but the channel operators on the "losing" side of the split lose their channel operator status.
TS is a much more complicated protocol than ND/CD, both in design and implementation, and despite having gone through several revisions, some implementations still have problems with "desyncs" (where two servers on the same network disagree about the current state of the network), and allowing too much leniency in what was allowed by the "losing" side. Under the original TS protocols, for example, there was no protection against users setting bans or other modes in the losing channel that would then be merged when the split rejoined, even though the users who had set those modes lost their channel operator status. Some modern TS-based IRC servers have also incorporated some form of ND and/or CD in addition to timestamping in an attempt to further curb abuse.
Most networks today use the timestamping approach. The timestamp versus ND/CD disagreements caused several servers to split away from EFnet and form the newer IRCnet . After the split, EFnet moved to a TS protocol, while IRCnet used ND/CD.
In recent versions of the IRCnet ircd, as well as ircds using the TS6 protocol (including Charybdis), ND has been extended/replaced by a mechanism called SAVE. This mechanism assigns every client a UID upon connecting to an IRC server. This ID starts with a number, which is forbidden in nicks (although some ircds, namely IRCnet and InspIRCd, allow clients to switch to their own UID as the nickname).
If two clients with the same nickname join from different sides of a netsplit ("nick collision"), the first server to see this collision will force both clients to change their nick to their UID, thus saving both clients from being disconnected. On IRCnet, the nickname will also be locked for some time (ND) to prevent both clients from changing back to the original nickname, thus colliding again.
Client software exists for various operating systems or software packages, as well as web-based or inside games. Many different clients are available for the various operating systems, including Windows , Unix and Linux , macOS and mobile operating systems (such as iOS and Android ). On Windows, mIRC is one of the most popular clients. [ 87 ] Some Linux distributions come with an IRC client preinstalled, such as Linux Mint which comes with HexChat preinstalled.
Some programs which are extensible through plug-ins also serve as platforms for IRC clients. For instance, a client called ERC , written entirely in Emacs Lisp , is included in v.22.3 of Emacs. Therefore, any platform that can run Emacs can run ERC.
A number of web browsers have built-in IRC clients, such as:
Web-based clients, such as Mibbit and open source KiwiIRC, can run in most browsers.
Games such as War§ow , [ 88 ] Unreal Tournament (up to Unreal Tournament 2004 ), [ 89 ] Uplink , [ 90 ] Spring Engine -based games, 0 A.D. and ZDaemon have included IRC. [ 91 ]
Ustream 's chat interface is IRC with custom authentication [ 92 ] as well as Twitch 's (formerly Justin.tv). [ 93 ] [ 94 ]
A typical use of bots in IRC is to provide IRC services or specific functionality within a channel such as to host a chat-based game or provide notifications of external events. However, some IRC bots are used to launch malicious attacks such as denial of service, spamming, or exploitation. [ 95 ]
A program that runs as a daemon on a server and functions as a persistent proxy is known as a BNC or bouncer. The purpose is to maintain a connection to an IRC server, acting as a relay between the server and client, or simply to act as a proxy. [ citation needed ] Should the client lose network connectivity, the BNC may stay connected and archive all traffic for later delivery, allowing the user to resume their IRC session without disrupting their connection to the server. [ 96 ]
Furthermore, as a way of obtaining a bouncer-like effect, an IRC client (typically text-based , for example Irssi ) may be run on an always-on server to which the user connects via ssh . This also allows devices that only have ssh functionality, but no actual IRC client installed themselves, to connect to the IRC, and it allows sharing of IRC sessions. [ 97 ]
To keep the IRC client from quitting when the ssh connection closes, the client can be run inside a terminal multiplexer such as GNU Screen or tmux , thus staying connected to the IRC network(s) constantly and able to log conversation in channels that the user is interested in, or to maintain a channel's presence on the network. Modelled after this setup, in 2004 an IRC client following the client–server , called Smuxi , was launched. [ 98 ] [ 99 ]
There are numerous search engines available to aid the user in finding what they are looking for on IRC. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] Generally the search engine consists of two parts, a "back-end" (or "spider/crawler") and a front-end "search engine".
The back-end (spider/webcrawler) is the work horse of the search engine. It is responsible for crawling IRC servers to index the information being sent across them. The information that is indexed usually consists solely of channel text (text that is publicly displayed in public channels). The storage method is usually some sort of relational database, like MySQL or Oracle . [ citation needed ]
The front-end "search engine" is the user interface to the database. It supplies users with a way to search the database of indexed information to retrieve the data they are looking for. These front-end search engines can also be coded in numerous programming languages.
Most search engines have their own spider that is a single application responsible for crawling IRC and indexing data itself; however, others are "user based" indexers. The latter rely on users to install their "add-on" to their IRC client; the add-on is what sends the database the channel information of whatever channels the user happens to be on. [ citation needed ]
Many users have implemented their own ad hoc search engines using the logging features built into many IRC clients. These search engines are usually implemented as bots and dedicated to a particular channel or group of associated channels.
IRC still lacks a single globally accepted standard convention for how to transmit characters outside the 7-bit ASCII repertoire.
IRC servers normally [ clarification needed ] transfer messages from a client to another client just as byte sequences, without any interpretation or recoding of characters . The IRC protocol (unlike e.g. MIME or HTTP ) lacks mechanisms for announcing and negotiating character encoding options. This has put the responsibility for choosing the appropriate character codec on the client. In practice, IRC channels have largely used the same character encodings that were also used by operating systems (in particular Unix derivatives) in the respective language communities:
Today, the UTF-8 encoding of Unicode / ISO 10646 would be the most likely contender for a single future standard character encoding for all IRC communication, if such standard ever relaxed the 510-byte message size restriction. UTF-8 is ASCII compatible and covers the superset of all other commonly used coded character set standards.
Much like conventional P2P file sharing, users can create file servers that allow them to share files with each other by using customised IRC bots or scripts for their IRC client . Often users will group together to distribute warez via a network of IRC bots. [ 102 ]
Technically, IRC provides no file transfer mechanisms itself; file sharing is implemented by IRC clients , typically using the Direct Client-to-Client (DCC) protocol, in which file transfers are negotiated through the exchange of private messages between clients. The vast majority of IRC clients feature support for DCC file transfers, hence the view that file sharing is an integral feature of IRC. [ 103 ] The commonplace usage of this protocol, however, sometimes also causes DCC spam. DCC commands have also been used to exploit vulnerable clients into performing an action such as disconnecting from the server or exiting the client. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRC |
IRC Cloud is a cloud-based IRC client that is used via web browser , Android and iOS . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] IRC Cloud was founded by Richard Jones and James Wheare .
This software article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This Internet Relay Chat -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRC_Cloud |
IREDES , International Rock Excavation Data Exchange Standard, is an industry standard to unify routines for the data exchange between mining equipment and office computer systems. It defines one "common electronic language" to be talked by the automation systems throughout the mine. In year 2000, IREDES was founded by the major players in the mining industry. Since then, the standard was developed, built and tested.
Modern mining machines today are controlled electronically via network. This kind of equipment provides enormous amounts of electronic reports and data. Before IREDES, there was no way of cost effectively exchanging the process information with databases, simulation tools and other enterprise level software. Any data exchange problem had to be solved by individual and expensive software development projects. To solve this problem, IREDES was founded to unify the data exchange format and method such that individual development effort can be minimized.
IREDES is a not-for-profit organization located in Ladbergen , Germany . It is jointly financed by the member companies on a cost sharing basis.
The standard documents are open to the public. They are accessible free of charge for members. Non-members can purchase the documents from the IREDES office for a small amount of contribution to the standardization work.
All the data profiles are based on Extensible Markup Language ( XML ). This is due to the high extendability and interoperability of the language. The current data profiles created with the contribution of board members are Drilling rig and LHD trucks . More profiles will be added in the future if needed.
This article about mining is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IREDES |
IRENE ( Image, Reconstruct, Erase Noise, Etc. ) is a digital imaging technology designed to recover analog audio stored on fragile or deteriorating phonograph cylinders , records , and other grooved audio media. It is in use by several archives and preservation institutions in the United States seeking to preserve and digitize historical audio.
The technology was developed at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory by Carl Haber and Vitaliy Fadeyev and was announced in a publication of the Journal of the Audio Engineering Society in 2003. [ 1 ] It grew out of Haber's research in particle physics ; in the 1990s, he had worked on Higgs boson detection experiments, and realized that the cameras he was using to set the detectors could also be used for detailed imaging of grooved audio recordings. [ 2 ] The name IRENE is a backronym of the phrase "Image, Reconstruct, Erase Noise, Etc.", and was chosen because the first audio recovered by the system was a recording of the song " Goodnight, Irene " by The Weavers . [ 3 ] By 2005, Haber and Fadeyev had developed two-dimensional and three-dimensional machines, capable of recovering audio from vertically-cut and laterally-cut grooved media. [ 4 ] Soon after, Haber and Fadeyev were contacted by the Library of Congress , which began operating its own machine in 2006. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] In 2013, Haber was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship to continue development of the system. [ 7 ] As of 2020 [update] , IRENE machines are operated by three institutions – Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the Library of Congress, [ 3 ] and the Northeast Document Conservation Center . [ 8 ]
The IRENE system uses a high-powered confocal microscope that follows the groove path as the disc or cylinder (i.e. phonograph cylinder ) rotates underneath it, thereby obtaining detailed images of the audio information. [ 9 ] Depending on whether the groove is cut laterally, vertically, or in a V-shape, the system may make use of tracking lasers or different lighting strategies to make the groove visible to the camera. The resulting images are then processed with software that converts the movement of the groove into a digital audio file. [ 10 ]
An advantage of the system over traditional stylus playback is that it is contactless, and so avoids damaging the audio carrier or wearing out the groove during playback. [ 1 ] It also allows for the reconstruction of already broken or damaged media such as cracked cylinders or delaminating lacquer discs , which cannot be played with a stylus. Media played on machines which are no longer produced can also be recovered. [ 6 ] Many skips or damaged areas can be reconstituted by IRENE without the noises that would be created by stylus playback. [ 5 ] However, it can also result in the reproduction of more noise, as imperfections in the groove are also more finely captured than with a stylus.
The IRENE system has been used to recover audio such as: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRENE_(technology) |
Interferometric reflectance imaging sensor (IRIS), formerly known as the spectral reflectance imaging biosensor (SRIB), [ 1 ] is a system that can be used as a biosensing platform capable of high-throughput multiplexing of protein–protein, protein–DNA, and DNA–DNA interactions without the use of any fluorescent labels . The sensing surface is prepared by robotic spotting of biological probes that are immobilized on functionalized Si/ SiO 2 substrates. IRIS is capable of quantifying biomolecular mass accumulated on the surface. [ 2 ]
To perform a measurement, the sample is illuminated with multiple different wavelengths from either a tunable laser or different color LEDs; typically speaking, a relatively narrow bandwidth optical source. The reflection intensity is imaged using a CCD or CMOS camera. By using interferometric techniques, nanometer changes can be detected.
Applications for IRIS include microarray format immunoassays , single nucleotide polymorphism ( SNP ) [ 3 ] detection, pathogen detection and bio-defense monitoring, kinetic analysis of biomolecular interactions, and general biomolecular interaction studies for research applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRIS_(biosensor) |
The IRI Medal , established by the Industrial Research Institute (IRI) in 1946, recognizes and honors leaders of technology for their outstanding accomplishments in technological innovation which contribute broadly to the development of industry and to the benefit of society. [ 1 ] One side of the medal depicts a scientist peering into a microscope as a symbol of the never-ending quest for innovation; a pegasus running in the background as a symbol of imagination; and clouds issuing from a retort revealing the practical results of humanity's ability to harness natural forces to meet its needs. The reverse side of the medal is an adaptation of the official seal of the Institute. This award is traditionally presented each spring at the IRI Annual Meeting alongside the IRI Achievement Award . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRI_Medal |
IRsweep is a Swiss company offering optical spectroscopy solutions and multipass absorption cells .
The spectroscopy is based on semiconductor quantum cascade laser frequency combs [ 1 ] [ 2 ] in the mid-infrared wavelength range. The company is based in Zurich , Switzerland and was founded in 2014 and acquired by Sensirion Holding in May 2021. [ 3 ]
The technology is used for high speed absorption measurements of different molecules and is robust against cross-sensitivities. Such sensor systems are in high demand for process analytics as well as research applications, as the mid-infrared range hosts the strongest absorption features of many molecules.
IRsweep was founded in 2014 as a spin-off from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zurich) . [ 4 ] The company commercialized its first product after having developed its prototypes for academic research projects. The first derived product is the IRcell, a cylindrical multipass cell combining a long optical path in a small detection volume. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRsweep |
The ISASMELT process is an energy-efficient smelting process that was jointly developed from the 1970s to the 1990s by Mount Isa Mines (a subsidiary of MIM Holdings and now part of Glencore ) and the Government of Australia 's CSIRO . It has relatively low capital and operating costs for a smelting process.
ISASMELT technology has been applied to lead, copper, and nickel smelting. As of 2021, 22 plants were in operation in eleven countries, along with three demonstration plants located at Mt Isa. The installed capacity of copper/nickel operating plants in 2020 was 9.76 million tonnes per year of feed materials and 750 thousand tonnes per year across lead operating plants. [ 1 ]
Smelters based on the copper ISASMELT process are among the lowest-cost copper smelters in the world. [ 2 ]
An ISASMELT furnace is an upright-cylindrical shaped steel vessel that is lined with refractory bricks. [ 3 ] There is a molten bath of slag, matte or metal (depending on the application) at the bottom of the furnace. A steel lance is lowered into the bath through a hole in the roof of the furnace, and (possibly oxygen-enriched) air is injected through the lance, causing vigorous agitation of the bath.
Mineral concentrates or materials for recycling are dropped into the bath through another hole in the furnace roof or, in some cases, injected down the lance. These feed materials react with the oxygen in the injected gas, resulting in an intensive reaction in a small volume (relative to other smelting technologies).
ISASMELT lances contain one or more devices called "swirlers" that cause the injected gas to spin within the lance, forcing it against the lance wall, cooling it. The swirler consists of curved vanes around a central pipe forming an annular flow. [ 4 ] They are designed to minimize pressure losses changing the angle from axial to tangential thus creating a strong vortex. [ 5 ] The vortex helps mix liquids and solids with oxygen in the bath. [ 6 ] The cooling effect results in a layer of slag "freezing" on the outside of the lance. This layer of solid slag protects the lance from the high temperatures inside the furnace. The tip of the lance that is submerged in the bath eventually wears out, and the worn lance is easily replaced with a new one when necessary. The worn tips are subsequently cut off and a new tip welded onto the lance body before it is returned to the furnace.
ISASMELT furnaces typically operate in the range of 1000–1200 °C, depending on the application. [ 3 ] [ 7 ] The refractory bricks that form the internal lining of the furnace protect the steel shell from the heat inside the furnace.
The products are removed from the furnace through one or more "tap holes" in a process called "tapping". This can be either continuous removal or in batches, with the tap holes being blocked with clay at the end of a tap, and then reopened by drilling or with a thermic lance when it is time for the next tap.
The products are allowed to separate in a settling vessel, such as a rotary holding furnace or an electric furnace.
While smelting sulfide concentrates, most of the energy needed to heat and melt the feed materials is derived from the reaction of oxygen with the sulfur and iron in the concentrate. However, a small amount of supplemental energy is required. ISASMELT furnaces can use a variety of fuels, including coal, coke, petroleum coke, oil and natural gas. The solid fuel can be added through the top of the furnace with the other feed materials, or it can be injected down the lance. Liquid and gaseous fuels are injected down the lance.
The advantages of the ISASMELT process include:
The ISASMELT process began with the invention in 1973 of the Sirosmelt lance by Drs Bill Denholm and John Floyd at the CSIRO. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] The lance was developed as a result of investigations into improved tin-smelting processes, in which it was found that the use of a top-entry submerged lance would result in greater heat transfer and mass transfer efficiencies. [ 16 ]
The idea of top-entry submerged lances goes back to at least 1902, when such a system was attempted in Clichy, France. [ 17 ] However, early attempts failed because of the short lives of the lances on submersion in the bath. The Mitsubishi copper smelting process is one alternative approach, wherein lances are used in a furnace, but they are not submerged into the bath. Instead, they blow oxygen-enriched air onto the surface of the slag (top jetting). [ 18 ] Similarly, a water-cooled, top-jetting lance was the basis of the LD ( Linz-Donawitz ) steelmaking process. This does not produce the same intensity of mixing in the bath as a submerged lance. [ 16 ]
The CSIRO scientists first tried developing a submerged lance system using a water-cooled lance, but moved to an air-cooled system because "scale up of the water-cooled lance would have been problematic". [ 16 ] Introducing any water to a system involving molten metals and slags can result in catastrophic explosions, such as that in the Scunthorpe Steelworks in November 1975 in which 11 men lost their lives. [ 19 ]
The inclusion of the swirlers in the Sirosmelt lance and forming a splash coating of slag on the lance were the major innovations that led to the successful development of submerged lance smelting.
From 1973, the CSIRO scientists began a series of trials using the Sirosmelt lance to recover metals from industrial slags in Australia, including lead softener slag at the Broken Hill Associated Smelters in Port Pirie (1973), tin slag from Associated Tin Smelters in Sydney (1974), copper converter slag at the Electrolytic Refining and Smelting ("ER&S") Port Kembla plant (1975) and copper anode furnace slag at Copper Refineries Limited (another subsidiary of MIM Holdings) in Townsville (1976) and of copper converter slag in Mount Isa (1977). [ 16 ] The work then proceeded to smelting tin concentrates (1975) and then sulfidic tin concentrates (1977). [ 16 ]
MIM and ER&S jointly funded the 1975 Port Kembla converter slag treatment trials and MIM's involvement continued with the slag treatment work in Townsville and Mount Isa. [ 20 ]
In parallel with the copper slag treatment work, the CSIRO was continuing to work in tin smelting. Projects included a five tonne ("t") plant for recovering tin from slag being installed at Associated Tin Smelters in 1978, and the first sulfidic smelting test work being done in collaboration with Aberfoyle Limited, in which tin was fumed from pyritic tin ore and from mixed tin and copper concentrates. [ 21 ] Aberfoyle was investigating the possibility of using the Sirosmelt lance approach to improve the recovery of tin from complex ores, such as its mine at Cleveland, Tasmania, and the Queen Hill ore zone near Zeehan in Tasmania . [ 22 ] [ 23 ]
The Aberfoyle work led to the construction and operation in late 1980 of a four t/h tin matte fuming pilot plant at the Western Mining Corporation's Kalgoorlie Nickel Smelter , located to the south of Kalgoorlie , Western Australia . [ 23 ]
In the early 1970s, the traditional blast furnace and sinter plant technology that was the mainstay of the lead smelting industry was coming under sustained pressure from more stringent environmental requirements, increased energy costs, decreasing metal prices and rising capital and operating costs. [ 15 ]
Many smelting companies were seeking new processes to replace sinter plants and blast furnaces. Possibilities included the QSL lead smelting process, the Kivcet process, the Kaldo top-blown rotary converter , and adapting Outokumpu's successful copper and nickel flash furnace to lead smelting. [ 24 ]
MIM was seeking ways to safeguard the future of its Mount Isa lead smelting operations. It did this in two ways:
MIM investigated new technologies by arranging plant testing of large parcels of Mount Isa lead concentrates for all the then process options except for the Kivcet process. At the same time, it had been aware of the use of top-jetting lances in the Mitsubishi and Kaldo processes, and of top-entry submerged combustion lance investigations undertaken by Asarco (which had a long association with MIM, including being a shareholder in MIM Holdings) in the 1960s. This stimulated MIM's interest in the Sirosmelt lance, which was seen as a way to produce a robust submerged lance. [ 15 ]
Following the copper slag trials of 1976–1978, MIM initiated a joint project with the CSIRO in 1978 to investigate the possibility of applying Sirosmelt lances to lead smelting. [ 7 ]
The work began with computer modelling the equilibrium thermodynamics (1978) and was followed by laboratory bench-scale test work using large alumina silicate crucibles (1978–1979). The results were sufficiently encouraging that MIM built a 120 kg/h test rig in Mount Isa. It began operation in September 1980. This was used to develop a two-stage process to produce lead bullion from Mount Isa lead concentrate. The first stage was an oxidation step that removed virtually all the sulfur from the feed, oxidising the contained lead to lead oxide (PbO) that was largely collected in the slag (some was carried out of the furnace as lead oxide fume that was returned for lead recovery). The second stage was a reduction step in which the oxygen was removed from the lead to form lead metal. [ 7 ]
Following the 120 kg/h test work, MIM decided to proceed to install a 5 t/h lead ISASMELT pilot plant in its Mount Isa lead smelter. It bought Aberfoyle's matte fuming furnace and transported it from Kalgoorlie to Mount Isa, where it was rebuilt and commissioned in 1983 [ 16 ] to demonstrate the first stage of the process in continuous operation and for testing the reduction step using batches of high-lead slag. [ 25 ]
One of the key features of the pilot plant was that it was run by operations’ personnel in the lead smelter as though it was an operations’ plant. [ 15 ] The high lead slag produced by the continuous smelting of the lead concentrate was subsequently treated in the sinter plant, thus increasing the production of the lead smelter by up to 17%. [ 26 ] This gave the operations’ people ownership of the plant and an incentive to make it work, thus ensuring management and maintenance priority. It also gave MIM assurance that the process was simple enough to be operable in a production environment, with normal staff and supervision, and that it was robust enough to withstand normal control excursions. [ 15 ] In addition to the continuous operation of lead concentrate to produce high-lead slag, the pilot plant was used to produce lead metal from batches of the slag, [ 25 ] investigate the wear rates of the furnace's refractory lining and lances, and initial work aimed at developing a low-pressure version of the Sirosmelt lance. The result was a lance design that allowed operation at significantly lower pressure than the initial values of about 250 kilopascal (gauge) ("kPag"), thus reducing operating costs. [ 7 ]
MIM built a second, identical furnace next to the first, and commissioned it in August 1985. This combination of furnaces was used to demonstrate the two-stage process in continuous operation in mid-1987. [ 25 ] However, for most of the time the two furnaces were not able to operate simultaneously due to a constraint in the capacity of the baghouse used to filter the lead dust from the waste gas. [ 25 ]
A series of process improvements, particularly in the waste gas handling system, resulted in increasing the throughput of the plant from the initial design of 5 t/h to 10 t/h. [ 10 ] The pilot plant had treated more than 125,000 t of lead concentrate by April 1989. [ 12 ]
The two furnaces were also used to develop a process to recover lead from the Mount Isa lead smelter's drossing operations. [ 25 ]
Based on the results of the pilot plant work, the MIM Holdings Board of Directors approved the construction of an A$65 million [ 27 ] demonstration plant, capable of producing 60,000 t/y of lead bullion. [ 25 ] This plant operated from early 1991 until 1995. [ 28 ] It was initially designed to treat 20 t/h of lead concentrate using lance air enriched to 27%. However, the oxygen originally designated for its use was diverted to the more profitable copper smelting operations, and the feed rate to the lead ISASMELT demonstration plant was severely restricted. [ 28 ] When there was sufficient oxygen available in 1993 to increase the enrichment level to 33–35%, treatment rates of up to 36 t/h of concentrate were achieved, with residual lead in the final reduction furnace slag being in the range of 2–5%. [ 28 ]
The two-stage approach to ISASMELT lead smelting was partly driven by the relatively low lead content of Mount Isa lead concentrates (typically in the range of 47–52% lead during the lead ISASMELT development period). [ 7 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ] Trying to produce lead bullion in a single furnace with such low concentrate grades would result in excessive fuming of lead oxide with a huge amount of material that would have to be returned to the furnace to recover the lead [ 7 ] and, consequently, a higher energy demand as that material had to be reheated to the furnace temperatures.
Concentrates with higher lead contents can be smelted directly into lead metal in a single furnace without excess fuming. [ 7 ] This was demonstrated on the large scale in 1994, when 4000 t of concentrate containing 67% lead were treated at rates up to 32 t/h with lance air enriched to 27%. During these trials, 50% of the lead in the concentrate was converted to lead bullion in the smelting furnace, while most of the rest ended up as lead oxide in the smelting furnace slag. [ 28 ]
Like the lead ISASMELT pilot plant, the lead ISASMELT demonstration plant suffered from constraints imposed by the waste gas handling system. In the case of the demonstration plant, the problem was caused by sticky fume that formed an insulating layer on the convection tube bundles of the waste heat boilers, significantly reducing the heat transfer rates and thus the ability of the boilers to reduce the waste gas temperature. [ 12 ] As the plant used baghouses to filter lead fume from the waste gas, it was necessary to reduce the temperature of the gas below the point at which the bags would be damaged by high temperatures. The problem was solved by allowing cool air to mix with the hot waste gas to lower the temperature to a level at which the baghouse could operate. [ 12 ] This reduced the ISASMELT plant's capacity because it was again limited by the volume of gas that could be filtered by the baghouse.
The lead ISASMELT demonstration plant was mothballed in 1995 because there was insufficient concentrate to keep both it and the rest of the lead smelter operating. [ 12 ] It was too small to treat all the Mount Isa lead concentrate by itself.
The first commercial primary-lead ISASMELT furnace was installed at the Yunnan Chihong Zinc and Germanium Company Limited (YCZG) greenfield zinc and lead smelting complex at Qujing in Yunnan Province in China. [ 31 ] This furnace was part of a plant consisting of the ISASMELT furnace and a blast furnace specially designed to treat high-lead ISASMELT slag. [ 28 ] The ISASMELT furnace was designed to produce both the slag and lead bullion, with about 40% of the lead in the concentrate being converted to lead bullion in the ISASMELT furnace. [ 31 ]
The ISASMELT–blast furnace combination was designed to treat 160,000 t/y of lead concentrate. [ 1 ]
The second commercial primary-lead ISASMELT furnace was commissioned at Kazzinc's smelting complex at Ust-Kamenogorsk in Kazakhstan in 2012. It is designed to treat 300,000 t/y of lead concentrate, again using an ISASMELT–blast furnace combination. [ 1 ]
YCZG is constructing another lead ISASMELT at a new greenfield smelter in Huize in China, and this is due to be commissioned in 2013. [ 1 ]
In June 2017, Glencore announced that Nyrstar NV had acquired an Isasmelt licence for its new Ausmelt furnace in Port Pirie . As part of the agreement, Nyrstar engaged training and ramp-up support services for the Ausmelt furnace and blast furnace by personnel from Glencore's Kazzinc operations in Kazakhstan . This involved training Nyrstar personnel at Ust-Kamenogorsk operations and site support by Kazzinc personnel during the commissioning and ramp-up stages of the Ausmelt plant. [ 32 ]
While the lead ISASMELT 5 t/h pilot plant was being designed in 1982–1983, MIM continued to use the 120 kg/h test rig to develop other processes, including the dross treatment process previously mentioned, and the treatment of lead-acid battery paste for lead recycling. [ 7 ]
The MIM Holdings Board of Directors approved the construction of an ISASMELT plant at Britannia Refined Metals, the company's lead refinery at Northfleet in the United Kingdom, for commercial recovery of lead from battery paste to supplement the existing plant, which used a short rotary furnace to produce 10,000 t/y of lead. [ 33 ] The new plant increased annual production to 30,000 t/y of recycled lead, and was commissioned in 1991. [ 33 ] The ISASMELT furnace was used to produce low-antimony lead bullion from the battery paste and an antimony-rich slag that contained 55–65% lead oxide. While it was possible to recover the lead from the slag in the ISASMELT furnace by a reduction step, the total throughput of the plant was increased by treating the slag in the short rotary furnace when sufficient quantities of the slag had been generated. [ 33 ] The plant was designed to treat 7.7 t/h of battery paste, but routinely treated 12 t/h. [ 33 ] The plant was shut down in 2004 when Xstrata Zinc, which took over the MIM Holdings lead operations, decided to leave the lead recycling business. [ 33 ]
A second lead ISASMELT plant for recovering lead from recycled batteries was commissioned in 2000 in Malaysia at Metal Reclamation Industries’ Pulau Indah plant. [ 33 ] This ISASMELT plant has a design capacity of 40,000 t/y of lead bullion. [ 1 ]
Scientists at the CSIRO conducted small-scale test work on copper sulfide concentrate in 1979, [ 16 ] using the CSIRO's 50 kg Sirosmelt test rig. [ 34 ] These trials included producing copper matte containing 40–52% copper and, in some cases, converting the matte to produce blister copper. [ 34 ]
The results of this work were sufficiently encouraging that MIM in 1983 [ 35 ] undertook its own copper smelting test work program using its 120 kg/h test rig, which had by then been rerated to 250 kg/h. [ 27 ] It was found that the process was easy to control and that copper loss to slag was low. [ 10 ] It was also learned that the process could easily recover copper from copper converter slag concentrate, of which there was a large stockpile at Mount Isa. [ 10 ]
Construction of a 15 t/h demonstration copper ISASMELT plant began in 1986. The design was based on MIM's 250 kg/h test work and operating experience with the lead ISASMELT pilot plant. [ 27 ] It cost A$11 million [ 10 ] and was commissioned in April 1987. [ 27 ] The initial capital cost was recovered in the first 14 months of operation. [ 26 ]
As with the lead ISASMELT pilot plant, the copper ISASMELT demonstration plant was integrated into copper smelter operations [ 15 ] and justified by the 20% (30,000 t/y) increase in copper production that it provided. [ 10 ] It quickly treated the entire backlog of converter slag concentrate, which could not be treated at high rates in the reverberatory furnaces without generating magnetite ("Fe 3 O 4 ") accretions that would necessitate shutting down the reverberatory furnaces for their removal. [ 36 ]
The demonstration copper ISASMELT plant was used to further develop the copper process. Refractory life was initially shorter than expected [ 37 ] and considerable effort was devoted to understanding the reasons and attempting to extend the life of the refractories. [ 37 ] At the end of the life of the demonstration plant, the longest refractory life achieved was 90 weeks. [ 37 ]
Lance life was also low initially. [ 37 ] Inexperienced operators could destroy a lance in as little as 10 minutes. [ 37 ] However, as a result of modifications to the lance design, the development of techniques to determine the position of the lance in the bath, and a rise in the operating experience, the typical lance life was extended to a week. [ 37 ]
The demonstration plant was commissioned with high-pressure (700 kPag) air injected down the lance. [ 27 ] Later, after extensive testing of low-pressure lance designs and trials using oxygen enrichment of the lance air, a 70 t/d oxygen plant and a 5 Nm3/s blower with a discharge pressure of 146 kPag were purchased. [ 27 ] The new lance design was capable of operating at pressures below 100 kPag. [ 35 ] Using enrichment of the oxygen in the lance air to 35%, the demonstration plant throughput was lifted to 48 t/h of concentrate, and the gross energy used during smelting was reduced from 25.6 GJ/t of contained copper to 4.1 GJ/t. [ 27 ]
The successful operation and development of the demonstration copper ISASMELT, and the degree of interest shown in the new process by the global smelting community, gave MIM Holdings sufficient confidence to license the ISASMELT technology to external companies, [ 38 ] so an agreement under which MIM could incorporate the Sirosmelt lance into ISASMELT technology was signed with the CSIRO in 1989. [ 26 ]
MIM signed the first ISASMELT licence agreement with Agip Australia Proprietary Limited ("Agip") in July 1990. Agip, a subsidiary of the Italian oil company ENI , was developing the Radio Hill nickel-copper deposit near Karratha in Western Australia. [ 26 ] MIM and representatives of Agip conducted a series of trials in which 4 tonnes of Radio Hill concentrate was smelted in the 250 kg/h test rig at Mount Isa. [ 26 ]
The Agip ISASMELT plant was designed to treat 7.5 t/h of the Radio Hill concentrate and produce 1.5 t/h of granulated matte with a combined nickel and copper content of 45% for sale., [ 26 ] [ 27 ] It was the same size as the copper ISASMELT demonstration plant (2.3 m internal diameter) and had a 5.5 Nm3/s blower to provide the lance air. [ 26 ] Commissioning of the plant began in September 1991; [ 12 ] however, the Radio Hill mine and smelter complex were forced to close by low nickel prices after less than six months, [ 12 ] before commissioning was completed. [ 27 ] The ISASMELT furnace achieved its design capacity within three months. [ 12 ] Subsequent owners of the mine focussed on mining and mineral processing only, and the ISASMELT plant has been dismantled. [ 12 ]
In 1973, the Freeport-McMoRan Copper and Gold ("Freeport") smelter at Miami, Arizona , installed a 51 MW electric furnace at its Miami smelter. The decision was based on a long-term electrical power contract with the Salt River Project that provided the company with a very low rate for electricity. [ 8 ] This contract expired in 1990 and the resulting increase in electricity prices prompted the owners of the smelter, Cyprus Miami Mining Corporation ("Cyprus"), to seek alternative smelting technologies for lower operating costs. [ 8 ]
The technologies evaluated included:
The Contop, Inco, Mitsubishi and Outokumpu processes "were all eliminated primarily because of their high dust levels, high capital costs and poor adaptability to the existing facility". The Teniente converter was ruled out because it required the use of the electric furnace for partial smelting. The Noranda reactor was not selected "because of its high refractory wear and its poor adaptability to the existing plant due to the handling of the reactor slag". [ 8 ] ISASMELT was chosen as the preferred technology and a licence agreement was signed with MIM in October 1990. The major factor in the decision to select the ISASMELT technology was the ability to fit it into the existing plant and to maximise the use of existing equipment and infrastructure, while the major disadvantage was seen to be the risks associated with scaling up the technology from the Mount Isa demonstration plant. [ 8 ]
The Miami copper ISASMELT furnace was designed to treat 590,000 t/y (650,000 short tons per year) of copper concentrate, a treatment rate that was constrained by the capacity of the sulfuric acid plant used to capture the sulfur dioxide from the smelter's waste gases. [ 8 ] The existing electric furnace was converted from smelting duties to a slag cleaning furnace and providing matte surge capacity for the converters. [ 8 ] The ISASMELT furnace was commissioned on 11 June 1992 and in 2002 treated over 700,000 t/y of concentrate. [ 39 ] The modernisation of the Miami smelter cost an estimated US$95 million. [ 27 ]
In 1993, the Cyprus Minerals Company merged with AMAX to form the Cyprus Amax Minerals company , which was in turn taken over by the Phelps Dodge Corporation in late 1999. After the take-over, Phelps Dodge closed its Hidalgo and Chino smelters. [ 40 ] Phelps Dodge was acquired by Freeport in 2006.
The Miami smelter is one of only two remaining operating copper smelters in the United States, down from 16 in 1979. [ 41 ]
The third commercial copper ISASMELT plant was installed in MIM's Mount Isa copper smelter at a cost of approximately A$100 million. [ 37 ] It was designed to treat 104 t/h of copper concentrate, containing 180,000 t/y of copper, and it began operation in August 1992. [ 37 ]
A significant difference between the Mount Isa copper ISASMELT plant and all the others is that it uses an Ahlstrom Fluxflow waste heat boiler [ 42 ] to recover heat from the furnace waste gas. This boiler uses a recirculating fluid bed of particles to rapidly quench the gas as it leaves the furnace, and then uses the enhanced heat transfer properties of solid–solid contact to cool the particles as they are carried past boiler tubes that are suspended in a shaft above the bed. [ 37 ] The high heat transfer rate means that the Fluxflow boiler is relatively compact compared with conventional waste heat boilers and the rapid cooling of the waste gas limits the formation of sulfur trioxide ("SO 3 "), which in the presence of water forms sulfuric acid that can cause corrosion of cool surfaces. [ 43 ]
In its early years, the Fluxflow boiler was the cause of significant down time, because the rate of wear of the boiler tubes was much higher than expected. [ 43 ] The problems were solved by understanding the gas flows within the boiler and redesigning the boiler tubes to minimise the effects of erosion. [ 43 ]
The life of the refractory bricks in the ISASMELT furnace was initially shorter than expected and a water cooling system was briefly considered to extend them; [ 43 ] however, this was not installed and operational improvements resulted in a significant extension of the lining life without this capital and operating expense. [ 44 ] Since 1998, the refractory lining lives have exceeded their two-year design, [ 12 ] with lives of the 8th and 9th linings nearly reaching three years. [ 45 ] The most recent lining lasted for 50 months, with the one before that lasting for 44 months. [ 46 ]
In the first years of operation at Mount Isa, the throughput of the ISASMELT furnace was constrained by problems with some of the ancillary equipment in the plant, including the boiler, slag granulation system and concentrate filters. [ 44 ] The ultimate constraint was the decision during its construction to keep one of the two reverberatory furnaces on line to increase the copper smelter production to 265,000 t/y of anode copper. The smelter's Peirce-Smith converters became a bottleneck and the feed rate of the ISASMELT furnace had to be restrained to allow sufficient matte to be drawn from the reverberatory furnace to prevent it freezing solid. [ 2 ] The ISASMELT 12-month rolling average of the feed rate fell just short of 100 t/h for much of this period, not quite reaching the design annual average of 104 t/h. [ 44 ] MIM decided to shut down the reverberatory furnace in 1997, and the ISASMELT plant 12-month rolling mean feed rate quickly exceeded the 104 t/h design when this constraint was lifted. [ 44 ]
The performance of the ISASMELT plant was sufficiently encouraging that MIM decided to expand the ISASMELT treatment rate to 166 t/h by adding a second oxygen plant to allow higher enrichment of the lance air. [ 44 ] As a result, by late 2001 it had achieved a peak rate of 190 t/h of concentrate, and the smelter produced a peak annual total of 240,000 t of anode copper. [ 44 ] At that time, the Mount Isa copper smelter, together with its copper refinery in Townsville, was among the lowest cost copper smelters in the world.
Lance life is typically two weeks, with lance changes taking 30 to 40 minutes, and repairs usually being limited to replacement of the lance tips. [ 47 ]
In 2006, MIM commissioned a second rotary holding furnace that operates in parallel with the existing holding furnace. [ 48 ]
Sterlite Industries ("Sterlite"), a subsidiary of Vedanta Resources , built a copper smelter in Tuticorin using an ISASMELT furnace and Peirce-Smith converters . The smelter was commissioned in 1996 [ 1 ] and was designed to produce 60,000 t/y of copper (450,000 t/y of copper concentrate), [ 45 ] but by increasing the oxygen content of the lance air and making modifications to other equipment, the ISASMELT furnace feed rate was increased to the point where the smelter was producing 180,000 t/y of copper. [ 12 ]
Sterlite commissioned a new ISASMELT furnace in May 2005 [ 48 ] that was designed to treat 1.3 million t/y of copper concentrate, [ 45 ] and the smelter's production capacity was expanded to 300,000 t/y of copper. [ 12 ] The new plant reached its design capacity, measured over a three-month period, six months after it started treating its first feed. [ 48 ] Vedanta's website states that the new ISASMELT furnace was successfully ramped up "in a record period of 45 days". [ 49 ]
Since then Sterlite decided to further expand its copper production by installing a third ISASMELT smelter and new refinery using IsaKidd technology. [ 50 ] The new smelter has a design capacity of 1.36 million t/y of copper concentrate (containing 400,000 t/y of copper), processed through a single ISASMELT furnace. [ 51 ]
In the 1990s, the Chinese government decided to increase the efficiency of the Chinese economy and reduce the environmental effects of heavy industry by modernising plants. [ 9 ] As a response, the Yunnan Copper Corporation ("YCC") upgraded its existing plant, which was based on a sinter plant and an electric furnace, with a copper ISASMELT furnace. [ 9 ] As with the Miami smelter, the electric furnace was converted from smelting duty to separation of matte and slag and providing matte surge capacity for the converters, and again, the small footprint of the ISASMELT furnace was very important in retrofitting it to the existing smelter. [ 9 ]
The YCC ISASMELT plant had a design capacity of 600,000 dry t/y of copper concentrate and started smelting concentrate on 15 May 2002. [ 9 ] YCC placed a lot of emphasis on training its operators, sending people to Mount Isa for training over a seven-month period during 2001 ahead of the ISASMELT commissioning. [ 9 ] The total cost of the smelter modernisation program, including the ISASMELT furnace, was 640 million yuan (approximately US$80 million) and the smelter's concentrate treatment rate increased from 470,000 t/y to 800,000 t/y as a result. [ 52 ]
The transfer of operating knowledge from MIM to YCC was sufficient for the first ISASMELT furnace refractory lining to last for two years, a marked improvement on the life of the initial lining of other plants. [ 52 ]
YCC described the modernisation project as "a great success, achieving all that was expected." [ 52 ] Energy consumption per tonne of blister copper produced decreased by 34% as a result of installing the ISASMELT furnace, and YCC estimated that during the first 38 months of operation, it saved approximately US$31.4 million through reduced energy costs alone, [ 52 ] giving the modernisation a very short payback by industry standards.
In 2004, YCC's management was presented with awards for Innovation in Project Management and the National Medal for High Quality Projects by the Chinese government to mark the success of the smelter modernisation project. [ 52 ]
Xstrata subsequently licensed YCC to build three more ISASMELT plants, one in Chuxiong in Yunnan Province, China to treat 500,000 t/y of copper concentrate, one in Liangshan in Sichuan Province, China [ 1 ] and the other in Chambishi in Zambia to treat 350,000 t/y of concentrate. [ 1 ] Chuxiong and Chambishi were commissioned in 2009. [ 1 ] Liangshan was commissioned in 2012. [ 53 ]
In the 1990s, Southern Peru Copper Corporation ("SPCC") was seeking to modernise its smelter at Ilo in southern Peru as part of 1997 commitment to the Peruvian government to capture at least 91.7% of the sulfur dioxide generated in its smelting operations by January 2007. [ 54 ] It initially selected flash smelting technology to replace its reverberatory furnaces, at a cost of almost US$1 billion; [ 14 ] however, one of the first actions following Grupo México's acquisition of ASARCO was to review the proposed Ilo smelter modernisation plans. [ 14 ]
Kazzinc selected the copper ISASMELT process for its Ust-Kamenogorsk metallurgical complex. It is designed to treat 290,000 t/y of copper concentrate [ 1 ] and was commissioned in 2011. [ 55 ] A projected capital cost for the smelter and refinery in 2006 was US$178 million. [ 56 ]
In addition to treating copper concentrates, ISASMELT furnaces have also been built to treat secondary (scrap) copper materials.
In the early 1990s, technical personnel from the then Union Miniére worked with MIM Holdings personnel to develop an ISASMELT-based process to treat scrap materials and residues containing copper and lead. [ 38 ] Union Miniére operated a smelter at Hoboken , near Antwerpen in Belgium , that specialised in recycling scrap non-ferrous materials. The test work program was undertaken using an ISASMELT test rig at MIM Holdings’ lead refinery, Britannia Refined Metals, at Northfleet in the United Kingdom . [ 38 ]
A demonstration plant was designed by MIM Holdings personnel and operated for several months at the Hoboken smelter site. [ 57 ] The new smelter was commissioned in the final quarter of 1997 [ 38 ] and in 2007 was treating up to 300,000 t/y of secondary materials. [ 57 ] The installation of the ISASMELT furnace replaced a roasting plant, a sinter plant, 1 of two sulfuric acid plants, a copper blast furnace and four Hoboken converters. [ 58 ] It substantially reduced operating costs at the Hoboken smelter. [ 48 ]
Umicore's Hoboken plant uses a two-step process in a single furnace. The first step involves the oxidation of the feed to form a copper matte and a lead-rich slag. The slag is then tapped and the remaining copper matte is then converted to blister copper. [ 57 ] The lead-rich slag is subsequently reduced in a blast furnace to produce lead metal, while the copper is refined and the contained precious metals recovered. [ 57 ]
The Hüttenwerke Kayser smelter at Lünen in Germany installed an ISASMELT plant in 2002 to replace three blast furnaces and one Peirce-Smith converter used for smelting scrap copper. [ 57 ] The company was subsequently bought by Norddeutsche Affinerie AG , which in turn became Aurubis .
The process used at the Lünen smelter involves charging the furnace with copper residues and scrap containing between 1 and 80% copper and then melting it in a reducing environment. This produces a "black copper phase" and a low-copper silica slag. Initially the black copper was converted to blister copper in the ISASMELT furnace. [ 57 ] However, in 2011 the smelter was expanded as part of the "KRS Plus" project. A top-blown rotary converter is used to convert the black copper and the ISASMELT furnace runs continuously in smelting mode. [ 59 ] [ 60 ]
The installation of the ISASMELT furnace increased the overall copper recovery in the plant by reducing losses to slag, reduced the number of furnaces in operation, decreased the waste gas volume, and decreased energy consumption by more than 50%. The production capacity exceeds the original design by 40%. [ 57 ]
Kandanshi
Atlantic Copper | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISASMELT |
iSBEM is a free of cost proprietary software interface to the Simplified Building Energy Model (SBEM) which is designed for the purpose of indicating compliance with UK building regulations part L2a and L2b in England and section 6 in Scotland as regards carbon emissions from non domestic buildings. The latest version at time of writing is V 5.6.a [ 1 ] which is available as a download from the EPBD NCM website. [ 2 ]
It has recently underwent additional programming to allow it to be used for producing EPCs for Non-Domestic Buildings.
Several commercial software tools exist, offering a more 'user-friendly' front-end to the SBEM calculation engine than iSBEM.
The SBEM calculation engine has some limitations and is explicitly distributed as a 'Not a Design Tool'. For more complex buildings, accredited Dynamic Simulation Modelling tools should be used for Part L compliance and EPCs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBEM |
The ISCB Africa ASBCB Conference on Bioinformatics is a biennial academic conference on the subjects of bioinformatics and computational biology , organized by the African Society for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology (ASBCB). The conference was first held in 2007 as the "ASBCB Conference on the Bioinformatics of African Pathogens, Hosts and Vectors". Since 2009, the conference has been jointly organized with the International Society for Computational Biology (ISCB) and held in different locations within Africa. [ 1 ] Although having an evident African focus, the meeting is intended to be a truly international event, encompassing scientists and students from leading institutions in the US, Latin America, Europe and Africa. Holding this event in Africa, ISCB and ASBCB intend to promote local efforts for cooperation and dissemination of leading research techniques to combat major African diseases.
The meeting usually consists of a 3-day conference followed by practical workshops. The main 3-day meeting includes keynote presentations by up to 6 invited speakers from around
the world, including Africa. Session Chairs introduce Keynote Speakers with an overview of the session, highlighting the most significant challenges and the current state of the art in the
field before the keynote speakers launch their presentations. Highly accomplished researchers, primarily but not exclusively from non-African countries, present during the post conference tutorial workshops.
Since 2009, the ISCB Africa ASBCB Conference has been partnering with the Genes, Infection and Evolution journal to publish top papers presented at the conference.
This article about a computer conference is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISCB_Africa_ASBCB_Conference_on_Bioinformatics |
ISCB Fellowship is an award granted to scientists that the International Society for Computational Biology (ISCB) judges to have made “outstanding contributions to the fields of computational biology and bioinformatics ”. [ 1 ] As of 2025 [update] , there are 161 Fellows of the ISCB including Michael Ashburner , Alex Bateman , Bonnie Berger , Helen M. Berman , Steven E. Brenner , [ 2 ] Janet Kelso , Daphne Koller , Michael Levitt , Sarah Teichmann , Janet Thornton , and Shoshana Wodak . [ 1 ] See List of Fellows of the International Society for Computational Biology for a comprehensive listing.
The first seven fellows of the ISCB were laureates of the ISCB Senior Scientist Award from 2003 to 2009:
Since 2009, new fellows have been nominated from the community of ISCB members and voted on annually by a selection committee. New fellows are traditionally inaugurated at the annual Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology (ISMB) conference. [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISCB_Fellow |
The ISCB Innovator Award is a computational biology prize awarded annually to leading scientists who are within two decades post-degree, who consistently make outstanding contributions to the field, and who continue to forge new directions. [ 1 ] The prize was established by the International Society for Computational Biology (ISCB) in 2016 and is awarded at the Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology (ISMB) conference. The inaugural recipient was Serafim Batzoglou . [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISCB_Innovator_Award |
The ISCB Accomplishment by a Senior Scientist Award [ 1 ] is an annual prize awarded by the International Society for Computational Biology for contributions to the field of computational biology . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISCB_Senior_Scientist_Award |
Immune stimulating complexes (ISCOMs) are spherical open cage-like structures (typically 40 nm in diameter) that are spontaneously formed when mixing together cholesterol , phospholipids and Quillaja saponins under a specific stoichiometry . The complex displays immune stimulating properties and is thus mainly used as a vaccine adjuvant in order to induce a stronger immune response and longer protection. A specific adjuvant based on ISCOM technology is Matrix-M .
ISCOM technology was invented in 1982 by Professor Bror Morein at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences in Uppsala . [ 1 ] The key components of ISCOMs are the Quillaja saponins , which are derived from the bark of the Chilean soap-bark tree Quillaja saponaria Molina. Quillaja saponins are well known for their ability to activate the immune system. It is also known that saponins in general can have toxic side-effects, including the induction of haemolysis . However, when Quillaia saponins, cholesterol and phospholipids are mixed under the specific stoichiometry that forms ISCOMs, this haemolytic activity is practically eliminated, while the adjuvant activity is retained.
ISCOM-Matrix technology offers several immunological and practical advantages over currently available adjuvants . Most adjuvants on the market today mainly activate the humoral immune response (i.e. give an antibody response). There is, however, a clear need for adjuvants able to induce a cell-mediated immune response as well. ISCOM technology generally induces strong activation of both the cell-mediated ( Th1 response ) and the humoral arms ( Th2 response ) of the immune system. This generates all classes and sub-classes of antibodies , as well as potent cellular responses, e.g. cytotoxic T lymphocytes.
This strong induction of the cellular response is one of the hallmarks of ISCOM-Matrix technology. A cell-mediated immune response is crucial for effective vaccination against intracellular pathogens and chronic infections. Moreover, the technology is highly efficient; its long-lasting immune responses allow reduction of the antigen dose. Typically, the dose can be decreased by a factor of 10 to 100, which will significantly cut the production cost of the vaccine. ISCOM-Matrix technology can also be of immense value in a situation when manufacturing capacity is inadequate in the face of an emerging threat such as an influenza pandemic.
ISCOM technology is also able to induce an adaptive immune response in the presence of pre-existing antibodies, for example in new-borns who have maternal antibodies.
The chemical stability of ISCOM-Matrix is of significant practical value. ISCOMs have demonstrated a shelf-life of several years during storage in aqueous solutions at +2-8 °C (compared to months for free saponins).
Since the ISCOM-Matrix is simply mixed with the antigen post-manufacturing, it offers great production advantages and flexibility in vaccine design. If required, however, the antigen can also be incorporated into the structure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISCOM |
The ISC High Performance , formerly known as the International Supercomputing Conference , is a yearly conference on supercomputing which has been held in Europe since 1986. It stands as the oldest supercomputing conference in the world.
In 1986 Professor Dr. Hans Werner Meuer , director of the computer centre and professor for computer science at the University of Mannheim (Germany) co-founded and organized the "Mannheim Supercomputer Seminar" which had 81 participants. [ 1 ] This was held yearly and became the annual International Supercomputing Conference and Exhibition (ISC). In 2015, the name was officially changed to ISC High Performance. The conference is attended by speakers, vendors, and researchers from all over the world. Since 1993 the conference has been the venue for one of the twice yearly TOP500 announcements where the fastest 500 supercomputers in the world are named. The other annual announcement is in November at the SC Conference (The International Conference for High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage and Analysis) in the USA.
The conference celebrated 30 years with the 19 June 2016 meeting in Frankfurt, Germany . [ 2 ] Its 33rd edition in 2019 attracted a record number of participants – 164 exhibitors, and 3,573 visitors from 64 countries. [ 3 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISC_High_Performance |
' The International Society for Ecological Economics Kenneth E. Boulding Memorial Award for Ecological Economics ' has been awarded since 1994. It is named after Kenneth E. Boulding to scholars who shared Boulding's sensibility for moral philosophy and natural sciences . [ 1 ] This is not to be confused with the Boulding Award established since 1990 by the Association for Interdisciplinary Studies. [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISEE_Kenneth_Boulding_Award_for_Ecological_Economics |
An ion-sensitive field-effect transistor ( ISFET ) is a field-effect transistor used for measuring ion concentrations in solution; when the ion concentration (such as H + , see pH scale) changes, the current through the transistor will change accordingly. Here, the solution is used as the gate electrode. A voltage between substrate and oxide surfaces arises due to an ion sheath. It is a special type of MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), [ 1 ] and shares the same basic structure, but with the metal gate replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane , electrolyte solution and reference electrode . [ 2 ] Invented in 1970, the ISFET was the first biosensor FET (BioFET).
The surface hydrolysis of Si–OH groups of the gate materials varies in aqueous solutions due to pH value. Typical gate materials are SiO 2 , Si 3 N 4 , Al 2 O 3 and Ta 2 O 5 .
The mechanism responsible for the oxide surface charge can be described by the site binding model , which describes the equilibrium between the Si–OH surface sites and the H + ions in the solution. The hydroxyl groups coating an oxide surface such as that of SiO 2 can donate or accept a proton and thus behave in an amphoteric way as illustrated by the following acid-base reactions occurring at the oxide-electrolyte interface:
An ISFET's source and drain are constructed as for a MOSFET . The gate electrode is separated from the channel by a barrier which is sensitive to hydrogen ions and a gap to allow the substance under test to come in contact with the sensitive barrier. An ISFET's threshold voltage depends on the pH of the substance in contact with its ion-sensitive barrier.
An ISFET electrode sensitive to H + concentration can be used as a conventional glass electrode to measure the pH of a solution. However, it also requires a reference electrode to operate. If the reference electrode used in contact with the solution is of the AgCl or Hg 2 Cl 2 classical type, it will suffer the same limitations as conventional pH electrodes (junction potential, KCl leak, and glycerol leak in case of gel electrode). A conventional reference electrode can also be bulky and fragile. A too large volume constrained by a classical reference electrode also precludes the miniaturization of the ISFET electrode, a mandatory feature for some biological or in vivo clinical analyses (disposable mini-catheter pH probe). The breakdown of a conventional reference electrode could also make problem in on-line measurements in the pharmaceutical or food industry if highly valuable products are contaminated by electrode debris or toxic chemical compounds at a late production stage and must be discarded for the sake of safety.
For this reason, since more than 20 years many research efforts have been dedicated to on-chip embedded tiny reference field effect transistors (REFET). Their functioning principle, or operating mode, can vary, depending on the electrode producers and are often proprietary and protected by patents. Semi-conductor modified surfaces required for REFET are also not always in thermodynamical equilibrium with the test solution and can be sensitive to aggressive or interfering dissolved species or not well characterized aging phenomena. This is not a real problem if the electrode can be frequently re-calibrated at regular time interval and is easily maintained during its service life. However, this may be an issue if the electrode has to remain immersed on-line for prolonged period of time, or is inaccessible for particular constrains related to the nature of the measurements itself (geochemical measurements under elevated water pressure in harsh environments or under anoxic or reducing conditions easily disturbed by atmospheric oxygen ingress or pressure changes).
A crucial factor for ISFET electrodes, as for conventional glass electrodes, remains thus the reference electrode. When troubleshooting electrode malfunctions, often, most of the problems have to be searched for from the side of the reference electrode.
For ISFET-based sensors, low-frequency noise is most detrimental to the overall SNR as it can interfere with biomedical signals which span in the same frequency domain. [ 3 ] The noise has mainly three sources. The noise sources outside the ISFET itself are referred to as the external noise, such as environmental interference and instrument noise from terminal read-out circuits. The intrinsic noise refers to that appearing in the solid part of an ISFET, which is mainly caused by the trapping and de-trapping of carriers at the Oxide/Si interface. And the extrinsic noise is generally rooted in the liquid/oxide interface causing by the ion exchange at the liquid/oxide interface. Many methods are invented to suppress the noise of ISFET. For example, to suppress the external noise, we can integrate a bipolar junction transistor with ISFET to realize immediate the internal amplification of drain current. [ 4 ] And to suppress the intrinsic noise we can replace the noisy oxide/Si interface by a Schottky junction gate. [ 5 ]
Drift of ISFET refers to the threshold voltage instability. When the intrinsic response of the pH-ISFET is completed, the output voltage of the ISFET still vary with time gradually and monotonically, and this drift behavior exists during the entire measurement process. It has been one of the serious obstacles in developing commercially viable, ISFET-based biomedical sensors. In particular, the high accuracy desired for continuous monitoring of blood pH imposes stringent requirements on the tolerable drift rate in pH ISFETs. [ 6 ]
Proposed explanations for drift include electric field enhanced ion migration within the gate insulator as well as electrochemical nonequilibrium conditions at the insulator solution interface, injection of electrons from the electrolyte at strong anodic polarizations, creating negative space charge inside the insulator films, and slow surface effects. [ 7 ]
The basis for the ISFET is the MOSFET . Dutch engineer Piet Bergveld , at the University of Twente studied the MOSFET and realized it could be adapted into a sensor for electrochemical and biological applications. [ 8 ] [ 1 ] This led to Bergveld's invention of the ISFET in 1970. [ 9 ] [ 8 ] He described the ISFET as "a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance". [ 1 ] It was the earliest biosensor FET (BioFET). [ 10 ]
ISFET sensors could be implemented in integrated circuits based on CMOS (complementary MOS) technology. ISFET devices are widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization , biomarker detection from blood , antibody detection, glucose measurement and pH sensing. [ 2 ] The ISFET is also the basis for later BioFETs, such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), [ 2 ] [ 9 ] used in genetic technology . [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISFET |
An ion-sensitive field-effect transistor ( ISFET ) is a field-effect transistor used for measuring ion concentrations in solution; when the ion concentration (such as H + , see pH scale) changes, the current through the transistor will change accordingly. Here, the solution is used as the gate electrode. A voltage between substrate and oxide surfaces arises due to an ion sheath. It is a special type of MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), [ 1 ] and shares the same basic structure, but with the metal gate replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane , electrolyte solution and reference electrode . [ 2 ] Invented in 1970, the ISFET was the first biosensor FET (BioFET).
The surface hydrolysis of Si–OH groups of the gate materials varies in aqueous solutions due to pH value. Typical gate materials are SiO 2 , Si 3 N 4 , Al 2 O 3 and Ta 2 O 5 .
The mechanism responsible for the oxide surface charge can be described by the site binding model , which describes the equilibrium between the Si–OH surface sites and the H + ions in the solution. The hydroxyl groups coating an oxide surface such as that of SiO 2 can donate or accept a proton and thus behave in an amphoteric way as illustrated by the following acid-base reactions occurring at the oxide-electrolyte interface:
An ISFET's source and drain are constructed as for a MOSFET . The gate electrode is separated from the channel by a barrier which is sensitive to hydrogen ions and a gap to allow the substance under test to come in contact with the sensitive barrier. An ISFET's threshold voltage depends on the pH of the substance in contact with its ion-sensitive barrier.
An ISFET electrode sensitive to H + concentration can be used as a conventional glass electrode to measure the pH of a solution. However, it also requires a reference electrode to operate. If the reference electrode used in contact with the solution is of the AgCl or Hg 2 Cl 2 classical type, it will suffer the same limitations as conventional pH electrodes (junction potential, KCl leak, and glycerol leak in case of gel electrode). A conventional reference electrode can also be bulky and fragile. A too large volume constrained by a classical reference electrode also precludes the miniaturization of the ISFET electrode, a mandatory feature for some biological or in vivo clinical analyses (disposable mini-catheter pH probe). The breakdown of a conventional reference electrode could also make problem in on-line measurements in the pharmaceutical or food industry if highly valuable products are contaminated by electrode debris or toxic chemical compounds at a late production stage and must be discarded for the sake of safety.
For this reason, since more than 20 years many research efforts have been dedicated to on-chip embedded tiny reference field effect transistors (REFET). Their functioning principle, or operating mode, can vary, depending on the electrode producers and are often proprietary and protected by patents. Semi-conductor modified surfaces required for REFET are also not always in thermodynamical equilibrium with the test solution and can be sensitive to aggressive or interfering dissolved species or not well characterized aging phenomena. This is not a real problem if the electrode can be frequently re-calibrated at regular time interval and is easily maintained during its service life. However, this may be an issue if the electrode has to remain immersed on-line for prolonged period of time, or is inaccessible for particular constrains related to the nature of the measurements itself (geochemical measurements under elevated water pressure in harsh environments or under anoxic or reducing conditions easily disturbed by atmospheric oxygen ingress or pressure changes).
A crucial factor for ISFET electrodes, as for conventional glass electrodes, remains thus the reference electrode. When troubleshooting electrode malfunctions, often, most of the problems have to be searched for from the side of the reference electrode.
For ISFET-based sensors, low-frequency noise is most detrimental to the overall SNR as it can interfere with biomedical signals which span in the same frequency domain. [ 3 ] The noise has mainly three sources. The noise sources outside the ISFET itself are referred to as the external noise, such as environmental interference and instrument noise from terminal read-out circuits. The intrinsic noise refers to that appearing in the solid part of an ISFET, which is mainly caused by the trapping and de-trapping of carriers at the Oxide/Si interface. And the extrinsic noise is generally rooted in the liquid/oxide interface causing by the ion exchange at the liquid/oxide interface. Many methods are invented to suppress the noise of ISFET. For example, to suppress the external noise, we can integrate a bipolar junction transistor with ISFET to realize immediate the internal amplification of drain current. [ 4 ] And to suppress the intrinsic noise we can replace the noisy oxide/Si interface by a Schottky junction gate. [ 5 ]
Drift of ISFET refers to the threshold voltage instability. When the intrinsic response of the pH-ISFET is completed, the output voltage of the ISFET still vary with time gradually and monotonically, and this drift behavior exists during the entire measurement process. It has been one of the serious obstacles in developing commercially viable, ISFET-based biomedical sensors. In particular, the high accuracy desired for continuous monitoring of blood pH imposes stringent requirements on the tolerable drift rate in pH ISFETs. [ 6 ]
Proposed explanations for drift include electric field enhanced ion migration within the gate insulator as well as electrochemical nonequilibrium conditions at the insulator solution interface, injection of electrons from the electrolyte at strong anodic polarizations, creating negative space charge inside the insulator films, and slow surface effects. [ 7 ]
The basis for the ISFET is the MOSFET . Dutch engineer Piet Bergveld , at the University of Twente studied the MOSFET and realized it could be adapted into a sensor for electrochemical and biological applications. [ 8 ] [ 1 ] This led to Bergveld's invention of the ISFET in 1970. [ 9 ] [ 8 ] He described the ISFET as "a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance". [ 1 ] It was the earliest biosensor FET (BioFET). [ 10 ]
ISFET sensors could be implemented in integrated circuits based on CMOS (complementary MOS) technology. ISFET devices are widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization , biomarker detection from blood , antibody detection, glucose measurement and pH sensing. [ 2 ] The ISFET is also the basis for later BioFETs, such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), [ 2 ] [ 9 ] used in genetic technology . [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISFET_electrode |
An ion-sensitive field-effect transistor ( ISFET ) is a field-effect transistor used for measuring ion concentrations in solution; when the ion concentration (such as H + , see pH scale) changes, the current through the transistor will change accordingly. Here, the solution is used as the gate electrode. A voltage between substrate and oxide surfaces arises due to an ion sheath. It is a special type of MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), [ 1 ] and shares the same basic structure, but with the metal gate replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane , electrolyte solution and reference electrode . [ 2 ] Invented in 1970, the ISFET was the first biosensor FET (BioFET).
The surface hydrolysis of Si–OH groups of the gate materials varies in aqueous solutions due to pH value. Typical gate materials are SiO 2 , Si 3 N 4 , Al 2 O 3 and Ta 2 O 5 .
The mechanism responsible for the oxide surface charge can be described by the site binding model , which describes the equilibrium between the Si–OH surface sites and the H + ions in the solution. The hydroxyl groups coating an oxide surface such as that of SiO 2 can donate or accept a proton and thus behave in an amphoteric way as illustrated by the following acid-base reactions occurring at the oxide-electrolyte interface:
An ISFET's source and drain are constructed as for a MOSFET . The gate electrode is separated from the channel by a barrier which is sensitive to hydrogen ions and a gap to allow the substance under test to come in contact with the sensitive barrier. An ISFET's threshold voltage depends on the pH of the substance in contact with its ion-sensitive barrier.
An ISFET electrode sensitive to H + concentration can be used as a conventional glass electrode to measure the pH of a solution. However, it also requires a reference electrode to operate. If the reference electrode used in contact with the solution is of the AgCl or Hg 2 Cl 2 classical type, it will suffer the same limitations as conventional pH electrodes (junction potential, KCl leak, and glycerol leak in case of gel electrode). A conventional reference electrode can also be bulky and fragile. A too large volume constrained by a classical reference electrode also precludes the miniaturization of the ISFET electrode, a mandatory feature for some biological or in vivo clinical analyses (disposable mini-catheter pH probe). The breakdown of a conventional reference electrode could also make problem in on-line measurements in the pharmaceutical or food industry if highly valuable products are contaminated by electrode debris or toxic chemical compounds at a late production stage and must be discarded for the sake of safety.
For this reason, since more than 20 years many research efforts have been dedicated to on-chip embedded tiny reference field effect transistors (REFET). Their functioning principle, or operating mode, can vary, depending on the electrode producers and are often proprietary and protected by patents. Semi-conductor modified surfaces required for REFET are also not always in thermodynamical equilibrium with the test solution and can be sensitive to aggressive or interfering dissolved species or not well characterized aging phenomena. This is not a real problem if the electrode can be frequently re-calibrated at regular time interval and is easily maintained during its service life. However, this may be an issue if the electrode has to remain immersed on-line for prolonged period of time, or is inaccessible for particular constrains related to the nature of the measurements itself (geochemical measurements under elevated water pressure in harsh environments or under anoxic or reducing conditions easily disturbed by atmospheric oxygen ingress or pressure changes).
A crucial factor for ISFET electrodes, as for conventional glass electrodes, remains thus the reference electrode. When troubleshooting electrode malfunctions, often, most of the problems have to be searched for from the side of the reference electrode.
For ISFET-based sensors, low-frequency noise is most detrimental to the overall SNR as it can interfere with biomedical signals which span in the same frequency domain. [ 3 ] The noise has mainly three sources. The noise sources outside the ISFET itself are referred to as the external noise, such as environmental interference and instrument noise from terminal read-out circuits. The intrinsic noise refers to that appearing in the solid part of an ISFET, which is mainly caused by the trapping and de-trapping of carriers at the Oxide/Si interface. And the extrinsic noise is generally rooted in the liquid/oxide interface causing by the ion exchange at the liquid/oxide interface. Many methods are invented to suppress the noise of ISFET. For example, to suppress the external noise, we can integrate a bipolar junction transistor with ISFET to realize immediate the internal amplification of drain current. [ 4 ] And to suppress the intrinsic noise we can replace the noisy oxide/Si interface by a Schottky junction gate. [ 5 ]
Drift of ISFET refers to the threshold voltage instability. When the intrinsic response of the pH-ISFET is completed, the output voltage of the ISFET still vary with time gradually and monotonically, and this drift behavior exists during the entire measurement process. It has been one of the serious obstacles in developing commercially viable, ISFET-based biomedical sensors. In particular, the high accuracy desired for continuous monitoring of blood pH imposes stringent requirements on the tolerable drift rate in pH ISFETs. [ 6 ]
Proposed explanations for drift include electric field enhanced ion migration within the gate insulator as well as electrochemical nonequilibrium conditions at the insulator solution interface, injection of electrons from the electrolyte at strong anodic polarizations, creating negative space charge inside the insulator films, and slow surface effects. [ 7 ]
The basis for the ISFET is the MOSFET . Dutch engineer Piet Bergveld , at the University of Twente studied the MOSFET and realized it could be adapted into a sensor for electrochemical and biological applications. [ 8 ] [ 1 ] This led to Bergveld's invention of the ISFET in 1970. [ 9 ] [ 8 ] He described the ISFET as "a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance". [ 1 ] It was the earliest biosensor FET (BioFET). [ 10 ]
ISFET sensors could be implemented in integrated circuits based on CMOS (complementary MOS) technology. ISFET devices are widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization , biomarker detection from blood , antibody detection, glucose measurement and pH sensing. [ 2 ] The ISFET is also the basis for later BioFETs, such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), [ 2 ] [ 9 ] used in genetic technology . [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISFET_pH_electrode |
ISIS/Draw was a chemical structure drawing program developed by MDL Information Systems . It introduced a number of file formats for the storage of chemical information that have become industry standards. [ 1 ]
Molecular Design Limited (MDL) was founded by Stuart Marson and W. Todd Wipke in 1978, following the latter's experience with E. J. Corey in developing software for planning organic syntheses. [ 2 ] The company developed software to store and search chemical structures in large databases under the brand name MACCS (Molecular ACCess System), which was targeted at pharmaceutical and agrochemical companies. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] MDL offered their ISIS (Integrated Scientific Information System) products including ISIS/Draw as components of the MACCS system, specifically to allow chemists to use a graphical interface to register new compounds into corporate databases and to search these databases by structure or part-structure. They also introduced ISIS/Base, a chemical database program suited to the storage of relatively small numbers of structures with associated data for personal use independently of corporate systems. ISIS/Draw structures could be incorporated into other documents, for example using the word processor software which was becoming available in the 1980s, hence providing full electronic publishing for chemists. [ 5 ] MDL released many versions of the software and made ISIS/Draw freely available for non-commercial use: version 2.5 was available to run on Windows 98 . [ 6 ] By 2007, MDL (then owned by Reed Elsevier ) merged with Symyx Technologies , which in turn was acquired by Accelrys in 2010 and is now owned by Dassault Systèmes . The software is now branded as BIOVIA Draw.
MDL introduced specifications for chemical file formats , including the molfile (.mol), and structure/data file (.sdf) which were subsequently placed in the public domain and have become standards for representing structures in 2-D drawings and for transferring such information with associated data, for example identifiers, chemical names and substance properties. [ 1 ] [ 4 ] Many public databases implemented these standards and ChemSpider , for example, allows users to download molfiles for the structures it holds. [ 7 ] ISIS/Draw retained its own proprietary file formats with the extension .skc (sketch file) and .rxn (for reactions) and because of its role in preparing database queries it supported a variety of special atom and bond types used for substructure searching, such as wildcard atoms , aromatic bonds , ring bonds, and the atom mapping required for reaction searches.
While ISIS/Draw was mainly a 2D drawing program, it had some 3D rotation features and could interface with Rasmol for 3D visualization and rendering. ISIS/Draw also included structure and reaction validation features and could calculate elementary properties such as formula and molecular weight. It had an "AutoNom" add-in that allowed the creation of IUPAC names for valid structures and could use a special "pseudoatom" to generate amino-acid sequences for proteins. [ 6 ] [ 8 ]
One important feature of the MACCS system and ISIS/Draw was that it had comprehensive facilities, using hatched and wedged bonds, to represent relative or absolute stereochemistry and chirality and to recognise cis–trans isomerism in double bonds. In this respect it was superior to Wiswesser line notation [ 9 ] which had hitherto been used to create searchable databases. Likewise, while SMILES notation [ 10 ] can handle stereochemistry in some implementations it is more difficult for non-specialists to encode their structures in that way than by drawing them.
The current (2020) implementation of the software is called BIOVIA Draw and has several new features such as support for reading and writing International Chemical Identifiers (InChi) and converting IUPAC names into structure drawings. It is freely available for academic and non-commercial use. [ 11 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISIS/Draw |
ISO/IEC 10021 , Information technology – Message Handling Systems (MHS) is the ISO / IEC standard which defines the overall system and service of an MHS and serves as a general overview of MHS.
Other aspects of Message Handling Systems and Services are defined in other parts of ISO/IEC 10021. The structure of ISO/IEC 10021 (all parts) defining the Message Handling System and Services is given in Table 1.
The technical aspects of MHS are defined in other parts of ISO/IEC 10021. The overall system architecture of MHS is defined in ISO/IEC 10021-2:1996.
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This standards - or measurement -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_10021 |
ISO/IEC 10967 , Language independent arithmetic ( LIA ), is a series of
standards on computer arithmetic. It is compatible with ISO/IEC/IEEE 60559:2011,
more known as IEEE 754-2008 , and much of the
specifications are for IEEE 754 special values
(though such values are not required by LIA itself, unless the parameter iec 559 is true ).
It was developed by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22 /WG11, which was disbanded in 2011. [ 1 ]
LIA consists of three parts:
Part 1 deals with the basic integer and floating point datatypes (for multiple radices, including 2 and 10),
but unlike IEEE 754-2008 not the representation of the values. Part 1 also
deals with basic arithmetic, including comparisons, on values of such
datatypes. The parameter iec 559 is expected to be true for most implementations of LIA-1.
Part 1 was revised, to the second edition, to become more in line with the specifications
in parts 2 and 3.
Part 2 deals with some additional "basic" operations on integer and floating point
datatype values, but focuses primarily on specifying requirements on numerical
versions of elementary functions . Much of the specifications in LIA-2 are inspired
by the specifications in Ada for elementary functions.
Part 3 generalizes parts 1 and 2 to deal with imaginary and complex datatypes and arithmetic and elementary functions on such values.
Much of the specifications in LIA-3 are inspired by the specifications
for imaginary and complex datatypes and operations in C , Ada and Common Lisp .
Each of the parts provide suggested bindings for a number of
programming languages. These are not part of the LIA standards,
just suggestions, and are not complete. Authors of a programming
language standard may wish to alter the suggestions before any
incorporation in the programming language standard.
The C99 , C11 and C17 standards for C , and in 2013, the standards for C++ and Modula-2 , have partial bindings to LIA-1. [ clarification needed ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_10967 |
ISO/IEC 14651:2016 , Information technology -- International string ordering and comparison -- Method for comparing character strings and description of the common template tailorable ordering , is an International Organization for Standardization (ISO)/ International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard specifying an algorithm that can be used when comparing two strings . This comparison can be used when collating a set of strings. The standard also specifies a data file, the Common Tailorable Template (CTT), which outlines the comparison order. This order is meant to be tailored for different languages, making the CTT a template rather than a default. In many cases, however, the empty tailoring—where no weightings are changed—is appropriate, as different languages have incompatible ordering requirements. One such tailoring is European ordering rules (EOR), which in turn is supposed to be tailored for different European languages.
The Common Tailorable Template ( CTT ) data file of this ISO/IEC standard is aligned with the Default Unicode Collation Entity Table (DUCET) datafile of the Unicode collation algorithm (UCA) specified in Unicode Technical Standard #10 .
This is the fourth edition of the standard and was published on 2016-02-15, corrected on 2016-05-01 and covers up to and including Unicode 8.0. One additional amendment Amd.1:2017 was published in September 2017 and covers up to and including Unicode 9.0.
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This standards - or measurement -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_14651 |
The ISO/IEC 15288 Systems and software engineering — System life cycle processes is a technical standard in systems engineering which covers processes and lifecycle stages , developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Planning for the ISO/IEC 15288:2002(E) standard started in 1994 when the need for a common systems engineering process framework was recognized.
ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 is managed by ISO/IEC JTC1/SC7 , which is the committee responsible for developing standards in the area of Software and Systems Engineering. ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 is part of the SC 7 Integrated set of Standards, and other standards in this domain include:
The previously accepted standard MIL STD 499A (1974) was cancelled after a memo from the United States Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) prohibited the use of most U.S. Military Standards without a waiver (this memo was rescinded in 2005). The first edition was issued on 1 November 2002. Stuart Arnold was the editor and Harold Lawson was the architect of the standard. [ 1 ] In 2004 this standard was adopted by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers as IEEE 15288. ISO/IEC 15288 was updated in 2008, then again (as a joint publication with IEEE) in 2015 and 2023. [ 2 ]
The standard defines thirty processes grouped into four categories:
The standard defines two agreement processes:
The standard defines six organizational project-enabling processes:
The standard defines eight technical management processes:
The standard defines fourteen technical processes:
Each process is defined by a purpose, outcomes and activities. Activities are further divided into tasks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_15288 |
ISO/IEC 7064 is a standard promulgated by the International Standards Organization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) that defines algorithms for calculating check digit characters. The checks should be applicable to alphanumeric strings and should be able to detect all single substitution errors, all or nearly all single local transposition errors, all or nearly all circular shift errors, a high proportion of double substitution errors, a high proportion of all other errors. [ 1 ]
It is referred to by other ISO standards:
and by other systems:
This computer security article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This standards - or measurement -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_7064 |
ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 Software and systems engineering is a standardization subcommittee of the Joint Technical Committee ISO/IEC JTC 1 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), that develops and facilitates standards within the field of engineering of software products and systems. The international secretariat of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 is the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) located in India. [ 1 ]
ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 was first established in 1987, though the origins of the subcommittee began with ISO/TC 97, established in 1960 as a standardization technical committee in the field of information processing. With the formation of ISO/IEC JTC 1 in 1987, ISO/TC 97 and IEC/TC 83 were combined to form ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7, Software Engineering . [ 2 ] In 2000, the subcommittee changed its title from Software Engineering to its current title, Software and Systems Engineering . [ 3 ] ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 held its first plenary in Paris, France in 1987. [ 2 ]
The scope of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 is the “Standardization of processes, supporting tools and supporting technologies for the engineering of software products and systems,” including
The mission of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 is to
As of August 2020, ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 is made up of 14 active working groups (WGs), three ad hoc working groups (AHGs) and five advisory groups (AGs). Each of these groups carries out specific tasks in standards development within the field of systems and software engineering. As a response to standardization needs within the field of software and systems engineering, working groups within ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 were disbanded if their working area was no longer applicable, or established if new working areas arose. The focus of each working group, special working group, advisory group, and task force is described in the group’s terms of reference.
Active working groups of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 are: [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 also had one task force, “Spanish Translation Task Force”.
ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 works in close collaboration with a number of other organizations or subcommittees, both internal and external to ISO or IEC, in order to avoid conflicting or duplicative work. Organizations internal to ISO or IEC that collaborate with or are in liaison to ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 include: [ 6 ]
Some organizations external to ISO or IEC that collaborate with or are in liaison to ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 include: [ 6 ]
Countries pay a fee to ISO to be members of subcommittees. [ 7 ]
The 40 "P" (participating) members of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 are: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Costa Rica, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Kazakhstan, Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Ukraine, United Kingdom, United States of America, and Uruguay.
The 20 "O" (observing) members of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 are: Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Cyprus, Estonia, Ghana, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, Indonesia, Islamic Republic of Iran, Kenya, Morocco, Norway, Philippines, Serbia, the Republic of Macedonia, and Turkey. [ 8 ]
ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 currently has 153 published standards within the field of software and systems engineering, including: [ 9 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_JTC_1/SC_7 |
ISO/TC 37 is a technical committee within the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that prepares standards and other documents concerning methodology and principles for terminology and language resources .
ISO/TC 37 is a so-called "horizontal committee", providing guidelines for all other technical committees that develop standards on how to manage their terminological problems. However, the standards developed by ISO/TC 37 are not restricted to ISO . Collaboration with industry is sought to ensure that the requirements and needs from all possible users of standards concerning terminology, language and structured content are duly and timely addressed.
Involvement in standards development is open to all stakeholders and requests can be made to the TC through any liaison or member organization (see the list of current members and liaisons of ISO/TC 37: [ 1 ] )
ISO/TC 37 standards are therefore fundamental and should form the basis for many localization , translation , and other industry applications .
International Standards are developed by experts from industry , academia and business who are delegates of their national standards institution or another organization in liaison. Involvement, therefore, is principally open to all stakeholders . They are based on consensus among those national standards institutes who collaborate in the respective committee by way of membership.
ISO/TC 37 develops International Standards concerning:
ISO/TC 37 looks upon a long history of terminology unification activities. In the past, terminology experts - even more so experts of terminology theory and methodology - had to struggle for wide recognition. Today their expertise is sought in many application areas, especially in various fields of standardization. The emerging multilingual information society and knowledge society will depend on reliable digital content. Terminology is indispensable here. This is because terminology plays a crucial role wherever and whenever specialized information and knowledge is being prepared (e.g. in research and development ), used (e.g. in specialized texts ), recorded and processed (e.g. in data banks), passed on (via training and teaching ), implemented (e.g. in technology and knowledge transfer), or translated and interpreted. In the age of globalization the need for methodology standards concerning multilingual digital content is increasing - ISO/TC 37 has developed over the years the expertise for methodology standards for science and technology related content in textual form.
The beginnings of terminology standardization are closely linked to the standardization efforts of IEC ( International Electrotechnical Commission , founded in 1906) and ISO ( International Organization for Standardization , founded in 1946).
A terminology standard according to ISO / IEC Guide 2 (1996) is defined as "standard that is concerned with terms, usually accompanied by their definitions , and sometimes by explanatory notes, illustrations , examples, etc."
ISO 1087-1:2000 defines terminology as "set of designations belonging to one special language" and designations as "representation of a concept by a sign which denotes it". Here, concept representation goes beyond terms (being only linguistic signs), which is also supported by the state-of-the-art of terminology science, according to which terminology has three major functions:
The above indicates that terminological data (comprising various kinds of knowledge representation) possibly have a much more fundamental role in domain-related information and knowledge than commonly understood.
Today, terminology standardization can be subdivided into two distinct activities:
The two are mutually interdependent , since the standardization of terminologies would not result in high-quality terminological data, if certain common principles, rules and methods are not observed. On the other hand, these standardized terminological principles, rules and methods must reflect the state-of-the-art of theory and methodology development in those domains, in which terminological data have to be standardized in connection with the formulation of subject standards.
Terminology gained a special position in the field of standardization at large, which is defined as "activity of establishing, with regard to actual or potential problems, provisions for common and repeated use, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context" (ISO/IEC 1996). Every technical committee or sub-committee or working group has to standardize subject matters, define and standardize its respective terminology. There is a consensus that terminology standardization precedes subject standardization (or "subject standardization requires terminology standardization").
ISO/TC 37 was put into operation in 1952 in order "to find out and formulate general principles of terminology and terminological lexicography" (as terminography was called at that time).
The history of terminology standardization proper - if one excludes earlier attempts in the field of metrology - started in the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which was founded in London in 1906 following a recommendation passed at the International Electrical Congress, held in St. Louis , United States, on 15 September 1904, to the extent that: "...steps should be taken to secure the co-operation of the technical societies of the world, by the appointment of a representative Commission to consider the question of the standardization of the nomenclature and ratings of electrical apparatus and machinery ". From the very beginning, IEC considered it its foremost task to standardize the terminology of electrotechnology for the sake of the quality of its subject standards, and soon embarked upon the International Electrotechnical Vocabulary (IEV), whose first edition, based on many individual terminology standards, was published in 1938. The IEV is still being continued today, covering 77 chapters as parts of the International Standard series IEC 60050. The IEV Online Database can be accessed on Electropedia [ 2 ]
The predecessor to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the International Federation of Standardizing Associations (ISA, founded in 1926), made a similar experience. But it went a step further and - triggered by the publication of Eugen Wüster 's book "Internationale Sprachnormung in der Technik" [International standardization of technical language] (Wüster 1931) - established in 1936 the Technical Committee ISA/TC 37 "Terminology" for the sake of formulating general principles and rules for terminology standardization.
ISA/TC 37 conceived a scheme of four classes of recommendations for terminology standardization mentioned below, but the Second World War interrupted its pioneering work. Nominally, ISO/TC 37 was established from the very beginning of ISO in 1946, but it was decided to re-activate it only in 1951 and the Committee started operation in 1952. Since then until 2009 the secretariat of ISO/TC 37 has been held by the International Information Centre for Terminology (Infoterm), [ 3 ] on behalf of the Austrian Standards International Austria. Infoterm, [ 3 ] an international non-governmental organization based in Austria, continues to collaborate as a twinning secretariat . After this the administration went to CNIS (China).
To prepare standards specifying principles and methods for the preparation and management of language resources within the framework of standardization and related activities. Its technical work results in International Standards (and Technical Reports) covering terminological principles and methods as well as various aspects of computer-assisted terminography. ISO/TC 37 is not responsible for the co-ordination of the terminology standardizing activities of other ISO/TCs.
Note: Current status is not mentioned here - see ISO Website for most recent status. Many of these are in development. : [ 9 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/TC_37 |
ISO 10012:2003, Measurement management systems - Requirements for measurement processes and measuring equipment is the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard that specifies generic requirements and provides guidance for the management of measurement processes and metrological confirmation of measuring equipment used to support and demonstrate compliance with metrological requirements. It specifies quality management requirements of a measurement management system that can be used by an organization performing measurements as part of the overall management system, and to ensure metrological requirements are met.
ISO 10012:2003 is not intended to be used as a requisite for demonstrating conformance with ISO 9001 , ISO 14001 or any other standard. Interested parties can agree to use ISO 10012:2003 as an input for satisfying measurement management system requirements in certification activities.
Other standards and guides exist for particular elements affecting measurement results, e.g. details of measurement methods, competence of personnel, and interlaboratory comparisons.
ISO 10012:2003 is not intended as a substitute for, or as an addition to, the requirements of ISO/IEC 17025 .
Quality assurance requirements for measuring equipment – Part 1: Metrological confirmation system for measuring equipment
Applies to: testing laboratories , including those providing a calibration service; suppliers of products or services ; other organizations where measurement is used to demonstrate compliance with specified requirements.
Quality assurance for measuring equipment – Part 2: Guidelines for control of measurement processes
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This standards - or measurement -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_10012 |
ISO 10160 is the ISO standard , first published in 1993, that defines the terminology that is used for interlibrary loan transactions between various document exchange systems such as VDX . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] It is closely related to ISO 10161 , the Interlibrary Loan Application Protocol. [ 1 ]
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This standards - or measurement -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_10160 |
ISO 10161 is the ISO standard , first published in 1993, that defines the interlibrary loan (ILL) application protocol for communication between various document exchange systems. [ 1 ] It allows ILL systems at different libraries and residing on different hardware platforms and using different software packages such as VDX to communicate with each other to request and receive electronic documents. [ 1 ] It is closely related to ISO 10160 , the Interlibrary Loan Application Service Definition. [ 1 ]
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_10161 |
ISO 13485 Medical devices -- Quality management systems -- Requirements for regulatory purposes is a voluntary standard, [ 1 ] published by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for the first time in 1996, and contains a comprehensive quality management system for the design and manufacture of medical devices . The latest version of this standard supersedes earlier documents such as EN 46001 (1993 and 1996) and EN 46002 (1996), the previously published ISO 13485 (1996 and 2003), and ISO 13488 (also 1996).
The current ISO 13485 edition was published on 1 March 2016. [ 2 ]
Though it is tailored to the industry's quality system expectations and regulatory requirements, an organization does not need to be actively manufacturing medical devices or their components to seek certification to this standard, in contrast to the automotive sector's ISO/TS 16949 , where only firms with an active request for quotation , or on the bid list, of an International Automotive Task Force supply chain manufacturer can seek registration. [ 3 ]
While it remains a stand-alone document, ISO 13485 is generally harmonized with ISO 9001 . A principal difference, however, is that ISO 9001 requires the organization to demonstrate continual improvement , whereas ISO 13485 requires only that the certified organization demonstrate the quality system is effectively implemented and maintained. Additionally, the ISO 9001 requirements regarding customer satisfaction are absent from the medical device standard. [ 4 ]
ISO 13485 places specific emphasis on resource and environment management, tailored to the medical device and software sectors. For example, the standard requires organizations to ensure that their personnel are not only qualified but also adequately trained to understand and implement regulatory requirements. Moreover, the infrastructure and work environment must support compliance and safety. In software engineering for medical devices, this extends to maintaining cybersecurity measures and ensuring a development environment free from potential risks to data integrity or software reliability.
Other specific differences include:
Compliance with ISO 13485 is often viewed as the initial step in ensuring adherence to European regulatory requirements. This is particularly significant when it comes to assessing the conformity of Medical Devices and In-vitro Diagnostic Medical Devices in accordance with European Union Directives 93/42/EEC, 90/385/EEC, and 98/79/EEC before allowing their sale. A fundamental aspect of proving conformity lies in the establishment and implementation of a Quality Management System compliant with ISO 9001, ISO 13485, and ISO 14971. While it's important to note that the European Union Directives don't explicitly mandate certification to ISO 9001 and/or ISO 13485, it is the preferred approach for demonstrating compliance to these standards, and this certification is issued by specialized organizations referred to as "Registrars."
Furthermore, some of these registrars also serve as Notified Bodies, which play a pivotal role in the pre-market assessment of certain medical devices. When a Notified Body conducts a thorough evaluation and issues a positive assessment, it results in the coveted certificate of conformity, granting the CE mark and the authorization to market the medical device within the European Union. It's important to underline that the Notified Body's assessment scrutinizes the company's Quality Management System in great detail, along with a meticulous review of the requisite Technical Documentation. This comprehensive evaluation is a crucial element that the Notified Body takes into account when granting the certificate of conformity for the company's product or products.
In summary, the journey to compliance with European regulatory requirements for medical devices entails a multi-faceted approach, with ISO 13485 serving as a cornerstone and the involvement of Notified Bodies as a key step to gain the necessary certifications and permissions for market access in the European Union.
This standard adopted by CEN as EN ISO 13485:2003/AC:2007 is harmonized with respect to the European medical device directives 93/42/EEC , 90/385/EEC and 98/79/EC. [ 5 ]
ISO 13485 is now considered to be inline standard and requirement for medical devices even with " Global Harmonization Task Force Guidelines" (GHTF). [ 6 ] The GHTF guidelines are slowly becoming universal standards for design, manufacture, export and sales of various medical devices. The GHTF has been replaced in the last few years by the International Medical Device Regulators Forum (IMDRF) [ 7 ] and is structured differently from the GHTF as only the regulators, that are primary members of the group, get to make many of the decisions. The IMDRF main membership (the regulators) do want to have non-regulators involved without voting rights and in this way they are hoping to get the process and documents completed quicker than under the GHTF system (regulators & non-regulators were equal in voting rights) that worked reasonably well, but somewhat slow.
This standard adopted by CEN as EN ISO 13485:2012 is harmonized with respect to the European Medical Devices Directive 93/42/EEC. [ 8 ]
Mexico published on October 11, 2012, a national standard as a Norma Oficial Mexicana (NOM) to control manufacture of medical devices inside the country. NOM-241-SSA1-2012, Buenas Practicas de Fabricación para Establecimientos dedicados a la Fabricación de Dispositivos Médicos. [ 9 ] The scope of application is mandatory in the national territory, for all establishments dedicated to the process of medical devices marketed in the country. The Cofepris is the body assigned to its control, verification and to grant the records of compliance to the companies that implement this Standard of Good Manufacturing Practices. This standard is partially in line with ISO 13485: 2003 and ISO 9001: 2008.
In 2017, The Farmacopea de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (United Mexican States Pharmacopoeia), medical industrial sectors and Cofepris are working together for updating NOM-241 Standard, putting special attention on managing risks during manufacture and regulating by manufacturing lines some of the most important medical devices manufacturing processes. This standard will be published in August 2018, and 180 days after publication it will become mandatory for the industry.
In Spain, medical devices are named in ISO-13485 as "Sanitary Products" as Castellano-language translation of ISO-13485, but in Mexico they are known as "Medical Devices" and correspond to those used in medical practice and that meet the definition established by NOM-241 as: Medical device, to the substance, mixture of substances, material, apparatus or instrument (including the computer program necessary for its proper use or application), used alone or in combination in the diagnosis, monitoring or prevention of human or auxiliary diseases in the treatment of the same and of the disability, as well as the employees in the replacement, correction, restoration or modification of the anatomy or human physiological processes. Medical devices include products of the following categories: medical equipment, prostheses, orthotics, functional aids, diagnostic agents, supplies for dental use, surgical, healing and hygiene products.
ISO 13485:2016 Certificates meets the requirement of IEC 60601-2-25 : 1993 + A1: 1999 safety of Electrocardiograms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_13485 |
ISO 14006 , Environmental management systems - Guidelines for incorporating ecodesign , is an international standard that specifies guidelines to help organizations establish, document, implement, maintain, and continuously improve their ecodesign management as part of the environmental management system. The standard is intended to be used by organizations that have implemented an environmental management system in compliance with ISO 14001 , but can help to integrate ecodesign into other management systems. The guideline is applicable to any organization regardless of its size or activity. [ 1 ]
ISO 14006 was developed by ISO/TC207/SC1 Environmental management systems, and was published for the first time in July 2011. [ 2 ] The second edition was published in January 2020. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
ISO/TC 207 was established in the year 1993.
The 'ISO 14006' adopts a scheme in 5 chapters in the following subdivision: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_14006 |
ISO 14644 Standards were first formed from the US Federal Standard 209E Airborne Particulate Cleanliness Classes in Cleanrooms and Clean Zones. The need for a single standard for cleanroom classification and testing was long felt. After ANSI and IEST petitioned to ISO for new standards, the first document of ISO 14644 was published in 1999, ISO 14644-1. [ 1 ]
In 2000, ISO 14644-2 was published, which began the process of FED-STD-209E being canceled. On November 29, 2001, the document was canceled and superseded by ISO 14644-1 and ISO 14644-2 . [ 2 ]
ISO 14644-8:2022(en), Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments — Part 8: Assessment of air cleanliness for chemical concentration (ACC)
ISO 14644-1 covers the classification of air cleanliness in cleanrooms and associated controlled environments. Classification in accordance with this standard is specified and accomplished exclusively in terms of concentration of airborne particulates . [ 6 ] The document was submitted as an American National Standard and has been adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-1:1999 in the United States, following the cancellation of FED-STD-209E . [ 6 ]
Part 2 specifies requirements for periodic testing of a cleanroom or clean zone to prove its continued compliance with ISO 14644-1 for the designated classification of airborne particulate cleanliness. It also specifies requirements for the monitoring of a cleanroom or clean zone (installation) to provide evidence of its continued compliance with ISO 14644-1 for the designated classification of airborne particulate cleanliness. [ 7 ] It became an International Standard following the cancellation of FED-STD-209E. In the United States in 2000 it was adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-2:2000. [ 7 ]
This part specifies test methods for designated classification of airborne particulate cleanliness and for characterizing the performance of cleanrooms and clean zones. These test methods are specified in the document for two different types of cleanrooms and clean zones; unidirectional flow and nonunidirectional flow. [ 8 ]
The most important objectives of this highly referenced document are to provide an internationally common basis of measurement and evaluation of cleanrooms and, at the same time, not to prevent the introduction of new technologies. [ 8 ]
This part specifies requirements for the design and construction of cleanroom and clean air devices, as well as requirements for start-up and qualification, but does not prescribe specific technological nor contractual means to meet the requirements. This document is intended for purchasers , suppliers , and designers of cleanroom installations. [ 9 ] It was submitted as an American National Standard in 2001. [ 9 ]
ISO 14644-5 provides the basic requirements for operating and maintaining cleanrooms and associated controlled environments. This standard addresses requirements that are basic to the operation of all cleanrooms, regardless of the application. Topics include: [ 10 ]
This part was published as an International Standard in 2004. The document was submitted as an American National Standard and has been adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-5:2004 in the United States. [ 10 ]
This part is an important document for any contamination control professional. This document describes all the terms and definitions in ISO 14644 and ISO 14698 . In March 2008 this ISO Standard recently became an American National Standard. [ 11 ]
This part of ISO 14644 specifies the minimum requirements for the design, construction, installation, testing and approval of separative devices in those respects where they differ from cleanrooms as described in Parts 4 and 5. Separative devices range from open to closed systems. [ 12 ]
The limitations are:
This part was published as an International Standard in 2004. The document was submitted as an American National Standard and has been adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-7:2004. [ 12 ]
This part of ISO 14644 covers the classification of airborne molecular contamination (AMC) in cleanrooms and associated controlled environments, in terms of airborne concentrations of specific chemical substances (individual, group or category) and provides a protocol to include test methods , analysis and time-weighted factors within the specification for classification. [ 13 ]
This document became a Standard in 2006. It was developed by the Secretariat of ISO Technical Committee 209, IEST. [ 13 ]
This ISO document describes the classification of the particle contamination levels on solid surfaces in cleanrooms and associated controlled environments applications. Recommendations on testing and measuring methods as well as information about surface characteristics are given in informative annexes . [ 14 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_14644 |
The ISO 14698 Standards features two International Standards on biocontamination control for cleanrooms . IEST , the Secretariat and Administrator of ISO Technical Committee 209, helped develop this series of ISO 14698 Standards. [ 1 ]
ISO 14698-1 was first written in 2003. ISO 14698-1 describes the principles and basic methodology for a formal system to assess and control biocontamination, where cleanroom technology is applied, in order that biocontamination in zones at risk can be monitored in a reproducible way and appropriate control measures can be selected. In zones of low or negligible risk this standard may be used as a source of information. [ 2 ]
ISO 14698-2 became available to the public in October 2003. ISO 14698-2 gives guidance on basic principles and methodological requirements for all microbiological data evaluation, and the estimation of biocontamination data obtained from sampling for viable particles in zones at risk, as specified by the system selected. This is not intended for testing the performance of microbiological counting techniques of determining viable units. [ 3 ]
DateTime Report Generated: 19 February 2009 3:59:00 PM (CET) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_14698 |
ISO 14971 Medical devices — Application of risk management to medical devices is a voluntary consensus standard, [ 1 ] published by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for the first time in 1998, and specifies terminology, principles, and a process for risk management of medical devices . [ 2 ]
The current ISO 14971 edition was published in December 2019.
The ISO Technical Committee responsible for the maintenance of this standard is ISO/ TC 210 working with IEC/SC62A through Joint Working Group one (JWG1). This standard is the culmination of the work starting in ISO/IEC Guide 51 , [ 3 ] and ISO/IEC Guide 63 . [ 4 ] The third edition of ISO 14971 was published in December 2019 and supersedes the second edition of ISO 14971. [ 5 ]
Specifically, ISO 14971 is a nine-part standard which first establishes a framework for risk analysis, evaluation, control, and review, and also specifies a procedure for review and monitoring during production and post-production. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
ISO 14971:2012 was harmonized with respect to the three European Directives associated with medical devices through the three 'Zed' Annexes (ZA, ZB & ZC). The Annex ZA harmonized ISO 14971:2012 with the Medical Devices Directive 93/42/EEC of 1993. [ 8 ] The Annex ZB harmonized ISO 14971:2012 with the Active Implantable Medical Device Directive 90/385/EEC of 1990. [ 9 ] The Annex ZC harmonized ISO 14971:2012 with the In-vitro Diagnostic Medical Device Directive 98/79/EC of 1998. [ 10 ]
The 2021 addendum to ISO 14971 (ISO 14971:2019+A11:2021) was published to harmonize ISO 14971 and two European Regulations associated with medical devices through the two 'Zed' Annexes (ZA & ZB). The Annex ZA harmonized ISO 14971 with the European Union's Medical Device Regulation (2017/745) of 2017. [ 11 ] The Annex ZB harmonized ISO 14971 with the European Union's Medical Device Regulation (2017/746) of 2017. [ 12 ]
ISO/TR 24971 [ 13 ] was published in 2013 by the ISO TC 210 technical committee to provide expert guidance on the application of this standard. The second edition of ISO 24971 was published in 2020 and contains some of the informative annexes from the second edition of ISO 14971. [ 14 ]
For example:
For example:
For example:
The third edition of the standard from 2019 differs from 14971:2007 not only by a new chapter structure, but also by focus on the benefit-risk ratio. For this, the concept of (medical) benefit is now defined. In addition, there is a stronger focus on the "information from the production and the downstream phases". Some explanations or appendices from the previous edition are outsourced in ISO / TR 24971:2019. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_14971 |
ISO 1629 , Rubber and latices – Nomenclature is an ISO standard that helps in classification and designation of basic or crude rubber in both dry and latex forms under a series of symbols or signs, based on the chemical composition of the polymer chain . This standardization becomes useful across industry and commerce thereby avoiding conflict in existing trademarks and names.
This standard was originally published in 1976, and was updated in 1987, 1995 (with amendments in 2007 and 2009) and 2013.
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This standards - or measurement -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_1629 |
ISO 16610: Geometrical product specifications (GPS) – Filtration is a standard series on filters for surface texture , and provides guidance on the use of these filters in various applications.
Filters are used in surface texture in order reduce the bandwidth of analysis in order to obtain functional correlation with physical phenomena such as friction, wear, adhesion, etc. For example, filters are used to separate roughness and waviness from the primary profile, or to create a multiscale decomposition in order to identify the scale at which a phenomenon occurs.
Historically, the first roughness measuring instruments - stylus profilometer - used to have electronic filters made of capacitors and resistors that filtered out low frequencies in order to retain frequencies that represent roughness. Later, digital filters replaced analog filters and international standards such as ISO 11562 for the Gaussian filter were published.
Today, a full set of filters is described in the ISO 16610 standard series. This standard is part of the GPS standards on Geometrical Product Specification and Verification, developed by ISO TC 213.
ISO 16610 is composed of two families of documents, one for profiles (open and closed) and one for surfaces. A general introduction is provided in:
Profile filters are defined for open profiles, measured along a line by profilometers and expressed as z=f(x), as well as for closed profiles, measured around a circular component by roundness instruments and expressed as radius=f(angle). Most of these standards were first published as a Technical Specification (TS) and later converted to International Standards or withdrawn.
Parts related to profile filters are:
Note: ISO/TS 16610-32 on robust spline filters was published as a technical specification in 2009 but was withdrawn in 2015.
Areal filters are defined for surfaces measured either by lateral scanning instruments or optical profilometers.
Parts related to areal filters are:
The following section describes which application is suitable for each filter. References to published papers or books are provided when available. Readers are encouraged to add below proven applications related to surface texture and tribology where a particular filter can be used alone or in conjunction with other treatments or analyses to provide significant results. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_16610 |
ISO 16750 , Road vehicles – Environmental conditions and testing for electrical and electronic equipment, is a series of ISO standards which provide guidance regarding environmental conditions commonly encountered by electrical and electronic systems installed in automobiles and specify requirements and tests. [ 1 ]
ISO 16750 has five parts:
A similar series of ISO standards exists for electrical and electronic equipment for the drive system of electric vehicles, see ISO 19453 , [ 6 ] now withdrawn, see https://www.iso.org/standard/64930.html | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_16750 |
ISO 1745:1975 Information processing – Basic mode control procedures for data communication systems is an early ISO standard defining a Telex -oriented communications protocol that used the non-printable ASCII transmission control characters SOH (Start of Heading), STX (Start of Text), ETX (End of Text) , EOT (End of Transmission) , ENQ (Enquiry) , ACK (Acknowledge) , DLE (Data Link Escape), NAK (Negative Acknowledge) , SYN (Synchronous Idle) , and ETB (End of Transmission Block) .
It also defines a serial data format, consisting of a start bit, 7 bit ASCII ( least significant bit first), a parity bit (even for asynchronous networks, odd for synchronous networks), and a stop bit.
The text of ISO 1745:1975 is not currently freely available, [ 1 ] but the corresponding ECMA version is. [ 2 ] The protocol it defines seems to now be little used. [ citation needed ]
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This standards - or measurement -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_1745 |
ISO 20815 is the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard for production assurance and reliability management in the petroleum , petrochemical and natural gas industries. [ 1 ]
The 2008 version of the standard was last reviewed and confirmed in 2012. [ 1 ] It has been replaced by ISO/DIS 20815:2018 in October 2018. [ 2 ]
The division of the oil and gas industry into upstream , midstream and downstream sectors is referred to in the standard.
This standards - or measurement -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_20815 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.