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This is a list of open-source programming languages and the open-source license it is released under. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open-source_programming_languages |
This is a list of open-source software to be used for high-order mathematical calculations. This software has played an important role in the field of mathematics. [ 1 ] Open-source software in mathematics has become pivotal in education because of the high cost of textbooks. [ 2 ]
A computer algebra system (CAS) is a software product designed for manipulation of mathematical formulae . The principal objective of a computer algebra system is to systematize monotonous and sometimes problematic algebraic manipulation tasks. The primary difference between a computer algebra system and a traditional calculator is the ability to deal with equations symbolically rather than numerically. The precise uses and capabilities of these systems differ greatly from one system to another, yet their purpose remains the same: manipulation of symbolic equations . Computer algebra systems often include facilities for graphing equations and provide a programming language for the users' own procedures .
Axiom is a general-purpose CAS. It has been in development since 1971 by IBM , and was originally named scratchpad . Richard Jenks originally headed it but over the years Barry Trager who then shaped the direction of the scratchpad project took over the project. It was eventually sold to the Numerical Algorithms Group (NAG) and was renamed Axiom. After a failure to launch as a product, NAG decided to release it as a free software in 2001 with more than 300 man-years worth of research involved. Axiom is licensed under a Modified BSD license .
A CAS designed for the solution of problems in physical field theory. An unpublished computational program written in Pascal called Abra inspired this open-source software . Abra was originally designed for physicists to compute problems present in quantum mechanics . Kespers Peeters then decided to write a similar program in C computing language rather than Pascal, which he renamed Cadabra . However, Cadabra has been expanded for a wider range of uses, it is no longer restricted to physicists.
CoCoA (COmputations in COmmutative Algebra) is open-source software used for computing multivariate polynomials and initiated in 1987. Originally written in Pascal , CoCoA was later translated into C .
GAP was initiated by RWTH Aachen University in 1986. This was the case until in 1997 when they decided to co-develop GAP further with CIRCA (Centre for Research in Computational Algebra). Unlike MAXIMA and Axiom, GAP is a system for computational discrete algebra with particular emphasis on computational group theory . In March 2005 the GAP Council and the GAP developers have agreed that status and responsibilities of "GAP Headquarters" should be passed to an equal collaboration of a number of "GAP Centres", where there is permanent staff involvement and an element of collective or organizational commitment, while fully recognizing the vital contributions of many individuals outside those centers.
Mathics is an open-source GPL3 license version of the Wolfram Language .
This free software had an earlier incarnation, Macsyma . Developed by Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the 1960s, it was maintained by William Schelter from 1982 to 2001. In 1998, Schelter obtained permission to release Maxima as open-source software under the GNU General Public license and the source code was released later that year. Since his death in 2001, a group of Maxima enthusiasts have continued to provide technical support.
PARI/GP is a computer algebra system that facilitates number-theory computation. Besides support of factoring, algebraic number theory, and analysis of elliptic curves, it works with mathematical objects like matrices, polynomials, power series , algebraic numbers, and transcendental functions . [ 3 ] Originally developed by Henri Cohen et al at Université Bordeaux I, France, it now is GPL software. The gp interactive shell allows GP-language scripting; the gp2c compiler compiles GP scripts into C; and the PARI C library allows C programs to use PARI/GP functions.
Sympy is a computer algebra system written in Python .
Xcas/Giac is an open-source project developed at the Joseph Fourier University of Grenoble since 2000. Written in C++ , maintained by Bernard Parisse's [ fr ] et al. and available for Windows , Mac , Linux and many others platforms. It has a compatibility mode with Maple , Derive and MuPAD software and TI-89 , TI-92 and Voyage 200 calculators. The system was chosen by Hewlett-Packard as the CAS for their HP Prime calculator, which utilizes the Giac/Xcas 1.1.2 engine under a dual-license scheme.
Geogebra (Geometry and Algebra) - combines geometric objects like circles and graphs of functions with its algebraic representation e.g. x 2 + y 2 = r 2 {\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=r^{2}} representing a circle with the radius r {\displaystyle r} . Designed for use in schools and educational settings.
Numerical analysis is an area of mathematics that creates and analyzes algorithms for obtaining numerical approximations to problems involving continuous variables . When an arbitrary function does not have a closed form as its solution, there would not be any analytical tools present to evaluate the desired solutions, hence an approximation method is employed instead.
FreeMat is an alternative to MATLAB .
The GNU Scientific Library (or GSL) is a software library for numerical computations in applied mathematics and science. The GSL is written in C and wrappers are available for other programming languages. The GSL is part of the GNU Project and is distributed under the GNU General Public License.
Octave (aka GNU Octave) is an alternative to MATLAB . Originally conceived in 1988 by John W. Eaton as a companion software for an undergraduate textbook, Eaton later opted to modify it into a more flexible tool. Development began in 1992 and the alpha version was released in 1993. Subsequently, version 1.0 was released a year after that in 1994. Octave is a high level language with the primary intention in numerical computation .
Modelica is an object-oriented, declarative, multi-domain modeling language for component-oriented modeling of complex systems including algebraic and differential equations. OpenModelica and Jmodelica are some of the opensource implementations of the language.
Inspired by MATLAB , Scilab was initiated in the mid-1980s at the INRIA (French national Institute for computer science and control). François Delebecque and Serge Steer developed it and it was released by INRIA in 1994 as an open-source software. Since 2008, Scilab has been distributed under the CeCILL license , which is GPL compatible. In 2010, Scilab Enterprise was founded to provide even more support to the software.
SciPy is a python programming language library to take advantage of Python's ability to handle large data sets. [ 4 ]
Statistics is the study of how to collate and interpret numerical information from data. It is the science of learning from data and communicating uncertainty. There are two branches in statistics : ‘ Descriptive statistics ’’ and ‘’ Inferential statistics
Descriptive statistics involves methods of organizing, picturing and summarizing information from data. Inferential statistics involves methods of using information from a sample to draw conclusions about the Population.
R Statistics Software , SOFA Statistics , PSPP and JASP are open source software competitors to SPSS , widely used for statistical analysis of sampled data. PSPP is maintained by the GNU project. SOFA Statistics is addressing beginners with basic features, while GNU-R Statistics Software has a large community that maintains R packages also beyond statistical analysis.
R is both a language and software used for statistical computing and graphing . R was originally developed by Bell Laboratories (Currently known as Lucent Technologies ) by John Chambers . Since R is largely written in C language , users can use C or C++ commands to manipulate R-objects directly. Also, R runs on most UNIX platforms. R is currently part of the Free Software Foundation GNU project .
Demetra is a program for seasonal adjustments that was developed and published by Eurostat – European Commission under the EUPL license.
Such software were created with the original intent of providing a math platform that can be compared to proprietary software such as MATLAB and Mathematica . They contain multiple other free software and hence have more features than the rest of the software mentioned.
SageMath is designed partially as a free alternative to the general-purpose mathematics products Maple and MATLAB . It can be downloaded or used through a web site. SageMath comprises a variety of other free packages, with a common interface and language. SageMath is developed in Python.
SageMath was initiated by William Stein , of Harvard University in 2005 for his personal project in number theory . It was originally known as "HECKE and Manin". After a short while it was renamed SAGE, which stands for ‘’Software of Algebra and Geometry Experimentation’’. Sage 0.1 was released in 2005 and almost a year later Sage 1.0 was released. It already consisted of Pari , GAP , Singular and Maxima with an interface that rivals that of Mathematica . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open-source_software_for_mathematics |
An open file format is a file format for storing digital data , defined by a published specification usually maintained by a standards organization , and which can be used and implemented by anyone. For example, an open format can be implemented by both proprietary and free and open source software , using the typical software licenses used by each. In contrast to open formats, closed formats are considered trade secrets. Open formats are also called free file formats if they are not encumbered by any copyrights, patents, trademarks or other restrictions (for example, if they are in the public domain ) so that anyone may use them at no monetary cost for any desired purpose. [ 1 ]
Open formats (in alphabetical order) include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open_file_formats |
This is a list of opioids , opioid antagonists and inverse agonists .
1-Bromocodeine
1-Chlorocodeine
1-Iodomorphine
Dextromethadone
Dipipanone
Isomethadone
Alphaacetylmethadol
Dimepheptanol
Levacetylmethadol
Noracetylmethadol
Desmethylmoramide
Dextromoramide
Levomoramide
Moramide intermediate
Racemoramide
Diethylthiambutene
Dimethylthiambutene
Ethylmethylthiambutene
Piperidylthiambutene
Thiambutene
Tipepidine
Dextropropoxyphene (propoxyphene)
Dimenoxadol
Dioxaphetyl butyrate
Levopropoxyphene
Norpropoxyphene
Diampromide
Phenampromide
Propiram
Embutramide
IC-26
Isoaminile
Lefetamine
R-4066
Ethoheptazine
Meptazinol
Metheptazine
Metethoheptazine
Proheptazine
Bezitramide
Piritramide
Clonitazene
Etonitazene
Isotonitazene
Metonitazene
Nitazene : R = hydrogen
18-Methoxycoronaridine
7-Acetoxymitragynine
7-Hydroxymitragynine
Akuammidine
Akuammine
Eseroline
Hodgkinsine
Mitragynine
Pericine
Pseudoakuammigine
3-(dimethylamino)-2,2-dimethyl-1-phenylpropan-1-one (Beta-amine ketone 'compound 29')
BW373U86
DPI-221
DPI-287
DPI-3290
SNC-80
Alimadol
Anilopam
Asimadoline
FE 200665
Fedotozine
MCOPPB
Nalfurafine
Nalorphine
Nalorphine dinicotinate
SoRI-9409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_opioids |
This is a list of optical disc authoring software . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_optical_disc_authoring_software |
This aims to be a complete list of optical disc manufacturers , including pre-recorded/pressed/replicated, record-able/write-once and re-writable discs.
This list is not necessarily complete or up to date - if you see a manufacturer that should be here but is not (or one that should not be here but is), please update the page accordingly. This list only lists manufacturers - not brands. For example, many Maxell DVDs are made by Ritek or CMC magnetics. Many companies use equipment from Singulus Technologies . This list includes both CD, DVD and Blu-ray recordable and rewritable media manufacturers (like Ritek), and disc replicators (companies that replicate discs with pre-recorded content, like Sony DADC). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_optical_disc_manufacturers |
This article summarizes equations used in optics , including geometric optics , physical optics , radiometry , diffraction , and interferometry .
There are different forms of the Poynting vector , the most common are in terms of the E and B or E and H fields.
For spectral quantities two definitions are in use to refer to the same quantity, in terms of frequency or wavelength.
Q = ∬ Φ ν d ν d t {\displaystyle Q=\iint \Phi _{\nu }\mathrm {d} \nu \mathrm {d} t}
Φ = ∬ I ν d ν d Ω {\displaystyle \Phi =\iint I_{\nu }\mathrm {d} \nu \mathrm {d} \Omega }
Φ = ∭ L ν d ν ( e ^ ∠ ⋅ d A ) d Ω {\displaystyle \Phi =\iiint L_{\nu }\mathrm {d} \nu \left(\mathbf {\hat {e}} _{\angle }\cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {A} \right)\mathrm {d} \Omega \,\!}
Φ = ∬ E ν d ν ( e ^ ∠ ⋅ d A ) {\displaystyle \Phi =\iint E_{\nu }\mathrm {d} \nu \left(\mathbf {\hat {e}} _{\angle }\cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {A} \right)}
p p = q A {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} _{\mathrm {p} }=q\mathbf {A} \,\!}
Kinetic momentum: p k = m v {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} _{\mathrm {k} }=m\mathbf {v} \,\!}
Canonical momentum: p = m v + q A {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =m\mathbf {v} +q\mathbf {A} \,\!}
At a spherical surface: I = P 0 Ω | r | 2 {\displaystyle I={\frac {P_{0}}{\Omega \left|r\right|^{2}}}\,\!}
v = | Δ λ | c / λ 0 {\displaystyle v=|\Delta \lambda |c/\lambda _{0}\,\!}
| E | = ε μ | H | {\displaystyle \left|\mathbf {E} \right|={\sqrt {\varepsilon \over \mu }}\left|\mathbf {H} \right|\,\!}
E = E 0 sin ( k x − ω t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =\mathbf {E} _{0}\sin(kx-\omega t)\,\!}
Magnetic
B = B 0 sin ( k x − ω t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} =\mathbf {B} _{0}\sin(kx-\omega t)\,\!}
Lens focal length from refraction indices 1 f = ( n l e n s n m e d − 1 ) ( 1 r 1 − 1 r 2 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{f}}=\left({\frac {n_{\mathrm {lens} }}{{n}_{\mathrm {med} }}}-1\right)\left({\frac {1}{r_{1}}}-{\frac {1}{r_{2}}}\right)\,\!}
1 x 1 + 1 x 2 = 1 f = 2 r {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{x_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{x_{2}}}={\frac {1}{f}}={\frac {2}{r}}\,\!}
Image distance in a spherical mirror n 1 x 1 + n 2 x 2 = ( n 2 − n 1 ) r {\displaystyle {\frac {n_{1}}{x_{1}}}+{\frac {n_{2}}{x_{2}}}={\frac {\left(n_{2}-n_{1}\right)}{r}}\,\!}
Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to initial and final optical media respectively.
These ratios are sometimes also used, following simply from other definitions of refractive index, wave phase velocity, and the luminal speed equation:
n 1 n 2 = v 2 v 1 = λ 2 λ 1 = ε 1 μ 1 ε 2 μ 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {n_{1}}{n_{2}}}={\frac {v_{2}}{v_{1}}}={\frac {\lambda _{2}}{\lambda _{1}}}={\sqrt {\frac {\varepsilon _{1}\mu _{1}}{\varepsilon _{2}\mu _{2}}}}\,\!}
where:
where n ∈ N {\displaystyle n\in \mathbf {N} \,\!}
ϕ = 2 π a λ sin θ {\displaystyle \phi ={\frac {2\pi a}{\lambda }}\sin \theta \,\!}
δ = 2 π d λ sin θ {\displaystyle \delta ={\frac {2\pi d}{\lambda }}\sin \theta \,\!}
A ( r ) ∝ ∬ a p e r t u r e E i n c ( r ′ ) e i k | r − r ′ | 4 π | r − r ′ | d x ′ d y ′ {\displaystyle A\left(\mathbf {r} \right)\propto \iint _{\mathrm {aperture} }E_{\mathrm {inc} }\left(\mathbf {r} '\right)~{\frac {e^{ik\left|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} '\right|}}{4\pi \left|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} '\right|}}\mathrm {d} x'\mathrm {d} y'}
Far-field (Fraunhofer) A ( r ) ∝ e i k r 4 π r ∬ a p e r t u r e E i n c ( r ′ ) e − i k [ sin θ ( cos ϕ x ′ + sin ϕ y ′ ) ] d x ′ d y ′ {\displaystyle A\left(\mathbf {r} \right)\propto {\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}\iint _{\mathrm {aperture} }E_{\mathrm {inc} }\left(\mathbf {r} '\right)e^{-ik\left[\sin \theta \left(\cos \phi x'+\sin \phi y'\right)\right]}\mathrm {d} x'\mathrm {d} y'}
In astrophysics, L is used for luminosity (energy per unit time, equivalent to power ) and F is used for energy flux (energy per unit time per unit area, equivalent to intensity in terms of area, not solid angle). They are not new quantities, simply different names.
(Bolometric)
B − V = M B − M V {\displaystyle B-V=M_{B}-M_{V}\!\,} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_optics_equations |
Given a transformation between input and output values, described by a mathematical function , optimization deals with generating and selecting the best solution from some set of available alternatives, by systematically choosing input values from within an allowed set, computing the output of the function and recording the best output values found during the process. Many real-world problems can be modeled in this way. For example, the inputs could be design parameters for a motor, the output could be the power consumption. For another optimization, the inputs could be business choices and the output could be the profit obtained.
An optimization problem , (in this case a minimization problem), can be represented in the following way:
In continuous optimization, A is some subset of the Euclidean space R n , often specified by a set of constraints , equalities or inequalities that the members of A have to satisfy. In combinatorial optimization, A is some subset of a discrete space, like binary strings, permutations, or sets of integers.
The use of optimization software requires that the function f is defined in a suitable programming language and connected at compilation or run time to the optimization software. The optimization software will deliver input values in A , the software module realizing f will deliver the computed value f ( x ) and, in some cases, additional information about the function like derivatives.
In this manner, a clear separation of concerns is obtained: different optimization software modules can be easily tested on the same function f , or a given optimization software can be used for different functions f .
The following tables provide a list of notable optimization software organized according to license and business model type. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_optimization_software |
In mathematics , and more specifically in order theory , several different types of ordered set have been studied.
They include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_order_structures_in_mathematics |
Order theory is a branch of mathematics that studies various kinds of objects (often binary relations ) that capture the intuitive notion of ordering, providing a framework for saying when one thing is "less than" or "precedes" another.
An alphabetical list of many notions of order theory can be found in the order theory glossary . See also inequality , extreme value and mathematical optimization . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_order_theory_topics |
Well-known reactions and reagents in organic chemistry include | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions |
Numerous economically or medically significant organic compounds are salts .
These include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_salts |
In biological nomenclature , organisms often receive scientific names that honor a person. A taxon (e.g., species or genus ; plural: taxa) named in honor of another entity is an eponymous taxon , and names specifically honoring a person or persons are known as patronyms . Scientific names are generally formally published in peer-reviewed journal articles or larger monographs along with descriptions of the named taxa and ways to distinguish them from other taxa. Following rules of Latin grammar , species or subspecies names derived from a man's name often end in -i or -ii if named for an individual, and -orum if named for a group of men or mixed-sex group, such as a family. Similarly, those named for a woman often end in -ae , or -arum for two or more women. There are exceptions such as Strumigenys ayersthey .
This list includes organisms named after famous individuals or ensembles (including bands and comedy troupes), but excludes companies, institutions, ethnic groups or nationalities , and populated places. It does not include organisms named for fictional entities (which can be found in the List of organisms named after works of fiction ), for biologists or other natural scientists, [ note 1 ] nor for associates or family members of researchers who are not otherwise notable.
The scientific names are given as originally described (their basionyms ): subsequent research may have placed species in different genera, or rendered them taxonomic synonyms of previously described taxa. Some of these names are unavailable in the zoological sense or illegitimate in the botanical sense due to senior homonyms already having the same name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_named_after_famous_people |
In biological nomenclature , organisms often receive scientific names that honor a person. A taxon (e.g. species or genus ; plural: taxa) named in honor of another entity is an eponymous taxon , and names specifically honoring a person or persons are known as patronyms . Scientific names are generally formally published in peer-reviewed journal articles or larger monographs along with descriptions of the named taxa and ways to distinguish them from other taxa. Following rules of Latin grammar , species or subspecies names derived from a man's name often end in -i or -ii if named for an individual, and -orum if named for a group of men or mixed-sex group, such as a family. Similarly, those named for a woman often end in -ae , or -arum for two or more women.
This list is part of the List of organisms named after famous people , and includes organisms named after famous individuals born between 1 January 1800 and 31 December 1899 . It also includes ensembles in which at least one member was born within those dates; but excludes companies, institutions, ethnic groups or nationalities , and populated places. It does not include organisms named for fictional entities (which can be found in the List of organisms named after works of fiction ), for biologists, paleontologists or other natural scientists, [ note 1 ] nor for associates or family members of researchers who were not otherwise notable; exceptions are made, however, for natural scientists who are much more famous for other aspects of their lives, such as, for example, writers Vladimir Nabokov or Beatrix Potter .
Organisms named after famous people born earlier can be found in:
Organisms named after famous people born later can be found in:
The scientific names are given as originally described (their basionyms ); subsequent research may have placed species in different genera, or rendered them taxonomic synonyms of previously described taxa. Some of these names may be unavailable in the zoological sense or illegitimate in the botanical sense due to senior homonyms already having the same name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_named_after_famous_people_(born_1800–1899) |
In biological nomenclature , organisms often receive scientific names that honor a person. A taxon (e.g., species or genus ; plural: taxa) named in honor of another entity is an eponymous taxon , and names specifically honoring a person or persons are known as patronyms . Scientific names are generally formally published in peer-reviewed journal articles or larger monographs along with descriptions of the named taxa and ways to distinguish them from other taxa. Following rules of Latin grammar , species or subspecies names derived from a man's name often end in -i or -ii if named for an individual, and -orum if named for a group of men or mixed-sex group, such as a family. Similarly, those named for a woman often end in -ae , or -arum for two or more women.
This list is part of the List of organisms named after famous people , and includes organisms named after famous individuals born between 1 January 1900 and 31 December 1949 . It also includes ensembles (including bands and comedy troupes) in which at least one member was born within those dates; but excludes companies, institutions, ethnic groups or nationalities , and populated places. It does not include organisms named for fictional entities, for biologists, paleontologists or other natural scientists, [ note 1 ] nor for associates or family members of researchers who are not otherwise notable; exceptions are made, however, for natural scientists who are much more famous for other aspects of their lives, such as, for example, Japanese emperors Hirohito and Akihito .
Sir David Attenborough was formerly included in this section of the list as one of these exceptions, since despite his formal training as a natural scientist, he is more widely known to the public as a documentary filmmaker. However, due to the high number of taxa named after him (over 50 as of 2022), he has been removed; his patronyms can be found in the List of things named after David Attenborough and his works .
Organisms named after famous people born earlier than 1900 can be found in:
Organisms named after famous people born later than 1949 can be found in:
The scientific names are given as originally described (their basionyms ): subsequent research may have placed species in different genera, or rendered them taxonomic synonyms of previously described taxa. Some of these names may be unavailable in the zoological sense or illegitimate in the botanical sense due to senior homonyms already having the same name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_named_after_famous_people_(born_1900–1949) |
In biological nomenclature , organisms often receive scientific names that honor a person. A taxon (e.g., species or genus ; plural: taxa) named in honor of another entity is an eponymous taxon , and names specifically honoring a person or persons are known as patronyms . Scientific names are generally formally published in peer-reviewed journal articles or larger monographs along with descriptions of the named taxa and ways to distinguish them from other taxa. Following the ICZN 's International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , based on Latin grammar , species or subspecies names derived from a man's name often end in -i or -ii if named for an individual, and -orum if named for a group of men or mixed-sex group, such as a family. Similarly, those named for a woman often end in -ae , or -arum for two or more women.
This list is part of the list of organisms named after famous people , and includes organisms named after famous individuals born on or after 1 January 1950 . It also includes ensembles (including bands and comedy troupes) in which at least one member was born after that date; but excludes companies, institutions, ethnic groups or nationalities , and populated places. It does not include organisms named for fictional entities, for biologists, paleontologists or other natural scientists, [ note 1 ] nor for associates or family members of researchers who are not otherwise notable (exceptions are made, however, for natural scientists who are much more famous for other aspects of their lives, such as, for example, rock musician Greg Graffin ).
Organisms named after famous people born earlier can be found in:
The scientific names are given as originally described (their basionyms ): subsequent research may have placed species in different genera, or rendered them taxonomic synonyms of previously described taxa. Some of these names may be unavailable in the zoological sense or illegitimate in the botanical sense due to senior homonyms already having the same name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_named_after_famous_people_(born_1950–present) |
In biological nomenclature , organisms often receive scientific names that honor a person. A taxon (e.g. species or genus ; plural: taxa) named in honor of another entity is an eponymous taxon , and names specifically honoring a person or persons are known as patronyms . Scientific names are generally formally published in peer-reviewed journal articles or larger monographs along with descriptions of the named taxa and ways to distinguish them from other taxa. Following rules of Latin grammar , species or subspecies names derived from a man's name often end in -i or -ii if named for an individual, and -orum if named for a group of men or mixed-sex group, such as a family. Similarly, those named for a woman often end in -ae , or -arum for two or more women.
This list is part of the List of organisms named after famous people , and includes organisms named after famous individuals born before 1 January 1800 . It also includes ensembles in which at least one member was born before that date; but excludes companies, institutions, ethnic groups or nationalities , and populated places. It does not include organisms named for fictional entities, for biologists, paleontologists or other natural scientists, [ note 1 ] nor for associates or family members of researchers who were not otherwise notable (exceptions are made, however, for natural scientists who are much more famous for other aspects of their lives, such as, for example, writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe ).
Organisms named after famous people born later can be found in:
The scientific names are given as originally described (their basionyms ); subsequent research may have placed species in different genera, or rendered them taxonomic synonyms of previously described taxa. Some of these names may be unavailable in the zoological sense or illegitimate in the botanical sense due to senior homonyms already having the same name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_named_after_famous_people_(born_before_1800) |
Newly created taxonomic names in biological nomenclature often reflect the discoverer's interests or honour those the discoverer holds in esteem. This is a list of real organisms with scientific names chosen to reference the fictional Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling .
"The specific epithet, severus (L., harsh, rough, rigorous), alludes to the rigorous and laborious process by which this crab was collected. It is also an allusion to a notorious and misunderstood character in the Harry Potter novels, Professor Severus Snape, for his ability to keep one of the most important secrets in the story, just like the present new species which has eluded discovery until now, nearly 20 years after it was first collected."
"It is also a nod to the Harry Potter character Severus Snape, who made a spell called sectumsempra." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_named_after_the_Harry_Potter_series |
Newly created taxonomic names in biological nomenclature often reflect the discoverer's interests or honour those the discoverer holds in esteem, including fictional elements from works like Star Wars . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
This is a list of real organisms with scientific names chosen to reference the fictional Star Wars franchise.
Gonçalves & Brescovit, 2024
Gonçalves & Brescovit, 2024
Gonçalves & Brescovit, 2024
The species was given the common name "Skywalker hoolock gibbon".
Candidatus Midichloria lives symbiotically in the ovary cells of female ticks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_named_after_the_Star_Wars_series |
Newly created taxonomic names in biological nomenclature often reflect the discoverer's interests or honour those the discoverer holds in esteem, including fictional elements. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
† Denotes that the organism is extinct.
The fossil was discovered in Transylvania , the setting of Bram Stoker 's Dracula .
The genus is in the family Yogsothothidae .
The species has been renamed with Ozymandias as the specific name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_named_after_works_of_fiction |
This list includes organisms whose common or scientific names are drawn from indigenous languages of the Americas . When the common name of the organism in English derives from an indigenous language of the Americas, it is given first.
In biological nomenclature , organisms receive scientific names , which are formally in Latin , but may be drawn from any language and many have incorporated words from indigenous language of the Americas. These scientific names are generally formally published in peer-reviewed journal articles or larger monographs along with descriptions of the named taxa and ways to distinguish them from other taxa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organisms_with_names_derived_from_Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas |
This is a list of the known original copies of The Porter Garden Telescope . For information purposes, are also included those copies that their location are currently unknown, but there are records with some of their data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_original_copies_of_the_Porter_Garden_Telescope |
An outliner (or outline processor ) is a specialized type of text editor ( word processor ) used to create and edit outlines , which are text files which have a tree structure or a tree view , for organization. Textual information is contained in discrete sections called "nodes", which are arranged according to their topic–subtopic (parent–child) relationships, like the members of a family tree . When loaded into an outliner, an outline may be collapsed or expanded to display as few or as many levels as desired.
Outliners are used for storing and retrieving textual information, with terms, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs attached to a tree. So rather than being arranged by document, information is arranged by topic or content. An outline in an outliner may contain as many topics as desired. This eliminates the need to have separate documents, as outlines easily include other outlines just by adding to the tree.
The main difference between a hand-written outline and a digital one is that the former is usually limited to a summary or blueprint of a planned document, while the latter may easily include all of the content of the entire document and many more. In other words, as a hand-written work an outline is a writing tool, but on a computer, it is a general purpose format supported by a robust development and display medium capable of handling knowledge from its creation to its end usage.
Outliners may be used in content creation instead of general word processors for capturing, organizing, editing, and displaying knowledge or general textual information. Outliners are ideal for managing lists, organizing facts and ideas, and for writing computer programs . They are also used for goal and task management (including personal information management and project management ), and for writing books and movie scripts.
An alternative to outliners are mind mappers , which display a tree structure as a node–link diagram .
The principal attribute of outline editors is that they support or enforce the use of a hierarchy of their items.
There are two basic types of outliners: one-pane or intrinsic , and two-pane or extrinsic , each with its strengths and weaknesses.
A one-pane outliner is known as an intrinsic outliner because the text itself is organized into an outline format—individual sections (such as paragraphs) of text can be collapsed or expanded, while keeping others in view. Everything is displayed within a single area, hence the term one pane . One of the strengths of one-pane outliners is that, because the text itself is what is structured and because several nodes of text are visible at once, it is easy to edit across sections. The drawback is that, because the structure is not always visible, there is not as strong an overview of the whole or ability to quickly navigate between sections as with a two-pane outliner. Some word processors, such as Microsoft Word, have an Outline Mode, or View, to help with structuring documents. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
A two-pane outliner separates structure from content—the structure is extrinsic to the text. A tree structure with node titles is presented in one pane, and the text is shown in another. Since the structure is always clearly shown at all times separately from content, this format allows for a quick overview of the structure, and easy navigation. The drawback is that since only one node's worth of text is shown at one time and navigation has the additional step of crossing panes, the structure is more rigid, making editing across nodes more difficult. This view is similar to many file browsers and email programs (which can be thought of as three-pane outliners). [ 3 ] This type of structure is useful also as a document management tool where the second pane is a document in place of textual information.
A one- and two-pane outliner may be combined as a hybrid. This allows multiple notes' text and graphics to be shown at the same time. The organizational power of outline in hybrid is in the parent outline structure, not in the second pane text, making it a very effective structure for topical organization. One additional advantage of hybrid is that single pane can be used as single pane outliner with second pane used for notes or reference tracking.
A third approach to intrinsic outlines is the multi-column outliner. It is similar to the one-pane outliner in that the text itself is organized into an outline format. However, the text sections do not collapse or expand, and all sections are visible but held in a separate column (one for each level). This approach allows structure and content to be visible at the same time.
Several file formats support an outline structure natively or encourage the use/creation of outline structures.
This table shows a list of notable browser-based outliners categorised by the functionality that they provide (see 'Design' above). Browser-based outliners run inside a desktop or mobile web browser (smart phone or tablet) and may synchronise the outline's data with a remote server or store it locally on the user's device. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_outliners |
The following is a list of paleoethnobotanists . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleoethnobotanists |
This is a list of known and hypothesized microscopic particles in particle physics , condensed matter physics and cosmology .
Elementary particles are particles with no measurable internal structure; that is, it is unknown whether they are composed of other particles. [ 1 ] They are the fundamental objects of quantum field theory . Many families and sub-families of elementary particles exist. Elementary particles are classified according to their spin . Fermions have half-integer spin while bosons have integer spin. All the elementary particles of the Standard Model have been experimentally observed, including the Higgs boson in 2012. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Many other hypothetical elementary particles, such as the graviton , have been proposed, but not observed experimentally.
Notes : [†] An anti-electron ( e + ) is conventionally called a " positron ".
Fermions are one of the two fundamental classes of particles, the other being bosons . Fermion particles are described by Fermi–Dirac statistics and have quantum numbers described by the Pauli exclusion principle . They include the quarks and leptons , as well as any composite particles consisting of an odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei.
Fermions have half-integer spin; for all known elementary fermions this is 1 / 2 ħ . All known fermions except neutrinos , are also Dirac fermions ; that is, each known fermion has its own distinct antiparticle . It is not known whether the neutrino is a Dirac fermion or a Majorana fermion . [ 4 ] Fermions are the basic building blocks of all matter . They are classified according to whether they interact via the strong interaction or not. In the Standard Model, there are 12 types of elementary fermions: six quarks and six leptons .
Quarks are the fundamental constituents of hadrons and interact via the strong force . Quarks are the only known carriers of fractional charge , but because they combine in groups of three quarks (baryons) or in pairs of one quark and one antiquark (mesons), only integer charge is observed in nature. Their respective antiparticles are the antiquarks , which are identical except that they carry the opposite electric charge (for example the up quark carries charge + 2 / 3 e , while the up antiquark carries charge − 2 / 3 e ), color charge, and baryon number. There are six flavors of quarks; the three positively charged quarks are called "up-type quarks" while the three negatively charged quarks are called "down-type quarks".
Leptons do not interact via the strong interaction . Their respective antiparticles are the antileptons , which are identical, except that they carry the opposite electric charge and lepton number. The antiparticle of an electron is an antielectron, which is almost always called a " positron " for historical reasons. There are six leptons in total; the three charged leptons are called "electron-like leptons", while the neutral leptons are called " neutrinos ". Neutrinos are known to oscillate , so that neutrinos of definite flavor do not have definite mass: instead, they exist in a superposition of mass eigenstates . The hypothetical heavy right-handed neutrino, called a " sterile neutrino ", has been omitted.
Bosons are one of the two fundamental particles having integral spinclasses of particles, the other being fermions . Bosons are characterized by Bose–Einstein statistics and all have integer spins. Bosons may be either elementary, like photons and gluons , or composite, like mesons .
According to the Standard Model , the elementary bosons are:
The Higgs boson is postulated by the electroweak theory primarily to explain the origin of particle masses . In a process known as the " Higgs mechanism ", the Higgs boson and the other gauge bosons in the Standard Model acquire mass via spontaneous symmetry breaking of the SU(2) gauge symmetry. The Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) predicts several Higgs bosons. On 4 July 2012, the discovery of a new particle with a mass between 125 and 127 GeV/ c 2 was announced; physicists suspected that it was the Higgs boson. Since then, the particle has been shown to behave, interact, and decay in many of the ways predicted for Higgs particles by the Standard Model, as well as having even parity and zero spin, two fundamental attributes of a Higgs boson. This also means it is the first elementary scalar particle discovered in nature.
Elementary bosons responsible for the four fundamental forces of nature are called force particles ( gauge bosons ). The strong interaction is mediated by the gluon , the weak interaction is mediated by the W and Z bosons, electromagnetism by the photon, and gravity by the graviton, which is still hypothetical.
Composite particles are bound states of elementary particles.
Hadrons are defined as strongly interacting composite particles . Hadrons are either:
Quark models , first proposed in 1964 independently by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig (who called quarks "aces"), describe the known hadrons as composed of valence quarks and/or antiquarks, tightly bound by the color force , which is mediated by gluons . (The interaction between quarks and gluons is described by the theory of quantum chromodynamics .) A "sea" of virtual quark–antiquark pairs is also present in each hadron.
Ordinary baryons (composite fermions ) contain three valence quarks or three valence antiquarks each.
Ordinary mesons are made up of a valence quark and a valence antiquark . Because mesons have integer spin (0 or 1) and are not themselves elementary particles, they are classified as "composite" bosons , although being made of elementary fermions . Examples of mesons include the pion , kaon , and the J/ψ . In quantum hadrodynamics , mesons mediate the residual strong force between nucleons.
At one time or another, positive signatures have been reported for all of the following exotic mesons but their existences have yet to be confirmed.
Atomic nuclei typically consist of protons and neutrons, although exotic nuclei may consist of other baryons, such as hypertriton which contains a hyperon . These baryons (protons, neutrons, hyperons, etc.) which comprise the nucleus are called nucleons. Each type of nucleus is called a " nuclide ", and each nuclide is defined by the specific number of each type of nucleon.
Atoms are the smallest neutral particles into which matter can be divided by chemical reactions . An atom consists of a small, heavy nucleus surrounded by a relatively large, light cloud of electrons. An atomic nucleus consists of 1 or more protons and 0 or more neutrons. Protons and neutrons are, in turn, made of quarks. Each type of atom corresponds to a specific chemical element . To date, 118 elements have been discovered or created.
Exotic atoms may be composed of particles in addition to or in place of protons, neutrons, and electrons, such as hyperons or muons. Examples include pionium ( π − π + ) and quarkonium atoms.
Leptonic atoms, named using - onium , are exotic atoms constituted by the bound state of a lepton and an antilepton. Examples of such atoms include positronium ( e − e + ), muonium ( e − μ + ), and " true muonium " ( μ − μ + ). Of these positronium and muonium have been experimentally observed, while "true muonium" remains only theoretical.
Molecules are the smallest particles into which a substance can be divided while maintaining the chemical properties of the substance. Each type of molecule corresponds to a specific chemical substance . A molecule is a composite of two or more atoms. Atoms are combined in a fixed proportion to form a molecule. Molecule is one of the most basic units of matter.
Ions are charged atoms ( monatomic ions ) or molecules ( polyatomic ions ). They include cations which have a net positive charge, and anions which have a net negative charge.
Quasiparticles are effective particles that exist in many particle systems. The field equations of condensed matter physics are remarkably similar to those of high energy particle physics. As a result, much of the theory of particle physics applies to condensed matter physics as well; in particular, there are a selection of field excitations, called quasi-particles , that can be created and explored. These include:
The graviton is a hypothetical particle that has been included in some extensions to the Standard Model to mediate the gravitational force. It is in a peculiar category between known and hypothetical particles: as an unobserved particle that is not predicted by, nor required for the Standard Model , it belongs in the table of hypothetical particles. But gravitational force itself is a certainty, and expressing that known force in the framework of a quantum field theory requires a boson to mediate it.
If it exists, the graviton is expected to be massless because the gravitational force has a very long range, and appears to propagate at the speed of light. The graviton must be a spin -2 boson because the source of gravitation is the stress–energy tensor , a second-order tensor (compared with electromagnetism 's spin-1 photon , the source of which is the four-current , a first-order tensor). Additionally, it can be shown that any massless spin-2 field would give rise to a force indistinguishable from gravitation, because a massless spin-2 field would couple to the stress–energy tensor in the same way that gravitational interactions do. This result suggests that, if a massless spin-2 particle is discovered, it must be the graviton. [ 12 ]
Many hypothetical particle candidates for dark matter have been proposed like weakly interacting massive particles (WIMP), weakly interacting slender particles (WISP), or feebly interacting particles (FIP).
Hypothetical particle candidates to explain dark energy include the chameleon particle and the acceleron .
Virtual particles are mathematical tools used in calculations that exhibits some of the characteristics of an ordinary particle but do not obey the mass-shell relation . These particles are unphysical and unobservable. These include:
There are also instantons , field configurations which are a local minimum of the Yang–Mills field equation. Instantons are used in nonperturbative calculations of tunneling rates. Instantons have properties similar to particles, specific examples include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles |
The list of parties to the Biological Weapons Convention encompasses the states which have signed and ratified or acceded to the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), a multilateral treaty outlawing biological weapons .
On 10 April 1972, the BWC was opened for signature. The Netherlands became the first state to deposit their signature of the treaty that same day. The treaty closed for signature upon coming into force on 26 March 1975 with the deposit of ratification by 22 states. Since then, states that did not sign the BWC can only accede to it.
A total of 197 states may become members of the BWC, including all 193 United Nations member states , the Cook Islands , the Holy See , the State of Palestine and Niue . As of February 2025, 188 states have ratified or acceded to the treaty, most recently the Comoros in February 2025. [ 1 ] As well, the Republic of China (Taiwan), which is currently only recognized by 11 UN member states , deposited their instruments of ratification of the BWC with the United States government prior to the US's decision to switch their recognition of the sole legitimate government of China from the Republic of China (ROC) to the People's Republic of China (PRC). A further four states have signed but not ratified the treaty.
Several countries made reservations when ratifying the agreement declaring that it did not imply their complete satisfaction that the BWC allows the stockpiling of biological agents and toxins for " prophylactic , protective or other peaceful purposes", nor should it imply recognition of other countries they do not recognise.
According to the treaties database maintained by the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs , as of February 2025, 188 states have ratified or acceded to the BWC. [ 1 ]
Multiple dates indicate the different days in which states submitted their signature or deposition, varied by location. This location is noted by: (L) for London, (M) for Moscow, and (W) for Washington D.C.
The Republic of China (Taiwan), which is currently only recognized by 11 UN member states , deposited their instruments of ratification of the BWC with the United States government prior to the US's decision to switch their recognition of the sole legitimate government of China from the Republic of China (ROC) to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971. When the PRC subsequently ratified the treaty, they described the ROC's ratification as "illegal". The ROC has committed itself to continue to adhere to the requirements of the treaty, and the United States has declared that they still consider them to be "bound by its obligations". [ 13 ]
The following four states have signed, but not ratified the BWC. [ 14 ]
The following five UN member states have neither signed nor ratified the BWC. [ 14 ]
The status of several former dependent territories of a state party to the BWC, whose administrating power ratified the Convention on their behalf, with regards to the Convention following their independence is currently unclear. According to the Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties (to which 22 states are party), "newly independent states" (a euphemism for former colonies) receive a "clean slate", such that the new state does not inherit the treaty obligations of the colonial power, but that they may join multilateral treaties to which their former colonizers were a party without the consent of the other parties in most circumstances. Conversely, in "cases of separation of parts of a state" (a euphemism for all other new states), the new state remains bound by the treaty obligations of the state from which they separated.
The United Kingdom attached a territorial declaration to their instrument of ratification of the BWC in 1975 stating in part that it applied to: [ 20 ]
"... in respect of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Dominica and Territories under the territorial sovereignty of the United Kingdom, as well as the State of Brunei, the British Solomon Islands Protectorate and, within the limits of the United Kingdom jurisdiction therein, the Condominium of New Hebrides [subsequently renamed Vanuatu]."
This declaration bound the territory of Kiribati to the terms of the Convention. [ 21 ] Following its independence, it has not made an unambiguous declaration of succession to the BWC. [ 21 ] Dominica , Tuvalu and Vanuatu 's statuses were likewise ambiguous from their independence until they formally submitted instruments of accession or succession to the treaty.
In 1979, Kiribati gained their independence and subsequently, the President of Kiribati sent a note to the UNSG stating that: [ 21 ]
... the Government of the Republic of Kiribati declares that, with regard to multilateral treaties applied or extended to the former Gilbert Islands, it will continue to apply the terms of each such treaty provisionally and on the basis of reciprocity until such time as it notifies the depositary authority of its decision with respect thereto.”
Since then, none of the depositaries for the BWC has received an instrument of accession or succession to the Convention from Kiribati. [ 1 ] However, the Government of Kiribati has made statements suggesting that it does not consider itself a party to the treaty. [ 21 ]
After becoming independent in 1978, the Prime Minister of Dominica sent a note to the Secretary-General of the United Nations (UNSG) stating that: [ 21 ]
“The Government of Dominica declares that, with regard to multilateral treaties applied or extended to the former British Associated State of Dominica, it will continue to apply such terms of each treaty provisionally and on the basis of reciprocity until such time as it notifies the depositary authority of its decision in respect thereof.”
The Government of Dominica later stated that it did not consider itself bound by the Convention. [ 21 ] However, Dominica was listed as a state party to the BWC in documents from the Meetings of the States Parties to the BWC. [ 22 ] The UK Treaty Office (as depositary ) did not receive an instrument of succession from Dominica until 2016. [ 2 ]
Following independence in 1978, the Prime Minister of Tuvalu sent a note to the UNSC stating that: [ 21 ]
"The Government of Tuvalu desires that it should be presumed that each treaty purporting or deemed to bind Tuvalu before Independence has been legally succeeded to by Tuvalu and that action should be based on such presumption unless and until the Government of Tuvalu decides that any particular treaty should be treated as having lapsed."
Tuvalu acceded to the treaty as an independent state in 2024. [ 1 ]
In 1980, the territory gained their independence. Vanuatu was listed as a state party to the BWC in documents from the Meetings of the States Parties to the BWC, [ 22 ] however the Government of Vanuatu made statements suggesting that it did not consider itself a party to the treaty [ 21 ] and the UK depositary had no record of receiving an instrument of succession to the BWC from Vanuatu until 2016. [ 21 ] [ 23 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Biological_Weapons_Convention |
Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention encompasses the states that have ratified or acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention , a multilateral treaty outlawing the production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons . In addition, these states are members of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW).
On January 13, 1993, the Convention was opened for signature. [ 1 ] Fiji became the first state to ratify the Convention on January 20, 1993. [ 1 ] Pursuant to article 21 of the Convention, it entered into force on April 29, 1997, after it had been ratified by 65 states. [ 1 ] The Convention was closed for signature on the preceding day, and states that did not sign the Convention can now only accede to it. Pursuant to article 21 of the Convention, for states that ratify or accede to the Convention after this date, the Convention enters into force 30 days after their deposit of the instrument of ratification or accession.
A total of 197 states may become parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention, including 193 United Nations member states , the Cook Islands , Niue , Palestine , and Vatican City . As of August 2022, 193 states have ratified or acceded to the Convention (most recently Palestine on 17 May 2018) and another state ( Israel ) has signed but not ratified the Convention. [ 1 ] Only Egypt , North Korea , and South Sudan have neither signed nor acceded to the Convention. All four states which are not parties are suspected of possessing chemical weapons .
Of the four non-parties, South Sudan stated in December 2017 that it "has all but concluded the process of joining the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons". [ 2 ] Ahmet Üzümcü , the Director-General of the OPCW, has stated that Egypt, Israel, and North Korea had "regional reasons" for not joining. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Egypt has promised to ratify the Convention if Israel, the only state in the Middle East that is believed to possess nuclear weapons , ratifies the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Israel, meanwhile, has stated that it will ratify the Convention if all other non-parties in the region (of which only Egypt remains) do so as well. [ 5 ] [ 8 ] In addition, Israel has been reluctant to ratify due to an unwillingness to grant OPCW inspectors access to its military bases. [ 9 ] North Korea is thought to be unlikely to become a party for the foreseeable future. [ 10 ]
The following states are eligible to become parties to the Convention, but have not acceded to it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Chemical_Weapons_Convention |
The list of parties to weapons of mass destruction treaties encompasses the states which have signed and ratified, succeeded, or acceded to any of the major multilateral treaties prohibiting or restricting weapons of mass destruction (WMD), in particular nuclear , biological , or chemical weapons .
The following list was last updated in March 2021.
Legend: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties |
A patent medicine , also known as a proprietary medicine or a nostrum (from the Latin nostrum remedium , or "our remedy") is a commercial product advertised to consumers as an over-the-counter medicine , generally for a variety of ailments, without regard to its actual effectiveness or the potential for harmful side effects. The earliest patent medicines were created in the 17th century. They were most popular from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, before the advent of consumer protection laws and evidence-based medicine . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Despite the name, patent medicines were usually trademarked but not actually patented , in order to keep their formulas secret. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
Patent medicines often included alcohol and drugs such as opium as active ingredients. [ 5 ] Addiction and overdose were common as a result. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Some formulations included toxic ingredients such as arsenic , lead , and mercury . [ 8 ] Other ingredients like sarsaparilla and wintergreen may have been medically inert and largely harmless, but lacked significant medical benefits. [ 9 ] It was rare for any patent medication to be pharmacologically effective, and none lived up to the miraculous promises made by their advertising . [ 9 ]
Patent medicine advertising was typically outlandish, eye-catching, and had little basis in reality. [ 10 ] Advertisements emphasized exotic or scientific-sounding ingredients, featured endorsements from purported experts or celebrities, and often claimed that products were universal remedies or panaceas. [ 11 ] Beginning in the early 20th century, the passage of consumer protection laws in countries like the United Kingdom, United States, and Canada began to regulate deceptive advertising and put limits on what ingredients could be used in medicines, putting an end to the dominance of patent medicines. [ 2 ] [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Although some modern alternative medicines bear similarities to patent medicines, the term most typically refers to remedies created before modern regulations, and the scope of this list reflects that. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ]
Various types of pre-scientific medical preparations , some based on folk or traditional remedies , were sold as patent medicines. [ 18 ] Because patent medicines were unscientific and unregulated, the brand names of many products were not necessarily an accurate reflection of their ingredients or preparation methods.
Some brands from the patent medicine era have survived into the present day, typically with significantly revised formulas and toned-down advertising. Some are still sold as medicines, with more realistic claims and less harmful ingredients. Many others, particularly liquid preparations, have been revised into non-medical food or drink products such as soft drinks . [ 14 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_patent_medicines |
This is a list of pathology mnemonics , categorized and alphabetized. For mnemonics in other medical specialities, see this list of medical mnemonics .
5 P s: [ 1 ]
P ain in the abdomen
P olyneuropathy
P sychological abnormalities
P ink urine
P recipitated by drugs (including barbiturates, oral contraceptives, and sulfa drugs)
6 P' s:
P ain
P allor
P ulselessness
P aralysis
P araesthesia
P erishingly cold
ABCD :
A cute blood loss
B one marrow failure
C hronic disease
D estruction (hemolysis)
ANEMIA :
A nemia of chronic disease
N o folate or B12
E thanol
M arrow failure & hemaglobinopathies
I ron deficient
A cute & chronic blood loss
"You're a SAD BET with these risk factors":
S ex: male
A ge: middle-aged, elderly
D iabetes mellitus
B P high: hypertension
E levated cholesterol
T obacco
CARC inoid:
C utaneous flushing
A sthmatic wheezing
R ight sided valvular heart lesions
C ramping and diarrhea
CUSHING :
C entral obesity/ C ervical fat pads/ C ollagen fiber weakness/ C omedones (acne)
U rinary free corisol and glucose increase
S triae/ S uppressed immunity
H ypercortisolism/ H ypertension/ H yperglycemia/ H irsutism
I atrogenic (Increased administration of corticosteroids)
N oniatrogenic (Neoplasms)
G lucose intolerance/Growth retardation
ket ONE bodies are seen in type ONE diabetes.
5 F's:
F at
F emale
F air (gallstones more common in Caucasians)
F ertile (premenopausal- increased estrogen is thought to increase cholesterol levels in bile and decrease gallbladder contractions)
F orty or above (age) [ 2 ]
Common are 3 C' s:
C irrhosis
C arcinoma
C ardiac failure
Rarer are 3 C' s:
C holestasis
C ysts
C ellular infiltration
MURDER [ 3 ]
M uscle weakness
U rine: oliguria, anuria
R espiratory distress
D ecreased cardiac contractility
E KG changes (peaked T waves; QRS widening)
R eflexes: Hyperreflexia or areflexia (flaccid)
FRIED SALT [ 3 ]
FRIED
F ever (low), F lushed skin
R estless (irritable)
I ncreased fluid retention, I ncreased blood pressure
E dema (peripheral and pitting)
D ecreased urinary output, D ry mouth
SALT
S kin flushed
A gitated
L ow-grade fever
T hirst
C rohn's has C obblestones on endoscopy.
MORPHINES :
M iosis
O rthostatic hypotension or " O ut of it"
R espiratory depression
P ain suppression or P neumonia
H istamine release or H ormonal alterations or H ypotension
I ncreased ICT or I nfrequency (constipation, or urinary retention)
N ausea
E uphoria or E mesis
S edation
FLAME :
F atty
L iver
A nemia
M alabsorption
E dema
I GET SMASHED :
I diopathic/Infection/Ischaemic
G allstones
E thanol
T rauma
S teroids/surgery
M umps/malnutrition/mechanical obstruction/metabolic
A utoimmune : Vasculitis
S corpion sting
H yperlipidaemia/hypercalcaemia/hereditary/hyperparathyroidism/hypermagnesemia
E RCP
D rugs : Isoniazid, Thiazides, Azathioprine, Valproic Acid, Estrogen [ 4 ]
PKU :
P ale hair, skin
K razy (neurological abnormalities)
U npleasant smell
"Mor PHINE : Fine . Am PHET amine: Fat ":
Mor phine overdose: pupils constricted ( fine ).
Am phet amine overdose: pupils dilated ( fat ).
PERIC arditis:
P ulsus paradoxus
E CG changes
R ub
I ncreased JVP
C hest pain [worse on inspiration, better when leaning forward]
P seudogout crystals are:
P ositive birefringent
P olygon shaped
Gout therefore is the negative needle shaped crystals.
Also, gout classically strikes the great Toe , and its hallmark is To phi.
abcdefghij
A sterixis, A scites, A nkle oedema, A trophy of testicles
B ruising
C lubbing/ C olour change of nails (leuconychia)
D upuytren’s contracture
E ncephalopathy / palmar Erythema
F oetor hepaticus
G ynaecomastia
H epatomegaly
I ncrease size of parotids
J aundice [ 5 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pathology_mnemonics |
Personal finance software can be used to track spending, create budgets, and plan for future expenses. Some software differs by feature support, software code and development transparency, mobile app features, import methods, Monetization model , privacy and data storage practices.
The use of expense tracking, budgeting, and other personal finance software carries some risk, most notably is due to the disclosure of a username, password, or other account credentials used to automatically synchronize banking information with an expense tracking application. Another significant area of risk is due to sensitive personal information that is stored anytime data is digitized. This risk may be compounded based on the security the software vendor has implemented as well as the availability of the data and where specifically it is stored (online or a local application). An often overlooked form of risk is due to the monetization model and privacy practices of the vendor or software provider, whether the application is "free" or fee based. Open source software is one way of potentially minimizing the risks of privacy and monetization related risks of data exposure.
The following is a list of personal financial management software. The first section is devoted to free and open-source software , and the second is for proprietary software .
Java (Android App) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_personal_finance_software |
This list of pharmaceutical compound number prefixes provides codes used by individual pharmaceutical companies when naming their pharmaceutical drug candidates. Pharmaceutical companies generally produce large numbers of compounds in the research phase for which it is impractical to use often long and cumbersome systematic chemical names , and for which the effort to generate nonproprietary names may not be warranted, see article on drug nomenclature . Instead, these compounds are usually given a number for internal reference at the company. To distinguish the numbered compounds from different companies (or academic laboratories), each compound number is prefixed with a letter code indicating the company that developed the compound, that claims intellectual property on that compound etc. The letter code is conceived by companies themselves who should be interested in creating a unique code. Three main methods are found for prefixing the numeric identifier – with a space (gap), [ 1 ] with nothing (concatenated), [ 2 ] [ 3 ] and with a dash (or hyphen). [ 4 ]
For example, ABT-199 is a compound developed at Abbott Laboratories , and this name has been used in early publications of research results. Later the compound was assigned the International Nonproprietary Name (INN) venetoclax . Similarly, other compounds may be given a USAN or BAN for example. Finally, the compound may be given a trade name for example for marketing purposes.
A long list of code designations with corresponding trade names can be found in Appendix IV of the USP Dictionary, see article on drug nomenclature .
Note that this convention of composing compound identifiers from a company identifier followed by a number is not always followed. For example, the letter code may reflect a therapeutic/disease area or an internal project name. A randomly picked example is SC for spinal cord injury. [ 5 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pharmaceutical_compound_number_prefixes |
Phenyltropanes ( PT s) are a family of chemical compounds originally derived from structural modification of cocaine . The main feature differentiating phenyltropanes from cocaine is that they lack the ester functionality at the 3-position terminating in the benzene ; thus, the phenyl is attached direct to the tropane skeleton (hence the name " phenyl "-tropane) with no further spacer that the cocaine benzoyloxy provided. The original purpose of phenyltropane-related research was to extirpate the cardiotoxicity inherent in the local anesthetic "numbing" capability of cocaine (which stems from the methylated benzoate ester being essential to cocaine's blockage of sodium channels , and which causes topical anesthesia) while retaining stimulant function. [ a ]
Phenyltropane compounds present promising avenues of research into therapeutic applications, particularly in regard to addiction treatment. These compounds' uses vary depending on their construction and structure-activity relationship ranging from the treating of cocaine dependency to understanding the dopamine reward system in the human brain to treating Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases . (Since 2008 there have been continual additions to the list and enumerations of the plethora of types of chemicals that fall into the category of this substance profile. [ 2 ] ) Certain phenyltropanes can even be used as a smoking cessation aid ( cf. RTI-29). Many of the compounds were first elucidated in published material by the Research Triangle Institute and are thus named with "RTI" serial-numbers (in this case the long form is either RTI-COC- n , for 'cocaine' "analog", or specifically RTI-4229- n of the subsequent numbers given below in this article) [ b ] Similarly, a number of others are named for Sterling-Winthrop pharmaceuticals ("WIN" serial-numbers) and Wake Forest University ("WF" serial-numbers). The following includes many of the phenyltropane class of drugs that have been made and studied.
Like cocaine, phenyltropanes are considered a 'typical' or 'classical' (i.e. "cocaine-like") DAT re-uptake pump ligands in that they stabilize an "open-to-out" conformation on the dopamine transporter; despite the extreme similarity to phenyltropanes, benztropine and others are in suchwise not considered "cocaine-like" and are instead considered atypical inhibitors insofar as they stabilize what is considered a more inward-facing (closed-to-out) conformational state. [ 5 ]
Considering the differences between PTs and cocaine: the difference in the length of the benzoyloxy and the phenyl linkage contrasted between cocaine and phenyltropanes makes for a shorter distance between the centroid of the aromatic benzene and the bridge nitrogen of the tropane in the latter PTs. This distance being on a scale of 5.6 Å for phenyltropanes and 7.7 Å for cocaine or analogs with the benzoyloxy intact. [ c ] The manner in which this sets phenyltropanes into the binding pocket at MAT is postulated as one possible explanation to account for PTs increased behavioral stimulation profile over cocaine. [ d ]
Blank spacings within tables for omitted data use " no data ", " ? ", " - " or " — " interchangeably.
ɑ N=2
ɑ N=2
Use of a cyclopropyl ester appears to enable better MAT retention than does the choice of isopropyl ester.
Use of a cyc Bu resulted in greater DAT selectivity than did the cyc Pr homologue.
U.S. patent 5,736,123
✲RTI-183 and RTI-218 suggest possible copy-error, seeing as "CON(OMe)Me" & "CON(Me)OMe" difference between methyl & methoxy render as the same.
Dimers of phenyltropanes, connected in their dual form using the C2 locant as altered toward a carboxamide structural configuring (in contrast and away from the usual inherent ecgonine carbmethoxy ), as per Frank Ivy Carroll's patent inclusive of such chemical compounds, possibly so patented due to being actively delayed pro-drugs in vivo . [ 3 ]
These heterocycles are sometimes referred to as the " bioisosteric equivalent" of the simpler esters from which they are derived. A potential disadvantage of leaving the ββ-ester unreacted is that in addition to being hydrolyzable, it can also epimerize [ 17 ] to the energetically more favorable trans configuration. This can happen to cocaine also.
Several of the oxadiazoles contain the same number and types of heteroatoms, while their respective binding potencies display 8×-15× difference. A finding that would not be accounted for by their affinity originating from hydrogen bonding.
To explore the possibility of electrostatic interactions, the use of molecular electrostatic potentials (MEP) were employed with model compound 34 (replacing the phenyltropane moiety with a methyl group). Focusing on the vicinity of the atoms @ positions A—C, the minima of electrostatic potential near atom position A (Δ V min (A)), calculated with semi-empirical ( AM1 ) quantum mechanics computations (superimposing the heterocyclic and phenyl rings to ascertain the least in the way of steric and conformational discrepancies) found a correlation between affinity @ DAT and Δ V min (A): wherein the values for the latter for 32c = 0, 32g = -4, 32h = -50 & 32i = -63 kcal/mol.
In contrast to this trend, it is understood that an increasingly negative Δ V min is correlated with an increase of strength in hydrogen bonding, which is the opposing trend for the above; this indicates that the 2β-substituents (at least for the heterocyclic class) are dominated by electrostatic factors for binding in-the-stead of the presumptive hydrogen bonding model for this substituent of the cocaine-like binding ligand. [ g ]
N.B There are some alternative ways of making the tetrazole ring however; Cf. the sartan drugs synthesis schemes. Bu 3 SnN 3 is a milder choice of reagent than hydrogen azide ( cf. Irbesartan ).
[ 125 I]RTI-55 IC 50 ( nM )
[ 3 H]Paroxetine K i ( nM )
5-HTT/DAT
Note: p -fluorophenyl is weaker than the others. RTI-145 is not peroxy , it is a methyl carbonate .
a K i value for displacement of WIN 35428. b IC 50 value.
Irreversible ( phenylisothiocyanate ) binding ligand ( Murthy, V.; Martin, T. J.; Kim, S.; Davies, H. M. L.; Childers, S. R. (2008). "In Vivo Characterization of a Novel Phenylisothiocyanate Tropane Analog at Monoamine Transporters in Rat Brain". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics . 326 (2): 587– 595. doi : 10.1124/jpet.108.138842 . PMID 18492949 . S2CID 5996473 . ) [ 23 ] RTI-76 : [ 24 ] 4′-isothiocyanatophenyl (1R,2S,3S,5S)-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate . Also known as: 3β-(p-chlorophenyl)tropan-2β-carboxylic acid p-isothiocyanatophenylmethyl ester .
HD-205 (Murthy et al., 2007) [ 25 ]
Note the contrast to the phenylisothiocyanate covalent binding site locations as compared to the one on p-Isococ , a non-phenyltropane cocaine analogue.
One patent claims a series of compounds with biotin -related sidechains are pesticides . [ 18 ]
WO 2004113297 , Peters, Dan; Olsen, Gunnar M. & Nielsen, Elsebet Oestergaard et al., "Aza-ring derivatives and their use as monoamine neurotransmitter re-uptake inhibitors", published 2004-12-29, assigned to NeuroSearch AS
U.S. patent 2,001,047,028
CA 2112084
U.S. patent 2,001,047,028
WO 2004072075 , Peters, Dan; Nielsen, Elsebet Oestergaard & Olsen, Gunnar M. et al., "Novel 8-aza-bicyclo[3.2.1]octane derivatives and their use as monoamine neurotransmitter re-uptake inhibitors", published 2004-08-26, assigned to NeuroSearch AS
Unlike metal complexed PTs created with the intention of making useful radioligands , 21a & 21b were produced seeing as their η 6 - coordinated moiety dramatically altered the electronic character and reactivity of the benzene ring, as well as such a change adding asymmetrical molecular volume to the otherwise planar arene ring unit of the molecule. [ 1 ] ( cf. the Dewar–Chatt–Duncanson model ). In addition the planar dimension of the transition metal stacked arene becomes delocalized ( cf. Bloom and Wheeler. [ 29 ] ).
21a was twice as potent as both cocaine and troparil in displacement of β-CFT, as well as displaying high & low affinity K i values in the same manner as those two compounds. Whereas its inhibition of DA uptake showed it as comparably equipotent to cocaine & troparil. 21b by contrast had a one hundredfold decrease in high-affinity site binding compared to cocaine and a potency 10× less for inhibiting DA uptake. Attesting these as true examples relating useful effective applications for bioorganometallic chemistry .
The discrepancy in binding for the two benzene metal chelates is assumed to be due to electrostatic differences rather than their respective size difference. The solid cone angles, measured by the steric parameter ( i.e. θ ) is θ =131° for Cr(CO) 3 whereas Cp*Ru was θ =187° or only 30% larger. The tri carbonyl moiety being considered equivalent to the cyclopenta dienyl (Cp) ligand. [ 1 ]
It is well established that electrostatic potential around the para position tends to improve MAT binding. This is believed to also be the case for the meta position, although it is less studied. N-demethylation dramatically potentiates NET and SERT affinity, but the effects of this on DAT binding are insignificant. [ 33 ] Of course, this is not always the case. For an interesting exception to this trend, see the Taxil document. There is ample evidence suggesting that N-demethylation of alkaloids occurs naturally in vivo via a biological enzyme. The fact that hydrolysis of the ester leads to inactive metabolites means that this is still the main mode of deactivation for analogues that have an easily metabolised 2-ester substituent. The attached table provides good illustration of the effect of this chemical transformation on MAT binding affinities. N.B. In the case of both nocaine and pethidine, N-demethyl compounds are more toxic and have a decreased seizure threshold. [ 34 ]
ɑ The N -demethylated variant of ( i.e. compound code-name after dash)
"Interest in NET selective drugs continues as evidenced by the development of atomoxetine , manifaxine , and reboxetine as new NET selective compounds for treating ADHD and other CNS disorders such as depression" (FIC, et al. 2005). [ 35 ]
ɑ These values determined in Cynomolgus monkey caudate-putamen b The radioligand used for 5-HTT was [ 3 H]citalopram
See the N -methyl paroxetine homologues cf. di-aryl phenyltropanes for another SSRI approximated hybrid: the fluoxetine based homologue of the phenyltropane class.
The eight position nitrogen has been found to not be an exclusively necessary functional anchor for binding at the MAT for phenyltropanes and related compounds. Sulfurs, oxygens, and even the removal of any heteroatom, leaving only the carbon skeleton of the structure at the bridged position, still show distinct affinity for the monoamine transporter cocaine-target site and continue to form an ionic bond with a measurable degree of reasonable efficacy.
Bi- and tri-cyclic aza compounds and their uses. [ 38 ] [ 39 ]
See: Bridged cocaine derivatives & N 8 Tricyclic (2β—crossed-over) N 8—to—3β replaced aryl linked (expansive front-bridged) cocaine analogues
U.S. patent 6,150,376
Fused tropane-derivatives as neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitors. Singh notes that all bridged derivatives tested displayed 2.5—104 fold higher DAT affinity than cocaine. The ones 2.8—190 fold more potent at DAT also had increased potency at the other two MAT sites (NET & SERT); NET having 1.6—78× increased activity. (+)-128 additionally exhibited 100× greater potency @ SERT, whereas 132a & 133a had 4–5.2× weaker 5-HTT ( i.e. SERT) activity. Front-bridged ( e.g. 128 & 129) had a better 5-HT/DA reuptake ratio in favor of SERT, while the back-bridged ( e.g. 130–133) preferred placement with DAT interaction. [ 1 ] U.S. patent 5,998,405
To make a different type of analog (see Kozikowski patent above)
(1R,2S,10R,12S)-15-methyl-15-azatetracyclo(10.2.1.0 2 , 10 .0 4 , 9 )pentadeca-4(9),5,7-trien-3-one [ 3 ]
Parent compound of a series of spirocyclic cocaine benzoyl linkage modification analogs created by Suzuki coupling method of ortho -substituted arylboronic acids and an enol-triflate derived from cocaine; which technically has the three methylene length of cocaine analogues as well as the single length which defines the phenyltropane series. Note that the carbomethoxyl group is (due to constraints in synthetic processes used in the creation of this compound) alpha configured; which is not the usual, most prevalent, conformation favored for the PT cocaine-receptor binding pocket of most such sub-type of chemicals. The above and below depictions show attested compounds synthesized, additionally with variations upon the Endo–exo isomerism of their structures. [ 40 ]
3-Phenyl-9-azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane derivatives
To better elucidate the binding requirements at MAT, the methylene unit on the tropane was extended by one to create the azanonane analogs. [ i ] Which are the beginning of classes of modifications that start to become effected by the concerns & influences of macrocyclic stereocontrol .
Despite the loosened flexibility of the ring system, nitrogen constrained variants (such as were created to make the bridged class of phenyltropanes) which might better fit the rigid placement necessary to suit the spatial requirements needed in the binding pocket were not synthesized. Though front-bridged types were synthesized for the piperidine homologues: the trend of equal values for either isomers of that type followed the opposing trend of a smaller and lessened plasticity of the molecule to contend with a rationale for further constraining the pharmacophore within that scope. Instead such findings lend credence to the potential for the efficacy of fusing the nitrogen on an enlarged tropane, as like upon the compounds given below.
3-Phenyl-7-azabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane derivatives
Ring-contracted analogs of phenyltropanes did not permit sufficient penetration of the phenyl into the target binding site on MAT for an affinity in the efficacious range. The distance from the nitrogen to the phenyl centroid for 155a was 4.2 and 155c was 5.0 Å , respectively. (Whereas troparil was 5.6 & compound 20a 5.5 angstroms). However piperidine homologues (discussed below) had comparable potencies. [ j ]
Azabornanes with longer substitutions at the 3β-position (benzoyloxys alkylphenyls, carbamoyls etc.) or with the nitrogen in the position it would be on the piperidine homologues ( i.e. arrangements of differing locations for the nitrogens being either distal or proximal within the terms required to facilitate the framework of the compound to a correlative proportion, functional for the given moiety), were not synthesized, despite conclusions that the nitrogen to phenyl length was the issue at variance enough to be the interfering factor for the proper binding of the compressed topology of the azabornane. Carroll, however, has listed benzoyloxy azabornanes in patents. [ 3 ]
Piperidine homologues had comparable affinity & potency spreads to their respective phenyltropane analogues. Without as much of a discrepancy between the differing isomers of the piperidine class with respect to affinity and binding values as had in the phenyltropanes.
Heterocyclic N -Desmethyl [ 43 ]
Source: [ 3 ]
cf. Fencamfamine
These compounds include transition metals in their heteroatomic conformation, unlike non-radiolabel intended chelates where their element is chosen for intrinsic affectation to binding and function, these are tagged on by a "tail" (or similar) with a sufficient spacer to remain separated from known binding properties and instead are meant to add radioactivity enough to be easily tracked via observation methods that utilize radioactivity. As for anomalies of binding within the spectrum of the under-written kinds just mentioned: other factors not otherwise considered to account for its relatively lower potency, "compound 89c " is posited to protrude forward at the aryl place on its moiety toward the MAT ligand acceptor site in a manner detrimental to its efficacy. That is considered due to the steric bulk of the eight-position "tail" chelate substituted constituent, overreaching the means by which it was intended to be isolated from binding factors upon a tail, and ultimately nonetheless, interfering with its ability to bind. However, to broach this discrepancy, decreasing of the nitrogen tether at the eight position by a single methylene unit ( 89d ) was shown to bring the potency of the analogous compound to the expected, substantially higher, potency: The N -methyl analog of 89c having an IC 50 of 1.09 ± 0.02 @ DAT & 2.47 ± 0.14 nM @ SERT; making 89c upwards of thirty-three times weaker at those MAT uptake sites. [ k ]
Phenyltropanes can be grouped by "N substitution" "Stereochemistry" "2-substitution" & by the nature of the 3-phenyl group substituent X. Often this has dramatic effects on selectivity, potency, and duration, also toxicity, since phenyltropanes are highly versatile. For more examples of interesting phenyltropanes, see some of the more recent patents, e.g. U.S. patent 6,329,520 , U.S. patent 7,011,813 , U.S. patent 6,531,483 , and U.S. patent 7,291,737 .
Potency in vitro should not be confused with the actual dosage, as pharmacokinetic factors can have a dramatic influence on what proportion of an administered dose actually gets to the target binding sites in the brain, and so a drug that is very potent at binding to the target may nevertheless have only moderate potency in vivo . For example, RTI-336 requires a higher dosage than cocaine. Accordingly, the active dosage of RTI-386 is exceedingly poor despite the relatively high ex vivo DAT binding affinity.
Many molecular drug structures have exceedingly similar pharmarcology to phenyltropanes, yet by certain technicalities do not fit the phenyltropane moniker. These are namely classes of dopaminergic cocaine analogues that are in the piperidine class (a category that includes methylphenidate ) or benztropine class (such as Difluoropine : which is extremely close to fitting the criteria of being a phenyltropane.) Whereas other potent DRIs are far removed from being in the phenyltropane structural family, such as Benocyclidine or Vanoxerine .
Most any variant with a tropane locant—3-β (or α) connecting linkage differing from, e.g. longer than, a single methylene unit (i.e. "phenyl"), including alkylphenyls (see the styrene analog, first image given in example below) is more correctly a "cocaine analogue" proper, and not a phenyltropane. Especially if this linkage imparts a sodium channel blocker functionality to the molecule. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes |
This is a list of philosophers of technology . It includes philosophers from other disciplines who are recognised as having made an important contribution to the field, for example those commonly included in reference anthologies. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_technology |
This is a list of notable photochemists . Photochemistry , a sub-discipline of chemistry , is the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photochemists |
This list of phylogenetic tree viewing software is a compilation of software tools and web portals used in visualizing phylogenetic trees .
1 "All" refers to Microsoft Windows, Apple OSX and Linux; L=Linux, M=Apple Mac, W=Microsoft Windows | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phylogenetic_tree_visualization_software |
This list of phylogenetics software is a compilation of computational phylogenetics software used to produce phylogenetic trees . Such tools are commonly used in comparative genomics , cladistics , and bioinformatics . Methods for estimating phylogenies include neighbor-joining , maximum parsimony (also simply referred to as parsimony), unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean ( UPGMA ), Bayesian phylogenetic inference , maximum likelihood , and distance matrix methods . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phylogenetics_software |
This is a list of some physical properties of common glasses. Unless otherwise stated, the technical glass compositions and many experimentally determined properties are taken from one large study. [ 1 ] Unless stated otherwise, the properties of fused silica (quartz glass) and germania glass are derived from the SciGlass glass database by forming the arithmetic mean of all the experimental values from different authors (in general more than 10 independent sources for quartz glass and T g of germanium oxide glass).
The list is not exhaustive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_properties_of_glass |
This article consists of tables outlining a number of physical quantities .
The first table lists the fundamental quantities used in the International System of Units to define the physical dimension of physical quantities for dimensional analysis . The second table lists the derived physical quantities . Derived quantities can be expressed in terms of the base quantities .
Note that neither the names nor the symbols used for the physical quantities are international standards. Some quantities are known as several different names such as the magnetic B-field which is known as the magnetic flux density , the magnetic induction or simply as the magnetic field depending on the context. Similarly, surface tension can be denoted by either σ , γ or T . The table usually lists only one name and symbol that is most commonly used.
The final column lists some special properties that some of the quantities have, such as their scaling behavior (i.e. whether the quantity is intensive or extensive ), their transformation properties (i.e. whether the quantity is a scalar , vector , matrix or tensor ), and whether the quantity is conserved . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_quantities |
The following is a list of phytochemicals present in foods .
orange pigments
yellow pigments
red , blue , purple pigments
Phytoestrogens seeds ( flax , sesame , pumpkin , sunflower , poppy ), whole grains ( rye , oats , barley ), bran ( wheat , oat, rye), fruits (particularly berries ) and vegetables [ 3 ]
extracted from brown alga species ( Ecklonia cava , Sargassum mcclurei ), sea oak ( Eisenia bicyclis , Fucus vesiculosus )
Extracted from Mongolian Oak ( Quercus mongolica ) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food |
This page lists properties of several commonly used piezoelectric materials.
Piezoelectric materials (PMs) can be broadly classified as either crystalline, ceramic, or polymeric. [ 1 ] The most commonly produced piezoelectric ceramics are lead zirconate titanate (PZT), barium titanate, and lead titanate. Gallium nitride and zinc oxide can also be regarded as a ceramic due to their relatively wide band gaps . Semiconducting PMs offer features such as compatibility with integrated circuits and semiconductor devices. Inorganic ceramic PMs offer advantages over single crystals, including ease of fabrication into a variety of shapes and sizes not constrained crystallographic directions. Organic polymer PMs, such as PVDF , have low Young's modulus compared to inorganic PMs. Piezoelectric polymers (PVDF, 240 mV-m/N) possess higher piezoelectric stress constants ( g 33 ), an important parameter in sensors, than ceramics (PZT, 11 mV-m/N), which show that they can be better sensors than ceramics. Moreover, piezoelectric polymeric sensors and actuators, due to their processing flexibility, can be readily manufactured into large areas, and cut into a variety of shapes. In addition polymers also exhibit high strength, high impact resistance, low dielectric constant, low elastic stiffness, and low density, thereby a high voltage sensitivity which is a desirable characteristic along with low acoustic and mechanical impedance useful for medical and underwater applications.
Among PMs, PZT ceramics are popular as they have a high sensitivity, a high g 33 value. They are however brittle. Furthermore, they show low Curie temperature , leading to constraints in terms of applications in harsh environmental conditions. However, promising is the integration of ceramic disks into industrial appliances moulded from plastic. This resulted in the development of PZT-polymer composites, and the feasible integration of functional PM composites on large scale, by simple thermal welding or by conforming processes. Several approaches towards lead-free ceramic PM have been reported, such as piezoelectric single crystals (langasite), and ferroelectric ceramics with a perovskite structure and bismuth layer-structured ferroelectrics (BLSF), which have been extensively researched. Also, several ferroelectrics with perovskite-structure (BaTiO 3 [BT], (Bi 1/2 Na 1/2 ) TiO 3 [BNT], (Bi 1/2 K 1/2 ) TiO 3 [BKT], KNbO 3 [KN], (K, Na) NbO 3 [KNN]) have been investigated for their piezoelectric properties.
The following table lists the following properties for piezoelectric materials
d 33 = -0.27
d 31 = -520
k 33 = 0.91
k 33 = 0.88
d 31 = -970
k 33 = 0.91
k 33 = 0.94
d 31 = -217
k 33 = 0.86
d 31 = -1330
k 33 = 0.94
d 31 = -180
k t = 0.55 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_piezoelectric_materials |
The following buildings are of significance in pioneering the use of solar powered building design : | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pioneering_solar_buildings |
Places that have numerals in their names include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_numeric_names |
The following is the list of the 286 plant communities which comprise the British National Vegetation Classification (NVC). These are grouped by major habitat category, as used in the five volumes of British Plant Communities , the standard work describing the NVC.
The following 25 communities are described in Volume 1 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Woodland and scrub communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 38 communities are described in Volume 2 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Mires in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 22 communities are described in Volume 2 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Heaths in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 13 communities are described in Volume 3 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Mesotrophic grasslands in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 14 communities are described in Volume 3 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Calcicolous grasslands in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 21 communities are described in Volume 3 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Calcifugous grasslands and montane communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 24 communities are described in Volume 4 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Aquatic communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 28 communities are described in Volume 4 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Swamps and tall-herb fens in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 28 communities are described in Volume 5 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Salt-marsh communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 19 communities are described in Volume 5 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Shingle, strandline and sand-dune communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 12 communities are described in Volume 5 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Maritime cliff communities in the British National Vegetation Classification system .
The following 42 communities are described in Volume 5 of British Plant Communities . For an article summarising these communities see Vegetation of open habitats in the British National Vegetation Classification system . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plant_communities_in_the_British_National_Vegetation_Classification |
This is an alphabetical list of plants used in herbalism .
Phytochemicals possibly involved in biological functions are the basis of herbalism, and may be grouped as:
For example, some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predation , and others are pheromones used to attract insects for pollination . Secondary metabolites and pigments may have therapeutic actions in humans, and can be refined to produce drugs; examples are quinine from the cinchona , morphine and codeine from the poppy , and digoxin from the foxglove . [ 1 ]
In Europe, apothecaries stocked herbal ingredients as traditional medicines . In the Latin names for plants created by Linnaeus , the word officinalis indicates that a plant was used in this way. For example, the marsh mallow has the classification Althaea officinalis , as it was traditionally used as an emollient to soothe ulcers . [ 2 ] Pharmacognosy is the study of plant sources of phytochemicals.
Some modern prescription drugs are based on plant extracts rather than whole plants. The phytochemicals may be synthesized, compounded or otherwise transformed to make pharmaceuticals . Examples of such derivatives include aspirin , which is chemically related to the salicylic acid found in white willow . The opium poppy is a major industrial source of opiates, including morphine . Few traditional remedies, however, have translated into modern drugs, although there is continuing research into the efficacy and possible adaptation of traditional herbal treatments.
. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism |
This is a list of plasma physics topics . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plasma_physics_articles |
A podcast client , podcatcher , or podcast app , is a computer program or mobile app used to stream or download podcasts , via an RSS or XML feed. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
While podcast clients are best known for streaming and downloading audio podcasts, many can also download video podcasts, newsfeeds , text, and pictures. Some of these podcast clients can also automate the transfer of received audio or video files to a portable media player . Although most include a searchable directory of podcasts (usually populated by either Apple Podcasts or Podcast Index ), they also allow users to manually subscribe directly to a podcast RSS feed by providing the URL .
The core concepts were developing since 2000 , and the first commercial podcast client software was developed in 2001. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
Podcasts were made popular when Apple added podcasts to its iTunes 4.9 software and iPod portable media player in June 2005. [ 6 ] Apple Podcasts is currently included in all Apple devices, such as iPhone , iPad and Mac computers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_podcast_clients |
Plants that cause illness or death after consuming them are referred to as poisonous plants . The toxins in poisonous plants affect herbivores , and deter them from consuming the plants. Plants cannot move to escape their predators, so they must have other means of protecting themselves from herbivorous animals. Some plants have physical defenses such as thorns, spines and prickles, but by far the most common type of protection is chemical. [ 1 ]
Over millennia, through the process of natural selection , plants have evolved the means to produce a vast and complicated array of chemical compounds to deter herbivores. Tannin , for example, is a defensive compound that emerged relatively early in the evolutionary history of plants, while more complex molecules such as polyacetylenes are found in younger groups of plants such as the Asterales . Many of the known plant defense compounds primarily defend against consumption by insects, though other animals, including humans, that consume such plants may also experience negative effects, ranging from mild discomfort to death.
Many of these poisonous compounds also have important medicinal benefits. [ 2 ] The varieties of phytochemical defenses in plants are so numerous that many questions about them remain unanswered, including:
These questions and others constitute an active area of research in modern botany, with important implications for understanding plant evolution and medical science.
Below is an extensive, if incomplete, list of plants containing one or more poisonous parts that pose a serious risk of illness, injury, or death to humans or domestic animals. There is significant overlap between plants considered poisonous and those with psychotropic properties , some of which are toxic enough to present serious health risks at recreational doses. There is a distinction between plants that are poisonous because they naturally produce dangerous phytochemicals, and those that may become dangerous for other reasons, including but not limited to infection by bacterial, viral, or fungal parasites; the uptake of toxic compounds through contaminated soil or groundwater; and/or the ordinary processes of decay after the plant has died; this list deals exclusively with plants that produce phytochemicals. Many plants, such as peanuts, produce compounds that are only dangerous to people who have developed an allergic reaction to them, and with a few exceptions, those plants are not included here (see list of allergens instead). Despite the wide variety of plants considered poisonous, human fatalities caused by poisonous plants – especially resulting from accidental ingestion – are rare in the developed world. [ 3 ]
Many plants commonly used as food possess toxic parts, are toxic unless processed, or are toxic at certain stages of their lives. Some only pose a serious threat to certain animals (such as cats, dogs, or livestock) or certain types of people (such as infants, the elderly, or the immunocompromised). Most of these food plants are safe for the average adult to eat in modest quantities. Notable examples include:
necessary to meet the body's energy needs, and in turn leads to hypoglycemia . [ 6 ]
Countless other plants not commonly used in food or drink are also poisonous, and care should be taken to avoid accidentally contacting or ingesting them. Some of these are popular ornamental plants or are cultivated for purposes other than consumption. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_poisonous_plants |
This is a list of software that can block pop-up ads . Blocking is usually a user-enabled option, and can in many cases allow specified exceptions.
Trident shells
Gecko -based browsers
KHTML / WebKit -based browsers
Presto -based browsers
Others | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pop-up_blocking_software |
For the purposes of this list, a portable application is software that can be used from portable storage devices such as USB flash drives , digital audio players , PDAs [ 1 ] or external hard drives . To be considered for inclusion, an application must be executable on multiple computers from removable storage without installation, and without writing settings or data onto a computer's non-removable storage. This includes modified portable versions of non-portable applications.
Visual maps of free space and biggest files and folders on hard drive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_portable_software |
The number of dwarf planets in the Solar System is unknown. Estimates have run as high as 200 in the Kuiper belt [ 1 ] and over 10,000 in the region beyond. [ 2 ] However, consideration of the surprisingly low densities of many large trans-Neptunian objects, as well as spectroscopic analysis of their surfaces, suggests that the number of dwarf planets may be much lower, perhaps only nine among bodies known so far. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines dwarf planets as being in hydrostatic equilibrium , and notes six bodies in particular: Ceres in the inner Solar System and five in the trans-Neptunian region: Pluto , Eris , Haumea , Makemake , and Quaoar . [ 5 ] Only Pluto and Ceres have been confirmed to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, due to the results of the New Horizons and Dawn missions. [ 6 ] Eris is generally assumed to be a dwarf planet because it is similar in size to Pluto and even more massive. Haumea and Makemake were accepted as dwarf planets by the IAU for naming purposes and will keep their names if it turns out they are not dwarf planets. Smaller trans-Neptunian objects have been called dwarf planets if they appear to be solid bodies, which is a prerequisite for hydrostatic equilibrium: planetologists generally include at least Gonggong , Orcus , and Sedna . Quaoar was labelled as a dwarf planet in a 2022–2023 annual report, though it does not appear to be in hydrostatic equilibrium. In practice the requirement for hydrostatic equilibrium is often loosened to include all gravitationally rounded objects, even by the IAU, as otherwise Mercury would not be a planet. [ citation needed ]
Beside directly orbiting the Sun, the qualifying feature of a dwarf planet is that it have "sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid-body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium ( nearly round ) shape". [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Current observations are generally insufficient for a direct determination as to whether a body meets this definition. Often the only clues for trans-Neptunian objects (TNO) is a crude estimate of their diameters and albedos. Icy satellites as large as 1,500 km in diameter have proven to not be in equilibrium, whereas dark objects in the outer solar system often have low densities that imply they are not even solid bodies, much less gravitationally controlled dwarf planets.
Ceres , which has a significant amount of ice in its composition, is the only accepted dwarf planet in the asteroid belt , though there are unexplained anomalies. [ 10 ] 4 Vesta , the second-most-massive asteroid and one that is basaltic in composition, appears to have a fully differentiated interior and was therefore in equilibrium at some point in its history, but no longer is today. [ 11 ] The third-most massive object, 2 Pallas , has a somewhat irregular surface and is thought to have only a partially differentiated interior; it is also less icy than Ceres. Michael Brown has estimated that, because rocky objects such as Vesta are more rigid than icy objects, rocky objects below 900 kilometres (560 mi) in diameter may not be in hydrostatic equilibrium and thus not dwarf planets. [ 1 ] The two largest icy outer-belt asteroids 10 Hygiea and 704 Interamnia are close to equilibrium, but in Hygiea's case this may be a result of its disruption and the re-aggregation of its fragments, while Interamnia is now somewhat away from equilibrium due to impacts. [ 10 ] [ 12 ]
Based on a comparison with the icy moons that have been visited by spacecraft, such as Mimas (round at 400 km in diameter) and Proteus (irregular at 410–440 km in diameter), Brown estimated that an icy body relaxes into hydrostatic equilibrium at a diameter somewhere between 200 and 400 km. [ 1 ] However, after Brown and Tancredi made their calculations, better determination of their shapes showed that Mimas and the other mid-sized ellipsoidal moons of Saturn up to at least Iapetus (which, at 1,471 km in diameter, is approximately the same size as Haumea and Makemake) are no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium; they are also icier than TNOs are likely to be. They have equilibrium shapes that froze in place some time ago, and do not match the shapes that equilibrium bodies would have at their current rotation rates. [ 13 ] Thus Rhea , at 1528 km in diameter, is the smallest body for which gravitational measurements are consistent with current hydrostatic equilibrium. Ceres, at 950 km in diameter, is close to equilibrium, but some deviations from equilibrium shape remain unexplained. [ 14 ] Much larger objects, such as Earth's moon and the planet Mercury, are not near hydrostatic equilibrium today, [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] though the Moon is composed primarily of silicate rock and Mercury of metal (in contrast to most dwarf planet candidates, which are ice and rock). Saturn's moons may have been subject to a thermal history that would have produced equilibrium-like shapes in bodies too small for gravity alone to do so. Thus, at present it is unknown whether any trans-Neptunian objects smaller than Pluto and Eris are in hydrostatic equilibrium. [ 3 ] Nonetheless, it does not matter in practice, because the precise statement of hydrostatic equilibrium in the definition is universally ignored in favour of roundness and solidity. [ 3 ] [ 18 ]
The majority of mid-sized TNOs up to about 900–1000 km in diameter have significantly lower densities (~ 1.0–1.2 g/ml ) than larger bodies such as Pluto (1.86 g/cm 3 ). Brown had speculated that this was due to their composition, that they were almost entirely icy. However, Grundy et al. [ 3 ] point out that there is no known mechanism or evolutionary pathway for mid-sized bodies to be icy while both larger and smaller objects are partially rocky. They demonstrated that at the prevailing temperatures of the Kuiper Belt, water ice is strong enough to support open interior spaces (interstices) in objects of this size; they concluded that mid-size TNOs have low densities for the same reason that smaller objects do—because they have not compacted under self-gravity into fully solid objects, and thus the typical TNO smaller than 900–1000 km in diameter is (pending some other formative mechanism) unlikely to be a dwarf planet.
In 2010, Gonzalo Tancredi presented a report to the IAU evaluating a list of 46 trans-Neptunian candidates for dwarf planet status based on light-curve -amplitude analysis and a calculation that the object was more than 450 kilometres (280 mi) in diameter. Some diameters were measured, some were best-fit estimates, and others used an assumed albedo of 0.10 to calculate the diameter. Of these, he identified 15 as dwarf planets by his criteria (including the 4 accepted by the IAU), with another 9 being considered possible. To be cautious, he advised the IAU to "officially" accept as dwarf planets the top three: Sedna, Orcus, and Quaoar. [ 19 ] Although the IAU had anticipated Tancredi's recommendations, by late 2023 only Quaoar had been accepted. [ citation needed ]
Mike Brown considers 130 trans-Neptunian bodies to be "probably" dwarf planets, ranked them by estimated size. [ 20 ] He does not consider asteroids, stating "in the asteroid belt Ceres, with a diameter of 900 km, is the only object large enough to be round." [ 20 ]
The terms for varying degrees of likelihood he split these into:
Beside the five older accepted by the IAU plus Quaoar, the 'nearly certain' category includes Gonggong , Sedna , Orcus , 2002 MS 4 , and Salacia . Note that although Brown's site claims to be updated daily, these largest objects haven't been updated since late 2013, and indeed the current best diameter estimates for Salacia and 2002 MS 4 are less than 900 km. (Orcus is just above the threshold.) [ 21 ]
Grundy et al. propose that dark, low-density TNOs in the size range of approximately 400–1000 km are transitional between smaller, porous (and thus low-density) bodies and larger, denser, brighter, and geologically differentiated planetary bodies (such as dwarf planets). Bodies in this size range should have begun to collapse the interstitial spaces left over from their formation, but not fully, leaving some residual porosity. [ 3 ]
Many TNOs in the size range of about 400–1000 km have oddly low densities, in the range of about 1.0–1.2 g/cm 3 , that are substantially less than those of dwarf planets such as Pluto, Eris and Ceres, which have densities closer to 2. Brown has suggested that large low-density bodies must be composed almost entirely of water ice since he presumed that bodies of this size would necessarily be solid. However, this leaves unexplained why TNOs both larger than 1,000 km and smaller than 400 km, and indeed comets, are composed of a substantial fraction of rock, leaving only this size range to be primarily icy. Experiments with water ice at the relevant pressures and temperatures suggest that substantial porosity could remain in this size range, and it is possible that adding rock to the mix would further increase resistance to collapsing into a solid body. Bodies with internal porosity remaining from their formation could be at best only partially differentiated, in their deep interiors (if a body had begun to collapse into a solid body, there should be evidence in the form of fault systems from when its surface contracted). The higher albedos of larger bodies are also evidence of full differentiation, as such bodies were presumably resurfaced with ice from their interiors. Grundy et al . [ 3 ] propose therefore that mid-size (< 1,000 km), low-density (< 1.4 g/cm 3 ) and low-albedo (< ~0.2) bodies such as Salacia , Varda , Gǃkúnǁʼhòmdímà , and (55637) 2002 UX 25 are not differentiated planetary bodies like Orcus , Quaoar , and Charon . The boundary between the two populations would appear to be in the range of about 900–1000 km , although Grundy et al. also suggest that 600–700 km might constitute an upper limit to retaining significant porosity. [ 3 ]
If Grundy et al. [ 3 ] are correct, then very few known bodies in the outer Solar System are likely to have compacted into fully solid bodies, and thus to possibly have become dwarf planets at some point in their past or to still be dwarf planets at present. Pluto–Charon, Eris, Haumea, Gonggong, Makemake, Quaoar, and Sedna are either known (Pluto) or strong candidates (the others). Orcus is again just above the threshold by size, though it is bright.
There are a number of smaller bodies, estimated to be between 700 and 900 km in diameter, for most of which not enough is known to apply these criteria. All of them are dark, mostly with albedos under 0.11, with brighter 2013 FY 27 (0.18) an exception; this suggests that they are not dwarf planets. However, Salacia and Varda may be dense enough to at least be solid. If Salacia were spherical and had the same albedo as its moon, it would have a density of between 1.4 and 1.6 g/cm 3 , calculated a few months after Grundy et al.'s initial assessment, though still an albedo of only 0.04. [ 22 ] Varda might have a higher density of 1.78±0.06 g/cm 3 (a lower density of 1.23±0.04 g/cm 3 was considered possible though less probable), published the year after Grundy et al.'s initial assessment; [ 23 ] its albedo of 0.10 is close to Quaoar's.
In 2023, Emery et al. wrote that near-infrared spectroscopy by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2022 suggests that Sedna, Gonggong and Quaoar internally melted and differentiated and are chemically evolved, like the larger dwarf planets Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake, but unlike "all smaller KBOs". This is because light hydrocarbons are present on their surfaces (e.g. ethane , acetylene , and ethylene ), which implies that methane is continuously being resupplied, and that methane would likely come from internal geochemistry. On the other hand, the surfaces of Sedna, Gonggong and Quaoar have low abundances of CO and CO 2 , similar to Pluto, Eris and Makemake but in contrast to smaller bodies. This suggests that the threshold for dwarf planethood in the trans-Neptunian region is a diameter of ~1000 km (thus including only Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, Gonggong, Quaoar and possibly Sedna). [ 4 ]
The assessments of the IAU, Tancredi et al., Brown, and Grundy et al. for some of potential dwarf planets are as follows. For the IAU, the acceptance criteria were for naming purposes; Quaoar was called a dwarf planet in a 2022–2023 IAU annual report. [ 24 ] An IAU question-and-answer press release from 2006 was more specific: it estimated that objects with mass above 5 × 10 20 kg and diameter greater than 800 km (800 km across) would "normally" be in hydrostatic equilibrium ("the shape ... would normally be determined by self-gravity"), but that "all borderline cases would need to be determined by observation." [ 25 ] This is close to Grundy et al.'s suggestion for the approximate limit.
Several of these objects had not yet been discovered when Tancredi et al. did their analysis. Brown's sole criterion is diameter; he accepts significantly many more as "highly likely" to be dwarf planets, for which his threshold is 600 km (see below). Grundy et al. did not determine which bodies were dwarf planets, but rather which could not be. A red marks objects that are not dense enough to be solid bodies; to this is added a question mark for the objects whose densities are not known (they are all dark, suggesting that they are not dwarf planets). Emery et al. suggest that Sedna, Quaoar, and Gonggong went through internal melting, differentiation, and chemical evolution like the larger dwarf planets, but that all smaller KBOs did not. [ 4 ] The question of current equilibrium was not addressed; nonetheless, it is not generally taken seriously despite being in the definition. (Mercury is round but known to be out of equilibrium; [ 26 ] it is universally considered as a planet according to the intent of the IAU and geophysical definitions, rather than to the letter.) [ 18 ] This would be relevant for Quaoar, as in 2024, Kiss et al. found that Quaoar has an ellipsoidal shape incompatible with hydrostatic equilibrium for its current spin. They hypothesised that Quaoar originally had a rapid rotation and was in hydrostatic equilibrium, but that its shape became "frozen in" and did not change as it spun down due to tidal forces from its moon Weywot . [ 27 ] If so, this would resemble the situation of Saturn's moon Iapetus , which is too oblate for its current spin. [ 28 ] [ 29 ] Iapetus is generally still considered a planetary-mass moon nonetheless, [ 30 ] though not always. [ 31 ]
Two moons are included for comparison: Triton likely formed as a TNO before it was captured by Neptune , and Charon is larger than some dwarf planet candidates.
The following trans-Neptunian objects have measured diameters at least 600 kilometres (370 mi) to within measurement uncertainties; this was the threshold to be considered a "highly likely" dwarf planet in Brown's early assessment. Grundy et al. speculated that 600 km to 700 km diameter could represent "the upper limit to retain substantial internal pore space", and that objects around 900 km could have collapsed interiors but fail to completely differentiate. [ 3 ] The two satellites of TNOs that surpass this threshold have also been included: Pluto's moon Charon and Eris' moon Dysnomia. The next largest TNO moon is Orcus' moon Vanth at 442.5 ± 10.2 km and a poorly constrained (87 ± 8) × 10 18 kg , with an albedo of about 8%.
Ceres, generally accepted as a dwarf planet, is added for comparison. Also added for comparison is Triton, which is thought to have been a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt before it was captured by Neptune.
Bodies with very poorly known sizes (e.g. 2018 VG 18 "Farout") have been excluded. Complicating the situation for poorly known bodies is that a body assumed to be a large single object might turn out to be a binary or ternary system of smaller objects, such as 2013 FY 27 or Lempo . A 2021 occultation of 2004 XR 190 ("Buffy") found a chord of 560 km: if the body is approximately spherical, it is likely that the diameter is greater than 560 km, but if it is elongated, the mean diameter may well be less. Explanations and sources for the measured masses and diameters can be found in the corresponding articles linked in column "Designation" of the table.
All of these categories are subject to change with further evidence.
[ 37 ] [ 38 ]
For objects without a measured size or mass, sizes can only be estimated by assuming an albedo. Most sub-dwarf objects are thought to be dark, because they haven't been resurfaced; this means that they are also relatively large for their magnitudes. Below is a table for assumed albedos between 4% (the albedo of Salacia) and 20% (a value above which suggests resurfacing), and the sizes objects of those albedos would need to be (if round) to produce the observed absolute magnitude. Backgrounds are blue for >900 km and teal for >600 km.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Local Sheet → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Local Hole → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow ( → ) may be read as "within" or "part of". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_possible_dwarf_planets |
Below is the list of measuring instruments used in power engineering work. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_power_engineering_measuring_equipment |
The following is a list of notable presentation software .t | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presentation_programs |
This list of preserved historic blast furnaces contains decommissioned blast furnaces , of which substantial remains survive. The furnaces are preserved in a park or museum, or as a site otherwise open to visitors, or intended to become such.
While pre-20th-century blast furnaces already have a long history of monument preservation, the perception of 20th century mass production blast furnace installations as industrial heritage is a comparably new trend. For a long time, it has been normal procedure for such a blast furnace to be demolished after being decommissioned and either be replaced with a newer, improved one, or to have the entire site demolished to make room for follow-up use of the area. It has only been in recent years [ when? ] that numerous countries have realized the value of blast furnaces as a part of their industrial history . [ citation needed ]
Historically, the first such blast furnace not to be demolished stands in Starachowice , Poland (decommissioned in 1968), followed by the last blast furnace of Yahata Steel Works in Yahatahigashi-ku, Kitakyūshū , Japan (decommissioned in 1972) and the "Carrie Furnaces" in Homestead , Pennsylvania in the United States (decommissioned in 1978). One of the two blast furnaces in Neunkirchen in Germany (decommissioned in 1982) was the first blast furnace worldwide to be not just preserved, but actively refurbished for the purpose of preservation.
For 20th-century mass production blast furnaces, the degree of accurate preservation versus integration into new structures, or even re-purposing, differs between the various sites. Colorful illumination installations at night are common.
Now part of the Lal Lal-Bungal Historic Area.
The furnace ruin exists on private property.
The blast furnace ruin exists on private property but is partially visible from public land adjoining Ilalong Road.
near village Osrblie
(Moravčíková et al., 2004; Petrík 2010).
Moravčíková, Ľ., Petrík, J. and Mihok, Ľ. (2004) Analysis of remnants from blast furnace in Jakubany, 18th - 19th centuries. Acta Metallurgica Slovaca . Vol. 10, pp. 672–676.
Petrík, J. (2010) The metallurgy in Spiš county. Carpatica - Karpatika , Vol. 39, Užgorod, UNU, pp. 171–184.
Petrík, J. (2010) The metallurgy in Spiš county. Carpatica - Karpatika , Vol. 39, Užgorod, UNU, pp. 171–184.
Mihok, Ľ., Petrík, J., Štefanča, P. and Hlobil, J. (2009a) Die Eisenhüttenwerke der Familie Andrássy. Montánna história Vol. 2, Limbach LC s.r.o, pp.208-245 . (in Slovak).
Petrík, J., Mihok, Ľ. and Moravčíková, Ľ. (2005c) Charcoal blast furnaces situated in localities by the river Slaná. Proceedings of the 35th Meeting of National Technical Museum - History of metallurgy, Prague, Czech Republic, pp. 111-120. (in Slovak)
Mihok, Ľ. and Petrík, J. (2007b) Charcoal furnaces in Podbiel and Píla. Proceedings of the 37th Meeting of National Technical Museum - History of metallurgy, Prague, Czech republic, pp. 39-46. (in Slovak)
Mihok, Ľ., Petrík, J. and Moravčíková, Ľ. (2009b) Die Holzkohleöfen im Gebiert der nördlichen und nordöstlichen Slowakei. Montánna história Vol. 2, Limbach LC s.r.o, pp.298-314 . (in Slovak).
Petrík, J., Mihok, Ľ. and Fröhlich, L. (2002a): The production of iron in Červeňany and Tri Vody. Proceedings of the 31st Meeting of National Technical Museum - History of metallurgy, Prague, Czech republic, pp. 35-39. (in Slovak)
(Petrík et al., 2005c; Mihok et al., 2009a).
Petrík, J., Mihok, Ľ. and Moravčíková, Ľ. (2005c) Charcoal blast furnaces situated in localities by the river Slaná. Proceedings of the 35th Meeting of National Technical Museum - History of metallurgy, Prague, Czech Republic, pp. 111-120. (in Slovak)
Mihok, Ľ., Petrík, J., Štefanča, P. and Hlobil, J. (2009a) Die Eisenhüttenwerke der Familie Andrássy. Montánna história Vol. 2, Limbach LC s.r.o, pp.208-245 . (in Slovak).
Petrík, J. and Mihok, Ľ. (2002b): The archaeometallurgical analysis of the slags from extinct blast furnace plants. Carpatica – Karpatika, Vol. 15, Užgorod, UNU, pp. 250-260.
Petrík, J., Mihok, Ľ. and Fröhlich, L. (2002c) Analysis of ironwork slag from the vicinity of the town of Snina. Proceedings of the 13th Meeting Archaeologia technica, Brno, Czech Republic, pp. 23-27. (in Slovak)
Mihok, Ľ., Petrík, J. and Moravčíková, Ľ. (2009b) Die Holzkohleöfen im Gebiert der nördlichen und nordöstlichen Slowakei. Montánna história Vol. 2, Limbach LC s.r.o, pp.298-314 . (in Slovak).
These installations all date from the 20th century. They are supported by outer frames made of metal, were supplied with pre-heated blast air from external Cowper stoves, were typically part of large industrial compounds where, at one point, multiple blast furnaces were typically standing and operating side by side for efficiency reasons, raw materials were delivered by external elevating mechanisms, and the entire site was accessible by freight trains which delivered the raw materials and carried off the freshly smelted pig iron in ladles .
In many cases, the preserved sites have been deliberately stripped down to minimize maintenance costs; namely, some blast furnaces and related installations have been demolished. The goal was to only retain one or two blast furnaces including the relevant related installations (such as Cowper stoves, cast house, winch house etc.), which are considered sufficient to explain the blast furnace process and all related functions to visitors.
The first such decommissioned blast furnace that wasn't demolished and has been preserved to this very day stands in Starachowice , Poland , and has ceased operation as early as 1968. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_preserved_historic_blast_furnaces |
This is a list of presidents of the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE). The president's role is to represent the institution and to promote the profession to the public. The first president was Thomas Telford who had the office bestowed upon him for life in recognition of his contributions to the civil engineering profession. It became a biennial office with the election of Sir William Cubitt in 1849 and an annual office with the election of Sir George Berkley in 1891, which it has remained since.
On 18 December 1956 Harold Gourley died just six weeks after assuming the office in November. [ 1 ] Gourley was the first regularly elected president to die in office (Telford, who was elected president for life, died in office) and the ICE council, who were authorised to fill any vacancy except that of President, were forced to call a Special General Meeting of members. [ 1 ] As a result of this meeting, Sir Frederick Arthur Whitaker was elected to the position in February 1957 and was allowed to serve out the remainder of Gourley's term in addition to his own full term. [ 2 ] Subsequent deaths-in-office saw Sir Herbert Manzoni succeed Arthur Hartley in February 1960; and Tony Ridley succeed Edmund Hambly in March 1995.
Current practice is for candidates to be nominated by the ICE Presidential Selection Panel. The candidate will then serve as one of several vice-presidents of the institution, becoming senior vice-president in the session preceding their term as president. The candidate is formally elected as president by the ICE council in the January of their senior vice-presidential term. The new president takes office at the start of the ICE session in November, the opening meeting being an address from the incoming president. [ 3 ]
The first female president, Jean Venables , was elected in 2008, the second, Rachel Skinner , in 2020 and the third, Anusha Shah , in 2023. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Institution_of_Civil_Engineers |
Probability theory routinely uses results from other fields of mathematics (mostly, analysis). The opposite cases, collected below, are relatively rare; however, probability theory is used systematically in combinatorics via the probabilistic method . They are particularly used for non-constructive proofs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probabilistic_proofs_of_non-probabilistic_theorems |
In mathematics , especially abstract algebra , loop theory and quasigroup theory are active research areas with many open problems . As in other areas of mathematics, such problems are often made public at professional conferences and meetings. Many of the problems posed here first appeared in the Loops (Prague) conferences and the Mile High (Denver) conferences.
Let L be a Moufang loop with normal abelian subgroup (associative subloop) M of odd order such that L / M is a cyclic group of order bigger than 3. (i) Is L a group ? (ii) If the orders of M and L / M are relatively prime , is L a group?
Conjecture: Any finite commutative Moufang loop of period 3 can be embedded into a commutative alternative algebra .
Conjecture: Let L be a finite Moufang loop and Φ( L ) the intersection of all maximal subloops of L . Then Φ( L ) is a normal nilpotent subloop of L .
For a group G {\displaystyle G} , define M ( G , 2 ) {\displaystyle M(G,2)} on G {\displaystyle G} x C 2 {\displaystyle C_{2}} by ( g , 0 ) ( h , 0 ) = ( g h , 0 ) {\displaystyle (g,0)(h,0)=(gh,0)} , ( g , 0 ) ( h , 1 ) = ( h g , 1 ) {\displaystyle (g,0)(h,1)=(hg,1)} , ( g , 1 ) ( h , 0 ) = ( g h − 1 , 1 ) {\displaystyle (g,1)(h,0)=(gh^{-1},1)} , ( g , 1 ) ( h , 1 ) = ( h − 1 g , 0 ) {\displaystyle (g,1)(h,1)=(h^{-1}g,0)} . Find a minimal presentation for the Moufang loop M ( G , 2 ) {\displaystyle M(G,2)} with respect to a presentation for G {\displaystyle G} .
Let p and q be distinct odd primes. If q is not congruent to 1 modulo p , are all Moufang loops of order p 2 q 3 groups? What about pq 4 ?
Is there a Moufang loop of odd order with trivial nucleus?
Find presentations for all nonassociative finite simple Moufang loops in the variety of Moufang loops.
Conjecture: Let M be a finite Moufang loop of exponent n with m generators. Then there exists a function f ( n , m ) such that | M | < f ( n , m ).
Conjecture: Let L be a finitely generated Moufang loop of exponent 4 or 6. Then L is finite.
Let MF n be the free Moufang loop with n generators.
Conjecture: MF 3 is torsion free but MF n with n > 4 is not.
For a left Bol loop Q , find some relation between the nilpotency degree of the left multiplication group of Q and the structure of Q .
Let ( Q , ∗ ) {\displaystyle (Q,*)} , ( Q , + ) {\displaystyle (Q,+)} be two quasigroups defined on the same underlying set Q {\displaystyle Q} . The distance d ( ∗ , + ) {\displaystyle d(*,+)} is the number of pairs ( a , b ) {\displaystyle (a,b)} in Q × Q {\displaystyle Q\times Q} such that a ∗ b ≠ a + b {\displaystyle a*b\neq a+b} . Call a class of finite quasigroups quadratic if there is a positive real number α {\displaystyle \alpha } such that any two quasigroups ( Q , ∗ ) {\displaystyle (Q,*)} , ( Q , + ) {\displaystyle (Q,+)} of order n {\displaystyle n} from the class satisfying d ( ∗ , + ) < α n 2 {\displaystyle d(*,+)<\alpha \,n^{2}} are isomorphic. Are Moufang loops quadratic? Are Bol loops quadratic?
Determine the Campbell–Hausdorff series for analytic Bol loops.
A loop is universally flexible if every one of its loop isotopes is flexible , that is, satisfies ( xy ) x = x ( yx ). A loop is middle Bol if every one of its loop isotopes has the antiautomorphic inverse property, that is, satisfies ( xy ) −1 = y −1 x −1 . Is there a finite, universally flexible loop that is not middle Bol?
Is there a finite simple nonassociative Bol loop with nontrivial conjugacy classes?
Let Q be a loop whose inner mapping group is nilpotent. Is Q nilpotent? Is Q solvable?
Let Q be a loop with abelian inner mapping group. Is Q nilpotent? If so, is there a bound on the nilpotency class of Q ? In particular, can the nilpotency class of Q be higher than 3?
Determine the number of nilpotent loops of order 24 up to isomorphism.
Construct a finite nilpotent loop with no finite basis for its laws.
Are there infinite simple paramedial quasigroups?
A variety V of quasigroups is isotopically universal if every quasigroup is isotopic to a member of V . Is the variety of loops a minimal isotopically universal variety? Does every isotopically universal variety contain the variety of loops or its parastrophes?
Does there exist a quasigroup Q of order q = 14, 18, 26 or 42 such that the operation * defined on Q by x * y = y − xy is a quasigroup operation?
Construct a latin square L of order n as follows: Let G = K n , n be the complete bipartite graph with distinct weights on its n 2 edges. Let M 1 be the cheapest matching in G , M 2 the cheapest matching in G with M 1 removed, and so on. Each matching M i determines a permutation p i of 1, ..., n . Let L be obtained from G by placing the permutation p i into row i of L . Does this procedure result in a uniform distribution on the space of Latin squares of order n ?
For a loop Q , let Mlt(Q) denote the multiplication group of Q , that is, the group generated by all left and right translations. Is |Mlt( Q )| < f (| Q |) for some variety of loops and for some polynomial f ?
Does every finite alternative loop, that is, every loop satisfying x ( xy ) = ( xx ) y and x ( yy ) = ( xy ) y , have 2-sided inverses?
Find a nonassociative finite simple automorphic loop , if such a loop exists.
We say that a variety V of loops satisfies the Moufang theorem if for every loop Q in V the following implication holds: for every x , y , z in Q , if x ( yz ) = ( xy ) z then the subloop generated by x , y , z is a group. Is every variety that satisfies Moufang theorem contained in the variety of Moufang loops?
A loop is Osborn if it satisfies the identity x (( yz ) x ) = ( x λ \ y )( zx ) . Is every Osborn loop universal, that is, is every isotope of an Osborn loop Osborn? If not, is there a nice identity characterizing universal Osborn loops?
The following problems were posed as open at various conferences and have since been solved.
Is there a Buchsteiner loop that is not conjugacy closed? Is there a finite simple Buchsteiner loop that is not conjugacy closed?
Classify nonassociative Moufang loops of order 64.
Construct a conjugacy closed loop whose left multiplication group is not isomorphic to its right multiplication group.
Is there a finite simple Bol loop that is not Moufang?
Is there a finite non-Moufang left Bol loop with trivial right nucleus?
Does every finite Moufang loop have the strong Lagrange property?
Is there a Moufang loop whose commutant is not normal?
Is the class of cores of Bol loops a quasivariety?
Let I(n) be the number of isomorphism classes of quasigroups of order n. Is I(n) odd for every n?
Classify the finite simple paramedial quasigroups. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_problems_in_loop_theory_and_quasigroup_theory |
There are many products based on FreeBSD . Information about these products and the version of FreeBSD they are based on is often difficult to come by, since this fact is not widely publicised. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_products_based_on_FreeBSD |
This is a list of progestogens that are or that have been used in clinical or veterinary medicine . They are steroids and include derivatives of progesterone and testosterone .
Note that although an active progestogen, retroprogesterone is not medically used.
Note that 17α-hydroxyprogesterone is inactive as a progestogen and is not used medically.
The 19-norprogesterone derivatives gestonorone caproate (gestronol hexanoate), nomegestrol acetate , segesterone acetate (nestorone, elcometrine), and norgestomet are also derivatives of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (see below ).
Note that although an active progestogen, 17α-methylprogesterone is not medically used.
The 19-norprogesterone derivatives demegestone , promegestone , and trimegestone are also derivatives of 17α-methylprogesterone (see below ).
Note that although an active progestogen, 19-norprogesterone is not medically used.
Note that testosterone itself does not have significant progestogenic activity. Testosterone is instead classified as an anabolic-androgenic steroid and is included here purely because it is the parent structure of this group of progestins.
Note that while nandrolone (19-nortestosterone) does have significant progestogenic activity, it is not used as a progestogen. It is instead classified as an androgenic-anabolic steroid and is included here purely because it is an important parent structure of this group of progestins.
Note that although an active progestogen, SC-5233 (spirolactone) is not medically used.
? = Chemical names that are unverified. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens |
A practical quantum computer must use a physical system as a programmable quantum register . [ 1 ] Researchers are exploring several technologies as candidates for reliable qubit implementations. [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_proposed_quantum_registers |
This list contains proposals for space telescopes , space-based (situated in space) astronomical observatories . It is a list of past and present space observatory plans, concepts, and proposals. For observatories in orbit, see list of space telescopes . Unlike that list, this one includes concepts and proposals that are unlikely ever to be launched, as they may have been cancelled or were only proposals.
[ 13 ]
[ 19 ]
[ 19 ]
[ 19 ]
ultraviolet
Geostationary orbit
For launch in the 2030s, NASA is evaluating four possible designs: the Origins Space Telescope , Lynx X-ray Observatory , Habitable Exoplanets Observatory (HabEx), and Large UV Optical Infrared Surveyor ( LUVOIR ). [ 37 ]
Balloon-borne telescopes have been in use since the 1950s. A 20–30 meter balloon telescope has been suggested. [ 38 ] The balloon would be transparent on one side, and have a circular reflecting mirror on the other side. [ 38 ] There are two main designs using this principle. [ 38 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_proposed_space_telescopes |
The number of notable protein-ligand docking programs currently available is high and has been steadily increasing over the last decades. The following list presents an overview of the most common notable programs, listed alphabetically, with indication of the corresponding year of publication, involved organisation or institution, short description, availability of a webservice and the license. This table is comprehensive but not complete. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_protein-ligand_docking_software |
This list of protein structure prediction software summarizes notable used software tools in protein structure prediction , including homology modeling , protein threading , ab initio methods, secondary structure prediction , and transmembrane helix and signal peptide prediction.
Below is a list which separates programs according to the method used for structure prediction.
Detailed list of programs can be found at List of protein secondary structure prediction programs | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_protein_structure_prediction_software |
This list of protein subcellular localisation prediction tools includes software, databases, and web services that are used for protein subcellular localization prediction .
Some tools are included that are commonly used to infer location through predicted structural properties, such as signal peptide or transmembrane helices , and these tools output predictions of these features rather than specific locations. These software related to protein structure prediction may also appear in lists of protein structure prediction software . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_protein_subcellular_localization_prediction_tools |
Proteins are a class of macromolecular organic compounds that are essential to life. They consist of a long polypeptide chain that usually adopts a single stable three-dimensional structure . They fulfill a wide variety of functions including providing structural stability to cells, catalyzing chemical reactions that produce or store energy or synthesize other biomolecules including nucleic acids and proteins, transporting essential nutrients, or serving other roles such as signal transduction . They are selectively transported to various compartments of the cell or in some cases, secreted from the cell.
This list aims to organize information on how proteins are most often classified: by structure, by function, or by location.
Proteins may be classified as to their three-dimensional structure (also known a protein fold ). The two most widely used classification schemes are: [ 2 ]
Both classification schemes are based on a hierarchy of fold types. At the top level are all alpha proteins (domains consisting of alpha helices ), all beta proteins (domains consisting of beta sheets ), and mixed alpha helix/beta sheet proteins.
While most proteins adopt a single stable fold, a few proteins can rapidly interconvert between one or more folds. These are referred to as metamorphic proteins . [ 5 ] Finally other proteins appear not to adopt any stable conformation and are referred to as intrinsically disordered . [ 6 ]
Proteins frequently contain two or more domains , each have a different fold separated by intrinsically disordered regions. These are referred to as multi-domain proteins .
Proteins may also be classified based on their cellular function . A widely used classification is PANTHER (protein analysis through evolutionary relationships) classification system. [ 7 ]
Protein#Structural proteins
Enzymes classified according to their Enzyme Commission number (EC). Note that strictly speaking, an EC number corresponds to the reaction the enzyme catalyzes, not the protein per se. However each EC number has been mapped to one or more specific proteins.
Transport protein
Signal transduction
Proteins may also be classified by which subcellular compartment they are found. [ 9 ] [ 10 ]
Nuclear proteins
Cytosolic proteins
Cytoskeletal proteins
Endoplasmic reticulum resident protein
Mitochondrial DNA that encode mitochondial proteins (note that some mitochondial proteins are encoded by nuclear DNA)
Chloroplast DNA that encode chloroplast proteins
Membrane protein
Extracellular matrix proteins
Blood protein | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_proteins |
Psychedelic film
The following is a list of psychedelic drugs of various chemical classes, including both naturally occurring and synthetic compounds. Serotonergic psychedelics are usually considered the "classical" psychedelics [ dubious – discuss ] , whereas the other classes are often seen as having only secondary psychedelic properties; nonetheless all of the compounds listed here are considered psychoactive and hallucinogenic in humans to some degree.
Some of these compounds may be classified differently or under more than one category due to a unique structural classification, multiple mechanisms of action, or the fact that the precise pharmacodynamic actions of the compound are not yet completely understood. Because of the vast amount of possible substitutions and chemical analogs of most psychedelic compounds, the total diversity of chemical compounds which produce psychedelic effects in humans is not fully reflected within this list, leaving room for many that have not yet been sufficiently investigated and others that have not yet been discovered.
Naturally occurring compounds are marked with a †. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychedelic_drugs |
Militaries worldwide have used or are using various psychoactive drugs to improve performance of soldiers by suppressing hunger, increasing the ability to sustain effort without food, increasing and lengthening wakefulness and concentration, suppressing fear , reducing empathy , and improving reflexes and memory-recall, amongst other things. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
For drugs that recently were or currently are being used by militaries. Administration tends to include strict medical supervision and prior briefing of the medical risks. [ citation needed ] Caffeine , diet pills , painkillers , nicotine , and alcohol are not included on the list. Non-administrated, illegally used drugs are also not included. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychoactive_drugs_used_by_militaries |
List of various substances that are either psychoactive themselves or serve as precursors to psychoactive compounds, all sourced from genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
Psychoactive substances derived from genetically modified organisms .
Precursor chemicals derived from genetically modified organisms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychoactive_substances_and_precursor_chemicals_derived_from_genetically_modified_organisms |
List of psychoactive substances derived from artificial fungi biotransformation . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychoactive_substances_derived_from_artificial_fungi_biotransformation |
This is a list of publications in chemistry, organized by field. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
Some factors that correlate with publication notability include:
Description: Boyle, in the form of a dialogue, argued that chemical theories should be firmly grounded in experiment before their acceptance, and for the foundation of chemistry as a science separate from medicine and alchemy .
Importance: Topic Creator, Influence. Boyle, in this book, became the first to argue that experiment should form the basis of all theory, a common practice in chemistry today. He also expounded on a rudimentary atomic theory and the existence of chemical elements beyond the classic earth, fire, air, and water. [ 5 ] He is seen as the father of chemistry, [ 6 ] and this is his most celebrated book, [ 7 ] with continued relevance to the present day. [ 8 ]
Description: This book was intended as an introduction to new theories in chemistry and as such, was one of the first Chemistry textbooks. [ 9 ]
Importance: Introduction, Influence. Aside from being one of the first chemistry textbooks, the book was one of the first to state the law of conservation of mass , define a chemical element, and contain a list of known elements. [ 10 ] [ 3 ] : 154 [ 11 ] : 410
Description: This publication laid out a logical system for naming chemical substances (mainly chemical elements and inorganic compounds ).
Importance: Prior to this publication, a multitude of names were often used for the same substance. This publication led to an international consensus on how to name chemical substances.
Description: This book explained Dalton's theory of atoms and its applications to chemistry.
Importance: The book was one of the first to describe a modern atomic theory, a theory that lies at the basis of modern chemistry. [ 3 ] : 251 It is the first to introduce a table of atomic and molecular weights. [ 11 ] : 437 Surprisingly, given the period in which the book was written, of the five properties of atoms that Dalton listed, only two have been shown to be incorrect.
Description and Importance: In this paper the periodic table was introduced. [ 3 ] : 438 Notice that the table in the above link is the original one. Since then the table structure was slightly changed and new elements were added to it.
Description: Contains synthetic models selected by world-renowned experts, with full experimental procedures and background information. Considers methods from journals, books, and patent literature from the early 19th century up to the present day and presents important synthetic methods for all classes of compounds. Critically evaluates the preparative applicability and significance of the synthetic methods.
Importance: A reference publication. [ 12 ]
Description: A comprehensive reference for organic chemistry with over 25,000 references.
Importance: A reference publication. [ 13 ]
Description: Describes the logic underlying the rational design of complex organic synthesis .
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
Description: A comprehensive reference for the usage of protecting groups in organic synthesis .
Importance: A reference publication.
Description: A standard reference for the practicing organic chemist. These books are just enormous lists of key references indexed by functional group transformations.
Importance: A reference publication.
Description: Systematic and complete exposition of all aspects of organic stereochemistry
Importance: Standard advanced text for organic stereochemistry. [ 14 ]
Description: This book summarizes a series of publications (the first in 1965) by the Nobel Prize winning authors where they describe the mechanism of a series of pericyclic reactions based upon the conservation of orbital symmetry leading to what are now called the Woodward–Hoffmann rules .
Importance: The concepts outlined in this text changed the field of organic chemistry and ushered in the frontier molecular orbital theory approach toward understanding reactions.
Description . The synthesis of famous molecules.
Importance . A standard postgraduate text book for the study of total synthesis and a valuable reference work for experts. "..destined to become a classic itself". [ 15 ]
Description: Explains the use of symmetry groups in describing molecular symmetry and its role in determining molecular properties.
Importance: Significant influence by introducing group theory to a much wider group of chemists.
Description: A classic general textbook for an undergraduate
course in inorganic chemistry
Importance: This book is not only a good introduction to the subject, it was very different from earlier texts and "led to a
fundamental shift in the way in which inorganic chemistry was studied". [ 16 ] It seemed to be symbolic of the renaissance in inorganic chemistry starting in the 1950s. Every new text in inorganic chemistry since this text has had to respond to it.
Description: Unique very advanced and comprehensive coverage of every element known at the time by chapter describing all known compounds yet discovered or synthesised.
Approaches chemistry as the study of elements and compounds without the later emphasis on bond theory and analysis.
Importance: Inspired and instructed generations of English speaking scientists and students.
Description: Unique comprehensive descriptive coverage of all the elements and their compounds, with a strong focus on 'real life' and industrial applications.
Importance: The most comprehensive one-volume text on inorganic chemistry available; a worthy successor to Taylor and Irving (see above).
Description: A classic general textbook for an undergraduate course in physical chemistry
Importance: This book is not only a good introduction to the subject, it was very different from earlier texts and altered the way physical chemistry was taught. The first edition was very widely used where English is the language of instruction. Other texts had to respond to the lead from Atkins. The current edition is the 10th edition.
Description: An encyclopedic text and reference suitable for advanced undergraduate or graduate study.
Importance: This massive text by outstanding research workers begins with simple systems and proceeds logically to the more complex phenomena of physical chemistry. The original literature is cited extensively, making the work useful as a reference as well as a textbook. Many topics of current research are treated. Its advanced and exhaustive coverage of the field, together with extensive coverage of modern topics, eclipses the former champion, the text by E. A. Moelwyn-Hughes.
Description: A broad overview of commonly used methods in physical chemistry and their practical aspects.
Importance: This book is designed for students, supporting them in the master and doctoral theses.
Description: In this paper the structure of DNA was proposed. It consisted of a double helix with a phosphate backbone, unlike Linus Pauling and R.B. Corey's double helix where the backbone consisted of the bases. They conclude with the sly remark: "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material."
Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence
Description: The structure of the potassium channel is determined by X-ray crystallography. Access to the structure provided answers to central questions in biology, regarding the movement of ions across the cell membrane. In particular, the structure revealed the mechanism with by which these channels move potassium ions both quickly and selectively, reliably preventing similarly sized sodium ions from passing through.
Importance Breakthrough, Influence
Description: Starting with examples comparing two sets of experimental data, this text explains variance and the calculation of standard deviations, degrees of freedom, the null hypothesis and the "Student's" t-Test by William J. Gosset. Further chapters discuss the importance of randomization and the analysis of variance ( ANOVA ) using F distributions before delving into the use of statistically designed experiments including block and factorial designs. The book finishes with least squares regression analysis along with response surface and mechanistic modeling.
Importance: Although almost devoid of classical chemistry, this is the definitive text for any experimentalist. This is particularly true for any chemist measuring or studying the properties or effects of chemical compounds, mixtures or other substances.
Though chemical examples were few, it should be mentioned that co-author William G. Hunter, George Box's protégé, had a Bachelor's and a master's degree in Chemical Engineering with the book written in such a manner that its concepts would easily apply to chemical investigations.
Description: Discusses structure and stereochemistry of synthetic polymers, polymerization kinetics, behaviour of polymers in solution, chain dimensions.
Importance: First major text on polymer chemistry; presents both organic and physical chemistry aspects. Written by a chemist who made major contributions to the physical chemistry of polymers, for which he won the Nobel prize in 1974.
Description. This book covers the full spectrum of the discipline including acid/base equilibria, carbonate chemistry, mass transfer, complexation, sorption phenomenon, oxidation/reduction, colloid chemistry, and flocculation/coagulation. The authors generally present the material using a ground up approach that emphasizes fundamental principles of thermodynamics and kinetics.
Importance. The publication is one of the most widely cited texts in environmental chemistry. In 1999, Stumm and Morgan received the Stockholm Water Prize for their contributions in the field. The citation specifically mentioned Aquatic Chemistry where it was described as a "seminal book" that is "used in education all over the world". [ 18 ]
Mario J. Molina and F. S. Rowland , Nature 249, 810–812 (1974)
Description : This paper warned of the danger of ozone depletion due to man-made chlorofluorocarbons . The main atmospheric sink for these compounds was identified as ultraviolet photolysis , liberating chlorine atoms which catalyze the destruction of stratospheric ozone and have the potential to significantly deplete the ozone layer.
Importance : Influence, as described in the presentation speech for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1995: “The findings presented by this year's laureates in chemistry have had an enormous political and industrial impact. This was because they clearly identified unacceptable environmental hazards in a large, economically important sector.” [2]
Description : Paper applied the thermodynamic theory of steam engines to atomic level chemical reactions; i.e., it established equilibrium criteria necessary to predict the thermodynamic tendency of chemical reactions at constant temperature and pressure.
Importance : Topic creator; historian Bill Bryson states, in his A Short History of Nearly Everything , that Gibbs’ Equilibrium paper is "the Principia of thermodynamics ". [ 19 ] In addition, this paper, in many ways, functions as the mathematical foundation of physical chemistry .
Description: The defining reference for electrochemistry, coupling thousands of electroanalytical methods with the theory behind them.
Importance: A reference publication.
Description: Discusses ionic and covalent bonding (polar and non-polar).
Importance: The book that introduced the modern concept of the covalent bond as the sharing of electron pairs, and tried to reconcile the chemist's empirical view of the atom with the physicist's and spectroscopist's quantum mechanical view. It could be considered a precursor to Pauling's books.
Description: A classic and excellent introduction to quantum mechanics.
Importance: One of the earliest books that introduced quantum mechanics to chemists. It remains well loved by many to this day. [ 20 ]
Description: A classic introduction to valence and the theory of chemical binding.
Importance: This book is credited with causing the expansion of interest in molecular orbital theory from the 1950s. [ 21 ]
Description: A classic that was the first general book to introduce quantum mechanics to chemists.
Importance: Probably more than any other book, introduced quantum mechanics and, in particular, valence bond theory to experimental chemists. [ 20 ] [ 21 ]
Description: A very thorough and scholarly account of density functional theory .
Importance: This is a good introduction to the subject, but has particular significance in the way it describes how the theory throws new light on old chemical concepts such as electronegativity .
Description: Unified Approach for Molecular Dynamics and Density Functional Theory .
Importance: First demonstration of ab-initio molecular dynamics, where the forces are computed on-the-fly by means of quantum mechanical electronic structure calculations.
Description: Comprehensive textbook written by topic creator.
Importance: Most-popular textbook on subject (according to Amazon.com). Lehn coined the term "supermolecule" in '73, developed the concept of supramolecular chemistry in '78, and won the Nobel Prize for his supramolecular chemistry work in ’87.
Description: Selected articles: [ citation needed ] "Supramolecular Medicinal Chemistry: Mixed-Ligand Coordination Complexes".Mol. Pharmaceutics, 2007, 4 (3), pp 373–385;"Pharmaceutical co-crystals".Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2006, 95 (3), pp 499–516;"Crystal engineering of pharmaceutical co-crystals from polymorphic active pharmaceutical ingredients". Chem. Commun., 2005, pp 4601 – 4603; "Recent advances of discrete coordination complexes and coordination polymers in drug delivery". Coord. Chem. Rev., 2011, 255, pp 1623–1641.
Importance: Breakthrough, Influence
Description: A great overview of the theory, methodology, and techniques of drug design.
Importance: Introduction, Influence | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry |
This is a list of publications in data science , generally organized by order of use in a data analysis workflow.
See the list of publications in statistics for more research-based and fundamental publications; while this list is more applied, business oriented, and cross-disciplinary.
General article inclusion criteria are:
Some reasons why a particular publication might be regarded as important:
When possible, a reference is used to validate the inclusion of the publication in this list.
Statistical Modeling: The Two Cultures (with comments and a rejoinder by the author)
Data Scientist: The Sexiest Job of the 21st Century
50 Years of Data Science
The Composable Data Management System Manifesto
Tidy Data
Data Organization in Spreadsheets
Quantitative Graphics in Statistics: A Brief History
Hidden Technical Debt in Machine Learning Systems
A few useful things to know about machine learning
The Introductory Statistics Course: A Ptolemaic Curriculum | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_data_science |
This is a list of publications in physics , organized by type. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_physics |
Purification in a chemical context is the physical separation of a chemical substance of interest from foreign or contaminating substances. Pure results of a successful purification process are termed isolate . The following list of chemical purification methods should not be considered exhaustive.
Separation process
From Crystallization | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_purification_methods_in_chemistry |
Quantum chemistry computer programs are used in computational chemistry to implement the methods of quantum chemistry . Most include the Hartree–Fock (HF) and some post-Hartree–Fock methods. They may also include density functional theory (DFT), molecular mechanics or semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods . The programs include both open source and commercial software. Most of them are large, often containing several separate programs, and have been developed over many years.
The following tables illustrates some of the main capabilities of notable packages:
Slater-type_orbital
† "Academic": academic (no cost) license possible upon request; "Commercial": commercially distributed.
‡ Support for periodic systems (3d-crystals, 2d-slabs, 1d-rods and isolated molecules): 3d-periodic codes always allow simulating systems with lower dimensionality within a supercell. Specified here is the ability for simulating within lower periodicity.
2 QuanPol is a full spectrum and seamless (HF, MCSCF, GVB, MP2, DFT, TDDFT, CHARMM, AMBER, OPLSAA) QM/MM package integrated in GAMESS-US. [ 8 ]
10 Through CRYSCOR Archived 2019-12-26 at the Wayback Machine program. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum_chemistry_and_solid-state_physics_software |
In gate-based quantum computing , various sets of quantum logic gates are commonly used to express quantum operations. The following tables list several unitary quantum logic gates, together with their common name, how they are represented, and some of their properties. Controlled or conjugate transpose ( adjoint ) versions of some of these gates may not be listed.
no-op
The identity gate is the identity operation I | ψ ⟩ = | ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle I|\psi \rangle =|\psi \rangle } , most of the times this gate is not indicated in circuit diagrams, but it is useful when describing mathematical results. It has been described as being a "wait cycle", [ 2 ] and a NOP . [ 3 ] [ 1 ]
The global phase gate introduces a global phase e i φ {\displaystyle e^{i\varphi }} to the whole qubit quantum state. A quantum state is uniquely defined up to a phase. Because of the Born rule , a phase factor has no effect on a measurement outcome: | e i φ | = 1 {\displaystyle |e^{i\varphi }|=1} for any φ {\displaystyle \varphi } . Because e i δ | ψ ⟩ ⊗ | ϕ ⟩ = e i δ ( | ψ ⟩ ⊗ | ϕ ⟩ ) , {\displaystyle e^{i\delta }|\psi \rangle \otimes |\phi \rangle =e^{i\delta }(|\psi \rangle \otimes |\phi \rangle ),} when the global phase gate is applied to a single qubit in a quantum register , the entire register's global phase is changed. Also, P h ( 0 ) = I . {\displaystyle \mathrm {Ph} (0)=I.}
These gates can be extended to any number of qubits or qudits .
This table includes commonly used Clifford gates for qubits. [ 1 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
or
Implementation:
Implementation:
Other Clifford gates, including higher dimensional ones are not included here but by definition can be generated using H , S {\textstyle H,S} and C N O T {\textstyle \mathrm {CNOT} } .
Note that if a Clifford gate A is not in the Pauli group, A {\displaystyle {\sqrt {A}}} or controlled- A are not in the Clifford gates. [ citation needed ]
The Clifford set is not a universal quantum gate set.
Implementation:
The phase shift is a family of single-qubit gates that map the basis states P ( φ ) | 0 ⟩ = | 0 ⟩ {\displaystyle P(\varphi )|0\rangle =|0\rangle } and P ( φ ) | 1 ⟩ = e i φ | 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle P(\varphi )|1\rangle =e^{i\varphi }|1\rangle } . The probability of measuring a | 0 ⟩ {\displaystyle |0\rangle } or | 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle |1\rangle } is unchanged after applying this gate, however it modifies the phase of the quantum state. This is equivalent to tracing a horizontal circle (a line of latitude), or a rotation along the z-axis on the Bloch sphere by φ {\displaystyle \varphi } radians. A common example is the T gate where φ = π 4 {\textstyle \varphi ={\frac {\pi }{4}}} (historically known as the π / 8 {\displaystyle \pi /8} gate), the phase gate. Note that some Clifford gates are special cases of the phase shift gate: P ( 0 ) = I , P ( π ) = Z ; P ( π / 2 ) = S . {\displaystyle P(0)=I,\;P(\pi )=Z;P(\pi /2)=S.}
The argument to the phase shift gate is in U(1) , and the gate performs a phase rotation in U(1) along the specified basis state (e.g. P ( φ ) {\displaystyle P(\varphi )} rotates the phase about | 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle |1\rangle } ) . Extending P ( φ ) {\displaystyle P(\varphi )} to a rotation about a generic phase of both basis states of a 2-level quantum system (a qubit ) can be done with a series circuit : P ( β ) ⋅ X ⋅ P ( α ) ⋅ X = [ e i α 0 0 e i β ] {\displaystyle P(\beta )\cdot X\cdot P(\alpha )\cdot X={\begin{bmatrix}e^{i\alpha }&0\\0&e^{i\beta }\end{bmatrix}}} . When α = − β {\displaystyle \alpha =-\beta } this gate is the rotation operator R z ( 2 β ) {\displaystyle R_{z}(2\beta )} gate and if α = β {\displaystyle \alpha =\beta } it is a global phase. [ a ] [ b ]
The T gate's historic name of π / 8 {\displaystyle \pi /8} gate comes from the identity R z ( π / 4 ) Ph ( π 8 ) = P ( π / 4 ) {\displaystyle R_{z}(\pi /4)\operatorname {Ph} \left({\frac {\pi }{8}}\right)=P(\pi /4)} , where R z ( π / 4 ) = [ e − i π / 8 0 0 e i π / 8 ] {\displaystyle R_{z}(\pi /4)={\begin{bmatrix}e^{-i\pi /8}&0\\0&e^{i\pi /8}\end{bmatrix}}} .
Arbitrary single-qubit phase shift gates P ( φ ) {\displaystyle P(\varphi )} are natively available for transmon quantum processors through timing of microwave control pulses. [ 13 ] It can be explained in terms of change of frame . [ 14 ] [ 15 ]
As with any single qubit gate one can build a controlled version of the phase shift gate. With respect to the computational basis, the 2-qubit controlled phase shift gate is: shifts the phase with φ {\displaystyle \varphi } only if it acts on the state | 11 ⟩ {\displaystyle |11\rangle } :
The controlled- Z (or CZ) gate is the special case where φ = π {\displaystyle \varphi =\pi } .
The controlled- S gate is the case of the controlled- P ( φ ) {\displaystyle P(\varphi )} when φ = π / 2 {\displaystyle \varphi =\pi /2} and is a commonly used gate. [ 6 ]
The rotation operator gates R x ( θ ) , R y ( θ ) {\displaystyle R_{x}(\theta ),R_{y}(\theta )} and R z ( θ ) {\displaystyle R_{z}(\theta )} are the analog rotation matrices in three Cartesian axes of SO(3) , [ c ] along the x, y or z-axes of the Bloch sphere projection.
As Pauli matrices are related to the generator of rotations, these rotation operators can be written as matrix exponentials with Pauli matrices in the argument. Any 2 × 2 {\displaystyle 2\times 2} unitary matrix in SU(2) can be written as a product (i.e. series circuit) of three rotation gates or less. Note that for two-level systems such as qubits and spinors , these rotations have a period of 4π . A rotation of 2π (360 degrees) returns the same statevector with a different phase . [ 16 ]
We also have R b ( − θ ) = R b ( θ ) † {\displaystyle R_{b}(-\theta )=R_{b}(\theta )^{\dagger }} and R b ( 0 ) = I {\displaystyle R_{b}(0)=I} for all b ∈ { x , y , z } . {\displaystyle b\in \{x,y,z\}.}
The rotation matrices are related to the Pauli matrices in the following way: R x ( π ) = − i X , R y ( π ) = − i Y , R z ( π ) = − i Z . {\displaystyle R_{x}(\pi )=-iX,R_{y}(\pi )=-iY,R_{z}(\pi )=-iZ.}
It is possible to work out the adjoint action of rotations on the Pauli vector , namely rotation effectively by double the angle a to apply Rodrigues' rotation formula :
Taking the dot product of any unit vector with the above formula generates the expression of any single qubit gate when sandwiched within adjoint rotation gates. For example, it can be shown that R y ( − π / 2 ) X R y ( π / 2 ) = x ^ ⋅ ( y ^ × σ → ) = Z {\displaystyle R_{y}(-\pi /2)XR_{y}(\pi /2)={\hat {x}}\cdot ({\hat {y}}\times {\vec {\sigma }})=Z} . Also, using the anticommuting relation we have R y ( − π / 2 ) X R y ( π / 2 ) = X R y ( + π / 2 ) R y ( π / 2 ) = X ( − i Y ) = Z {\displaystyle R_{y}(-\pi /2)XR_{y}(\pi /2)=XR_{y}(+\pi /2)R_{y}(\pi /2)=X(-iY)=Z} .
Rotation operators have interesting identities. For example, R y ( π / 2 ) Z = H {\displaystyle R_{y}(\pi /2)Z=H} and X R y ( π / 2 ) = H . {\displaystyle XR_{y}(\pi /2)=H.} Also, using the anticommuting relations we have Z R y ( − π / 2 ) = H {\displaystyle ZR_{y}(-\pi /2)=H} and R y ( − π / 2 ) X = H . {\displaystyle R_{y}(-\pi /2)X=H.}
Global phase and phase shift can be transformed into each other's with the Z-rotation operator: R z ( γ ) Ph ( γ 2 ) = P ( γ ) {\displaystyle R_{z}(\gamma )\operatorname {Ph} \left({\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)=P(\gamma )} . [ 5 ] : 11 [ 1 ] : 77–83
The X {\displaystyle {\sqrt {X}}} gate represents a rotation of π/2 about the x axis at the Bloch sphere X = e i π / 4 R x ( π / 2 ) {\displaystyle {\sqrt {X}}=e^{i\pi /4}R_{x}(\pi /2)} .
Similar rotation operator gates exist for SU(3) using Gell-Mann matrices . They are the rotation operators used with qutrits .
Implementation:
Implementation:
The qubit-qubit Ising coupling or Heisenberg interaction gates R xx , R yy and R zz are 2-qubit gates that are implemented natively in some trapped-ion quantum computers , using for example the Mølmer–Sørensen gate procedure . [ 17 ] [ 18 ]
Note that these gates can be expressed in sinusoidal form also, for example R x x ( ϕ ) = exp ( − i ϕ 2 X ⊗ X ) = cos ( ϕ 2 ) I ⊗ I − i sin ( ϕ 2 ) X ⊗ X {\displaystyle R_{xx}(\phi )=\exp \left(-i{\frac {\phi }{2}}X\otimes X\right)=\cos \left({\frac {\phi }{2}}\right)I\otimes I-i\sin \left({\frac {\phi }{2}}\right)X\otimes X} .
The CNOT gate can be further decomposed as products of rotation operator gates and exactly a single two-qubit interaction gate, for example
The SWAP gate can be constructed from other gates, for example using the two-qubit interaction gates : SWAP = e i π 4 R x x ( π / 2 ) R y y ( π / 2 ) R z z ( π / 2 ) {\displaystyle {\text{SWAP}}=e^{i{\frac {\pi }{4}}}R_{xx}(\pi /2)R_{yy}(\pi /2)R_{zz}(\pi /2)} .
In superconducting circuits, the family of gates resulting from Heisenberg interactions is sometimes called the fSim gate set. They can be realized using flux-tunable qubits with flux-tunable coupling, [ 19 ] or using microwave drives in fixed-frequency qubits with fixed coupling. [ 20 ]
controlled swap
The √ SWAP gate performs half-way of a two-qubit swap (see Clifford gates). It is universal such that any many-qubit gate can be constructed from only √ SWAP and single qubit gates. More than one application of the √ SWAP is required to produce a Bell state from product states. The √ SWAP gate arises naturally in systems that exploit exchange interaction . [ 21 ] [ 1 ]
For systems with Ising like interactions, it is sometimes more natural to introduce the imaginary swap [ 22 ] or iSWAP. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Note that i SWAP = R x x ( − π / 2 ) R y y ( − π / 2 ) {\displaystyle i{\mbox{SWAP}}=R_{xx}(-\pi /2)R_{yy}(-\pi /2)} and i SWAP = R x x ( − π / 4 ) R y y ( − π / 4 ) {\displaystyle {\sqrt {i{\mbox{SWAP}}}}=R_{xx}(-\pi /4)R_{yy}(-\pi /4)} , or more generally i SWAP n = R x x ( − π / 2 n ) R y y ( − π / 2 n ) {\displaystyle {\sqrt[{n}]{i{\mbox{SWAP}}}}=R_{xx}(-\pi /2n)R_{yy}(-\pi /2n)} for all real n except 0.
SWAP α arises naturally in spintronic quantum computers. [ 1 ]
The Fredkin gate (also CSWAP or CS gate), named after Edward Fredkin , is a 3-bit gate that performs a controlled swap . It is universal for classical computation. It has the useful property that the numbers of 0s and 1s are conserved throughout, which in the billiard ball model means the same number of balls are output as input.
controlled square root NOT
Controlled-fermionic SWAP
C C Z S ( π / 2 , 0 , 0 ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {CCZS} (\pi /2,0,0)} , C f S W A P {\displaystyle \mathrm {CfSWAP} }
[ 37 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum_logic_gates |
This is a list of radioactive nuclides (sometimes also called isotopes ), ordered by half-life from shortest to longest, in seconds, minutes, hours, days and years. Current methods make it difficult to measure half-lives between approximately 10 −19 and 10 −10 seconds. [ 1 ]
Twenty-three yoctoseconds is the time needed to traverse a 7- femtometre distance at the speed of light —around the diameter of a large atomic nucleus .
The half-life of tellurium-128 is over 160 trillion times greater than the age of the universe , which is 4.35 × 10 17 seconds. [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radioactive_nuclides_by_half-life |
This is a list of the most serious rail-related accidents (excluding intentional acts) that occurred in Italy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rail_accidents_in_Italy |
The following is a list of vascular plants , bryophytes and lichens which were regarded as rare species by the authors of British Plant Communities , together with the communities in which they occur. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rare_species_in_the_British_National_Vegetation_Classification |
Ray tracing is a technique that can generate near photo-realistic computer images. A wide range of free software and commercial software is available for producing these images. This article lists notable ray-tracing software. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ray_tracing_software |
It is advised to check the references for photos of reaction results. [ 1 ] Reagent testers might show the colour of the desired substance while not showing a different colour for a more dangerous additive. [ 2 ] For this reason it is essential to use multiple different tests to show all adulterants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagent_testing_color_charts |
This is a list of inorganic and organic reagents commonly used in chemistry.
Reagents are "substances or compounds that are added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction or are added to see if a reaction occurs." [ 1 ] Some reagents are just a single element. However, most processes require reagents made of chemical compounds . Some of the most common ones used widely for specific reactive functions are listed below, but is by no means exhaustive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents |
This is a list of articles that are considered real analysis topics.
See also: glossary of real and complex analysis .
( see also list of mathematical series )
see also List of differential geometry topics
(see also Lists of integrals )
see also List of integration and measure theory topics
See list of inequalities | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_real_analysis_topics |
The following is a list of notable proteins that are produced from recombinant DNA , using biomolecular engineering . [ 1 ] In many cases, recombinant human proteins have replaced the original animal-derived version used in medicine. The prefix "rh" for "recombinant human" appears less and less in the literature. A much larger number of recombinant proteins is used in the research laboratory. These include both commercially available proteins (for example most of the enzymes used in the molecular biology laboratory), and those that are generated in the course specific research projects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_recombinant_proteins |
This is a list of recreational number theory topics (see number theory , recreational mathematics ). Listing here is not pejorative : many famous topics in number theory have origins in challenging problems posed purely for their own sake.
See list of number theory topics for pages dealing with aspects of number theory with more consolidated theories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_recreational_number_theory_topics |
This is a list of artificial objects reentering Earth's atmosphere by mass (see space debris ). Such objects are often completely destroyed by reentry heating, but large enough objects or components can survive. Most of the objects which reenter are relatively small; larger objects have survived but usually break up into smaller pieces during reentry. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
The list includes group entries for the 134 Space Shuttle external tanks used between 1981 and 2011. During Space Shuttle launches, the tanks reached space without reaching orbit and re-entered the atmosphere, breaking apart before impacting the ocean. The mass of those tanks varied throughout the years, as improvements made them lighter - successive modifications reduced their empty weight from approximately 77,000 pounds (35,000 kg) to approximately 58,500 lb (26,500 kg) for the Super Lightweight Tank used after 1998. [ 4 ] The tanks were also not necessarily completely empty when discarded. [ 5 ]
Many other launch systems have discarded spent stages into space, but not all stages go into orbit or even reach space (by passing the Kármán line ). For example, the Space Shuttle side boosters did not reach space, as the highest altitude reached during their flight was only about 220,000 feet (67 km). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reentering_space_debris |
This is a list of refrigerants , sorted by their ASHRAE -designated numbers, commonly known as R numbers . Many modern refrigerants are human-made halogenated gases, especially fluorinated gases and chlorinated gases, that are frequently referred to as Freon (a registered trademark of Chemours ).
Freons are responsible for the formation of the ozone hole . The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol are international agreements that oblige signatory countries to limit the emission of ozone-depleting gases. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol furthermore obliges signatory countries to limit the emission of gases with high global warming potential .
According to ASHRAE standard 34, the R-number of a chemical refrigerant is assigned systematically according to its molecular structure and has between two and four digits. If there are carbon -carbon multiple bonds , there are four digits in all: the number of these bonds is the first digit and the number of carbon atoms minus one (C-1) is next. If there is more than one carbon atom but no multiple bonds, there are three digits, and the number of carbon atoms minus one is the first digit. If there is only one carbon atom, then there are only two digits. The last two digits are always the number of hydrogen atoms plus one (H+1), followed by the number of fluorine atoms. Any other atoms attached to the carbons are assumed to be chlorine atoms. For example, R-22 has one carbon atom, one hydrogen atom (2−1 = 1), two fluorine atoms, and one chlorine atom (4−2−1 = 1), so it is chlorodifluoromethane , while R-134 has two carbon atoms (2−1 = 1), two hydrogen atoms (3−1 = 2), four fluorine atoms, and no chlorine atoms (6−2−4 = 0), so it is one of the tetrafluoroethanes . This basic scheme is modified as follows:
There are separate numbering schemes for zeotropic and azeotropic blends, organic chemicals which don't fit into the scheme above, and inorganic chemicals:
The table is sortable by each of the following refrigerant properties (scroll right or reduce magnification to view more properties):
Since over 100,000 refrigerant blends are possible, [ 2 ] this list should only have notable refrigerants and refrigerant blends.
HFO [ 35 ]
(26%/26%/21%/7%/20%) [ 35 ]
7% C 3 H 2 F 4 · 20% C 3 H 2 F 4 [ 35 ]
LFL = Lower Flammability Limit ETFL 60 = Elevated Temperature Flame Limit @ 60 °C HOC = Heat Of Combustion
Compounds used as refrigerants may be described using either the appropriate prefix above or with the prefixes "R-" or "Refrigerant." Thus, CFC-12 may also be written as R-12 or Refrigerant 12. An alkene, olefin, or olefine is an unsaturated compound containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond . [ 79 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants |
The following is a list of remastering and slipstreaming software articles on Wikipedia:
-*Not fully supported. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_remastering_software |
The following is a list of notable report generator software . Reporting software is used to generate human-readable reports from various data sources . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reporting_software |
The mathematical constant e can be represented in a variety of ways as a real number . Since e is an irrational number (see proof that e is irrational ), it cannot be represented as the quotient of two integers , but it can be represented as a continued fraction . Using calculus , e may also be represented as an infinite series , infinite product , or other types of limit of a sequence .
Euler proved that the number e is represented as the infinite simple continued fraction [ 1 ] (sequence A003417 in the OEIS ):
Here are some infinite generalized continued fraction expansions of e . The second is generated from the first by a simple equivalence transformation .
This last non-simple continued fraction (sequence A110185 in the OEIS ), equivalent to e = [ 1 ; 0.5 , 12 , 5 , 28 , 9 , . . . ] {\displaystyle e=[1;0.5,12,5,28,9,...]} , has a quicker convergence rate compared to Euler's continued fraction formula [ clarification needed ] and is a special case of a general formula for the exponential function :
The number e can be expressed as the sum of the following infinite series :
In the special case where x = 1 or −1, we have:
Other series include the following:
Consideration of how to put upper bounds on e leads to this descending series:
which gives at least one correct (or rounded up) digit per term. That is, if 1 ≤ n , then
More generally, if x is not in {2, 3, 4, 5, ...}, then
The series representation of e {\displaystyle e} , given as e = 1 0 ! + 1 1 ! + 1 2 ! + 1 3 ! + ⋯ {\displaystyle e={\frac {1}{0!}}+{\frac {1}{1!}}+{\frac {1}{2!}}+{\frac {1}{3!}}+\cdots } can also be expressed using a form of recursion. When 1 n {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {1}{n}}} is iteratively factored from the original series the result is the nested series [ 5 ] e = 1 + 1 1 ( 1 + 1 2 ( 1 + 1 3 ( 1 + ⋯ ) ) ) {\displaystyle e=1+{\frac {1}{1}}\left(1+{\frac {1}{2}}\left(1+{\frac {1}{3}}\left(1+\cdots \right)\right)\right)} which equates to e = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ⋯ 3 2 1 {\displaystyle e=1+{\cfrac {1+{\cfrac {1+{\cfrac {1+\cdots }{3}}}{2}}}{1}}} This fraction is of the form f ( n ) = 1 + f ( n + 1 ) n {\displaystyle \textstyle f(n)=1+{\frac {f(n+1)}{n}}} , where f ( 1 ) {\displaystyle f(1)} computes the sum of the terms from 1 {\displaystyle 1} to ∞ {\displaystyle \infty } .
The number e is also given by several infinite product forms including Pippenger 's product
and Guillera's product [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
where the n th factor is the n th root of the product
as well as the infinite product
More generally, if 1 < B < e 2 (which includes B = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7), then
Also
The number e is equal to the limit of several infinite sequences :
The symmetric limit, [ 8 ]
may be obtained by manipulation of the basic limit definition of e .
The next two definitions are direct corollaries of the prime number theorem [ 9 ]
where p n {\displaystyle p_{n}} is the n th prime , p n # {\displaystyle p_{n}\#} is the primorial of the n th prime, and π ( n ) {\displaystyle \pi (n)} is the prime-counting function .
Also:
In the special case that x = 1 {\displaystyle x=1} , the result is the famous statement:
The ratio of the factorial n ! {\displaystyle n!} , that counts all permutations of an ordered set S with cardinality n {\displaystyle n} , and the subfactorial (a.k.a. the derangement function) ! n {\displaystyle !n} , which counts the amount of permutations where no element appears in its original position, tends to e {\displaystyle e} as n {\displaystyle n} grows.
If we consider an event which has a probability of 1 n {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{n}}} of occurring in any one trial, then the probability of the event not occurring in n trials tends to 1 / e {\displaystyle 1/e} .
That is, lim n → ∞ ( 1 − 1 n ) n = 1 e {\displaystyle \lim _{n\to \infty }\left(1-{\frac {1}{n}}\right)^{n}={\frac {1}{e}}}
Consider the sequence:
By the binomial theorem : [ 10 ]
which converges to e {\displaystyle e} as n {\displaystyle n} increases. The term n k _ {\displaystyle n^{\underline {k}}} is the k {\displaystyle k} th falling factorial power of n {\displaystyle n} , which behaves like n k {\displaystyle n^{k}} when n {\displaystyle n} is large . For fixed k {\displaystyle k} and as n → ∞ {\displaystyle \textstyle n\to \infty } :
A unique representation of e can be found within the structure of Pascal's triangle , as discovered by Harlan Brothers . Pascal's triangle is composed of binomial coefficients , which are traditionally summed to derive polynomial expansions. However, Brothers identified a product-based relationship between these coefficients that links to e . Specifically, the ratio of the products of binomial coefficients in adjacent rows of Pascal's triangle tends to e as the row number n increases:
The details of this relationship and its proof are outlined in the discussion on the properties of the rows of Pascal's triangle . [ 11 ] [ 12 ]
Trigonometrically, e can be written in terms of the sum of two hyperbolic functions ,
at x = 1 . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_representations_of_e |
A restriction enzyme or restriction endonuclease is a special type of biological macromolecule that functions as part of the " immune system " in bacteria . One special kind of restriction enzymes is the class of " homing endonucleases ", these being present in all three domains of life, although their function seems to be very different from one domain to another.
The classical restriction enzymes cut up, and hence render harmless, any unknown (non- cellular ) DNA that enters a bacterial cell as a result of a viral infection . They recognize a specific DNA sequence, usually short (3 to 8 bp ), and cut it, producing either blunt or overhung ends, either at or nearby the recognition site .
Restriction enzymes are quite variable in the short DNA sequences they recognize. An organism often has several different enzymes, each specific to a distinct short DNA sequence. [ 1 ]
The list includes some of the most studied examples of restriction endoncleases . The following information is given:
The whole list contains more than 1,200 enzymes, but databases register about 4,000. [ 8 ] To make a list that is accessible to navigation, this list has been divided into different pages. Each page contains somewhere between 120-150 entries. Choose a letter to go to a specific part of the list:
Databases and lists of restriction enzymes:
Databases of proteins: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites |
This article contains a list of restriction enzymes whose names start with A and have a clearly defined cutting site.
The following information is given for each enzyme:
§ An HF version of this enzyme is available | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites:_A |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with Ba to Bc inclusive. It contains approximately 120 enzymes.
The following information is given: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites:_Ba–Bc |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with Bd to Bp inclusive. It contains approximately 100 enzymes.
The following information is given: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites:_Bd–Bp |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with Bsa to Bso inclusive. It contains approximately 90 enzymes.
The following information is given: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites:_Bsa–Bso |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with Bsp to Bss inclusive. It contains approximately 180 enzymes.
The following information is given: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites:_Bsp–Bss |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with Bst to Bv inclusive. It contains approximately 200 enzymes.
The following information is given: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites:_Bst–Bv |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with C to D inclusive. It contains approximately 80 enzymes.
The following information is given: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites:_C–D |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with E to F inclusive. It contains approximately 110 enzymes.
The following information is given: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites:_E–F |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with G to K inclusive. It contains approximately 90 enzymes.
The following information is given: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites:_G–K |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with L to N inclusive. It contains approximately 120 enzymes.
The following information is given: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_restriction_enzyme_cutting_sites:_L–N |
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