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The Nasan Clustered File System is a shared disk file system created by the company DataPlow. Nasan software enables high-speed access to shared files located on shared, storage area network (SAN)-attached storage devices by utilizing the high-performance, scalable data transfers inherent to storage area networks and the manageability of network attached storage (NAS).
Nasan derives its name from the combination of network attached storage ( NAS ) and storage area network ( SAN ). Nasan clustered file sharing is an extension of traditional LAN file sharing yet utilizes storage area networks for data transfers. Deploying a Nasan cluster entails configuring LAN file sharing, installing Nasan file system software, and connecting computers and storage devices to the SAN.
Supports Linux and Solaris operating systems .
Supports all SAN-based, block-level storage protocols including Fibre Channel and iSCSI .
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasan |
Nascent hydrogen is an outdated concept in organic chemistry that was once invoked to explain dissolving-metal reactions, such as the Clemmensen reduction and the Bouveault–Blanc reduction . Since organic compounds do not react with H 2 , a special state of hydrogen was postulated. It is now understood that dissolving-metal reactions occur at the metal surface, and the concept of nascent hydrogen has been discredited in organic chemistry. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] However, the formation of atomic hydrogen is largely invoked in inorganic chemistry and corrosion sciences to explain hydrogen embrittlement in metals exposed to electrolysis and anaerobic corrosion (e.g., dissolution of zinc in strong acids ( HCl ) and aluminium in strong bases ( NaOH )). The mechanism of hydrogen embrittlement was first proposed by Johnson (1875). [ 3 ] The inability of hydrogen atoms to react with organic reagents in organic solvents does not exclude the transient formation of hydrogen atoms capable to immediately diffuse into the crystal lattice of common metals ( steel , titanium ) different from these of the platinoid group ( Pt , Pd , Rh , Ru , Ni ) which are well known to dissociate molecular dihydrogen ( H 2 ) into atomic hydrogen.
The idea of hydrogen in the nascent state having chemical properties different from those of molecular hydrogen developed the mid-19th century. Alexander Williamson repeatedly refers to nascent hydrogen in his textbook Chemistry for Students , for example writing of the substitution reaction of carbon tetrachloride with hydrogen to form products such as chloroform and dichloromethane that the "hydrogen must for this purpose be in the nascent state, as free hydrogen does not produce the effect". [ 4 ] Williamson also describes the use of nascent hydrogen in the earlier work of Marcellin Berthelot . [ 5 ] Franchot published a paper on the concept in 1896, [ 6 ] which drew a strongly worded response from Tommasi who pointed to his own work that concluded "nascent hydrogen is nothing else than H + x calories". [ 7 ]
The term "nascent hydrogen" continued to be invoked into the 20th century. [ 8 ]
Devarda's alloy ( alloy of aluminium (~45%), copper (~50%) and zinc (~5%)) is a reducing agent that was commonly used in wet analytical chemistry to produce in situ so-called nascent hydrogen under alkaline conditions for the determination of nitrates ( NO − 3 ) after their reduction into ammonia ( NH 3 ).
In the Marsh test , used for arsenic determination (from the reduction of arsenate ( AsO 3− 4 ) and arsenite ( AsO 3− 3 ) into arsine ( AsH 3 )), hydrogen is generated by contacting zinc powder with hydrochloric acid .
So, hydrogen can be conveniently produced at low or high pH, according to the volatility of the species to be detected. Acid conditions in the Marsh test promote the fast escape of the arsine gas (AsH 3 ), while under hyperalkaline solution, the degassing of the reduced ammonia (NH 3 ) is greatly facilitated (the ammonium ion NH + 4 being soluble in aqueous solution under acidic conditions). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nascent_hydrogen |
Nascent state or in statu nascendi ( Lat. newly formed moiety: in the state of being born or just emerging ), is an obsolete theory in chemistry . It refers to the form of a chemical element (or sometimes compound) in the instance of their liberation or formation. Often encountered are atomic oxygen (O nasc ), nascent hydrogen (H nasc ), and similar forms of chlorine (Cl nasc ) or bromine (Br nasc ).
The concept of a "nascent state" was developed to explain the observation that gases generated in situ are frequently more reactive than identical chemicals that have been stored for an extended period of time. [ 1 ] First usage of the term was in work by Joseph Priestley around 1790. Auguste Laurent expanded on the theory in the mid 19th century. [ 2 ]
Constantine Zenghelis hypothesized in 1920 that the increased reactivity of the "nascent" state was due to the fine dispersion of the molecules, not their status as free atoms. [ 3 ] [ 2 ] Still popular in the early 20th century, the nascent state theory was recognized as declining by 1942. [ 4 ]
A 1990 review noted that the term was still found as a passing mention in contemporary textbooks. The review summarized that the increased activity observed is actually caused by multiple kinetic effects, and that grouping all these effects into a single term could cause chemists to view the effect too simplistically. [ 2 ]
This history of chemistry article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nascent_state_(chemistry) |
In the mathematical field of analysis , the Nash–Moser theorem , discovered by mathematician John Forbes Nash and named for him and Jürgen Moser , is a generalization of the inverse function theorem on Banach spaces to settings when the required solution mapping for the linearized problem is not bounded.
In contrast to the Banach space case, in which the invertibility of the derivative at a point is sufficient for a map to be locally invertible, the Nash–Moser theorem requires the derivative to be invertible in a neighborhood . The theorem is widely used to prove local existence for non-linear partial differential equations in spaces of smooth functions . It is particularly useful when the inverse to the derivative "loses" derivatives, and therefore the Banach space implicit function theorem cannot be used.
The Nash–Moser theorem traces back to Nash (1956), [ 1 ] who proved the theorem in the special case of the isometric embedding problem . It is clear from his paper that his method can be generalized. Moser (1966), [ 2 ] [ 3 ] for instance, showed that Nash's methods could be successfully applied to solve problems on periodic orbits in celestial mechanics in the KAM theory . However, it has proven quite difficult to find a suitable general formulation; there is, to date, no all-encompassing version; various versions due to Gromov , Hamilton , Hörmander , Saint-Raymond, Schwartz, and Sergeraert are given in the references below. That of Hamilton's, quoted below, is particularly widely cited.
This will be introduced in the original setting of the Nash–Moser theorem, that of the isometric embedding problem. Let Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } be an open subset of R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} . Consider the map P : C 1 ( Ω ; R N ) → C 0 ( Ω ; Sym n × n ( R ) ) {\displaystyle P:C^{1}(\Omega ;\mathbb {R} ^{N})\to C^{0}{\big (}\Omega ;{\text{Sym}}_{n\times n}(\mathbb {R} ){\big )}} given by P ( f ) i j = ∑ α = 1 N ∂ f α ∂ u i ∂ f α ∂ u j . {\displaystyle P(f)_{ij}=\sum _{\alpha =1}^{N}{\frac {\partial f^{\alpha }}{\partial u^{i}}}{\frac {\partial f^{\alpha }}{\partial u^{j}}}.} In Nash's solution of the isometric embedding problem (as would be expected in the solutions of nonlinear partial differential equations) a major step is a statement of the schematic form "If f is such that P ( f ) {\displaystyle P(f)} is positive-definite, then for any matrix-valued function g {\displaystyle g} which is close to P ( f ) {\displaystyle P(f)} , there exists f g {\displaystyle f_{g}} with P ( f g ) = g {\displaystyle P(f_{g})=g} ."
Following standard practice, one would expect to apply the Banach space inverse function theorem. So, for instance, one might expect to restrict P to C 5 ( Ω ; R N ) {\displaystyle C^{5}(\Omega ;\mathbb {R} ^{N})} and, for an immersion f in this domain, to study the linearization C 5 ( Ω ; R N ) → C 4 ( Ω ; S y m n × n ( R ) ) {\displaystyle C^{5}(\Omega ;\mathbb {R} ^{N})\to C^{4}(\Omega ;Sym_{n\times n}(\mathbb {R} ))} given by f ~ ↦ ∑ α = 1 N ∂ f α ∂ u i ∂ f ~ β ∂ u j + ∑ α = 1 N ∂ f ~ α ∂ u i ∂ f β ∂ u j . {\displaystyle {\widetilde {f}}\mapsto \sum _{\alpha =1}^{N}{\frac {\partial f^{\alpha }}{\partial u^{i}}}{\frac {\partial {\widetilde {f}}^{\beta }}{\partial u^{j}}}+\sum _{\alpha =1}^{N}{\frac {\partial {\widetilde {f}}^{\alpha }}{\partial u^{i}}}{\frac {\partial f^{\beta }}{\partial u^{j}}}.} If one could show that this were invertible, with bounded inverse, then the Banach space inverse function theorem directly applies.
However, there is a deep reason that such a formulation cannot work. The issue is that there is a second-order differential operator of P ( f ) {\displaystyle P(f)} which coincides with a second-order differential operator applied to f . To be precise: if f is an immersion then R P ( f ) = | H ( f ) | 2 − | h ( f ) | P ( f ) 2 , {\displaystyle R^{P(f)}=|H(f)|^{2}-|h(f)|_{P(f)}^{2},} where R P ( f ) {\displaystyle R^{P(f)}} is the scalar curvature of the Riemannian metric P(f) , H(f) denotes the mean curvature of the immersion f , and h(f) denotes its second fundamental form; the above equation is the Gauss equation from surface theory. So, if P(f) is C 4 , then R P(f) is generally only C 2 . Then, according to the above equation, f can generally be only C 4 ; if it were C 5 then | H | 2 − | h | 2 would have to be at least C 3 . The source of the problem can be quite succinctly phrased in the following way: the Gauss equation shows that there is a differential operator Q such that the order of the composition of Q with P is less than the sum of the orders of P and Q .
In context, the upshot is that the inverse to the linearization of P , even if it exists as a map C ∞ ( Ω ; S y m n × n ( R ) ) → C ∞ ( Ω ; R N {\displaystyle C^{\infty }(\Omega ;Sym_{n\times n}(\mathbb {R} ))\to C^{\infty }(\Omega ;\mathbb {R} ^{N}} ) , cannot be bounded between appropriate Banach spaces, and hence the Banach space implicit function theorem cannot be applied.
By exactly the same reasoning, one cannot directly apply the Banach space implicit function theorem even if one uses the Hölder spaces, the Sobolev spaces, or any of the C k spaces. In any of these settings, an inverse to the linearization of P will fail to be bounded.
This is the problem of loss of derivatives . A very naive expectation is that, generally, if P is an order k differential operator, then if P(f) is in C m then f must be in C m + k . However, this is somewhat rare. In the case of uniformly elliptic differential operators, the famous Schauder estimates show that this naive expectation is borne out, with the caveat that one must replace the C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} spaces with the Hölder spaces C k , α {\displaystyle C^{k,\alpha }} ; this causes no extra difficulty whatsoever for the application of the Banach space implicit function theorem. However, the above analysis shows that this naive expectation is not borne out for the map which sends an immersion to its induced Riemannian metric; given that this map is of order 1, one does not gain the "expected" one derivative upon inverting the operator. The same failure is common in geometric problems, where the action of the diffeomorphism group is the root cause, and in problems of hyperbolic differential equations, where even in the very simplest problems one does not have the naively expected smoothness of a solution. All of these difficulties provide common contexts for applications of the Nash–Moser theorem.
This section only aims to describe an idea, and as such it is intentionally imprecise. For concreteness, suppose that P {\displaystyle P} is an order-one differential operator on some function spaces, so that it defines a map P : C k + 1 → C k {\displaystyle P:C^{k+1}\to C^{k}} for each k {\displaystyle k} . Suppose that, at some C k + 1 {\displaystyle C^{k+1}} function f , the linearization D P f : C k + 1 → C k {\displaystyle DP_{f}:C^{k+1}\to C^{k}} has a right inverse S : C k → C k {\displaystyle S:C^{k}\to C^{k}} ; in the above language this reflects a "loss of one derivative". One can concretely see the failure of trying to use Newton's method to prove the Banach space implicit function theorem in this context: if g ∞ {\displaystyle g_{\infty }} is close to P ( f ) {\displaystyle P(f)} in C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} and one defines the iteration f n + 1 = f n + S ( g ∞ − P ( f n ) ) , {\displaystyle f_{n+1}=f_{n}+S{\big (}g_{\infty }-P(f_{n}){\big )},} then f 1 ∈ C k + 1 {\displaystyle f_{1}\in C^{k+1}} implies that g ∞ − P ( f n ) {\displaystyle g_{\infty }-P(f_{n})} is in C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} , and then f 2 {\displaystyle f_{2}} is in C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} . By the same reasoning, f 3 {\displaystyle f_{3}} is in C k − 1 {\displaystyle C^{k-1}} , f 4 {\displaystyle f_{4}} is in C k − 2 {\displaystyle C^{k-2}} , and so on. In finitely many steps the iteration must end, since it will lose all regularity and the next step will not even be defined.
Nash's solution is quite striking in its simplicity. Suppose that for each n > θ {\displaystyle n>\theta } one has a smoothing operator θ n {\displaystyle \theta _{n}} which takes a C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} function, returns a smooth function, and approximates the identity when n {\displaystyle n} is large. Then the "smoothed" Newton iteration f n + 1 = f n + S ( θ n ( g ∞ − P ( f n ) ) ) {\displaystyle f_{n+1}=f_{n}+S{\big (}\theta _{n}(g_{\infty }-P(f_{n})){\big )}} transparently does not encounter the same difficulty as the previous "unsmoothed" version, since it is an iteration in the space of smooth functions which never loses regularity. So one has a well-defined sequence of functions; the major surprise of Nash's approach is that this sequence actually converges to a function f ∞ {\displaystyle f_{\infty }} with P ( f ∞ ) = g ∞ {\displaystyle P(f_{\infty })=g_{\infty }} . For many mathematicians, this is rather surprising, since the "fix" of throwing in a smoothing operator seems too superficial to overcome the deep problem in the standard Newton method. For instance, on this point Mikhael Gromov says
You must be a novice in analysis or a genius like Nash to believe anything like that can be ever true. [...] [This] may strike you as realistic as a successful performance of perpetuum mobile with a mechanical implementation of Maxwell's demon... unless you start following Nash's computation and realize to your immense surprise that the smoothing does work.
Remark. The true "smoothed Newton iteration" is a little more complicated than the above form, although there are a few inequivalent forms, depending on where one chooses to insert the smoothing operators. The primary difference is that one requires invertibility of D P f {\displaystyle DP_{f}} for an entire open neighborhood of choices of f , and then one uses the "true" Newton iteration, corresponding to (using single-variable notation) x n + 1 = x n − f ( x n ) f ′ ( x n ) {\displaystyle x_{n+1}=x_{n}-{\frac {f(x_{n})}{f'(x_{n})}}} as opposed to x n + 1 = x n − f ( x n ) f ′ ( x 0 ) , {\displaystyle x_{n+1}=x_{n}-{\frac {f(x_{n})}{f'(x_{0})}},} the latter of which reflects the forms given above. This is rather important, since the improved quadratic convergence of the "true" Newton iteration is significantly used to combat the error of "smoothing", in order to obtain convergence. Certain approaches, in particular Nash's and Hamilton's, follow the solution of an ordinary differential equation in function space rather than an iteration in function space; the relation of the latter to the former is essentially that of the solution of Euler's method to that of a differential equation.
The following statement appears in Hamilton (1982): [ 4 ]
Let F and G be tame Fréchet spaces, let U ⊆ F {\displaystyle U\subseteq F} be an open subset, and let P : U → G {\displaystyle P:U\to G} be a smooth tame map. Suppose that for each f ∈ U {\displaystyle f\in U} the linearization d P f : F → G {\displaystyle dP_{f}:F\to G} is invertible, and the family of inverses, as a map U × G → F , {\displaystyle U\times G\to F,} is smooth tame. Then P is locally invertible, and each local inverse P − 1 {\displaystyle P^{-1}} is a smooth tame map.
Similarly, if each linearization is only injective, and a family of left inverses is smooth tame, then P is locally injective. And if each linearization is only surjective, and a family of right inverses is smooth tame, then P is locally surjective with a smooth tame right inverse.
A graded Fréchet space consists of the following data:
Such a graded Fréchet space is called a tame Fréchet space if it satisfies the following condition:
Here Σ ( B ) {\displaystyle \Sigma (B)} denotes the vector space of exponentially decreasing sequences in B , {\displaystyle B,} that is, Σ ( B ) = { maps x : N → B s.t. sup k ∈ N e n k ‖ x k ‖ B < ∞ for all n ∈ N } . {\displaystyle \Sigma (B)={\Big \{}{\text{maps }}x:\mathbb {N} \to B{\text{ s.t. }}\sup _{k\in \mathbb {N} }e^{nk}\|x_{k}\|_{B}<\infty {\text{ for all }}n\in \mathbb {N} {\Big \}}.} The laboriousness of the definition is justified by the primary examples of tamely graded Fréchet spaces:
To recognize the tame structure of these examples, one topologically embeds M {\displaystyle M} in a Euclidean space, B {\displaystyle B} is taken to be the space of L 1 {\displaystyle L^{1}} functions on this Euclidean space, and the map L {\displaystyle L} is defined by dyadic restriction of the Fourier transform. The details are in pages 133-140 of Hamilton (1982). [ 4 ]
Presented directly as above, the meaning and naturality of the "tame" condition is rather obscure. The situation is clarified if one re-considers the basic examples given above, in which the relevant "exponentially decreasing" sequences in Banach spaces arise from restriction of a Fourier transform. Recall that smoothness of a function on Euclidean space is directly related to the rate of decay of its Fourier transform. "Tameness" is thus seen as a condition which allows an abstraction of the idea of a "smoothing operator" on a function space. Given a Banach space B {\displaystyle B} and the corresponding space Σ ( B ) {\displaystyle \Sigma (B)} of exponentially decreasing sequences in B , {\displaystyle B,} the precise analogue of a smoothing operator can be defined in the following way. Let s : R → R {\displaystyle s:\mathbb {R} \to \mathbb {R} } be a smooth function which vanishes on ( − ∞ , 0 ) , {\displaystyle (-\infty ,0),} is identically equal to one on ( 1 , ∞ ) , {\displaystyle (1,\infty ),} and takes values only in the interval [ 0 , 1 ] . {\displaystyle [0,1].} Then for each real number t {\displaystyle t} define θ t : Σ ( B ) → Σ ( B ) {\displaystyle \theta _{t}:\Sigma (B)\to \Sigma (B)} by ( θ t x ) i = s ( t − i ) x i . {\displaystyle \left(\theta _{t}x\right)_{i}=s(t-i)x_{i}.} If one accepts the schematic idea of the proof devised by Nash, and in particular his use of smoothing operators, the "tame" condition then becomes rather reasonable.
Let f and G {\displaystyle G} be graded Fréchet spaces. Let U {\displaystyle U} be an open subset of f , meaning that for each f ∈ U {\displaystyle f\in U} there are n ∈ N {\displaystyle n\in \mathbb {N} } and ε > 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0} such that ‖ f − f 1 ‖ < ε {\displaystyle \|f-f_{1}\|<\varepsilon } implies that f 1 {\displaystyle f_{1}} is also contained in U {\displaystyle U} .
A smooth map P : U → G {\displaystyle P:U\to G} is called a tame smooth map if for all k ∈ N {\displaystyle k\in \mathbb {N} } the derivative D k P : U × F × ⋯ × F → G {\displaystyle D^{k}P:U\times F\times \cdots \times F\to G} satisfies the following:
‖ D k P ( f , h 1 , … , h k ) ‖ n ≤ C n ( ‖ f ‖ n + r + ‖ h 1 ‖ n + r + ⋯ + ‖ h k ‖ n + r + 1 ) {\displaystyle {\big \|}D^{k}P\left(f,h_{1},\ldots ,h_{k}\right){\big \|}_{n}\leq C_{n}{\Big (}\|f\|_{n+r}+\|h_{1}\|_{n+r}+\cdots +\|h_{k}\|_{n+r}+1{\Big )}}
The fundamental example says that, on a compact smooth manifold, a nonlinear partial differential operator (possibly between sections of vector bundles over the manifold) is a smooth tame map; in this case, r {\displaystyle r} can be taken to be the order of the operator.
Let S {\displaystyle S} denote the family of inverse mappings U × G → F . {\displaystyle U\times G\to F.} Consider the special case that F {\displaystyle F} and G {\displaystyle G} are spaces of exponentially decreasing sequences in Banach spaces, i.e. F = Σ ( B ) {\displaystyle F=\Sigma (B)} and G = Σ ( C ) {\displaystyle G=\Sigma (C)} . (It is not too difficult to see that this is sufficient to prove the general case.) For a positive number c , consider the ordinary differential equation in Σ ( B ) {\displaystyle \Sigma (B)} given by f ′ = c S ( θ t ( f ) , θ t ( g ∞ − P ( f ) ) ) . {\displaystyle f'=cS{\Big (}\theta _{t}(f),\theta _{t}{\big (}g_{\infty }-P(f){\big )}{\Big )}.} Hamilton shows that if P ( 0 ) = 0 {\displaystyle P(0)=0} and g ∞ {\displaystyle g_{\infty }} is sufficiently small in Σ ( C ) {\displaystyle \Sigma (C)} , then the solution of this differential equation with initial condition f ( 0 ) = 0 {\displaystyle f(0)=0} exists as a mapping [0,∞) → Σ( B ) , and that f(t) converges as t → ∞ {\displaystyle t\to \infty } to a solution of P ( f ) = g ∞ {\displaystyle P(f)=g_{\infty }} . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nash–Moser_theorem |
Nasonov's gland produces a pheromone used in recruitment in worker honeybees . The pheromone can serve the purposes of attracting workers to a settled swarm and draw bees who have lost their way back to the hive . It is used to recruit workers to food that lacks a characteristic scent and lead bees to water sources. The gland is located on the dorsal side of the abdomen . Its opening is located at the base of the last tergite at the tip of the abdomen.
The gland was first described in 1882 by the Russian zoologist Nikolai Viktorovich Nasonov (February 14, 1855 – February 11, 1939). [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Nasonov thought that the gland performed perspiration; [ 5 ] it was Frederick William Lambert Sladen (May 30, 1876 - 1921) of England who in 1901 first proposed that the gland produced a pheromone. [ 6 ]
This insect anatomy–related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasonov's_gland |
A nasopharyngeal swab is a device used for collecting a sample of nasal secretions from the back of the nose and throat . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The sample is then analyzed for the presence of organisms or other clinical markers for disease. This diagnostic method is commonly used in suspected cases of whooping cough , diphtheria , influenza , and various types of diseases caused by the coronavirus family of viruses, including SARS , MERS , and COVID-19 . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]
To collect the sample, the swab is inserted in the nostril and gently moved forward into the nasopharynx , a region of the pharynx that covers the roof of the mouth. [ 9 ] The swab is then rotated for a specified period of time to collect secretions, then the swab is removed and placed into a sterile viral transport media , which preserves the sample for the subsequent analysis. [ 5 ] [ 6 ]
Similar in concept to the cotton swab , a swab used for nasopharyngeal collection constitutes a narrow stick made of a short plastic rod that is covered, at one tip, with adsorbing material such as cotton, polyester, or flocked nylon. (Some swab handles have been made of nichrome or stainless steel wire. [ 3 ] [ 10 ] ) The swab material used for a particular diagnostic application may vary based on the test type. Some research has shown that flocked swabs collect a larger volume of the sample material, when compared to fiber swabs. [ 7 ] [ 11 ]
Slightly different but related is nasopharyngeal aspiration. Rather than depending on a physical swab to catch material from the nasopharynx, aspiration uses a catheter that is attached to a syringe. As with the swab method, the catheter is placed into the nostril and gently advanced to the nasopharynx, where approximately one to three milliliters of saline are introduced, followed by immediate re-aspiration of the saline—along with cells and secretions—back into the syringe. [ 7 ] This aspiration method is often used when 1. the patient is an infant or elderly and 2. when the method is indicated as effective for a test type. [ 6 ] [ 12 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasopharyngeal_swab |
The Nasrat Canal (often transliterated as Nusrat Canal [ 1 ] ) also locally known as Sada Wah , [ 2 ] is a major irrigation canal located in the Sindh province of Pakistan. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] It originates from the Rohri Canal near Sukkur and flows southward for approximately 260 kilometers, irrigating vast agricultural lands in the districts of Sukkur , Khairpur , Naushero, and Shaheed Benazirabad . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
Construction of the Nasrat Canal began in the early 20th century under the British Raj and was completed in 1923. It played a crucial role in transforming the arid landscape of Sindh into a fertile agricultural region. The canal serves as a vital source of water for various crops, including cotton, wheat, rice, sugarcane, and fruits. [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasrat_Canal |
In biology , nastic movements are non-directional responses to stimuli (e.g. temperature , humidity , light irradiance ) that occur more rapidly than tropisms and are usually associated with plants . The movement can be due to changes in turgor (internal pressure within plant cells ). Decrease in turgor pressure causes shrinkage, while increase in turgor pressure brings about swelling. Nastic movements differ from tropic movements in that the direction of tropic responses depends on the direction of the stimulus, whereas the direction of nastic movements is independent of the stimulus's position. The tropic movement is growth movement but nastic movement may or may not be growth movement. The rate or frequency of these responses increases as intensity of the stimulus increases. An example of such a response is the opening and closing of flowers (photonastic response), movement of euglena , chlamydomonas towards the source of light [ citation needed ] . They are named with the suffix "-nasty" and have prefixes that depend on the stimuli:
The suffix may come from Greek νάσσω = 'I press', ναστός = 'pressed', ἐπιναστια = 'the condition of being pressed upon'.
For other types of movement, see:
This botany article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nastic_movements |
The natural unit of information (symbol: nat ), [ 1 ] sometimes also nit or nepit , is a unit of information or information entropy , based on natural logarithms and powers of e , rather than the powers of 2 and base 2 logarithms , which define the shannon . This unit is also known by its unit symbol, the nat. One nat is the information content of an event when the probability of that event occurring is 1/ e .
One nat is equal to 1 / ln 2 shannons ≈ 1.44 Sh or, equivalently, 1 / ln 10 hartleys ≈ 0.434 Hart. [ 1 ]
Boulton and Wallace used the term nit in conjunction with minimum message length , [ 2 ] which was subsequently changed by the minimum description length community to nat to avoid confusion with the nit used as a unit of luminance . [ 3 ]
Alan Turing used the natural ban . [ 4 ]
Shannon entropy (information entropy), being the expected value of the information of an event, is inherently a quantity of the same type and with a unit of information. The International System of Units , by assigning the same unit ( joule per kelvin ) both to heat capacity and to thermodynamic entropy implicitly treats information entropy as a quantity of dimension one , with 1 nat = 1 . [ a ] Systems of natural units that normalize the Boltzmann constant to 1 are effectively measuring thermodynamic entropy with the nat as unit.
When the Shannon entropy is written using a natural logarithm, H = − ∑ i p i ln p i {\displaystyle \mathrm {H} =-\sum _{i}p_{i}\ln p_{i}} it is implicitly giving a number measured in nats. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat_(unit) |
In the theory of Probably Approximately Correct Machine Learning , the Natarajan dimension characterizes the complexity of learning a set of functions, generalizing from the Vapnik–Chervonenkis dimension for boolean functions to multi-class functions. Originally introduced as the Generalized Dimension by Natarajan, [ 1 ] it was subsequently renamed the Natarajan Dimension by Haussler and Long. [ 2 ]
Let H {\displaystyle H} be a set of functions from a set X {\displaystyle X} to a set Y {\displaystyle Y} . H {\displaystyle H} shatters a set C ⊂ X {\displaystyle C\subset X} if there exist two functions f 0 , f 1 ∈ H {\displaystyle f_{0},f_{1}\in H} such that
for all x ∈ B , h ( x ) = f 0 ( x ) {\displaystyle x\in B,h(x)=f_{0}(x)} and for all x ∈ C − B , h ( x ) = f 1 ( x ) {\displaystyle x\in C-B,h(x)=f_{1}(x)} .
The Natarajan dimension of H is the maximal cardinality of a set shattered by H {\displaystyle H} .
It is easy to see that if | Y | = 2 {\displaystyle |Y|=2} , the Natarajan dimension collapses to the Vapnik–Chervonenkis dimension .
Shalev-Shwartz and Ben-David [ 3 ] present comprehensive material on multi-class learning and the Natarajan dimension, including uniform convergence and learnability. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natarajan_dimension |
Natasha Devroye is a Belgian and Canadian [ 1 ] information theorist known for her research on the channel capacity of cognitive radio communications. [ 2 ] She is a professor of electrical and computer engineering at the University of Illinois Chicago .
Devroye grew up in Montreal . [ 3 ] Attracted to both mathematics and electrical engineering in high school, she chose to study engineering because of its higher admission standards at McGill University , [ 4 ] where she graduated in 2002. At McGill, she specialized in communications, with a bachelor's thesis supervised by Fabrice Labeau. She went to Harvard University for graduate study in engineering, completing her Ph.D. in 2007 with the dissertation Information Theoretic Limits of Cognition and Cooperation in Wireless Networks supervised by Vahid Tarokh . [ 5 ]
After another year of postdoctoral research at Harvard, she joined the University of Illinois Chicago as an assistant professor in 2009. She was promoted to associate professor in 2015 and full professor in 2020. [ 5 ]
Devroye was elected as an IEEE Fellow , in the 2023 class of fellows, "for fundamental contributions to the theoretical understanding of cognitive, two-way, and relay networks". [ 2 ]
Devroye is the daughter of Montreal-based Belgian computer scientist and mathematician Luc Devroye . [ 3 ] [ 6 ] Her husband, Jakob Eriksson, is a computer scientist at the University of Illinois Chicago. [ 3 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natasha_Devroye |
Nathalie Helene Katsonis (born 22 February 1978 in Vienna, Austria) is a Professor of Active Molecular Systems at the Stratingh Institute for Chemistry , University of Groningen . In 2016 she was awarded the Royal Netherlands Chemical Society Gold Medal.
Katsonis was born in Vienna . [ 1 ] She grew up in Orsay, in Paris Region. She is half French and half Greek. She studied chemical engineering at the Chimie ParisTech , before moving to Ecole Normal Superieure for her graduate studies with Ludovic Jullien . Katsonis earned her doctoral degree at the Pierre and Marie Curie University . She worked on nanoscale probes of two dimensional molecular self-assemblies with Denis Fichou. [ 2 ] She joined the research group of Ben Feringa at the University of Groningen , where she worked on self-assembly of motors and switches. [ 3 ] Whilst at Groningen Katsonis developed scanning probe microscopy for the determination of molecular chirality. [ 4 ]
Katsonis joined the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in 2007 and started to work on light-responsive chiral liquid crystals . [ 3 ] She was made a Group Leader at the University of Groningen and held a visiting position at KU Leuven . In 2012 she was awarded a Royal Society International Exchange grant to work with Steve Fletcher on light responsive polymers. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Katsonis proposed the materials could be used for microfluidics or soft robotics. [ 5 ] Her research is inspired by nature, where helical structures are often created for movement. [ 7 ]
She moved to the University of Twente in 2013, and was promoted to Professor in 2016. [ 3 ] [ 7 ] She returned to the University of Groningen as Professor of Active Molecular Systems in 2020. Katsonis has worked on squishy light responsive materials, which can convert light energy into mechanical work. She demonstrated that it is possible to switch between left and right-handed helixes in cholesteric liquid crystals using light. [ 8 ] She has also showed that it is possible to use twisted liquid crystals as organising templates to design self-assemblies of superparamagnetic nanoparticles. [ 9 ] In 2017 she was awarded a European Research Council Consolidator Grant in nanotechnology. [ 10 ] Her recent work has been concerned with unravelling the molecular origin of purposeful motion, both in space and time at the nanoscale.
Her awards and honours include;
Her publications include;
Katsonis serves on the Nature Travel Grants panel. She is an Editor of the journals Communications Chemistry [ 21 ] and ChemPhotoChem.
Katsonis is in partnership with Tibor Kudernac and has three children. [ 22 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathalie_Katsonis |
Nathan Altshiller Court (January 22, 1881 – July 20, 1968) was a Polish–American mathematician. He was a geometer and the author of the popular book College Geometry , [ 1 ] who spent most of his career at the University of Oklahoma .
Nathan A. Court was born Natan Altszyller [ 2 ] on 22 January 1881, in Warsaw , Russian Poland , the eldest of nine children. [ 3 ] He attended primary and secondary school in Warsaw, but due to anti-Jewish discrimination could not attend university there. [ 4 ] In 1907 he moved to Belgium where he attended the University of Liège and the University of Ghent , receiving his D.Sc. in 1911. [ 4 ] [ 3 ]
Immediately afterward he moved to New York City , anglicizing his name to Nathan Altshiller. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Though he could not read or write in English when he arrived, within weeks he began lecturing in advanced mathematics at Columbia University , [ 4 ] and at the beginning of the next semester he was hired as a mathematics instructor teaching evening classes while doing his graduate work in Mathematics and Astronomy during the day. [ 6 ] In 1912 he married Sophie Ravitch, whom he had known in Warsaw. [ 4 ] He left New York in 1913, teaching for two years at the University of Washington in Seattle where his son Arnold was born in 1914, and for two years at the University of Colorado . [ 4 ]
In 1916 he moved to the University of Oklahoma , where he remained for the rest of his career. [ 4 ] [ 7 ] In 1919, he became a U.S. citizen and changed his last name to Court, keeping Altshiller as a middle name. [ 8 ] [ 5 ] The first edition of his best known book, College Geometry , a university-level textbook in synthetic geometry , was published in 1925. [ 9 ] In 1935 he published the solid geometry textbook Modern Pure Solid Geometry [ 10 ] and became a full professor at the University of Oklahoma. He continued teaching there until his retirement in 1951. College Geometry was continually in print without revision for over 25 years, but a revised edition was published in 1952. [ 5 ] A collection of his essays, Mathematics in Fun and in Earnest , was published in 1958. [ 11 ]
Court died of heart attack in Norman, Oklahoma on 20 July 1968. [ 6 ]
In his recognition, the Nathan A. Court Award was established by the OU Department of Mathematics, given to an outstanding freshman or sophomore math major. [ 12 ]
Court wrote over 100 scholarly papers. [ 3 ] [ 13 ] He was a frequent contributor to The American Mathematical Monthly ' s problem section. [ 1 ]
Slavische studenten aan de R.U.G. (1855-1914) , p.58
Marchisotto, Anne (2008), " College Geometry: An Introduction to the Modern Geometry of the Triangle and the Circle , by Nathan Altshiller-Court" , MAA Reviews
Musselman, J. R. (1936), " Modern Pure Solid Geometry by N. Altshiller-Court", The American Mathematical Monthly , 43 (4): 231– 232, JSTOR 2300619
Dudley, Underwood (2006), " Mathematics in Fun and in Earnest by Nathan A. Court" , MAA Reviews | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Altshiller_Court |
The National Academy of Engineering ( NAE ) is an American nonprofit , non-governmental organization . It is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM), along with the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) and the National Academy of Medicine (NAM).
The NAE operates engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. New members are annually elected by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research . The NAE is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the rest of the National Academies the role of advising the federal government.
The National Academy of Sciences was created by an Act of Incorporation dated March 3, 1863, which was signed by then president of the United States Abraham Lincoln with the purpose to "...investigate, examine, experiment, and report upon any subject of science or art..." [ 1 ] No reference to engineering was in the original act, the first recognition of any engineering role was with the setup of the Academy's standing committees in 1899. [ 1 ] At that time, there were six standing committees: mathematics and astronomy; physics and engineering; chemistry; geology and paleontology; biology; and anthropology. [ 1 ] In 1911, this committee structure was again reorganized into eight committees: biology was separated into botany; zoology and animal morphology; and physiology and pathology; anthropology was renamed anthropology and psychology with the remaining committees including physics and engineering, unchanged. [ 1 ]
In 1913, George Ellery Hale presented a paper on the occasion of the Academy's 50th anniversary, outlining an expansive future agenda for the Academy. [ 1 ] Hale proposed a vision of an Academy that interacted with the "whole range of science", one that actively supported newly recognized disciplines, industrial sciences and the humanities. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The proposed creation of sections of medicine and engineering was protested by one member because those professions were "mainly followed for pecuniary gain". [ 1 ] Hale's suggestions were not accepted. [ 1 ] Nonetheless, in 1915, the Section of Physics and Engineering was recommended to be changed to physics only, and a year later the Academy began planning a separate section of engineering. [ 1 ]
The Academy was requested to investigate the great slide in Culebra Cut late in 1913 which ultimately delayed the opening of the Panama Canal by ten months. The study group, commissioned by the United States Army Corps of Engineers and although composed of both engineers and geologists resulted in a final report prepared by two geologists Charles Whitman Cross and Harry Fielding Reid . [ 1 ] The report, submitted to President Wilson in November 1917, concluded that claims of repeated interruptions in canal traffic for years to come were unjustified. [ 1 ]
During this time, the United States confronted the prospect of war with Germany and the question of preparedness was raised. Engineering societies responded to this crisis by offering technical services to the Federal government such as the Naval Consulting Board of 1915 and the Council of National Defense of 1916. On June 19 of that year, then US President Woodrow Wilson requested the National Academy of Sciences to organize a "National Research Council" albeit with the assistance of the Engineering Foundation. [ 1 ] : 569 The purpose of the Council (at first called the National Research Foundation) was in part to foster and encourage "the increased use of scientific research in the development of American industries... the employment of scientific methods in strengthening the national defense... and such other applications of science as will promote the national security and welfare." [ 1 ]
During the period of national preparations, an increasing number of engineers were being elected to the physics and engineering section of the Academy, this did not, however, resolve the long-standing issue of where to place applied sciences such as engineering in the Academy. [ 1 ] In 1863, the founding members who were prominent military and naval engineers comprised almost a fifth of the membership. [ 1 ] During the latter part of the 19th century, this engineering membership steadily declined and by 1912, Henry Larcom Abbot , who had been elected in 1872, was the sole remaining representative of the Corps of Engineers. [ 1 ] With the Engineering Division in the wartime National Research Council being used as a precedent, the Academy established its first engineering section with nine members in 1919 with civil war veteran Henry Larcom Abbot as its first chairman. [ 1 ] Of those nine members, only two were new members, the others had transferred from existing sections; "... of the 164 members of the Academy that year, only seven chose to identify themselves as engineers." [ 3 ]
During this period of 1915-1916 activity by engineering societies, the National Academy of Sciences complained that there was a lack of scientists and the predominance of engineers on the Federal government's wartime technical committee, the Naval Consulting Board. [ 3 ] One of the mathematicians on the Board, Robert Simpson Woodward , was actually trained and early on practiced as a civil engineer. [ 3 ] The Academy's response was to move forward with the idea of achieving Academy control over the provision of technical services to the Government by means of formal recognition of the role played by the National Research Council (NRC) established the next year in 1916. Later in 1918, Wilson formalized the NRC's existence under Executive Order 2859. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Wilson's order declared the function of the NRC to be in general:
In 1960, Augustus Braun Kinzel , an engineer with the Union Carbide Corporation and a member of the Academy, stated that the "..engineering profession was considering the establishment of an academy of engineering..." [ 1 ] confirmed by the Engineers Joint Council of the national engineering societies to afford themselves of opportunities and services similar to those the Academy provided in science. The question being, whether to affiliate with the National Academy or set up a separate Academy. [ 1 ]
During the past century of the Academy's existence, engineers had been part of the founding members and a sixth of its membership, the founding of the National Research Council in 1916 with the assistance of the Engineering Foundation, the contributions of the NRC Division of Engineering in the post-World War I period, the presidency of engineer Frank B. Jewett during World War II. In short, "...the ascendancy of science in the public mind since World War I had been partly at the expense of the prestige of the engineering profession." [ 1 ] [ 7 ]
The Academy worked with the Engineers Joint Council led by President Eric Arthur Walker as the prime mover, [ 7 ] to make plans to establish a new National Academy of Engineering that's independent, with a congressional charter of its own. [ 1 ] Walker noted that this moment offered a "...singular opportunity for the engineering profession to participate actively and directly in communicating objective advice to the government..." on engineering matters related to national policy. [ 7 ] A secondary function was to recognize distinguished individuals for their engineering contributions. [ 7 ]
Ultimately, the initial organizers decided to create the Academy of Engineering as part of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). [ 1 ] On December 5, 1964, marking, "a major landmark in the history of the relationships between science and engineering in our country," the Academy approved the Articles of Incorporation of the new academy and its twenty-five charter members met to organize the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) as an autonomous parallel body in the National Academy of Sciences, with Augustus B. Kinzel as its first President. [ 1 ] Of the 675 members of the National Academy of Sciences at that time, only about 30 called themselves engineers. [ 7 ] The National Academy of Engineering then were a "purposeful compromise" given the fears of the NAS of expanded membership by engineers. [ 7 ]
The stated objects and purposes of the newly created National Academy of Engineering were: [ 1 ]
In 1966, the National Academy of Engineering established the Committee on Public Engineering Policy (COPEP). [ 1 ] In 1982, the NAE and NAS committees were merged to become the Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy . In 1967, the NAE formed an aeronautics and space engineering board to advise NASA and other Federal agencies chaired by Horton Guyford Stever . [ 8 ]
In 1971, the National Academy of Engineering advised the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey not to construct additional runways at JFK airport as part of a $350,000 study commissioned by the Port Authority. The Port Authority accepted the recommendations of the NAE and NAS. [ 9 ]
In 1975, the NAE added eighty-six new engineer members including noted civil engineer and businessman Stephen Davison Bechtel Jr. [ 10 ] In 1986, the NAE issued a report encouraging foreign investment, calling for stronger Federal action. [ 11 ] That same year, NAE member Robert W. Rummel (1915-2009), space expert and aerospace engineer, served on The Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident . [ 12 ]
In 1989, the National Academy of Engineering in conjunction with the National Academy of Science advised the Department of Energy on a site location for the then proposed Superconducting Super Collider (SSC) from a number of States proposals. [ 13 ]
In 1995, the NAE along with the NAS and the National Academy of Medicine reported that the American system of doctoral education in science and engineering, while "...long a world model, should be reshaped to produce more 'versatile scientists,' rather than narrowly specialized researchers". [ 14 ]
Again, in 2000, NAE returned to this education theme with its detailed studies of engineering education as part of its "Engineer of 2020 Studies" project. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] The reports concluded that engineering education must be reformed lest American engineers be poorly prepared for engineering practice. Soon after, the American Society of Civil Engineers adopted a policy , advocating for the reconstruction of the academic foundation of the professional practice of civil engineering.
Formally, members of the NAE must be U.S. citizens . [ 17 ] The term "international member" is applied to non-citizens who are elected to the NAE. [ 17 ] "The NAE has more than 2,000 peer-elected members and international members, senior professionals in business, academia, and government who are among the world's most accomplished engineers", according to the NAE site's About page. [ 18 ] Election to the NAE is considered to be among the highest of recognitions in engineering-related fields, and often comes as a recognition of a lifetime's worth of accomplishments. Nomination for membership can only be done by a current member of the NAE for outstanding engineers with identifiable contributions or accomplishments in one or both of the following categories:
Since its founding, as of late-2024, the Academy has elected around 5,020 members. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is associated with the most members with 207 members, Stanford University with 172, and the University of California at Berkeley with 127. The top fourteen institutions account for over 20% of all members ever elected.
In February 2000, a National Press Club luncheon during National Engineers Week 2000 sponsored by the NAE, astronaut/engineer Neil Armstrong announced the 20 top engineering achievements having the greatest impact on the quality of life in the 20th century. [ 55 ] [ 56 ] Twenty-nine professional engineering societies provided 105 nominations which then selected and ranked the top 20 achievements. [ 55 ] The nominations were pared to less than fifty and then combined into 29 larger categories.
Some of the achievements, though, such as the telephone and the automobile which were not invented in the 20th century were included because of the impact they had were not really apparent until the 20th century. [ 55 ] The top achievement, electrification is essential for almost part of modern society and has "...literally lighted the world and impacted countless areas of daily life, including food production and processing, air conditioning and heating, refrigeration, entertainment, transportation, communication, health care, and computers." [ 55 ] Later in 2003, the National Academy of Engineering published A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements that Transformed our Lives . [ 58 ] [ 59 ]
The ranked list of the top 20 achievements in the 20th century was published as follows: [ 55 ] [ 59 ]
The NAE's achievements list was criticized for ranking space technology (listed as "Spacecraft") twelfth instead of number one despite NAE recognizing in its report that the Soviet Union's Sputnik "shocked the world and started a space race that launched the greatest engineering team effort in American history." [ 57 ] (NAE, 2000) Time magazine ran a similar poll of 20th-century accomplishments, and its website users ranked the first Moon landing in 1969 in second place versus NAE's 12th. [ 57 ] The NAE listing was also criticized for not recognizing the role physics played in laying the foundations for the engineering accomplishments such Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry for electrification. [ 57 ] NAE's list ranked electronics based upon two inventions, the transistor and integrated circuits, even it neglected to mention their physicist inventors, John Bardeen , Walter H. Brattain , William B. Shockley , Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce . [ 57 ] Another commentator noted that the list ignored the St. Lawrence seaway and power project , built between 1954 and 1959 and by extension the Panama Canal . The St. Lawrence seaway was "...one of the largest transborder projects ever undertaken by two countries and one of the greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century." [ 60 ]
It was also noted that these 20th-century accomplishments did not come without impacts on the environment or societies. [ 61 ] Electrification as an example, resulting in fossil-fuel-burning power plants, airplanes and automobiles which emit greenhouse gases while electronics manufacturing leaves heavy-metal byproducts. [ 61 ]
The Grand Challenges confront wicked social issues that are inherently global in nature and require technological innovations and applications of systems thinking. Further, NAE argues that the solutions call upon engineers to persuasively influence "...public policy, transfer technical innovation to the market place, and to inform and be informed by social science and the humanities." [ 62 ] The NAE's Grand Challenges overlap with the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals and its 2015 successor, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which all depend upon "a strong engineering component" for success. [ 63 ]
The Academy introduced its "Grand Challenges for Engineering" project in 2007 with the commissioning of a blue-ribbon committee composed of leading technological thinkers from around the globe. [ 64 ] The committee, led by former Secretary of Defense William Perry was charged with the task of identifying "..key engineering challenges for improving life in the 21st century." [ 64 ] NAE's intent was to develop a set of challenges of such importance that they warranted serious investment and if successful, would "lead to a marked improvement in our quality of life." [ 65 ] The project received "...thousands of inputs from around the world to determine its list of Grand Challenges for Engineering, and its report was reviewed by more than 50 subject-matter experts, making it among the most reviewed of Academy studies." [ 66 ] In February 2008, the committee announced 14 Engineering Grand Challenges fitting into four broad categories: energy, sustainability, and global climate change; medicine, health informatics and health care delivery systems; reducing our vulnerability to natural and human threats; and advancing the human spirit and capabilities. [ 65 ] NAE noted that a number of engineering schools had developed coursework based upon Grand Challenge themes. [ 65 ]
The 14 Grand Challenges for Engineering developed by the NAE committee were to:
NAE noted in its report that the Grand Challenges for Engineering were not "...ranked in importance or likelihood of solution, nor was any strategy proposed for solving them. Rather, they were offered as a way to inspire the profession, young people, and the public at large to seek the solutions." [ 68 ] NAE also stated that the Grand Challenges were "...not targeted to any one country or corporate sector... (and)... are relevant to everyone in every country. In fact, some of them bear on the very survival of society. If solving these challenges can become an international movement, all will benefit." [ 68 ]
One writer favorably observed that the Academy's list of 20th-century engineering achievements was dominated by devices and when asked to project advances for the 21st, the result was again, device dominated. [ 69 ] With respect to the Grand Challenges, the NAE reframed its discussion from being device-centric to addressing complex or wicked social issues that cannot be solved by technology alone, [ 69 ] i.e. more devices. With the Grand Challenges though, NAE "...charted a course for... (engineering)... to move from devices to global social challenges, and has identified a number of exciting ones." [ 69 ]
One critical reaction to the NAE's challenges noted that engineers today are the "...unacknowledged legislators of the world... (and by)... designing and constructing new structures, processes, and products, they are influencing how we live as much as any laws enacted by politicians. [ 70 ] The author argued that NAE's Grand Challenges should have included the "...challenge of thinking about what we are doing as we turn the world into an (engineering) artifact and the appropriate limitations of this engineering power." [ 70 ] This is already happening in the Netherlands with its Delta Works as an example of a society being an engineered artifact but also with a community of philosophers of engineering and technology. [ 70 ]
Another commentator observed that challenges with respect to sustainability concentrated on specific elements of the problem without addressing "... "what level of energy use would be sustainable on a global scale." [ 61 ] While India and China are 1000-1500 Watt per person societies, the United States requires 12,000 W per person. [ 61 ] An estimate of a sustainable level of power consumption made by a Swiss group is 2,000 W per person. [ 61 ] Similar questions were raised on the NAE's challenge for access to clean water. The average daily per capita water consumption in American cities varies from 130 to 2000 liters (35 to 530 gallons). [ 71 ]
In 2010, NAE developed a plan for preparing engineering students at the undergraduate academic degree level to practice in career fields that emerged as a result of the effort to answer the Grand Challenges. [ 68 ] The program had five components, namely: [ 62 ]
While the National Academy of Engineering's GC SCholars (GCSP) program was primarily focused on undergraduate level curriculums, STEM focuses on K–12 education . The question for STEM educators was how to prepare K-12 students to participate in solving the wicked problems associated with the Grand Challenges. [ 72 ] One response was to align STEM program theories of learning and International Technology and Engineering Educators Association (ITEEA, formerly ITEA) Technological Literacy Standards with the National Academy of Engineering's Grand Challenges in order to guide current and pending curriculum development . [ 72 ] NAE's objective was also to inform instructional practices, particularly dealing with the connections among science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education. The Technological Literacy Standards were funded by the National Science Foundation and NASA and NAE's Technology Education Standards Committee led the Academy's efforts on the standards. [ 73 ]
As a result of NAE's Grand Challenge efforts, three national engineering academies–The National Academy of Engineering of the United States, The Royal Academy of Engineering of the United Kingdom, and the Chinese Academy of Engineering –organized a joint Global Grand Challenges Summit, held in London on March 12–13, 2013. [ 74 ] In September 2015 a second Global Grand Challenges Summit was held in Beijing, with more than 800 attendees invited by the three academies. The third Global Grand Challenges Summit was hosted by the NAE in the United States in 2017. [ 68 ]
The Frontiers of Engineering program assembles a group of emerging engineering leaders - usually aged 30–45 - to discuss cutting-edge research in various engineering fields and industry sectors. The goal of the meetings is to bring participants together to collaborate, network, and share ideas. There are three Frontiers of Engineering meetings every year: the U.S. Frontiers of Engineering Symposium, the German-American Frontiers of Engineering Symposium, and the Japan-America Frontiers of Engineering Symposium. The Indo-U.S. Frontiers of Engineering Symposium is held every other year. [ 75 ]
The goal of the diversity office is to participate in studies addressing the issue of increasing and broadening a domestic talent pool. Through this effort the NAE convenes workshops, coordinators with other organizations, and identifies program needs and opportunities for improvement.
As part of this effort the NAE has launched both the EngineerGirl! [ 76 ] and Engineer Your Life [ 77 ] webpages.
This program area studies connections between engineering, technology, and the economic performance of the United States. Efforts aim to advance the understanding of engineering's contribution to the sectors of the domestic economy and to learn where engineering may enhance economic performance. [ 78 ]
The project also aims to investigate the best ways to determine levels of technological literacy in the United States among three distinct populations in the United States: K-12 students, K-12 teachers, and out-of-school adults. A report (and associated website), Technically Speaking , [ 79 ] explains what "technological literacy" is, why it is important, and what is being done in the U.S. to improve it.
This program, recognizing that the engineering profession has often been associated with causing environmental harm, looks to recognize and publicize that the profession is now at the forefront of mitigating negative environmental impacts. The program will provide policy guidance to government, the private sector, and the public on ways to create a more environmentally sustainable future. [ 80 ]
The Center for the Advancement of Scholarship on Engineering Education. [ 81 ] was established to advance engineering education in the United States, aiming for curriculum changes that address the needs of new generations of engineering students and the unique problems they will face with the challenges of the 21st century.
The Center worked closely with the Committee on Engineering Education, which works to improve the quality of engineering education by providing advice to policymakers, administrators, employers, and other stakeholders. [ 82 ]
The Center is no longer active within the National Academy of Engineering.
The Center for Engineering, Ethics, and Society seeks to engage engineers and the engineering profession in identifying and resolving ethical issues associated with engineering research and practice. The Center works is closely linked with the Online Ethics Center. [ 83 ]
To publicize the work of both the profession and the NAE, the institution puts considerable efforts into outreach activities.
A weekly radio spot produced by the NAE is broadcast on WTOP radio in the Washington, D.C., area and the file and text of the spot can be found on the NAE site. [ 84 ] The NAE also distributes a biweekly newsletter focusing on engineering issues and advancements.
In addition, NAE has held a series of workshops titled News and Terrorism: Communicating in a Crisis, in which experts from the National Academies and elsewhere provide reporters, state and local public information officers, emergency managers, and representatives from the public sector with important information about weapons of mass destruction and their impact. This project is conducted in collaboration with the Department of Homeland Security and the Radio and Television News Directors Foundation.
In addition to these efforts, the NAE fosters good relationships with members of the media to ensure coverage of the work of the institution and to serve as a resource for the media to use when they have technical questions or would like to speak to an NAE member on a particular matter. The NAE is also active in "social media," both to reach new and younger audiences and to reach traditional audiences in new ways.
Source [ 89 ]
The Academy awards several prizes, with each recipient receiving $500,000. The prizes include the Bernard M. Gordon Prize , the Fritz J. and Dolores H. Russ Prize , and the Charles Stark Draper Prize . They are sometimes referred to collectively as the American version of a Nobel Prize for engineering. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] [ 92 ] [ 93 ] [ 94 ]
The Bernard M. Gordon Prize was started in 2001 by the NAE. It is named after Bernard Marshall Gordon , the founder of Analogic Corporation . Its purpose is to recognize leaders in academia for the development of new educational approaches to engineering . [ 95 ] Each year, the Gordon Prize awards $500,000 to the grantee, of which the recipient may personally use $250,000, and his or her institution receives $250,000 for the ongoing support of academic development. [ 95 ]
The Fritz J. and Dolores H. Russ Prize is an American national and international award established by the NAE in October 1999 in Athens , Ohio. The prize has been given biennially in odd years since 2001. Named after Fritz Russ, the founder of Systems Research Laboratories, and his wife Dolores Russ, it recognizes a bioengineering achievement that "has had a significant impact on society and has contributed to the advancement of the human condition through widespread use." The award was instigated at the request of Ohio University to honor Fritz Russ, one of its alumni. [ 96 ]
The NAE annually awards the Charles Stark Draper Prize, which is given for the advancement of engineering and the education of the public about engineering. The recipient receives $500,000. The prize is named for Charles S. Draper , the "father of inertial navigation ", an MIT professor and founder of the Draper Laboratory . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering |
National Adhering Organizations ( NAO ) in chemistry are the organizations that work as the authoritative power over chemistry in an individual country. [ 1 ] Their importance can be seen by their involvement in IUPAC . Currently, 57 IUPAC National Adhering Organizations exist. [ 1 ]
Chemical Society located in Taipei | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Adhering_Organizations |
The National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan ( NAL ), was established in July 1955. Originally known as the National Aeronautical Laboratory , it assumed its present name with the addition of the Aerospace Division in 1963. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Since its establishment, it has pursued research on aircraft , rockets , and other aeronautical transportation systems, as well as peripheral technology. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] NAL was involved in the development of the autonomous ALFLEX aircraft [ 4 ] [ 5 ] and the cancelled HOPE-X spaceplane. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]
NAL has also endeavored to develop and enhance large-scale test facilities and make them available for use by related organizations, with the aim of improving test technology in these facilities. [ 3 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ]
The NAL began using computers to process data since the 1960s. It began working to develop supercomputer and numerical simulation technologies in order to execute full-scale numeric simulations. The NAL, in collaboration with Fujitsu , developed the Numerical Wind Tunnel parallel supercomputer system, which went into operation in 1993. From 1993 to 1995, it was the most power supercomputer in the world, and was one of the top 3 in the world until 1997. It remained in use for 9 years after it began operations. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ]
On October 1, 2003, NAL, which had focused on research and development of next-generation aviation , merged with the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan into one Independent Administrative Institution : the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). [ 16 ] [ 17 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Aerospace_Laboratory_of_Japan |
The U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards ( NAAQS , pronounced / ˈ n æ k s / naks ) are limits on atmospheric concentration of six pollutants that cause smog , acid rain , and other health hazards. [ 1 ] Established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) under authority of the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.), NAAQS is applied for outdoor air throughout the country. [ 2 ]
The six criteria air pollutants (CAP), or criteria pollutants , for which limits are set in the NAAQS are ozone (O 3 ), atmospheric particulate matter (PM 2.5 /PM 10 ), lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur oxides (SO x ), and nitrogen oxides (NO x ). [ 3 ] These are typically emitted from many sources in industry , mining , transportation , electricity generation and agriculture . In many cases they are the products of the combustion of fossil fuels or industrial processes. [ 4 ]
The National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants cover many other chemicals, and require the maximum achievable reduction that the EPA determines is feasible.
The six criteria air pollutants were the first set of pollutants recognized by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as needing standards on a national level. [ 5 ] The Clean Air Act requires the EPA to set US National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for the six CAPs. [ 6 ] The NAAQS are health based and the EPA sets two types of standards: primary and secondary. The primary standards are designed to protect the health of 'sensitive' populations such as asthmatics, children, and the elderly. The secondary standards are concerned with protecting the environment. They are designed to address visibility, damage to crops, vegetation, buildings, and animals. [ 7 ]
The EPA established the NAAQS according to Sections 108 and 109 of the U.S. Clean Air Act, which was last amended in 1990. [ 8 ] These sections require the EPA "(1) to list widespread air pollutants that reasonably may be expected to endanger public health or welfare; (2) to issue air quality criteria for them that assess the latest available scientific information on nature and effects of ambient exposure to them; (3) to set primary NAAQS to protect human health with adequate margin of safety and to set secondary NAAQS to protect against welfare effects (e.g., effects on vegetation, ecosystems, visibility, climate, manmade materials, etc); and (5) to periodically review and revise, as appropriate, the criteria and NAAQS for a given listed pollutant or class of pollutants." [ 9 ]
The standards are listed in 40 CFR 50 . Primary standards are designed to protect human health, [ 23 ] with an adequate margin of safety, including sensitive populations such as children, the elderly, and individuals suffering from respiratory diseases. Secondary standards are designed to protect public welfare, damage to property, transportation hazards, economic values, and personal comfort and well-being from any known or anticipated adverse effects of a pollutant. A district meeting a given standard is known as an "attainment area" for that standard, and otherwise a "non-attainment area". [ 2 ]
Standards are required to "accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge," and are reviewed every five years by a Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee (CASAC), consisting of "seven members appointed by the EPA administrator ." [ 24 ]
EPA has set NAAQS for six major pollutants listed as below. These six are also the criteria air pollutants . [ 1 ]
The EPA National Exposure Research Laboratory can designate a measurement device using an established technological basis as a Federal Reference Method (FRM) to certify that the device has undergone a testing and analysis protocol, and can be used to monitor NAAQS compliance. Devices based on new technologies can be designated as a Federal Equivalent Method (FEM). [ citation needed ] FEMs are based on different sampling and/or analyzing technologies than FRMs, but are required to provide the same decision making quality when making NAAQS attainment determinations. Approved new methods are formally announced through publication in the Federal Register . [ 26 ] A complete list of FRMs and FEMs is available. [ 27 ]
An air quality control region is an area, designated by the federal government, where communities share a common air pollution problem. [ 28 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards |
The National Animal Resource Facility for Biomedical Research is an Indian Biomedical research facility, and vivarium under the Indian Council of Medical Research . The new 33rd flagship institute of ICMR was founded in 2015, at Genome Valley in Hyderabad, India . [ 2 ] The center is a state of the art Animal house and Animal sciences facility located near Turkapally , Shamirpet spread over 102 acres of land. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
The institute proposes to breed specific pathogen free large and small animals such as mice , rats , hamsters , rabbit , guinea pigs , mini pigs , canines , swine , equines , horses , sheep , and goats . Various species of non-human primates such as rhesus, bonnet monkey, cynomolgus monkey, pig tail monkey, owl monkey and squirrel monkey among others needed for research purpose. By tenth year of its functioning, the institute proposes to be self sustainable. The project was conceived way back in 2001. It got delayed due to financial and technical reasons. However, it got impetus in 2015. [ 2 ]
On 18 November 2015 the union Government of India, approved a long-pending proposal envisaging Rs 338.58 crore-world-class-facility for breeding beagle dogs, horses, and monkeys besides other animals on a large scale to indigenously to meet the needs of the country's pharma firms for drug testing and clinical research. Subsequently, The National Center For Laboratory Animal Sciences at the National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad is being integrated to form the National Animal Resource Facility for Biomedical Research. [ 2 ]
"The need for the NARF-BR has been consistently felt as the existing institutes like Central Drug Research Institute , Lucknow and National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad are working on small animals, mostly rodents. They cannot meet the demand and requirement of biomedical sector, which has no option but to depend on other countries like Indonesia , Singapore and Malaysia for testing their products," said a senior official from the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare . Sharing the cabinet decision with reporters after the cabinet meeting, Manoj Pant, Joint Secretary of Department of Health Research in the Ministry, "The institute is expected to cut down research cost by 60 per cent and consequently drugs and vaccine by about 30 per cent in the long run."
For instance, while presently research experiment cost in US and China is around Rs 2 crore for 180 days, similar tests for the same duration at NARF will cost just Rs 51 lakhs. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Animal_Resource_Facility_for_Biomedical_Research |
The National Archive of Computerized Data on Aging (NACDA), located within ICPSR in Michigan, [ 1 ] is funded by the US National Institute on Aging (NIA). NACDA's mission is to advance research on aging by helping researchers to profit from the under-exploited potential of a broad range of datasets. [ 2 ]
NACDA acquires and preserves data relevant to gerontological research, processing as needed to promote effective research use, disseminates them to researchers, and facilitates their use. By preserving and making available the largest library of electronic data on aging in the United States, NACDA offers opportunities for secondary analysis on major issues of scientific and policy relevance.
A program within the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) at the University of Michigan . The NACDA collection consists of over sixteen hundred datasets relevant to gerontological research and represents the world's largest collection of publicly available research data on the aging lifecourse.
The NACDA Program on Aging began in 1976 under the sponsorship of the United States Administration on Aging (AoA) . At that time NACDA was seen as a novel experiment - neither the concept of a research archive devoted to aging issues nor the idea of making research data freely available to the public were well established. Over the years, NACDA’s mission has changed both in scope and in direction. Originally conceived as a storehouse for data, NACDA has aggressively pursued a role of increasing involvement in the research community by actively promoting and distributing data. In 1984, the NIA became the sponsor of the National Archive of Computerized Data on Aging, and NACDA has flourished under its support. Over the years, NACDA has evolved and grown in response to changes in technology. In many instances, leading the pace of change in methodology related to the storage, protection, and distribution of data.
NACDA was one of the first organizations to develop and release studies on CD-ROM . NACDA was also one of the first archives to experiment with the idea of offering electronic research data as a public good, free to all interested individuals at no charge. The initial collection of 28 public use datasets first offered on the internet in 1992 has now expanded to over 1,600 datasets that are freely available to any researcher. The entire collection is stored online at the NACDA website, offering immediate access to gerontological researchers. [ 3 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archive_of_Computerized_Data_on_Aging |
The National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP) is a Cooperative Research Support Program of the State Agricultural Experiment Stations (NRSP-3). Housed at the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene at the University of Wisconsin–Madison , [ 1 ] the NADP is a collaborative effort between many different groups, such as: Federal, state, tribal, local governmental agencies, educational institutions, private companies, and non-governmental agencies. These organizations work together in order to operate monitoring sites and report deposition data. The NADP provides free access to all of its data, including seasonal and annual averages, trend plots, deposition maps, reports, manuals, and educational brochures. [ 2 ]
The National Atmospheric Deposition Program, or NADP, was initiated by the State Agricultural Experiment Station in 1977 to monitor the effects of atmospheric deposition on crops, rangelands, forests, surface waters, and other natural and cultural resources. The initial goal was to provide regional data for the deposition of acids, nutrients, and base cations (including temporal trends/amounts and geographic distributions). [ 3 ]
In 1978, the first NADP sites began collecting weekly precipitation samples. In the early 1980s, the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) [ 4 ] was established, and began to work in collaboration with NADP in order to sustain a long term, quality-assured precipitation monitoring network. [ 5 ] This unification brought on a major expansion as well as newfound federal agency support. Today, the NADP National Trends Network (NTN) has more than 250 sites.
In response to emerging issues, the NADP established an additional two networks in the 1990s: The Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring Network (AIRMoN), which collected daily samples at five sites, and the Mercury Deposition Network (MDN), which has more than 80 sites (six of which are located in Canada). The MDN collects wet deposition data for both total and methyl mercury in precipitation. [ 6 ]
In 2009, the Atmospheric Mercury Network (AMNet) was formed as a fourth network, and as a subset of some MDN sites. The network uses continuous automatic measurement systems to monitor gaseous and particulate concentrations of atmospheric mercury. The Ammonia Monitoring Network (AMoN) was added as a fifth network in October 2010, and it currently has more than 100 sites. AMoN monitors ammonia gas concentrations across the United States to provide consistent and lasting data. [ 7 ] The Mercury Litterfall Network (MLN) was approved as the sixth network in 2021 with 22 sites. MLN provides estimates of mercury dry deposition in forested landscapes using passive collectors. [ 8 ]
The National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) was a cooperative federal program that was first authorized in 1981 in order to coordinate acid rain research and report those findings to the U.S. Congress. The research, monitoring, and assessment efforts of NAPAP, and other groups in the 1980s, culminated in Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA), also known as the Acid Deposition Control Program. Title IX of the CAAA reauthorized NAPAP to conduct acid rain research and monitoring, and to periodically assess the costs, benefits, and effectiveness of Title IV. The NAPAP member agencies were the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Department of Interior, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
The NAPAP published a total of four reports: 1991 (multiple volumes), 1998, 2005, and 2011. The Program was able to describe and document strong reductions in sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions, as well as the resulting atmospheric deposition from 1980 to 2010 as various elements of the CAAA were implemented. The NAPAP officially ended with publication of the last report in 2011. To reflect the federal NAPAP role in the NADP, the network name was changed to NADP National Trends Network (NTN) [ 9 ]
The organizational structure of the NADP follows the State Agricultural Experiment Station Guidelines for Multi-State Research Activities. [ 10 ] This framework allows any individual or institution to participate in any segment of NADP, whether it be the monitoring or the research aspect of atmospheric deposition. NADP is managed by two groups. The first being Program Management , which is largely a volunteer group made up of site sponsors and supervisors, policy experts from several agencies (at the federal, state, and local levels), scientists and research specialists, and anyone with an interest in atmospheric deposition. Program management is organized through an Executive Committee, Technical Subcommittees, several advisory subcommittees, science subcommittees, and ad hoc groups. The second group is Program Operations , which is managed by a professional staff housed at the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The Program Office oversees day to day tasks, including coordinating with the Executive Committee, the individual monitoring networks, the analytical laboratories, the External Quality Assurance Program, and the Network Equipment Depot. [ 11 ]
Source: [ 12 ]
The NADP is governed by an elected and rotating Executive Committee (8 members). Currently, there are two standing Subcommittees, three standing Advisory Committees, and four Science Committees (highlighted below) that contribute continuous, scheduled suggestions to the Executive Committee. Ad hoc groups and the Program Office also supply crucial input to the Executive Committee.
The Executive Committee (EC) is responsible for considering and, if approved, executing decisions which are often based on the suggestions made by the subcommittees, advisory committees, science committees, and ad hoc groups. In addition, the EC is accountable for financial decisions and securing a balanced, stable, and ongoing program. There are eight voting members, as well as numerous non-voting members, that make decisions and appoint responsibilities to the subcommittees.
The two standing Technical Subcommittees, Education and Outreach Subcommittee (EOS) (formally the Ecological Response and Outreach Subcommittee) and Network Operations Subcommittee (NOS), provide the technical support necessary to promote the goals of NADP. EOS maintains a platform to coordinate outreach and education activities among the network and scientific subcommittees. With approval and recommendation from the Executive Committee, EOS will provide guidance for outreach efforts and educational materials to the Program Office. EOS will provide a forum to enable communication of outreach and education needs, goals and activities of the subcommittees and networks. The goal is to enhance efficiency in messaging and reaching new audiences. The NOS focuses on equipment, research, sampling methods, collection sites, and the evaluation of the issues that arise from these components.
The three advisory subcommittees include the Budget Advisory Committee (BAC), Quality Assurance Advisory Group (QAAG), and Data Management Advisory Group (DMAG). The role of the BAC is to advise the EC with suggestions pertaining to the budget, and to outline financial planning for current and future years. The QAAG is in charge of ensuring quality management in all aspects of NADP, including the Program Office, networks, and laboratories. To do so, they provide recommendations for manuals and procedures to the EC. The DMAG counsels the EC in data management by reviewing data reports and formats in order to ensure that they are in line with the correct protocols.
The science committees do not directly advise NADP networks, but they are closely affiliated. They assess major atmospheric deposition concerns and track scientific interest and participation. The first scientific committee was the Critical Loads of Atmospheric Deposition (CLAD), and the second was the Total Deposition Science Committee (TDep). CLAD and TDep were approved by the EC in 2010 and 2011, respectively. The goal of the CLAD is to provide a forum, across all levels of government and industry, that encourages the use and discussion of technical information and critical load science. TDep seeks to evaluate pressing issues of atmospheric deposition via a collaboration between a wide range of groups. TDep also aims to improve the ability to measure and model wet and dry deposition. To do so, they are working to advance the techniques and procedures which are used to estimate deposition of sulfur, nitrogen, and mercury. In October 2017, the Aeroallergen Monitoring Science Committee (AMSC) was added as the third science committee. AMSC seeks to utilize emerging technologies to advance the science of aeroallergen monitoring, enhance the understanding of quality data collection and evaluation methods, and provide lasting data for national networks. A fourth science committee, the Mercury in the Environment and Links to Deposition Science Committee (MELD), was formed in 2020 to improve our understanding of atmospherically-derived mercury sources, pathways, processes, and effects on the environment.
All NADP operations are administered at the NADP Program Office, which is currently located at the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. The five main functions of the Program Office are network administration, management, meetings and trainings, data and publications, and quality assurance and management.
Network administration involves overseeing the endeavors of all five networks, managing sample analysis, and coordinating data storage and user availability. These functions are executed from the two analytical laboratories housed at WSLH: The Central Analytical Lab (CAL), which analyses samples from the NTN and AMoN networks, and the Mercury (Hg) Analytical Laboratory (HAL). The HAL was previously housed at Eurofins Frontier Global Sciences, Inc. in Bothell, Washington. In May 2023, the CAL and the HAL were renamed the NADP Analytical Laboratory (NAL). In addition, the Network Equipment Depot, located at the WSLH, provides spare parts for NADP field equipment and troubleshoots site operation problems.
More than 80 sponsors support the NADP: Private companies and other non-governmental organizations, universities, local and state government agencies (i.e. state agricultural experiment stations ), national laboratories, Native American environmental organizations, Canadian government agencies, [ 13 ] the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , the U.S. Geological Survey , the National Park Service , the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service , the Bureau of Land Management , the U.S. Forest Service , the U.S. Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service , the National Science Foundation , and the U.S. Department of Energy . [ 14 ]
Source: [ 15 ]
The NTN has over 250 sites that focus on wet deposition chemistry by collecting weekly precipitation samples nationwide. The samples are sent to the NADP Analytical Laboratory (NAL) at the Wisconsin State Lab of Hygiene for analysis and are then used to determine geographic distribution and annual trends. The sample collection and handling methods follow strict clean-handling procedures in order to ensure accurate results. The analytes monitored are: Free acidity (H + as pH), conductance, calcium (Ca 2+ ), magnesium (Mg 2+ ), sodium (Na + ), potassium (K + ), sulfate (SO 4 2- ), nitrate (NO 3 − ), chloride (Cl − ), and ammonium (NH 4 + ). The NAL also measures orthophosphate, but only for quality assurance as an indicator of sample contamination. [ 16 ]
The MDN measures total mercury concentrations on a weekly basis (methyl mercury is measured monthly at some sites), which provides wet deposition data for surface waters and other waterways. The goal is to deliver accurate information that allows researchers to evaluate the linkage between mercury and health, which is strengthened by its large spatial and temporal footprint. [ 17 ]
The AMNet consists of approximately 15 sites across the U.S. and Canada. The function of these sites is to measure ambient air concentrations of gaseous oxidized mercury (GOM), particulate bound mercury (PBM 2.5 ), and gaseous elemental mercury (GEM). This network works to monitor and report atmospheric mercury that causes dry and total deposition of mercury at select MDN sites. AMNet produces high-resolution data to determine atmospheric mercury trends and models, the ecological consequences of mercury discharging sources, and how to adequately control mercury levels. [ 18 ]
The AMoN measures ambient ammonia gas concentrations over a two-week period via a Radiello®-passive sampler, which is a simple diffusive sampler that offers higher capacity and faster sampling rates than other devices. Therefore, AMoN can provide reliable data to aid in meeting air quality policies and administration needs. AMoN collects data biweekly to determine the spatial variability and seasonality of ammonia concentrations. [ 19 ]
The MLN can provide an important component of mercury dry deposition to a forested landscape. The importance of litterfall mercury data for quantifying atmospheric mercury deposition to forests was demonstrated with studies at NADP sites in the eastern USA from 2007-2009 and 2007 to 2014. [ 20 ]
The AIRMoN sites were primarily used to assess the impacts of emission changes such as potential effects from new sources, federal Clean Air Act controls, and source-receptor relationships in atmospheric models. The network measured the same contaminants as the NTN, but sampling occurred daily during precipitation to provide greater temporal resolution. This consistent, high-resolution sampling improved the researchers’ ability to evaluate the data and, therefore, provide reliable results. The network was discontinued in September 2019. [ 21 ]
Accurate and consistent measurement of gases and deposition at every monitoring site is of the utmost importance to the NADP. This is accomplished, in part, by ensuring that all sites adhere to specific standard operating procedures. This provides consistent methodology at all sites within the networks. The SOPs can be viewed here:
a. 1 SAESD (State Agricultural Experiment Station Directors). 2013. Guidelines for Multistate Research Activities. Developed by SAESD in cooperation with the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, USDA (NIFA) and the Experiment Station Committee on Organization and Policy (ESCOP). Approved September 26, 2000, updated August 15, 2013. http://escop.ncsu.edu/docs/MRF Guidelines Revised 08 1 513.pdf
b. NADP Governance Handbook
c. https://nadp.slh.wisc.edu/ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Atmospheric_Deposition_Program |
The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) is a statutory autonomous body under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change , Government of India established in 2003 to implement the provisions under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 , after India signed Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992. [ 1 ]
Headquartered in Chennai, India , it acts as a facilitating, regulating and advisory body to the Government of India "on issues of conservation , sustainable use of biological resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources." [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Additionally, it advises State Governments in identifying the areas of biodiversity importance ( biodiversity hotspots ) as heritage sites.
In 2012, NBA organized the first ever National Biodiversity Congress (NBC), held at Thiruvananthapuram , Kerala. On this occasion, National Biodiversity Students' Congress was also held [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
Since its establishment, NBA has supported creation of SBBs in 29 States and facilitated establishment of around 1,39,831 BMCs . [ 3 ]
The National Biodiversity Authority is mandated to regulate access to biological resources and / or associated knowledge for research, bio-survey and bio-utilization, commercial utilization, obtaining Intellectual Property Rights, transfer of results of research and transfer of accessed biological resources.
The details of application forms for Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) of specific activities are given in the website of National Biodiversity Authority.
The Moot Court Association of Symbiosis Law School, Nagpur in collaboration with the Maharashtra State Biodiversity Board organized the National Moot Court Competition from December 3–5, 2021. J. Justin Mohan, Secretary, National Biodiversity Authority
NGT in its judgement of Chandrabhal singh, has directed all the states to comply with provision of the act and create biodiversity management committee and peoplebiodiversity register in comprehensive manner. [ 6 ]
This article about an organisation in India is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Biodiversity_Authority |
The National Biodiversity Network (UK) (NBN) is a collaborative venture set up in 2000 in the United Kingdom [ 1 ] committed to making biodiversity information available through various media, including on the internet via the NBN Atlas—the data search website of the NBN. [ 2 ]
It is estimated that up to 60,000 people routinely record biodiversity information in the UK and Ireland . Most of this effort is voluntary and is organised through about 2,000 national societies and recording schemes. The UK government through its agencies also collects biodiversity data and one of the principal elements for the collation and interpretation of this data is the network of Local Environmental Records Centres. [ 3 ]
In 2012, it had been listed in the top 1,000 UK charities that raised most donations. [ 4 ]
The NBN Trust [ 1 ] —the organisation facilitating the building of the Network—supports agreed standards for the collection, collation and exchange of biodiversity data and encourages improved access. The present partnership consists of over 200 public and voluntary organisations and individual members.
The NBN Atlas currently holds over 300 million species records from over 1000 different datasets (August 2024). [ 2 ] Data on the NBN Atlas can be accessed by anyone interested in UK, Northern Ireland and Isle of Man wildlife and can be searched at many different levels, as it allows the viewing of distribution maps and the downloading of data by using a variety of interactive tools. The maps can be customised by date range and can show changes in a species’ distribution.
The organisation believes that, by providing tools to make wildlife data accessible in a digitised and exchangeable form and by providing easy access to the information people need, wise and informed decisions can be made to ensure the natural environment is protected now and for future generations.
The National Biodiversity Network Trust employs a team to facilitate and co-ordinate its growth and development and is governed by a Board of Trustees. The NBN Trust is a registered charity. [ 5 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Biodiversity_Network |
The National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII) was a program coordinated by the United States Geological Survey 's Biological Informatics Office within the USGS Biological Resources Discipline . Its purpose was to facilitate access to data and information on the biological resources of the United States , utilizing government agencies, academic institutions, non-government organizations, and private industry. It was terminated 15 January 2012.
The NBII coordinated the research output of the biological community into information systems that were easily accessed, by providing organization and a structure that was based on standards. The structure was essentially invisible to the end user of the information, but was vitally important to those wishing to participate by making data available through the system, or those who wished to become partners in the development of new tools, models, and applications. [ 1 ] The end-user aspect of the NBII was its Web portal which provided access to information, publications, and data from the various data sources "in a seamless, unified portal." [ 1 ]
The NBII was an outgrowth of a 1993 National Research Council report titled "A Biological Survey for the Nation", [ 2 ] which recommended that the United States Department of the Interior oversee the development of a National Biotic Resource Information System to coordinate information about biodiversity and ecosystems. The report found that such information was "vital to a wide range of scientific, educational, and government uses," but that, unfortunately, most of the information existed in forms that were not easily used. It envisioned a system of distributed databases designed to make the existing information more accessible. The report also suggested that new ways to collect and distribute data and information should be developed. It did mention networking, but not the Internet. . [ 3 ]
As a first step, in 1994, President Clinton signed Executive Order 12906, "Coordinating Geographic Data Acquisition and Access: the National Spatial Data Infrastructure ". [ 4 ] National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) dealt with the acquisition, processing, storage, and distribution of geospatial (geographically referenced) data. In conjunction with this, but without a presidential order, former Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt renamed the national biotic resource information system as the National Biological Information Infrastructure (NBII). In 1996 the Office of Management and Budget Circular A-130 , the document which directs the management of federal information resources in the United States, was amended to include the NBII.
Funding and support for the NBII did not develop as quickly as the scientific community hoped, and in 1998, the President's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology released a report "Teaming With Life: Investing in Science to Understand and Use America's Living Capital" [ 5 ] which urged that current information technology be applied to the management of science information, and reiterated the findings of the 1993 report. In 2001 money was finally appropriated for the development of the system of NBII networked nodes, though far below the level recommended in the report.
In implementing this system, the USGS designed each aspect of the system to focus on a narrow scope (often geographic) or purpose-based. [ 6 ] For example, the Southwest Information Node focused on desert ecosystems. [ 7 ]
The NBII was involved with a range of international initiatives including:
Early on researchers found the NBII coordination less than expected. The NBII navigation buttons on the Invasive Species databases had confusing topic labels especially when compared with the National Agricultural Library labels. [ 8 ] The switching back and forth between the portal and the databases was "a tedious exercise indeed." [ 8 ] Nonetheless, the Federation of Government Information Processing Councils awarded the NBII a 2002 Award for Outstanding Intergovernmental Technology Solutions. [ 3 ]
Due to the extensive amount and array of resources and data available, users often needed to both browse and search to locate specific information of interest. "A great deal of persistence may be required to find a particular database. Some valuable resources are found four or five layers into the site's hierarchy." [ 1 ] An example of this excessive hierarchy was FRAMES, [ 9 ] the "Fire Research And Management Exchange System" portal to U.S.-based Internet resources on forest and wildland fires. Other problems included resources that were listed well down on a long page, so that they did not appear on the screen, and there were the occasional dead links. " [ 1 ]
In the President's Budget for Fiscal Year (FY) 2012, the NBII was identified as one of over 200 programs slated for termination or reduction. The FY 2011 Continuing Resolution for USGS, finalized in May 2011, accelerated the beginning of the termination activities to FY 2011 with their completion in FY 2012. [ 10 ]
On October 3, 2011, USGS announced on all NBII websites and applications that on January 15, 2012, the NBII website and any applications residing on the nbii.gov domain would be shut down, and it was. Before that shutdown, the Library of Congress, Internet Archive and Stanford Libraries all independently harvested the data from the NBII Website. [ 11 ] Stanford Libraries harvested the site twice between January 5 and January 13, 2012 for storage in its Fugitive US Agencies collection. [ 11 ]
Data and metadata from the Mid Atlantic Information Node (MAIN), Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Node (FAR), and the Bird Node which were hosted by Penn State University ( https://www.nacse.org/home/news/2009/2009july/NBII_Summer_09.pdf Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine ) were harvested and the information made available through the Data Commons ( http://www.datacommons.psu.edu/ ) at Penn State. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Biological_Information_Infrastructure |
The National Biotechnology Development Agency (NABDA) is an agency established in 2001 under the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology , that implements policies, explores resources, conducts research, promotes, coordinates and develops biotechnology in Nigeria. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
The NABDA also controls and supervises the introduction of genetically modified organisms into Nigeria. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
Appointment Of Acting DG Of NABDA By Minister Creates Tension In Agency. https://forefrontng.com/appointment-of-acting-dg-of-nabda-by-minister-creates-tension-in-agency/ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Biotechnology_Development_Agency |
The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBI) is composed of chief boiler and pressure vessel inspectors representing states, cities, and provinces enforcing pressure equipment laws and regulations. These laws and regulations represent the collective input of National Board members. [ 1 ]
The ASME developed its boiler code in 1915. The code provided a solid reference of construction standards, but ASME lacked the authority to regulate. This was further complicated by the existence of local and state jurisdictions with their own codes and standards. This resulted in a patchwork of confusion having no basis in consistency.
On December 2, 1919, Ohio Chief Inspector Carl Myers met with chief inspectors from other jurisdictions to discuss creation of a board of inspector representatives from each of the existing jurisdictions, commencing the genesis of The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors.
The National Board trains hundreds of boiler and pressure equipment professionals from around the world every year. National Board training facilities are located on a 16-acre (65,000 m 2 ) wooded campus in Columbus, Ohio .
Pressure-retaining items can be registered with the National Board, requiring certain uniform quality standards be achieved certifying the manufacturing, testing, and inspection process. To obtain a certification the registered items have to be inspected by National Board-commissioned inspectors and built to required standards. The purpose of National Board registration is to promote safety and document specific equipment design and construction details for future use. It takes place when the manufacturer submits data reports to the National Board for items stamped with National Board numbers.
Among the information included in the data report are: date of manufacture, materials of construction, specific details regarding design, and certification statements by both the manufacturer and inspector. Registration is required by most US jurisdictions for installation of pressure equipment. Registered pressure relief devices are stamped with a National Board NB Mark. For the manufacturer, data reports provide a form of customer service over the life of the equipment. Since 1921 there have been over 45 million data reports registered with the National Board. [ 2 ]
Each year, representatives from around the world travel to the National Board Testing Laboratory north of Columbus, Ohio to measure the performance of their company’s pressure relieving devices.
Tested products undergo independent certification of function and capacity. A pressure relief device meeting new construction standards and specifications permits the manufacturer to apply the National Board NB mark to new equipment. Capacity certification signifies equipment designs have been thoroughly reviewed. Additionally, it indicates the quality system has been audited and the equipment meets internationally recognized standards for preventing potential overpressure conditions in boilers and pressure vessels.
Testing is also performed to evaluate a company’s ability to properly repair pressure relief valves . Accredited repair organizations qualify to stamp the National Board VR symbol on repair nameplates. [ 3 ]
The National Board lab supports industry research and development by testing new designs, serving as a comparative standard for other laboratories, validating new concepts, and – upon jurisdiction request – assist in boiler and pressure vessel incident investigations. [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Board_of_Boiler_and_Pressure_Vessel_Inspectors |
Connecting America: The National Broadband Plan is a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) plan to improve Internet access in the United States . The FCC was directed to create the plan by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , and unveiled its plan on March 16, 2010. [ 1 ]
The act did not give the FCC specific jurisdiction to carry out a national broadband plan or to amend the universal service provisions of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 , but it required that the FCC draft a plan to "include a detailed strategy for achieving affordability and maximizing use of broadband to advance consumer welfare, civic participation , public safety and homeland security , community development , health care delivery, energy independence and efficiency, education, employee training, private sector investment, entrepreneurial activity, job creation and economic growth, and other national purposes." [ 2 ]
An official website for the plan, broadband.gov , highlighted energy and environment features. [ 3 ] Other goals listed were "21st century care", "economic opportunity", "health care", "civic engagement" and "public safety". Broadband maps , tests and reporting of "broadband dead zones" were also featured. Another goal was providing 100 million American households with access to 100 Mbit/s ( megabits per second) connections by 2020. Large areas of the United States would be wired for Internet access, and the federal Rural Utilities Service providing some rural areas with landline telephone service would be upgraded. The plan called for broadcasters to give up spectrum for wireless broadband access. [ 1 ]
The author of the requirement to draw up the plan, U.S. Representative Edward J. Markey ( D - MA ) praised the FCC's plan as a "roadmap" that would "ensure that every American has access to the tools they need to succeed." [ 4 ] The Obama administration promoted the plan, [ 5 ] [ 6 ] and former FCC Chairman Julius Genachowski , named the plan "his top priority". [ 5 ]
The goals of the plan are described on broadband.gov :
The plan also aimed to reallocate spectrum to increase capacity of mobile broadband , in response to increased demand. Cisco Systems reported that "global mobile data traffic grew 2.6-fold in 2010, nearly tripling for the third year in a row." [ 7 ] AT&T Mobility reported that usage of its data network increased 8000% between 2007 and 2010, a time period concurrent with the release of the iPhone . [ 8 ]
In a report presented at the 2010 Mobile Future Forum, Peter Rysavy presented the dangers of not allocating additional spectrum. He predicted that without a reallocation, demand would exceed supply in 3–4 years, and noted that many minority and lower-income people depend on mobile internet as a primary connection. [ 9 ]
The plan recommends that 300 MHz of spectrum to be made newly available for commercial use over 5 years and 500 MHz after 10 years. The plan targets space between 225 MHz and 3.7 GHz; 120 MHz of Broadcast TV and 90 MHz of mobile satellite service . [ 1 ] To fulfill this plan, the FCC must identify spaces in spectrum that can be used more effectively and then reclaim spectrum from incumbent licensees. The plan recommends that the FCC be given more authority to create new incentives to liberate spectrum. [ 10 ] The FCC's basic approach would be to offer incentives to accelerate the process and avoid lengthy litigation proceedings.
The spectrum auctions were authorized as part of the payroll tax cut extension passed by Congress on February 17, 2012. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] As the Plan reached its first anniversary, Congressional interest in the Plan's potential revenue from auctions increased, especially in light of Federal budget deficits. The wireless industry's main trade association, CTIA, and the Consumer Electronics Association , jointly released a report indicating that auctions from relinquished frequencies from broadcasters might garner $33 billion in revenue from auctions. [ 13 ] [ needs update ]
FCC chairman Julius Genachowski said the broadband plan was a prerequisite for smart grid technology, which he expected to reduce power plants' greenhouse gas consumption by 12 percent, the same as if 55 million cars were no longer driven. [ 14 ] Goal 6 of the plan stated that Americans should have the right to redirect live usage data securely to any energy demand management service provider they chose, for assistance in managing demand of all kinds (including potentially fossil fuel use, water and other utilities).
Goal 6 implies access to demand-side opportunities such as turning on devices (such as sump or cistern pumps or battery chargers) that can use intermittent or off-peak power when it is available (more cheaply than at peak). In October 2009, General Electric and Whirlpool announced a Smart Green Grid Initiative. [ 15 ] " Smart appliances " could schedule energy use at times when less energy was being used or when renewable energy such as wind was more available. [ 14 ]
To achieve Goal 6, appliances would need to communicate to the energy metering and management system and accept commands to change state. In 2010 AC power line communication in the home was considered an option.
The plan recommendations, however, did not mention specific technologies for home networking . [ 16 ]
The U.S. has fallen behind Japan, the EU and South Korea in power grid technology, and has made it a national priority to improve its energy demand and supply management. The Pentagon has noted in several reports that reliance on oil and other diplomatically dangerous sources is a growing US national security concern. Consuming more energy per unit productivity than any other developed nation is no longer an option for the US according to the Obama administration which has made it a high priority to implement ' smart grid ' technologies that are impossible to deploy without secure reliable and universal wired networking. The prior Bush administration had made powerline networking a priority to ensure that broadband access would be at least co-extant with the power grid's reach.
More generally, as of December 2012, only about 65 percent of Americans had broadband access. [ 17 ] The United States ranks 16th in the world, with South Korea at 95 percent and Singapore at 88 percent. Genachowski said over 20 countries had plans for broadband access, and that the lack of access in rural and low-income areas in the United States resulted in "leaving millions behind". [ 18 ]
By 2020, the goal was for 100 million households to have access to 100 Mbit/s service. [ 19 ] 200 million people had broadband in 2009 [ 20 ] (nationwide, the average connection speed was 3.9 Mbit/s [ 21 ] ), up from 8 million in 2000. But 14 million have no access whatsoever to broadband. [ 22 ] [ 23 ]
An FCC survey, "Broadband Adoption and Use in America," gave the average price of broadband access as $41/month, and said 36 percent those non-users surveyed said the service was too expensive. 12 percent lacked skills, 10 percent worried about "safety and privacy", and 19 percent were just not interested. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] One way to increase access would be to provide a block of spectrum to service providers who agreed to offer free or low-cost service to certain subscribers. One way to pay for this would be to transfer $15.5 billion to a Connect America Fund for areas not adequately served. [ 24 ] This money would come from the Universal Service Fund created for telephone service for individuals and Internet access for schools and libraries. In addition, a Mobility Fund would provide funds for states to offer their own broadband programs. Also, Digital Literacy Corps would help people learn about the Internet in areas with low usage rates. And broadband would be added to the FCC's Lifeline and Link-Up program to provide phone service to the poor. [ 22 ]
The FCC has been quoted as saying the plan could cost anywhere from $20 billion to $350 billion, and these costs only take into account the cost of implementing the system and getting it up and running, not the costs of maintaining it in the future. [ 26 ] Some other costs to take into account are the cost of the National Emergency Response Network, which officials have said will cost at least $12 billion to $16 billion to build. [ 27 ] Another cost that must be taken into account is the cost of subsidizing materials like computers for households that cannot afford them. Those citizens would then need to receive training on how to use the computers and Internet effectively. All of these costs are going to add up to many billions of dollars.
There have been several suggestions for ways in which the United States will pay for this plan. The first part involves taking the $4.6 billion per year that is allocated for the Universal Service Fund, and moving it to a fund under a new name that would continue providing subsidized phone service, but also work on getting broadband internet to those who currently do not have it. [ 26 ] This will help offset the costs, but the regulators will have to make sure that there are still enough of those funds going toward providing the same amount of supported phone service, including rural landline and wireless services, as before. This money will help offset some of the costs of the implementation, but if it is in fact going to be closer to $350 billion, then that will not be enough money to cover the costs of the project. This will leave the rest of the cost burden on the government, who may in turn place it on the citizens as a tax. [ 28 ]
Aside from the cost, there is also an argument that the creation of a National Broadband Plan will stunt the growth of the industry and new technologies. Economist Robert Atkinson argues that such a plan will reduce the desire for companies to offer lower prices, better products, and better customer service, as well as lessening incentive to come up with new and innovative ideas. [ 29 ]
As the FCC has moved into the implementation stage of its plan, the jurisdictional question has arisen as to whether Congress provided the FCC with authority to implement the plan, or whether ARRA solely granted the agency authority to draft the plan. [ 30 ] Commenters and state officials have raised the question of how agency proposals can be implemented so as to ensure rural areas do not experience deterioration or price spikes for existing telephone and cellular services. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Commenters have expressed concern that if current support provided to rural areas in accordance with the Communications Act is moved to a much smaller subset of areas for broadband deployment, the currently supported rural areas will be deprived of much needed service coverage and affordable pricing. [ 33 ] The FCC has proposed supporting only one provider per area, which commenters have stated would waste the universal service funds that have been invested in infrastructure other providers have already deployed in rural areas, and would result in a single monopoly service provider in many rural areas. This could mean some rural areas would end up with no telephone service or no cellular service, depending on which technology is supplied by the auction winner.
The FCC considered broadband to be an "information service" and, therefore, "lightly regulated". Although the commission believed this status gave the ability to impose the necessary restrictions in order to implement the plan, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia said this was not the case, in an April 2010 ruling. In 2007, Kevin J. Martin , FCC chairman at the time, ordered Comcast to allow the use of BitTorrent , which Comcast considered to be competition to its cable business. Comcast argued that with deregulation under George W. Bush , the FCC had no authority to make such decisions. The United States Supreme Court sided with Comcast in 2005, [ 34 ] and in a related ruling on April 6, 2010, the Appeals Court denied FCC's 2008 cease and desist order. [ 35 ] As a result, FCC chairman Julius Genachowski wanted to redefine broadband as a "common carrier", requiring equal access to all traffic as on roads.
On May 6, 2010, Genachowski said rules for broadband companies would be less strict than intended, in order to keep the FCC from appearing "heavy-handed". Republicans in the United States Congress and at the FCC, and cable and telephone companies were expected to oppose the regulations necessary to make the broadband plan work. Network neutrality , for example, would require broadband providers to allow competitors to use their lines for telephone service, streaming video and other online services. However, Genachowski said networks would not be required to share with the competition.
Three of the five commissioners would have to approve the regulations. Genachowski, a Democrat , believed the other two Democratic FCC commissioners would support him. Rep. Ed Markey of Massachusetts , a Democratic member of the House committee overseeing the FCC, supported the proposal, saying the FCC needed to make sure consumers and businesses were protected.
The two Republican FCC commissioners, Robert McDowell and Meredith Baker, feared "burdensome rules excavated from the early- Ma Bell -monopoly era onto 21st century networks" which would prevent companies from making the necessary investments to improve their networks.
House Minority Leader John Boehner of Ohio called the plan "a government takeover of the Internet."
Genachowski said regulations would "support policies that advance our global competitiveness and preserve the Internet as a powerful platform for innovation." [ 34 ]
In the Federal Communications Commission's Fifth Report before Congress, [ 36 ] released in June 2008, the FCC reported:
Based on our analysis in this Report, we conclude that the deployment of advanced telecommunications capability to all Americans is reasonable and timely. The data reflect the industry's extensive investment in broadband deployment, including at higher speeds, as evidenced by increased subscribership for those higher-speed services.
The report stated that 47% of adult Americans had access in the home, rural home broadband adoption was at 31%, and over 57.8 million U.S. households subscribed to broadband at home. The NTIA contended that universal, affordable access was being provided in the home, workplace, classroom, and library. When measuring subscription rates of low-income areas, the survey reported that "92 percent of the lowest-income zip codes have at least one high-speed subscriber, compared with 99.4 percent of the highest-income zip codes." [ 36 ] However, criticism came from within the FCC itself. Then FCC Commissioner Jonathan Adelstein disagreed with this conclusion citing the "downward trend" of the country's broadband ranking, and Commission Michael Copps criticized the FCC's data collection methods. [ 37 ]
In 2008, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) released statistics on broadband deployment. These statistics raised concerns that the U.S. may be lagging in broadband rollout, adoption, and pricing when compared to other developed nations. The United States ranked 15th out of 30 countries measured in broadband penetration; Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, Iceland, Sweden, Korea and Finland were well-above the OECD average. [ 38 ] The average download speed in the U.S. was 4.9 Mbit/s, while the OECD average was 9.2 Mbit/s. [ 39 ]
On the basis of these statistics, critics argued that the FCC's previous assessment was inaccurate and incomplete. In a paper addressing this issue, Rob Frieden argued that "the FCC and NTIA have overstated broadband penetration and affordability by using an overly generous and unrealistic definition of what qualifies as broadband service, by using zip codes as the primary geographic unit of measure, by failing to require measurements of actual as opposed to theoretical bitrates, and by misinterpreting available statistics." [ 40 ]
On June 6, 2013 at Mooresville Middle School in Mooresville, North Carolina , President Barack Obama announced plans for ConnectEd, a plan to provide high-speed Internet to many schools that did not already have it. Under the 1996 Telecommunications Act , schools and libraries paid lower prices for telecommunications services, and Obama wanted the E-Rate program expanded to include Internet access. [ 41 ] White House aides made the claim that only one-fifth of American students could use high-speed Internet at school, but all South Korea students could. [ 42 ] Repeating a similar goal from 2008, Obama stated he would ask the FCC to "connect 99 percent of America's students to high-speed broadband Internet within five years." [ 41 ]
Internet access has become a vital tool in development and social progress since the start of the 21st century. Broadband Internet penetration rates are now treated as key economic indicators with the United States widely perceived as falling behind in both its rate of broadband Internet penetration and the speed of its broadband infrastructure. [ 43 ]
As a result, there have been calls for the U.S. to develop, adopt, fund, and implement a National Broadband Plan. Proponents and opponents advance a number of arguments for and against the need for and advisability of creating such a plan. [ 44 ]
According to the plan, one hundred million Americans do not have broadband at home and the U.S. continues to lag in Internet access speed. The FCC brought out a plan and recommendations to address these problems, along with approaches to maximize the economic and social gains from broadband adoption.
This plan is specializing the role of broadband in education, health care, energy and the environment, government performance, civic engagement, public safety, and economic opportunity. Also includes a recognition that broadband obtainment cannot occur without the active participation of the states.
A number of recommendations have clear implications for policy action by state and local governments. On the basic issue of expanded access to broadband, the FCC recommendations include:
As private investors do not always have the strongest incentives to deploy broadband in rural and underserved communities at an affordable price, states and local leaders should be allowed to step in to provide affordable broadband services that will meet their residents' needs.
Pooling demand among institutions can provide more access to a wider constituency at lower prices.
States should complement broadband deployment with digital education programs and fund community technology centers to ensure that residents of all ethnicities, socio-economic backgrounds, and ages understand how to be producers as well as consumers of this new media economy.
The FCC recommendations also focused on helping states make broadband more affordable and increasing the training needed to encourage adoption, including:
"Public policy makers throughout the world are faced with the need to update, replace, and/or revise existing regulations that govern the relationships between and among traditional video distribution platforms, such as over-the-air and cable/satellite providers, as the internet emerges as a viable video distribution platform." [ 53 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Broadband_Plan_(United_States) |
The National CAD Standard ( NCS ) is a collaborative effort in the United States among computer-aided design (CAD) and building information modeling (BIM) users. Its goal is to create a unified approach to the creation of building design data. Development of the NCS is open to all building professionals in a collaborative process led by the buildingSMART Alliance. [ 1 ]
The NCS is composed of CAD layer guidelines from the American Institute of Architects , uniform drawing system modules from the Construction Specifications Institute , and BIM implementation and plotting guidelines from the National Institute of Building Sciences . Adoption of the NCS is voluntary, however adopting companies and agencies can require its use by their associates. [ citation needed ]
This architecture -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This standards - or measurement -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_CAD_Standard |
The National Center for Earth-surface Dynamics , or NCED, is an NSF Science and Technology Center- a collaborative
partnership among educational, research, and public/private entities that aims to create new knowledge of significant benefit to society.
Its mission is to understand the dynamics of the coupled processes that shape the Earth’s surface—physical, biological, geochemical, and anthropogenic—and how they will respond to climate, land use, and management change. NCED is headquartered at the University of Minnesota 's Saint Anthony Falls Laboratory . [ 1 ]
NCED is building interdisciplinary Earth-surface science by integrating elements of geomorphology, ecology, hydrology, sedimentary geology, engineering, economics, and geochemistry. It is creating a predictive Earth-surface science by integrating the advances and approaches of theory, laboratory experiments, numerical modeling, and fieldwork
NCED research is unified by a focus on channel networks and their surroundings. The center's three research initiatives (“Integrated Programs”) approach channel networks from a source-to-sink perspective, looking at watersheds (Watersheds), individual stream
reaches (Streams), and depositional systems (Deltas).
Institutions that are home to NCED principal investigators who participate directly with NCED include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Earth-surface_Dynamics |
The National Center for Functional Glycomics is an organization that is focused on the development of technology development in glycosciences. They are specifically focused on glycan analysis and molecular mechanisms of glycan recognition by proteins important in human biology and disease. The center was established at Emory University in 2013 with $5.5 million funding by National Institutes of Health [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] under the leadership of Richard D. Cummings . The center moved to Harvard University in September 2015 and is currently located at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston Massachusetts . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] The center is affiliated with the Consortium for Functional Glycomics .
The National Center for Functional Glycomics is one of four glycomics-related biomedical technology research resource centers in the United States. [ 6 ] These centers provide unique technology and methods in the field of glycomics research. The center is responsible for services and training for outside investigators, as well as providing access and disseminating technologies, methods and software. [ 7 ]
The center's projects are: [ 8 ]
The center researches shotgun glycomics techniques in which glycans harvested and purified from various materials such as breast milk and pig lungs. Such techniques developed by the center and other glycomics groups can further be applied to tissues to generate an overall glycome of the tissue for research into various diseases such as cancer, inflammation and autoimmune diseases. [ 9 ] [ 10 ]
The oxidative release of natural glycans technique was developed at the center. This process involves household bleach treatment of tissues to release glycans for glycomics. [ 11 ] The eventual aim of this approach is to make glycomics accessible by a larger community of scientists by the development of tools which are easily available.
The National Center for Functional Glycomics has developed GlycoPattern, a web-based bioinformatics resource to assist in analysis of glycan array data. The GlycoPattern website offers tools and algorithms to discover structural motifs, heatmap visualizations for multiple experiment comparisons, clustering of Glycan Binding Proteins. [ 12 ] [ 13 ]
The National Center for Functional Glycomics offers the following services: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Functional_Glycomics |
The National Center for Supercomputing Applications ( Bulgarian : Национален център за суперкомпютърни приложения ) is a research institution located in Sofia , Bulgaria .
It was established in 2008 with the aim of promoting and regulating high-performance processing operations of scientific information. [ 1 ]
The NCSA works in affiliation with scientists and researchers from the Sofia University , the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences , the Technical and Medical universities in Sofia, as well as other organizations. The center is under the jurisdiction of the State Agency for Information Technology and Communications (SAITC).
When established, the center operated the only supercomputer in the Balkan region, [ 2 ] [ 3 ] an IBM Blue Gene /P, which was among the most powerful supercomputers in the world according to TOP500 until November 2009. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] It has two racks with 2,048 850 MHz processors with 8,192 cores. The system is to be upgraded with additional I/O nodes and disk space in the near future. [ 6 ]
The supercomputer was switched off in 2015. [ 7 ]
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This Bulgaria -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Supercomputing_Applications_(Bulgaria) |
The National Centre for Biotechnology Education (NCBE) is a national resource centre at the University of Reading to teach pre-university biotechnology in schools in the UK. It was founded in 1990.
It began as the National Centre for School Biotechnology (NCSB) in 1985 in the Department of Microbiology. It became the NCBE in 1990. For many years it was the only centre in Europe that was devoted to the teaching of biotechnology in schools. The Dolan DNA Learning Center had been set up in the USA. [ citation needed ]
It was set up as an education project by the Society for General Microbiology, now the Microbiology Society . Money from the Laboratory of the Government Chemist set up the National Centre for School Biotechnology (NCSB). Money also came from the Gatsby Charitable Foundation . For the first five years, the UK government's DTI was involved, but from 1990 onwards wanted the organization to become self-supporting as it had to cut back on budgets. By 1992 the government provided no money for the centre. [ 1 ]
The site was set up in former buildings of the University of Reading's Department of Microbiology. In 2001, the NCBE moved to new purpose-built premises in the University’s School of Food Biosciences, however the creation of a new School of Pharmacy at the University forced the NCBE to move to new premises elsewhere on the campus in 2005. [ 2 ]
It reaches out to schools to give up-to-date information on biotechnology. Biotechnology is a rapidly evolving subject, and schools cannot keep up-to-date with all that they would be required to know. It produces educational resources. [ 3 ] It runs the Microbiology in Schools Advisory Committee (MISAC). [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Centre_for_Biotechnology_Education |
The National Centre for Plant Genetic Resources: Polish Genebank (NCPGR) is a research unit in the Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute – National Research Institute. NCPGR is the coordinator and implementer of the National Crop Plant Genetic Resources Protection Programme. The Programme aims to protect the biodiversity of crop plants endangered by genetic erosion in Poland, and is funded by the Ministry of Agriculture. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The main tasks include collection of crop and wild plant populations and varieties threatened by genetic erosion, description and evaluation of collected materials, and preservation of their viability and genetic purity. The Programme is an implementation of provisions laid down in international treaties ratified by Poland:
NCPGR collects populations and cultivated varieties of crop and wild plants threatened with genetic erosion . [ 3 ] Collected materials are characterised, evaluated and documented.
Seed samples and clones are maintained in viable state and genetic purity. NCPGR exchanges samples with other institutions worldwide and provides initial plant materials for breeding and research programs. [ 4 ]
The Laboratory organizes collecting expeditions, during which plant genetic resources are obtained. Plants are collected from natural sites or obtained from farmers or on local markets. [ 5 ] Collected material is reproduced and stored in a gene bank . The Laboratory also carries out studies of variation and genetic structure of selected species and prepares initial materials of selected species for practical breeding. [ 6 ]
The Laboratory covers drawing up documentation of genetic resources of crop plants and exchanges information with other genebanks . [ 7 ] It also obtains seed samples of crop plants from national and international breeding centres. As for the long-term conservation, seed samples need to be prepared and have their viability tested before they are stored in temperature controlled chambers. NCPGR has three long-term storage chambers (-18 °C) and five medium-term storage chambers (0 °C).
The seeds exposed to long-term preservation are tested for viability and biochemical changes. Seed samples with low seed viability or with insufficient seed amount are forwarded for regeneration. The Laboratory provides seed samples for breeding, research and education. [ citation needed ]
The Laboratory searches for and collects local and foreign plant species with increased ability to adapt to extreme conditions of devastated environment. Another objective is regeneration and maintenance of viability of alternative plant collection for reclamation of devastated lands and lands periodically excluded from agricultural use. [ citation needed ]
Selected plant species are analyzed for having the ability to colonize different types of industrial and communal derivative areas. There is also description of morphological and other useful plant traits carried out when it comes to plants which have high biological yielding potential to serve as a source of energy and for other economic uses. [ citation needed ]
The Laboratory prepares initial material for the breeding programmes of alternative crops.
The key activity of Botanical Garden is evaluation and preservation of grass genetic resources . The plants originated from various climatic zones are maintained in different, highly specialized collections. [ 8 ] Natural resources of Botanical Garden include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Centre_for_Plant_Genetic_Resources:_Polish_Genebank |
The National Centre for Evaluation of Photoprotection (NCEP) , also known as the National Institute for Evaluation of Photoprotection, is a French research center dedicated to the study and analysis of plastic materials , including the identification of failed mechanisms and the study of material durability. [ 1 ]
The center's research specializes in improving the safety and efficacy of plastics. Key methods include conducting physicochemical analyses to determine the causes of material failures. A significant part of this process involves the use of both artificial and natural aging tests to predict the long-term performance and stability of these materials. This research plays an essential role in enhancing the reliability and safety of polymer-based products, including nanocomposite and composite materials with polymer matrices .
The National Institute for the Evaluation of Photoprotection is a subsidiary of Blaise Pascal University and was created in 1986 by Professor Jacques Lemaire, former head of the Laboratory of Molecular and Macromolecular Photochemistry (LPMM) [2] . The center's initial objective was to transfer LPMM's research on polymer photoaging to industrial companies facing increasing problems of plastic degradation, such as yellowing and bleaching. [ 2 ]
The center is associated both with the LPMM and companies in the field of polymer applications. [ 3 ] NCEP employs tools for the physicochemical analysis of polymer material degradation such as infrared and UV-visible spectroscopy , and serves as an interface between polymer producers, transformers, and constructors. Additionally, NCEP carries out the Papylum Project to develop expertise in the analysis and primarily restoration of organic material involved in works of art [ 4 ] [ 5 ] as well as the determination of common initial properties of polymers. [ 6 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Centre_for_the_Evaluation_of_Photoprotection |
The National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research ( NC3Rs , pronounced as "N C 3 Rs") is a British organization with the goal of reducing the number of animals used in scientific research. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] It is named after the three Rs principles , first described in 1959, for reducing the scale and impact of animal research . It was established in 2004 after the publication of a 2002 House of Lords select committee report on Animals In Scientific Procedures [ 3 ] [ 4 ] As of 2021 [update] , the chief executive of NC3Rs is Dr Vicky Robinson , [ 5 ] who was appointed CBE in the 2015 Birthday Honours "For services to Science and Animal Welfare". [ 6 ]
This article about an organisation in the United Kingdom is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This article about a medical organization or association is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Centre_for_the_Replacement,_Refinement_and_Reduction_of_Animals_in_Research |
National Chemistry Week ( NCW ) is an annual event held in the United States to raise public awareness of the importance of chemistry in everyday life. It is coordinated by the American Chemical Society (ACS).
NCW is a community-based program that unites ACS local sections, businesses, schools, and individuals in communicating the importance of chemistry to our quality of life.
NCW has won the American Society of Association Executives ' Award for Excellence. [ specify ] More than 10,000 volunteers and dozens of chemical companies donate their time, creativity, materials and funds for NCW each year, and reach many millions of Americans via print, radio, television, and the internet, as well as in person.
National Chemistry Day, first celebrated in 1987 by members of the American Chemical Society (ACS), educators and other individual volunteers, was a vision of the former ACS President Dr. George C. Pimentel. [ 1 ] His goal was for ACS to hold a simultaneous event nationwide to impress on the public the importance of chemistry in everyday life. The first celebration was kicked off with a parade down the streets in Washington, D.C.
In 1989 the celebration was expanded to a biannual full-week event, and in 1993 National Chemistry Week became an annual celebration.
Past and future themes for NCW include: [ 2 ]
Celebrating Chemistry is designed to engage and educate children (Grades 4th - 6th) in the basic principles of chemistry and are available in both English and Spanish. Most editions are aligned with either National Chemistry Week (NCW) or Chemists Celebrate Earth Week (CCEW) and contain articles, experiments, and puzzles based on each year's themes. Below you can also find special Celebrating Chemistry Editions for both NCW and CCEW, which were also inspired by the 2011 International Year of Chemistry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Chemistry_Week |
The National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act ( NCVIA ) of 1986 (42 U.S.C. §§ 300aa-1 to 300aa-34) was signed into law by United States President Ronald Reagan as part of a larger health bill on November 14, 1986. NCVIA's purpose was to eliminate the potential financial liability of vaccine manufacturers due to vaccine injury claims [ 1 ] to ensure a stable market supply of vaccines, and to provide cost-effective arbitration for vaccine injury claims. [ 2 ] Under the NCVIA, the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (NVICP) was created to provide a federal no-fault system for compensating vaccine-related injuries or death by establishing a claim procedure involving the United States Court of Federal Claims and special masters . [ 1 ] [ 3 ]
In the 1970s and 1980s, a controversy erupted related to the question of whether the whole-cell pertussis component of the DPT vaccine caused permanent brain injury known as pertussis vaccine encephalopathy in rare cases. [ 4 ] No studies showed a causal connection, and later studies showed no connection of any type between the DPT vaccine and permanent brain injury. The alleged vaccine-induced brain damage proved to be an unrelated condition, infantile epilepsy . [ 5 ] In 1990, an editorial in the Journal of the American Medical Association by a contractor of the vaccine manufacturers called the connection a "myth" and "nonsense". [ 6 ] [ 7 ] However, before that point, criticism of the studies showing no connection and a few well-publicized anecdotal reports of permanent disability that were blamed on the DPT vaccine gave rise to anti-DPT movements in the 1970s. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] In the United States, low profit margins and an increase in vaccine-related lawsuits led many manufacturers to stop producing the DPT vaccine by the early 1980s. [ 4 ] [ unreliable source? ] By 1985, vaccine manufacturers had difficulty obtaining liability insurance . [ 10 ] The price of the DPT vaccine skyrocketed as a result, leading providers to curtail purchases, thus limiting availability. Only one company was still manufacturing pertussis vaccine in the US by the end of 1985. [ 10 ] Because of this, Congress passed the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (NCVIA) in 1986, establishing a federal no-fault system to compensate victims of injury caused by mandated vaccines. [ 11 ] [ 12 ]
The NCVIA also mandates that all health care providers must report certain adverse events following vaccination to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). [ citation needed ]
The NCVIA also established a committee from the Institute of Medicine (IOM) to review the existing literature on vaccine adverse events occurring after immunization . [ citation needed ]
As a result of the NCVIA, the National Vaccine Program Office (NVPO) was established within the DHHS. The NVPO is responsible for coordinating immunization-related activities between all DHHS agencies, including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA). [ citation needed ]
The NCVIA requires that all health care providers who administer vaccines against diphtheria , tetanus , pertussis , polio , measles , mumps , rubella , hepatitis B , Haemophilus influenzae type b and varicella must provide a Vaccine Information Statement (VIS) to the vaccine recipient, their parent or legal guardian prior to each dose. A VIS must be given with every vaccination, including each dose in a multi-dose series. Each VIS contains a brief description of the disease, as well as the risks and benefits of the vaccine. Each VIS is developed by the CDC and distributed to state and local health departments as well as individual providers. [ citation needed ]
The law is brought up in arguments made by anti-vaccine activists . It has been faulted by those claiming that it has resulted in the end of civil liability for vaccines, [ 13 ] in spite of its creation of the NVICP as an alternative avenue for compensation. The NVICP, with its burden of proof being more lenient than scientific standards of proof, has still resulted in a low award rate . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Childhood_Vaccine_Injury_Act |
The National Collection of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria (NCPPB) is a bacterial culture repository hosted and maintained by Fera Science in York , United Kingdom . It specializes in bacterial plant pathogens and related bacteria. The NCPPB maintains over 3,500 strains and cultures which can be ordered online for use in education and research. The service is funded by the UK Government via the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) [ 1 ] and provides support to the UK Plant Health Service.
The collection began in 1947 when the Lister Institute decided to stop maintaining cultures which were not relevant to human health. These samples were combined with a collection at the Botany School of the University of Cambridge and maintained on behalf of the Agricultural Research Council. When the initial curator and plant pathology pioneer Dr Walter John Dowson [ 2 ] retired in 1956 the collection was moved to the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF), at Harpenden. Also in this year the collection was recognised as being of national importance and was designated a National Collection. Fera Science took responsibility for the collection in 1996 when it was moved to a purpose-built facility near York. [ 3 ]
The NCPPB holds samples of bacterial plant pathogens from all over the world as well as closely related organisms such as bacteriophages. They also receive samples to add to the collection which are new or not currently well represented. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Collection_of_Plant_Pathogenic_Bacteria |
The National Committee of the Chinese Energy and Chemical Workers’ Union is a national industrial union of the All-China Federation of Trade Unions in the People's Republic of China .
This article related to an Asian trade union is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Committee_of_the_Chinese_Energy_and_Chemical_Workers'_Union |
National Computer Camps are computer camps for children and teens founded in 1977 by Dr. Michael Zabinski. There are locations at Fairfield University in Fairfield, Connecticut , where Dr. Zabinski is a professor of physics and engineering; [ 1 ] Oglethorpe University in Atlanta, Georgia ; and Baldwin Wallace University in Cleveland, Ohio .
The focus of NCC is 2D and 3D video game design , computer programming , digital video production, web page design , A+ and Network+ certification, Android App programming, and software applications including animation, Flash and Photoshop. An optional sports program is also available. Each week, all levels of programming are offered in Basic , C++ , Java , assembler , HTML , XML , and JavaScript . Campers may attend one or multi-week sessions.
NCC was the first summer camp for children founded with a primary focus on computing . [ 2 ]
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This article relating to education in the United States is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Computer_Camps |
The National Electrical Safety Code ( NESC ) or ANSI Standard C2 is a United States standard of the safe installation, operation, and maintenance of electric power and communication utility systems including power substations, power and communication overhead lines, and power and communication underground lines. It is published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). "National Electrical Safety Code" and "NESC" are registered trademarks of the IEEE.
The NESC should not be confused with the National Electrical Code (NEC), which is published by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and intended to be used for residential, commercial, and industrial building wiring.
The NESC is written as a voluntary standard. It is typically adopted as law by individual states or other governmental authorities. To determine the legal status of the NESC, the state public service commission, public utility commission, or other governmental authority should be contacted. Most U.S. states adopt the NESC in some form or fashion. The state of California is an exception and writes its own utility codes, titled General Order 95 (GO95) for overhead lines and General Order 128 (GO128) for underground lines.
The NESC is written by various sub committees. The organizations represented, subcommittees, and committee members are listed in the front of the code book. The NESC contains the procedure and time schedule for revising the NESC, which are described in the back of the code book. The NESC has an interpretation committee that issues formal interpretations. The process for obtaining a formal interpretation is outlined in the front of the code book. The NESC is currently published on a 5-year cycle. Urgent safety matters that require a change in between code editions are handled through a Tentative Interim Amendment (TIA) process. Original work on the NESC began in 1913.
The NESC is structured into parts, sections, and rules. There are general sections at the beginning of the book covering the introduction, definitions, references, and grounding. Following the general section are four main parts including: substations rules (Part 1), overhead line rules (Part 2), underground line rules (Part 3), and work rules (Part 4). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Electrical_Safety_Code |
The National Emergency Alarm Repeater (NEAR) was a civilian emergency warning device in the United States. It was a 2–3" (5–7.5 cm) square box designed to plug into a standard power outlet to receive a special signal sent over the electric power transmission lines. Research and testing for the NEAR program was developed in 1956 during the Cold War to supplement the existing siren warning systems and radio broadcasts in the event of a nuclear attack. The advent of the radio Emergency Broadcast System rendered NEAR obsolete, although a severe disadvantage inherent in the Emergency Broadcast System was that it required a television or radio to be turned on for a household to receive the emergency alarm, whereas NEAR did not. Despite this advantage, upon the introduction of the Emergency Broadcast System, stockpiled NEAR repeaters were destroyed by their respective manufacturers. [ 1 ]
A similar program was proposed in the United Kingdom during the 1960s. [ citation needed ]
A Time magazine article in the 14 November 1960 issue [ 2 ] outlined a new program supplementing the then "basically unsound" warning system consisting of localized sirens and the CONELRAD radio-alert system.
The United States Army argued that in the age of intercontinental ballistic missiles a civil-defense warning system should be capable of warning 90% of the population within 30 seconds after a signal is given by the national civil-defense center in Colorado Springs .
The device is a buzzer installed into ordinary electrical outlets. The devices would be set off in an emergency by altering the regular AC signal being generated and transmitted by the local power companies. This would be done by having a specific alternating current of a specific frequency superimposed upon it; the imposed current would be generated by special generators and would be at 270 Hz at 3 volts RMS for 50,000 cycles ( U.S. patent 3,284,791 ), [ 3 ] approximately three minutes.
The indoor buzzers would be supplemented with outdoor warning sirens. [ 2 ]
An episode of the PBS television program History Detectives [ 1 ] suggested that
problems with NEAR might have included limited instructions on what to do when an alert was received and the device's inability to provide information on what exactly was happening. EMP effects of a high-altitude nuclear detonation could have disabled the system. After a decade of federal support for testing and development, the program was terminated. [ 1 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emergency_Alarm_Repeater |
The National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants ( NESHAP ) are air pollution standards issued by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The standards, authorized by the Clean Air Act , are for pollutants not covered by the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) that may cause an increase in fatalities or in serious, irreversible, or incapacitating illness. [ 1 ]
The standards for a particular source category require the maximum degree of emission reduction that the EPA determines to be achievable, which is known as the Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) standards. [ 2 ] These standards are authorized by Section 112 of the 1970 Clean Air Act and the regulations are published in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). [ 3 ]
EPA regulates the following hazardous air pollutants with the MACT standards.
For all listings above which contain the word "compounds" and for glycol ethers, the following applies: Unless otherwise specified, these listings are defined as including any unique chemical substance that contains the named chemical (i.e., antimony, arsenic, etc.) as part of that chemical's infrastructure.
Most air toxics originate from human-made sources, including mobile sources (e.g., cars, trucks, buses) and stationary sources (e.g., factories, oil refineries , power plants ), as well as indoor sources (e.g., building materials and activities such as cleaning). There are two types of stationary sources that generate routine emissions of air toxics:
EPA published its initial list of source categories in 1992. [ 5 ] Subsequently the agency issued several revisions and updates to the list and the regulatory promulgation schedule. For each listed source category, EPA indicates whether the sources are considered to be major sources or area sources. The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments direct EPA to set standards for all major sources of air toxics, and for some area sources that are of particular concern. EPA is required to review all source category regulations every eight years. [ 6 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Emissions_Standards_for_Hazardous_Air_Pollutants |
The National Energy Commission ( NEC ; Chinese : 国家能源委员会 ; pinyin : Guójiā Néngyuán Wěiyuánhuì ) is an interdepartmental coordinating agency of the State Council that coordinates the overall energy policies for the People's Republic of China . The body includes 23 members from other agencies such as environment, finance, central bank, National Development and Reform Commission . [ 1 ]
The purpose of this new commission is to draft a new energy development strategy, evaluate energy security and coordinate international cooperation on climate change, carbon reduction and energy efficiency . [ 1 ]
China had a Ministry of Energy established in 1988 but it was disbanded five years after its portfolio overlapped with existing ministries. [ 2 ]
In 2003, National Energy Bureau was created under the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) which reports to the Chinese State Council , which has broad administrative and planning control over energy in the Chinese economy . [ 3 ]
In 2008, National Energy Administration (NEA) was established but lacked power to carry out its tasks because the energy sector management was spread between various agencies. [ 2 ]
China has experienced power outages, concerns of growing imported energy demands, energy security and challenges coordinating energy supply and demand. [ citation needed ]
The NEC was established in 2010 to elevate the role of energy policy and security in Chinese policymaking. [ 4 ]
The NEC is the top State Council agency responsible for China's energy policy. [ 4 ] It is responsible for energy decision-making, formulating development strategies related to energy, and coordinating domestic energy development as well as international cooperation on energy. The General Office of the NEC is located in the National Development and Reform Commission , with the NDRC chairman usually serving as the NEC Office director. [ 4 ]
The NEC is usually chaired by the premier , with the first-ranking vice premier serving as its vice chairman. [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Energy_Commission |
The National Engineering Forum (NEF) is an American movement based on the idea that the U.S. engineering enterprise fuels national security and economic prosperity , but that the nation’s engineers face a series of challenges threatening their profession’s sustainability. The movement is aimed at finding solutions to those challenges, identified by NEF as the 3C’s - capacity, capability and competitiveness:
Currently, NEF spotlights American engineers and the 3C’s via its newsletter and website , and acclaims engineering advancements on Twitter .
In 2012, Lockheed Martin launched the National Engineering Forum, and then engaged the Council on Competitiveness and the National Academy of Engineering , which share a common vision for transforming the way we perceive, experience, and prioritize engineering in this country. NEF's initial focus included a five-year regional dialogue tour of key engineering hubs throughout the nation, including: New York ; Knoxville, Tennessee ; Albuquerque, New Mexico ; Los Angeles ; Columbus, Ohio ; Houston ; San Diego ; Seattle ; Detroit ; Raleigh-Durham , North Carolina ; Pittsburgh ; Chicago ; Boston ; Atlanta ; Phoenix ; Madison, Wisconsin ; Orlando, Florida ; Stillwater, Oklahoma and Greenville, South Carolina .
In addition to sharing engineering news and features in its regular newsletter, in 2014 NEF released a report entitled Engineering our Nation's Future . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Engineering_Forum |
The National Engineering Laboratory ( NEL ) was originally one of several large government-funded public research laboratories in the UK, staffed by scientists and engineers of the Scientific Civil Service . Other such laboratories include the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), the Laboratory of the Government Chemist (LGC), the Building Research Establishment (BRE) and the Transport Research Establishment (TRL). NEL was established in 1948 at Thorntonhall under the name Mechanical Engineering Research Laboratory ( MERL ), in the village of the same name near East Kilbride , Glasgow, Scotland.
The location was partly dictated by politics, since it was realised that Scotland did not have a UK public research establishment (in contrast to its defence establishments ). There was also debate on whether the new laboratory would be an outpost of the prestigious NPL (which now has its main base in Teddington, just west of London), or have a separate identity. Eventually the latter course was taken with the new laboratory focussing on mechanical engineering research, complementing the work of the then CEGB laboratories in electrical engineering when the name was changed to NEL.
As NEL expanded, it moved to a large, purpose-built site in East Kilbride itself. Under the control of the Director, it was then part of the DTI . The 'lab' was organised into a number of subject-based divisions, including Creep Division, an important part of the UK effort to catalogue wear characteristics of materials, a Control Systems Division, Manufacturing Services Division, Fluid Power Division and Design Analysis Division. The last of these was in the forefront in the use of the emerging technology of Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Indeed, the growing need for quality-assurance in FEA led to the foundation of the National Agency for Finite Element Methods and Standards , now operating simply as NAFEMS .
Each building at NEL was named after a prominent engineer whose field was related to the focus of that division, so there was Maudsley Building, named after Henry Maudslay , famous for his invention of the slide-rest lathe amongst many other achievements, Bramah Building so called after Joseph Bramah owing to his contribution to hydraulic engineering, Rankine Building named after William John Macquorn Rankine which specialised in thermodynamics , Whitworth Building named after Joseph Whitworth immortalised after his work to unify standards for screw threads, one of the key stepping stones that paved the way for mass production.
The policy of the Thatcher Government was originally for the full privatisation of all of the government laboratories and the dismantling of NEL was undertaken by Lord Young . In practice, re-organisation has in some cases stopped short of a straight sale of these internationally important facilities, but NEL became part of the German-owned TÜV SÜD group in 1995. Along with the other national laboratories, some of which are still owned or controlled by the UK government, NEL now has a mixed portfolio of work from both government and private sectors. NEL holds the national standard for flow measurement, one of the most important roles it undertakes as part of the overall UK government science strategy. This is now in the remit of the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills , working in part through the new National Measurement Office , which is itself an Executive Agency created in April 2009.
NEL operated an indentured apprentice training scheme and offered a wide range of skills for young engineers before being privatised ranging between light machining, heavy machining, fitting, electro-discharge-machining, jig and horizontal boring and in later years CNC machining, programming and introductions to FMS ( flexible manufacturing system ) and CAD/CAM facilities running KCurve on DEC/VAX mini computers. This work commenced around 1982-6 using raster scan, (green) monitors to visualise the programming, each known as workstations, (since the 'intelligence' was built into the desk, not the monitor) and the CAD CAM programs were still printed out on punched paper to be transferred in some cases into onboard RAM and in others read and implemented sequentially. Machines in use in the CAD / CAM department were Matchmaker 7000M vertical mill, Norton Variant with Fanuc control, Cincinnati horizontal mill that had (then) been recently retrofitted with Gould drives.
Work scheduling was carried out (innovatively for the time) using Work Analysis & Scheduling Program: W.A.S.P . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Engineering_Laboratory |
Founded in 1971 and headquartered in Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA; the National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB) is an international association certifying firms and qualifying supervisors and technicians in the following disciplines: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing (TAB) of HVAC systems; Building Systems Commissioning (BSC); Sound and Vibration Measurement (S&V); Retro-commissioning (RCX); Fumehood Testing (FHT); and Cleanroom Performance Testing (CPT). NEBB also establishes and maintains industry standards, procedures, and work specifications for these disciplines. [ 1 ]
In November 2023, NEBB announced the hiring of Luis Chinchilla as the president of the organization. Being Costa Rican , he is the first Latin American NEBB president. [ 2 ]
Discipline committees, consisting of highly experienced field professionals, set guidelines and standards for NEBB disciplines. As of January 2007, NEBB has the following discipline committees: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing; Building Systems Commissioning; Sound and Vibration Measurement; Fumehood Testing; and Cleanroom Performance Testing.
NEBB's FHT and RCX programs were established at a NEBB Board of Directors' meeting held at NEBB's 2006 Annual Meeting and Educational Conference in Palm Springs, California on November 9–11, 2006. NEBB's FHT Committee is working to produce a FHT procedural standards text and plans to offer a seminar in FHT in Fall 2007. NEBB's BSC Committee is producing a seminar in RCX to be offered in Fall 2007.
In addition to being affiliated with a local NEBB chapter, NEBB firms are required to have been in business for at least 12 months and enjoy a reputation of integrity and responsible performance. They also must possess sophisticated instruments required for their discipline, which must be calibrated in accordance with NEBB guidelines. In addition, the firm must employ at least one supervisor—who meets NEBB qualifications—to represent the firm and be responsible for the firm's work. Finally, NEBB firms are required to possess a copy of the NEBB procedural standards for their discipline. [ 3 ]
NEBB publishes home study courses, technical manuals, and training materials for industry use. Below is a list of current NEBB publications:
In addition to its publications, NEBB offers educational seminars at NEBB TEC—NEBB's training and educational facility located in Tempe, Arizona—to enhance the educational experience of each discipline.
Each November, NEBB hosts its Annual Meeting and Educational Conference. The meeting features technical sessions and prominent guest speakers to enhance the professional capabilities of NEBB contractors and staff members. Educational sessions at the meeting feature presentations by industry experts on various topics related to the NEBB disciplines. Past invited guest speakers have included the presidents of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers ( ASHRAE ) and Mechanical Contractors Association of America (MCAA).
NEBB TEC (Training and Educational Center) is a multi-purpose facility used for seminars and practical exams. Managed by NEBB's technical director, the facility has two cleanrooms, a seminar classroom, and a TAB practical exam room complete with an air handler and pumps. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Environmental_Balancing_Bureau |
The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute ( NEERI ) in Nagpur was originally established in 1958 as the Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute ( CPHERI ). [ 1 ] It has been described as the "premier and oldest institute in India ." [ 2 ] It is an institution listed on the Integrated Government Online Directory. [ 3 ] It operates under the aegis of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), based in New Delhi . Indira Gandhi , the Prime Minister of India at the time, renamed the Institute NEERI in 1974.
The Institute primarily focused on human health issues related to water supply , sewage disposal , diseases, and industrial pollution.
NEERI operates as a laboratory in the field of environmental science and engineering and is one of the constituent laboratories of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). The institute has six zonal laboratories located in Chennai , Delhi , Hyderabad , Kolkata , Nagpur, and Mumbai . NEERI operates under the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Indian government. [ 4 ] NEERI is a partner organization of India's POP National Implementation Plan (NIP). [ 5 ]
In 1958, the Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute (CPHERI) was established. It was created by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). In 1974, after participating in the "United Nations Inter-Governmental Conference on Human Environment" and with its renaming by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, CPHERI became the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI). NEERI has headquarters in Nagpur and five zonal laboratories in Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, and Hyderabad. [ 6 ]
The study for the location of a new municipal solid waste landfill site in Kolkata used the institute's 2005 guidelines. [ 7 ]
During the COVID-19 crisis, the institute developed a saline gargling sample method to trace the disease. [ 8 ]
Since 1978, the institute has operated a nationwide air quality monitoring network. Sponsored by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) since 1990. Receptor modelling techniques are used. CSIR-NEERI is involved in the design and development of air pollution control systems. [ 9 ]
The institute has also developed a water purification system called 'NEERI ZAR'. [ citation needed ] In the 1960s and 1970s, the institute developed guidelines for Defluorination techniques. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] They have sometimes formed a departure point for the development of other techniques. [ 12 ] The Institute tests samples for research on Defluorination [ 13 ] and the measurement of particulate matter in air. [ 14 ]
The institute has been entrusted by the courts to provide an inspection of the current environmental and legal framework. [ 15 ]
The institute has set up a Centre for Skill Development, offering certificate courses in the areas of environmental impact and water quality assessment. Prof. V. Rajagopalan (1993 Vice President of the World Bank ) had in his time (1955–65) with the Institute created a national program for water industry professionals. Graduate programmers were established in Public Health Engineering at the Guindy Engineering College , Madras , Roorkee Engineering University, and VJTI in Mumbai. [ 16 ]
In 1989–2013, 1,236 publications of the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute were assessed. [ 17 ] The institute technique for enrichment of ilmenite with titanium dioxide has been evaluated externally. [ 18 ]
The institute has national and international patents for a method to manufacture zeolite-A using flash instead of sodium silicate and aluminate. [ 19 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Environmental_Engineering_Research_Institute |
The National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing ( PNT ) is a United States Government organization which advises and coordinates federal departments and agencies on matters concerning the Global Positioning System , space navigation, navigational references, and related systems.
It was established by Presidential Directive in 2004 and supersedes the Interagency GPS Executive Board .
The PNT is chaired jointly by the Deputy Secretaries of Defense and Transportation .
This United States government–related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Executive_Committee_for_Space-Based_Positioning,_Navigation_and_Timing |
The National Federation of Cement Workers' Unions of Japan ( Japanese : 全国セメント労働組合連合会 , Zenkoku Semento) was a trade union representing workers involved in manufacturing cement in Japan.
The union was founded in 1947, [ 1 ] and was later a founding affiliate of the Federation of Independent Unions (Churitsuroren). By 1967, it had 26,855 members. [ 2 ] In the late 1980s, it affiliated to the Japanese Trade Union Confederation , but by 1996 it had only 7,263 members remaining. [ 3 ] In 2002, it merged with the Japanese Federation of Chemistry Workers' Unions , the National Organization of All Chemical Workers and the Japan Confederation of Petroleum Industry Workers' Unions , to form the Japan Federation of Energy and Chemistry Workers' Unions . [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Federation_of_Cement_Workers'_Unions_of_Japan |
The National Federation of Chemical Industries ( French : Fédération nationale des industries chimiques , FNIC) is a trade union representing workers in the chemical industry in France.
The union was founded in 1907 as the Oil and Gas Workers' Federation , as an affiliate of the General Confederation of Labour (CGT). In 1909, it was renamed as the Federation of Chemical Products . In 1921, it suffered a major split, with left-wingers forming the United Federation of Chemical Industries, but they rejoined in 1935, with their general secretary, Eduoard Finck, becoming secretary of the merged union. [ 1 ] This took membership from 4,000 to a claimed 190,000, and although the union was banned during World War II , it reformed after the war and had 160,000 members in 1946. [ 2 ]
By 1994, the union's membership had fallen 22,156. [ 3 ] It has since stabilised, and was 24,814 in 2019. [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Federation_of_Chemical_Industries |
The National Federation of Chemicals ( Spanish : Federación Estatal de Quimicas ) was a trade union representing workers in various manufacturing industries in Spain.
The union was founded in 1977, and affiliated to the Workers' Commissions . [ 1 ] In 1981, workers in the glass and ceramics industries transferred over from the National Federation of Construction. [ 2 ] By the end of the year, it had 19,913 members, and by 1993, its membership had grown to 30,254. That year, it merged with the National Federation of Textiles and Leather , to form the Federation of Textile, Leather, Chemical and Allied Industries . [ 3 ]
This article related to one or more trade or labor unions is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Federation_of_Chemicals |
The National Federation of Demolition Contractors Ltd is a UK trade association representing businesses involved in demolition work, and is headquartered in Hemel Hempstead , Hertfordshire . [ 1 ] It describes itself as the Voice of the Global Demolition Industry . [ 2 ]
It arose from an informal group of demolition contractors assembled during World War II to deal with damaged buildings during The Blitz , then, in 1946, was incorporated as The National Federation of Demolition Contractors Ltd. [ 3 ] [ 2 ]
In June 2022, a Competition and Markets Authority investigation revealed ten demolition contractors (including Erith, John F Hunt, Keltbray, McGee, Scudder and Squibb) had engaged in illegal rigging of 19 bids worth more than £150m over a five-and-a-half-year period. The NFDC said: "We have a clear code of conduct, which all members sign up to, that is designed to ensure the highest standards of industry practice," [ 4 ] but in July 2022, the NFDC announced plans to restore trust, requiring members to sign regular anti-collusion declarations. [ 5 ] In July 2023, the ten firms were fined a total of £59.3m for their involvement in "illegal cartel agreements". [ 6 ] Keltbray appealed unsuccessfully against its penalty and was fined £18 million. [ 7 ]
This article about a business, industry, or trade-related organization is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Federation_of_Demolition_Contractors |
The British National GPS Network , known as OS Net, is a network of global navigation satellite system GNSS base stations covering Great Britain . [ 1 ] It is managed by Ordnance Survey .
It provides access to a stable, national coordinate reference system (through downloaded GNSS data) that allows highly accurate location to be determined using suitable equipment, and is used in surveying, construction and precision agriculture industries, among other uses. The use of ground-based stations makes this system more accurate than satellite based GPS systems. [ 2 ]
Using a single receiver, without any additional corrections, a civilian user can achieve a positional accuracy equal to 5 m – 10 m 95% of the time, and a height accuracy of 15 m – 20 m 95% of the time. Combined with data or corrections from a service such as OS Net, a positional accuracy of 1 – 2 cm is achievable, depending on the equipment used and environmental factors. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
This United Kingdom -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_GPS_Network |
The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ( NHANES ) is a survey research program conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) to assess the health and nutritional status of adults and children in the United States , and to track changes over time. [ 1 ] The survey combines interviews , physical examinations and laboratory tests. [ citation needed ]
The NHANES interview includes demographic , socioeconomic , dietary , and health-related questions. The examination component consists of medical, dental , and physiological measurements, as well as laboratory tests administered by medical personnel. [ citation needed ]
The National Health Survey Act was passed in 1956. This allowed legislative authorization to provide current statistical data on the amount, distribution, and effects on illness and disability in the United States. [ 2 ]
The first three national health examination surveys were conducted in the 1960s:
The first NHANES was conducted in 1971, and in 1999 the surveys became an annual event; the first report on the topic was published in 2001. [ 3 ]
NHANES findings are used to determine the prevalence of major diseases and risk factors for diseases. Information is used to assess nutritional status and its association with health promotion and disease prevention . NHANES findings are also the basis for national standards for such measurements as height , weight , and blood pressure . NHANES data are used in epidemiological studies and health sciences research (including biomarkers of aging ), which help develop sound public health policy , direct and design health programs and services, expand health knowledge, extend healthspan and lifespan .
Follow-up studies using NHANES data were made possible by creating linked mortality files and files based on Medicare and Medicaid data. [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_and_Nutrition_Examination_Survey |
The National Historic Chemical Landmarks program was launched by the American Chemical Society in 1992 to recognize significant achievements in the history of chemistry and related professions. [ 1 ] The program celebrates the centrality of chemistry . The designation of such generative achievements in the history of chemistry demonstrates how chemists have benefited society by fulfilling the ACS vision: Improving people's lives through the transforming power of chemistry.
The program occasionally designates International Historic Chemical Landmarks to commemorate "chemists and chemistry from around the world that have had a major impact in the United States". [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Historic_Chemical_Landmarks |
The National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) was a unit of the United States federal government charged with protecting computer systems and information systems critical to the United States' infrastructure . [ 1 ] It was founded in 1998 by President Bill Clinton 's Presidential Decision Directive 63. [ 2 ] It was originally created as a branch of the FBI . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
In 2003, the NIPC was transferred to the Department of Homeland Security . [ 1 ] [ clarification needed ] The NIPC was eventually (2002) disbanded, with other federal government organizations taking on its responsibilities. [ 6 ] [Homeland Security Act (P.L. 107-296)]
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This United States government–related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Infrastructure_Protection_Center |
The National Institute for Biological Standards and Control ( NIBSC ) is a government agency that works in the field of biological standardisation and is part of the United Kingdom's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) . It is responsible for developing and producing over 90% of the biological international standards in use around the world. [ citation needed ]
The Institute is the UK's Official Medicines Control Laboratory , responsible for independent regulatory testing of biological medicines within the framework of the European Union. [ 1 ] It is also host to the UK's stem cell bank and is a key research centre in the field of pandemic influenza .
The NIBSC began work in May 1972. The National Biological Standards Board was formed in 1975 at the NIMR in Mill Hill . A site was selected and the new £25m building opened in 1987, although it was officially opened in 1988. It has 4,500 square metres of laboratories. NIBSC employs around 300 staff, 200 of whom are scientists. [ citation needed ]
In February 2008, it featured in a thirty-minute programme on BBC Radio 4 in the Secret Science two-part series (the other programme was about the Health Protection Agency 's Centre for Emergency Preparedness and Response at Porton Down ). [ 2 ]
In April 2009, NIBSC became a centre of the UK Health Protection Agency . In April 2013, NIBSC left that agency and was merged with the UK's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) . [ 3 ]
It produces over 90% of the WHO 's International Standards for substances such as antibiotics, enzymes, antibodies and hormones, and methods such as blood transfusions . These standards form a vital part of global health efforts and pharmaceutical research, and over 10,000 standards a month are shipped worldwide. [ citation needed ]
It is the UK's Official Medicines Control Laboratory. [ citation needed ]
New buildings for the UK Stem Cell Bank (which has been on the site since May 2004 [ 4 ] and was Europe's first stem cell bank) and Influenza Resource Centre were built on the site in a £12m development by Morgan Ashurst and opened in December 2009. [ citation needed ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Biological_Standards_and_Control |
The National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis is a research institute focused on the science of mathematics and biology , located on the University of Tennessee , Knoxville, campus. Known by its acronym NIMBioS (pronounced NIM-bus), the Institute is a National Science Foundation (NSF) Synthesis Center supported through NSF's Biological Sciences Directorate via a Cooperative Agreement with UT-Knoxville, totaling more than $35 million over ten years.
The Institute opened in September 2008, with additional support from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the U.S. Department of Agriculture . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
Since March 2009 when NIMBioS programs officially began, more than 5,000+ individuals from more than 50 countries and every U.S. state have participated in various research and educational activities. [ citation needed ]
Primary goals of NIMBios are: [ citation needed ]
To achieve its goals, NIMBioS advances a wide variety of research and outreach/education activities designed to facilitate interaction between mathematicians and biologists to arrive at innovative solutions to environmental problems. Two primary mechanisms for research are Working Groups and Investigative Workshops. Working Groups are composed of 10-15 invited participants focusing on specific questions related to mathematical biology. Each group typically meets at the Institute two to three times over the course of two years. Investigative workshops may include 30-40 participants with some invited by organizers and others accepted through an open application process. Workshops are more general in focus and may lead to working group formation. NIMBioS also provides support for post-doctoral and sabbatical fellows, short-term visitors, graduate research assistants, and faculty collaborators at UT.
One area of particular emphasis at NIMBioS has been modeling animal infectious diseases, such as white-nose syndrome in bats, pseudo-rabies virus in feral swine, Toxoplasma gondii in cats, and malaria from mosquitoes. As a leading international center for animal infectious disease modeling, NIMBioS has contributed significantly to global needs in analyzing the potential spread, impact and control of diseases that can move from animals to humans, such as West Nile virus , anthrax , swine flu and mad cow disease. [ 3 ] NIMBioS also collaborates with the Great Smoky Mountains National Park to develop methods of particular interest for natural area management that are transferable to numerous U.S. locations. [ citation needed ]
NIMBioS encourages multidisciplinary participation in all its activities. Participants at NIMBioS have included behavioral biologists, ecologists, evolutionary biologists, computational scientists, anthropologists , geneticists , psychologists , bioinformaticians, mathematicians, statisticians, veterinarians , epidemiologists , and wildlife biologists.
NIMBioS has an active Education and Outreach program geared toward learners of all ages, from elementary school students through college and graduate school and the general public. NIMBioS organizes a Summer Research Experience for Undergraduates and Teachers program for eight weeks each summer. Participants live on campus and conduct research in teams with UT professors, NIMBioS researchers, and collaborators on projects at the interface of math and biology. NIMBioS also hosts the annual Undergraduate Research Conference at the Interface of Biology and Mathematics each fall, featuring student talks and posters as well as panel discussions. Programs for graduate students include the Visiting Graduate Student Fellowship offering training and research visits for up to several months by graduate students interested in pursuing research with NIMBioS senior personnel, postdoctoral fellows or working group participants.
NIMBioS provides varying levels of tutorial workshops designed to enlighten biologists about key quantitative methods, such as optimal control and optimization or high performance computing methods for analyzing biological problems involving large data sets, spatial information, and dynamics.
NIMBioS’ director is Nina H. Fefferman , Professor of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology and Mathematics at the UT. Louis J. Gross , Professor of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology and Mathematics at the UT served as the previous Director. NIMBioS leadership team also includes associate directors and a deputy director. NIMBioS has an external Board of Advisors from academic institutions from around the world. In addition, NIMBioS has a group of senior personnel consisting of UT faculty and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) scientists, as well as a group of additional associated faculty and staff collaborators from UT and ORNL.
The need for the Institute arose out of the significant growth of the field of mathematical biology over the last decade with research becoming more closely linked to observation and experiment. Rather than starting from mathematical abstractions, it is now common for researchers to:
Across the spectrum of the life sciences in which mathematics has been contributing new insights, data are increasingly used to focus conceptual models as the first step in problem formulation.
The NIMBioS website includes descriptions of working groups, investigative workshops, post-doctoral fellowships, sabbaticals, short-term visits, graduate assistantships, and faculty positions and information on how to submit requests for support. The web site also describes education and outreach opportunities for undergraduates, teachers, and K-12 students. The web site also has an extensive video library including interviews with visiting scientists, full-length seminars tutorials, and workshops, and short narrative science features.
From 2010 to 2012, NIMBioS, in conjunction with the UT's James R. Cox Endowment Fund, sponsored a Songwriter-in-Residence Program to encourage the creation and production of songs involving ideas of modern biology and the lives of scientists who pursue research in biology. A total of five songwriters were supported. Each songwriter created and produced a minimum of two songs as a result of his or her four-week residency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Mathematical_and_Biological_Synthesis |
The National Interagency Confederation for Biological Research ( NICBR , pronounced "Nick Burr") is a biotechnology and biodefense partnership and collaborative environment of eight U.S. Federal government agencies through the National Interagency Biodefense Campus (NIBC) at Fort Detrick , Maryland , US. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] NICBR was created in the wake of the September 11 attacks and the 2001 anthrax attacks as a way to bring a whole-of-government approach to addressing bioterrorism threats. [ 2 ] Before this, countering biological weapons fell to the Department of Defense (DoD) and focused on protection of troops in the field. [ 2 ]
Four federal cabinet level departments are represented in the NICBR across eight agencies: [ 3 ]
Some NICBR laboratories are physically consolidated on the National Interagency Biodefense Campus (NIBC) which includes all NICBR partners except NCI, which maintains its own campus on the Rosemont Avenue side of Fort Detrick. The Fort Detrick Interagency Coordinating Committee (FDICC) is the central hub of the NICBR governance structure, which is chaired by the Fort Detrick U.S. Army garrison commander. It is composed of all NICBR partner representatives.
The FDICC meets twice a month and reports to the Executive Steering Committee (ESC), which is chaired by the commander, U. S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command and is composed of equivalents across the partner agencies. The ESC reports to the NICBR Board of Directors (BOD), consisting of the chair, currently Army Surgeon General, and her equivalents across the partnership. Collectively, the NICBR governance bodies provide strategic direction and oversight. [ citation needed ]
Reporting to the FDICC are seven subcommittees and three working groups:
The NICBR Partnership Office (NPO) provides a staffing function and coordinating center for and under the direction of the FDICC. The NPO works closely with the subcommittees and working groups to facilitate execution of their individual charters and action items handed down by the governance bodies.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain : https://web.archive.org/web/20170114202529/https://www.detrick.army.mil/standard/entry.cfm?entry_id=ABA5D9E5-AEC8-4369-7E9CD208A1067C96 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Interagency_Confederation_for_Biological_Research |
The National Law Enforcement System , better known as the Wanganui Computer , was a database set up in 1976 by the State Services Commission in Wanganui, New Zealand . It held information which could be accessed by New Zealand Police , Land Transport Safety Authority and the justice department.
The Wanganui computer was a Sperry mainframe computer built to hold records such as criminal convictions and car and gun licences. At the time it was deemed ground-breaking, with Minister of Police , Allan McCready , describing it as "probably the most significant crime-fighting weapon ever brought to bear against lawlessness in this country". [ 1 ]
Seen by many as a Big Brother initiative, the database was controversial, attracting numerous protests from libertarians with concerns over privacy. The most notable event was in 1982, when self-described anarchist punk Neil Roberts , aged 22, detonated a home-made gelignite bomb upon his person at the gates of the centre, making him New Zealand's highest-profile suicide bomber . [ 2 ] The blast was large enough to be heard around Wanganui, and Roberts was killed instantly, being later identified by his unique chest tattoo bearing the words "This punk won't see 23. No future." [ 2 ]
The centre survived this and other protests until the 1990s when the operation was transferred to Auckland , although this new system has retained its Wanganui moniker. [ 1 ] The original database, having lasted 30 years and growing increasingly outdated, was finally shut down in June 2005, with the responsibility being successfully handed over to Auckland at the National Intelligence Application (also known as NIA). [ 2 ]
The building, known as 'Wairere House' was later occupied by the National Library of New Zealand and contained newspaper archives. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Law_Enforcement_System |
The National Library Symbol is a pictogram indicating the location of a library . It features a white silhouette of a book and a reader on a blue background (originally specified Pantone PMS #285). [ 1 ] It was adopted by the American Library Association in 1982 to raise awareness of services provided by libraries and to convey a more "modern" image. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
The 1979 White House Conference on Library and Information Services recommended the adoption of a national library symbol to increase public awareness of libraries. In 1981, American Library Association President Elizabeth W. Stone established a task force, headed by Dorothy Pollet Gray of the Library Congress, to select a symbol. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] After examining international examples of library symbols, the task force selected a symbol designed by Ralph E. DeVore for the Western Maryland Public Libraries in 1978. [ 4 ] [ 6 ] It first appeared officially in the 1982 American Library Association publication A Sign System for Libraries , which was the result of a project by Mary S. Mallery and Ralph E. DeVore to develop a standardized system of signs, color codes, and terminology for the Western Maryland Public Libraries. [ 7 ]
At the 1982 American Library Association Annual Conference in Philadelphia, the symbol was officially endorsed for nationwide use. As criteria in its decision, the task force noted its clean and simple design, evoking that of existing international symbols, and its potential to accommodate future adaptations and modifications. [ 3 ] The symbol was widely promoted during National Library Week, held April 17–23, 1983. [ 8 ]
In March 1985, the Federal Highway Administration adopted the symbol for use in the 4th edition of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (sign designation I4-1 in the 11th edition). [ 1 ] [ 9 ]
In 2009, the American Library Association released an updated version of the National Library Symbol to accompany their "Libraries Connect Communities 3: Public Library Funding & Technology Access Study." The symbol was designed by Illinois graphic designed Brian Benson. It was not intended as an official replacement of the original symbol. [ 10 ]
In 2017, Rebecca McCorkindale released a series of images based on the National Library Symbol with the phrase "Libraries Are For Everyone". She created them in collaboration with Julie Syler and Ashley Jones from the Saline County Library in Benton, Arkansas, and released them in the public domain. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] She has released versions in over 100 languages. LAFE signs have been adopted as interior decorations in many libraries throughout the United States. [ 13 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Library_Symbol |
The National Medal of Science is an honor bestowed by the President of the United States to individuals in science and engineering who have made important contributions to the advancement of knowledge in the fields of behavioral and social sciences , biology , chemistry , engineering , mathematics and physics . The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation (NSF). It is the highest science award in the United States . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]
The National Medal of Science was established on August 25, 1959, by an act of the Congress of the United States under Pub. L. 86–209 . The medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the "physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences". The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23, 1961, by executive order 10961 of President John F. Kennedy . [ 3 ]
On January 7, 1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. [ 4 ] In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7, 1979, expanding the medal to include these scientific disciplines as well. President Jimmy Carter 's signature enacted this change as Public Law 96-516 on December 12, 1980.
In 1992, the National Science Foundation signed a letter of agreement with the National Science and Technology Medals Foundation that made the National Science and Technology Medals Foundation the metaorganization over both the National Medal of Science and the very similar National Medal of Technology .
The first National Medal of Science was awarded on February 18, 1963, for the year 1962 by President John F. Kennedy to Theodore von Kármán for his work at the Caltech Jet Propulsion Laboratory . The citation accompanying von Kármán's award reads:
For his leadership in the science and engineering basic to aeronautics; for his effective teaching and related contributions in many fields of mechanics, for his distinguished counsel to the Armed Services, and for his promoting international cooperation in science and engineering. [ 5 ]
The first woman to receive a National Medal of Science was Barbara McClintock , who was awarded for her work on plant genetics in 1970. [ 6 ]
The awards ceremony is organized by the Office of Science and Technology Policy. It takes place at the White House and is presided by the sitting United States president .
Although Public Law 86-209 provides for 20 recipients of the medal per year, it is typical for approximately 8–15 accomplished scientists and engineers to receive this distinction each year. There have been a number of years where no National Medals of Science were awarded. Those years include: 1985, 1984, 1980, 1978, 1977, 1972 and 1971.
President Donald J. Trump did not confer any National Medals of Science during his presidency. The last time the medal was awarded before his presidency was on May 19, 2016, when President Barack Obama conferred the 2013 and 2014 medals. [ 7 ] On October 23, 2023, President Joe Biden presented nine Medals of Science and 12 National Medals of Technology and Innovation [ 8 ] in a ceremony in the East Room of the White House .
Each year the National Science Foundation sends out a call to the scientific community for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Science. Individuals are nominated by their peers with each nomination requiring three letters of support from individuals in science and technology. Nominations are then sent to the Committee of the National Medal of Science which is a board composed of fourteen presidential appointees comprising twelve scientists, and two ex officio members—the director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) and the president of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). [ 9 ]
According to the Committee, successful candidates must be U.S. citizens or permanent residents who are applying for U.S. citizenship and who have done work of significantly outstanding merit or that has had a major impact on scientific thought in their field. The Committee also values those who promote the general advancement of science and individuals who have influenced science education, although these traits are less important than groundbreaking or thought-provoking research. The nomination of a candidate is effective for three years; at the end of those three years, the candidate's peers are allowed to renominate the candidate. The Committee makes their recommendations to the President for the final awarding decision.
Since Caltech professor Theodore von Kármán received the first medal in 1962, a total of 506 medals have been awarded, with just five universities accounting for over 31% of the total. By institutional affiliation at the time of the award, Stanford University counts the most medals at 40, with Harvard University close behind at 35, followed by the University of California, Berkeley , at 30, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at 29, and the California Institute of Technology at 25. [ 10 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science |
The National Medal of Technology and Innovation (formerly the National Medal of Technology ) is an honor granted by the President of the United States to American inventors and innovators who have made significant contributions to the development of new and important technology . The award may be granted to a specific person, to a group of people or to an entire organization or corporation . It is the highest honor the United States can confer to a US citizen for achievements related to technological progress.
The National Medal of Technology was created in 1980 by the United States Congress under the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act. It was a bipartisan effort to foster technological innovation and the technological competitiveness of the United States in the international arena. The first National Medals of Technology were issued in 1985 by then-U.S. President Ronald Reagan to 12 individuals and one company. [ 2 ] Among the first recipients were Steve Jobs and Stephen Wozniak , founders of Apple Computer . The medal has been awarded annually until 2015. [ 2 ]
On August 9, 2007, President George Bush signed the America COMPETES (Creating Opportunities to Meaningfully Promote Excellence in Technology, Education, and Science) Act of 2007. The Act amended Section 16 of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980, changing the name of the Medal to the "National Medal of Technology and Innovation". [ 1 ]
Each year the United States Patent and Trademark Office (previously the Technology Administration ) under the U.S. Department of Commerce calls for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Technology and Innovation. Candidates are nominated by their peers who have direct, first-hand knowledge of the candidates achievements. Candidates may be individuals, teams of individuals (up to 4), organizations or corporations. Individuals and all members of teams nominated must be U.S. citizens and organizations and corporations must be U.S.-owned (i.e. 50% of their assets or shares must be currently held by U.S. citizens).
All nominations are referred to the National Medal of Technology and Innovation Evaluation Committee, which issues recommendations to the U.S. Secretary of Commerce . All nominees selected as finalists through the merit review process will be subject to an FBI security check. Information collected through the security check may be considered in the final selection of winners. The Secretary of Commerce is then able to advise the President of the United States as to which candidates ought to receive the National Medal of Technology and Innovation. The new National Medal of Technology and Innovation laureates are then announced by the U.S. president once the final selections have been made.
As of 2005 [update] , there have been more than 135 people and 12 companies recognized. Summarized here is a list of notable laureates and a summary of their accomplishments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Technology_and_Innovation |
The National Medals of Appreciation and Memorial is an honor bestowed by the President of Iran to individuals who have made important contributions to the advancement of knowledge in various fields of science or have lost their lives defending the country. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The presidential Committee on the National Medals is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the Presidential Office.
The National Medals of Appreciation and Memorial were established on November 21, 2010, by an act of the Cabinet of Iran . [ 3 ] The National Medal of Appreciation is to honor scientists who have shown significant contributions to the development of the country. The National Medal of Memorial is to honor those who lost their lives defending the country. The National Medals of Appreciation and Memorial are classified as Golden and Silver Medals. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
The awards ceremony is organized by the Office of President of Iran. It is presided by the sitting President of Iran . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medals_of_Appreciation_and_Memorial |
The National Microbiology Laboratory ( NML ) is part of the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC), the agency of the Government of Canada that is responsible for public health , health emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and chronic disease control and prevention.
NML is located in several sites across the country including the Canadian Science Centre for Human and Animal Health (CSCHAH) in Winnipeg, Manitoba . NML has a second site in Winnipeg, the JC Wilt Infectious Disease Research Centre on Logan Avenue which serves as a hub for HIV research and diagnostics in Canada. The three other primary sites include locations in Guelph , St. Hyacinthe and Lethbridge . [ citation needed ] [ 1 ]
The CSCHAH is a biosafety level 4 infectious disease laboratory facility, the only one of its kind in Canada. [ 2 ] With maximum containment, scientists are able to work with pathogens including Ebola , [ 3 ] Marburg and Lassa fever . [ citation needed ]
The NML's CSCHAH is also home to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency 's National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease , and thus the scientists at the NML share their premises with animal virologists .
The National Microbiology Laboratory was preceded by the Bureau of Microbiology which was originally part of the Laboratory Centre for Disease Control of Health Canada in Ottawa . In the 1980s, Health Canada identified both the need to replace existing laboratory space that was reaching the end of its lifespan and the need for Containment Level 4 space in the country.
Around the same time, Agriculture Canada (prior to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency being formed) also identified the need for new laboratory space including high-containment. Numerous benefits were identified for housing both laboratories in one building and Winnipeg was chosen as the site; an announcement to that effect was made in October 1987. [ citation needed ]
After some debate, the spot chosen for the site was a city works yard near to the Health Sciences Centre (a major teaching hospital), the University of Manitoba 's medical school, and other life science organizations. Construction of the facility that came to be named the Canadian Science Centre for Human and Animal Health (often referred to locally as "the Virology Lab") began with an official ground-breaking in December 1992.
The joint venture design team of Toronto-based Dunlop Architects and Winnipeg-based Smith Carter Architects and Engineers visited 30 laboratories to seek best practices in containment and design. Construction was largely complete by the end of 1997 with the first programs beginning in the spring of 1998 and all laboratories coming on line after that. The official opening took place in June 1999. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
Following the SARS outbreak in 2003, the Public Health Agency of Canada was formed in 2004 [ 6 ] to provide a stronger focus on public health and emergency preparedness in the country. It is a member of the federal Health Portfolio (along with Health Canada, the Canadian Institute of Health Research , and other organizations).
By 2018 the NML was beginning to use genomics and advanced computing to study microbes at the genetic level in so-called "dry lab" facilities, as opposed to "wet labs" with Petri dishes and cell cultures . [ 3 ]
The NML (PHAC) fired Chinese nationals Xiangguo Qiu and her husband Keding Cheng from their jobs as BSL4 infectious disease researchers in January 2021; [ 7 ] previously in July 2019 the pair had been dismissed from their positions as unpaid members of the University of Winnipeg for their agency in a mysterious trans-Pacific shipment of BSL4-grade virus materials back to their homeland when the RCMP was called in. [ 8 ] [ 9 ]
Human pathogens are classified into risk groups. [ 10 ] The criteria to determine the group includes the level of risk to the health of a person or to public health, as well as the likelihood that the human pathogen will actually cause disease in a human, and whether treatment and preventative measures are available. It can depend on the type of work being done as to which level of containment is needed for pathogens from specific risk groups; as an example, culturing (or growing) a virus or bacterium requires higher containment than some diagnostic tests. [ citation needed ]
NML operates Containment Level 2, 3 and 4 laboratories. In human health infectious disease laboratories, the design and construction of the facility, the engineering controls, and the training and techniques of staff are all focused on protecting lab workers, containing the pathogens, and preventing contamination of materials to ensure accurate diagnosis and research. All of these factors vary depending on the level of containment. [ citation needed ]
The vast majority (87.7%) of NML's lab space is Containment Level 2 (CL2). This is the same type of laboratory found in doctors' offices, hospitals and universities. In a Level 2 lab, work with infectious materials is done inside a biosafety cabinet (BSC) and appropriate personal protective gear is worn relative to activities (gloves, eye protection, lab coats, gowns, etc.).
Risk Group 2 pathogens worked with in Level 2 can cause disease but are not a serious hazard and they are often circulating in the community. Environmental contamination must be minimized by the use of hand washing sinks and decontamination facilities such as autoclaves . Examples include E-coli ; whooping cough ; and seasonal influenza . [ citation needed ]
NML also has Containment Level 3 (CL3) laboratories (8.6% of lab space). Risk Group 3 pathogens may be transmitted by the airborne route, often need only a low infectious dose to produce effects, and can cause serious or life-threatening disease. CL3 emphasizes additional primary and secondary barriers to minimize the release of infectious organisms into the immediate laboratory and the environment. Additional features to prevent transmission of CL3 organisms are appropriate respiratory protection, HEPA filtration of exhausted laboratory air, and strictly controlled laboratory access. Examples include tuberculosis ; West Nile virus ; and pandemic H1N1 influenza . [ citation needed ]
A small percentage of laboratory space (3.6%) is devoted to Containment Level 4 (CL4) at NML. These agents have the potential for aerosol transmission, often have a low infectious dose and produce very serious and often fatal disease; there is no licensed treatment or vaccine available. This level of containment represents an isolated unit independent of other areas. CL4 emphasizes maximum containment of the infectious agent by completely sealing the facility perimeter with confirmation by negative pressure testing, isolation of the researcher from the pathogen by an enclosed positive pressure suit, and decontamination of air and all other materials. Examples include Ebola, Nipah , Marburg , and 1918 pandemic influenza . [ citation needed ]
NML programs are housed in several facilities across the country. Two of these facilities are in proximity to each other in Winnipeg: The Canadian Science Centre for Human and Animal Health on Arlington Street and the J.C. Wilt Infectious Diseases Research Centre on Logan Avenue. The other facilities are located in Guelph, ON; St. Hyacinthe, QC and Lethbridge, AB.
NML is divided into five main laboratory divisions which are supported by scientific and administrative services. The primary NML divisions are:
Bacterial Pathogens - focussing on bacterial diseases such as tuberculosis and antibiotic resistant organisms.
Enteric Diseases - focussing on food and water-borne pathogens including E.coli and Salmonella .
Viral Diseases - addressing a range of viral diseases, including hepatitis and other blood-borne pathogens, respiratory viruses and viral exanthemata, such as measles .
Zoonotic Diseases and Special Pathogens - dealing with viral, bacterial and rickettsial zoonoses (diseases transmitted to humans from other species), such as West Nile Virus and Lyme disease , along with risk group 4 agents such as Ebola, Marburg and Lassa fever viruses.
HIV and Retrovirology - providing laboratory services and scientific expertise relating to HIV and emerging retroviruses .
The Science Technology Core and Services Division works with these divisions to provide technological approaches, including genomics , proteomics and bioinformatics .
There is also the Public Health Risk Sciences Division , which is a specialized resource that provides scientific knowledge and solutions to better assess public health risks and enable decisions, with specific attention to infectious disease threats transmitted from food, the animals, or the physical environment.
These science-based divisions are complemented and supported by numerous other units that ensure their ongoing operations such as the Office of Science Planning, Program Support and Services, Scientific Informatic Services, Science Support and Client Services, Surveillance and References Services, the Facility and Property Management Division, and the Biorisk and Occupational Safety Services Division. NML also funds the National Reference Centre for Parasitology in Montreal and has a Laboratory Liaison Technical Officer in most provincial labs.
NML employs scientists (MD, PhD, and DVM), biologists, and laboratory technologists, but it also includes informatics specialists, biosafety experts, specialized operations and maintenance staff, and administrative staff, among others. In total, there are approximately 600 staff members as of 2016. [ citation needed ]
The laboratory has collaborated with scientists from the People's Liberation Army from at least 2016 to 2020. [ 11 ]
NML is renowned [ 12 ] [ better source needed ] for its work on a broad spectrum of infectious diseases from seasonal influenza to Ebola and its accomplishments are too many to detail.
Some recent examples of the work done by NML include their involvement in the response to the West African Ebola outbreak. For a period of about 18 months, teams from NML travelled to West Africa to aid in the diagnostics during the outbreak. They worked closely with the World Health Organization and Médecins sans frontières to ensure people were properly diagnosed so that they could be properly cared for and isolated from others to stop the spread. Also during this outbreak, a promising vaccine and treatment for Ebola that were developed at NML, in conjunction with collaborators, were fast tracked into clinical trials so that they could get to the people that needed it as soon as possible. [ citation needed ]
Another accomplishment was the response to the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic. In April 2009, the Mexican national lab approached NML for assistance with identifying a respiratory virus that was causing outbreaks in Mexico . NML was able to quickly identify the new virus and recognize that it matched the virus that was beginning to circulate in the U.S. As the lead laboratory in Canada, NML rapidly developed diagnostic tests and equipped provincial labs to be able to test for the new virus. NML also assisted Mexico by providing additional testing and sent staff to their national laboratory to enable to help them set up their own testing protocols.
In the international laboratory sector, NML has developed different types of mobile labs : a lab-truck, a lab-trailer, and a "lab in a suitcase". The lab-truck is generally used for in-country deployments at high-profile events such as the 2010 Olympics , the lab-trailer is used for international large-scale events where there may be a threat of bioterrorism or other deliberate acts involving infectious agents, and the lab in a suitcase is frequently used in remote areas of the world with little available infrastructure. An example would be the multiple deployments over the years to combat outbreaks of Ebola in Africa. This model was adopted by many other countries during the 2014-2015 Ebola outbreak in West Africa.
NML houses the secretariats for both the Canadian Public Health Laboratory Network (CPHLN) and the Global Health Security Action Group – Laboratory Network (GHSAG-LN). The role of CPHLN is to provide a forum for public health laboratory leaders to share knowledge. The GHSAG-LN network's goals are to coordinate the diagnostic capabilities of all participants and contribute to disease surveillance around the world.
The Canadian Network for Public Health Intelligence (CNPHI) is an innovation developed by NML staff. It is a secure web-based system that compiles information from various surveillance systems and issues alerts to users. More than 4,000 public health officials across Canada now subscribe to it. CNPHI tools assist in determining the existence or extent of an outbreak through the recognition of related cases across jurisdictions.
From 2000 to 2014, Dr. Frank Plummer was the Scientific Director General of the National Microbiology Laboratory. Under Dr. Plummer's guidance, the NML developed into one of the world's premier institutions in the research, detection, and response to global infectious disease and bio-security threats.
Dr. Plummer received his medical degree from the University of Manitoba in 1976. Between 1984 and 2001, Dr. Plummer lived in Nairobi, Kenya where he spearheaded the development of the world renowned "Kenya AIDS Control Program," established by the Universities of Manitoba and Nairobi . This HIV epidemiological work was central to global understanding of the risk factors for HIV transmission and how to prevent its spread. Dr. Plummer was the first to reveal that heterosexual women could also be infected with HIV/AIDS and that a cohort of Nairobi sex workers had a natural immunity to HIV/AIDS . This latter discovery suggested the possibility that a vaccine could eventually be developed.
Dr. Plummer stepped down as the NML's Scientific Director General to take the position as senior adviser to the Agency's Chief Public Health Officer in 2014. He remained as a distinguished professor at the University of Manitoba prior to his death in February 2020.
In 2015, Dr. Matthew Gilmour became the Scientific Director General of the National Microbiology Laboratory and the Laboratory for Foodborne Zoonoses. Dr. Gilmour spearheaded the partnership that brought these two laboratories together under the National Microbiology Laboratory umbrella. He was previously the Chief, Enteric Diseases and subsequently the Program Director, Bacteriology and Enteric Diseases at the NML.
Dr. Gilmour has won a number of scientific awards including Canadian Society of Microbiologists' Canadian Graduate Student Microbiologist of the Year Award; the Public Health Agency of Canada's Most Promising Researcher Merit Award and Dr. Andrés Petrasovits Public Health Merit Award; and Health Canada's Excellence Award in Collaborative Leadership and Award for Excellence in Science. Dr. Gilmour continues to be an assistant professor at the University of Manitoba's Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases as well as the Secretary Treasurer of the Canadian Association for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (CACMID). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Microbiology_Laboratory |
The National Nuclear Energy Commission ( Portuguese : Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear ; CNEN ) is the Brazilian government agency responsible for orientation, planning, supervision, and control of the Brazil's nuclear program. [ 1 ] The agency was created on 10 October 1956. [ 2 ] The CNEN is under the direct control of the Ministry of Science and Technology . [ 3 ]
The agency is headquartered in Rio de Janeiro and manages several institutes and facilities throughout Brazil. It has five regional districts, with headquarters in Angra dos Reis , Caetité , Fortaleza , Porto Alegre , and Resende , and a special office in Brasília . [ 4 ]
The Nuclear Energy Research Institute ( Portuguese : Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares ; IPEN) is an agency managed by CNEN and associated to the São Paulo State government and the University of São Paulo . The IPEN has a broad infrastructure of laboratories , a research reactor (IEA-R1), an industrial particle accelerator , and a compact cyclotron of variable energy. The IPEN is involved primarily in conducting research in the areas of nuclear materials and processes, nuclear reactors , applications of nuclear techniques, and nuclear safety. The IPEN is noted for its production of radioisotopes for nuclear medicine . [ 5 ]
The Radiological Protection and Dosimetry Institute ( Portuguese : Instituto de Radioproteção e Dosimetria ; IRD) is an institute of CNEN responsible for radiological protection and dosimetry of ionizing radiation , and conducts inspection of radioactive use in the industry , power plants and other areas. Since 1976, the IRD possesses a Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratory, recognized by the International Atomic Energy Agency and the World Health Organization . [ 6 ]
The Nuclear Technology Development Center ( Portuguese : Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear ; CDTN) is a nuclear research institute of CNEN. It originated in the Engineering School of the Federal University of Minas Gerais , and was created in 1952 with the name of Institute of Radioactive Researches (IPR). It was the first institution in Brazil devoted entirely to the nuclear area. Its initial activities included the research of radioactive mineral occurrences, studies in nuclear physics field, metallurgy and in materials of nuclear interest. In 1960 the research Reactor TRIGA Mark 1 was inaugurated at the Institute, with the purpose of training, research and radioisotope production. [ 7 ]
The Nuclear Engineering Institute ( Portuguese : Instituto de Engenharia Nuclear ; IEN) is a research unit of CNEN. Since 1962, IEN has been contributing to the national mastering of technologies in the nuclear field and its correlates. Its scope is generating and transferring knowledge and technology to the productive sector - public and private - with society as its final beneficiary.
Patents publications, technology licensing, radiopharmaceuticals , materials essays and analysis, radioactive waste collecting, consulting and human resources formation are IEN's main products and services. [ 8 ]
The Central-West Regional Center of Nuclear Science ( Portuguese : Centro Regional de Ciências Nucleares do Centro-Oeste ; CRCN-CO) is a regional institute of CNEN responsible for radioactive waste management and deposit, and nuclear technology in the Central-West Region of Brazil. [ 9 ]
The Northeast Regional Center of Nuclear Science ( Portuguese : Centro Regional de Ciências Nucleares do Nordeste ; CRCN-NE) is a regional institute of CNEN responsible for inspection and control of facilities and radioactive materials in the Northeast Region of Brazil. [ 10 ]
Nuclear energy accounts for about 4% of the Brazil's electricity. [ 11 ] It is produced by two pressurized water reactors at Angra Nuclear Power Plant (Angra I and II). A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished by the 2020s. By 2025 Brazil plans to build seven more reactors. [ 12 ] Currently, all uranium exploration, production and export in Brazil is under the control of the state through INB, which is a subsidiary of the National Nuclear Energy Commission, although the Brazilian government has recently announced that it is prepared to move ahead with private sector involvement in the nuclear fuel cycle. [ 13 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Nuclear_Energy_Commission |
The National Olympiad in Informatics in computing usually refers to the a national competition of a particular country, which usually is the course of selection of the country's top team or persons to participate in the International Olympiad in Informatics . Some national competitions are:
This article relating to education is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Olympiad_in_Informatics |
The National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment (NOCSAE, pronounced /'nɒxsi/ NOKH-see ) is a nonprofit standards organization which develops standards for the manufacture of certain protective athletic equipment in the sports of baseball, football, hockey, lacrosse, and polo. NOCSAE conducts and funds scientific research and collects and analyzes data relating to standards development. [ 1 ]
The organization's office is in Overland Park, Kansas . The NOCSAE annual operating budget is primarily funded through licensing fees NOCSAE charges to manufacturing companies that have had their equipment certified compliant to standards by a third-party certifying organization. [ 2 ]
In 1967, the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Equipment and Injuries Committee recommended the establishment of an organization capable of collecting and organizing data on injuries to the head, neck, and spine that were related to football helmets. [ 3 ] This Committee was responding to the deaths of 32 players in American organized football . [ 4 ] In 1968, NOCSAE was officially organized through the combined efforts of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the American College Health Association , the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), and the Sports Fitness Industry Association (SFIA), to develop a football helmet standard effective in reducing or eliminating fatalities from head injuries such as skull fractures and subdural bleeding. NOCSAE's work broadened later into enhancing "athlete safety through scientific research, education, and where feasible, the creation of performance standards for protective equipment." [ 5 ]
In 1970, NOCSAE incorporated as a 501(c)(3), nonprofit organization. [ 6 ] In 1973, NOCSAE's first equipment standard and first standard test method were developed. The equipment standard, document ND002, specified performance parameters for newly manufactured football helmets. The standard test method, document ND001, described laboratory equipment and basic requirements pertinent to testing headgear and other equipment. [ 4 ] The NOCSAE helmet standard was the first standard to require the use of a biofidelic headform in testing for compliance. The standard was also unique in its requirement that helmets meet a certain injury threshold criteria, referred to as the Gadd Severity Index or Severity Index (SI). The SI threshold works by limiting the magnitude of linear head accelerations that result when the helmet is struck. It is a pass-or-fail test which incorporates both impact force and time duration (SI), and requires low-speed and high-speed certification impacts. Test methods have since been expanded to include other impact measurements. [ 5 ]
In 1978, the NCAA modified their rules of play to require helmets certified to NOCSAE's standard. [ 4 ]
In 1980, the NFHS incorporated the NOCSAE football helmet standard into their rules of play. [ 5 ]
In 2017, the United States Polo Association (USPA) mandated helmets certified to the NOCSAE ND050 Standard Performance Specification. [ 7 ] In 2019, NOCSAE became an ANSI accredited National Standards Developer. [ 8 ] The same year, the NFSHS began requiring that all balls used in high school baseball competition meet the NOCSAE standard. [ 9 ]
In 2020, the USPA mandate of helmets certified to the NOCSAE standard took effect. [ 10 ] The same year, the NFSHS began requiring catchers wear chest protectors certified to the NOCSAE commotio cordis protective device standard, ND200. [ 9 ] Beginning in January of 2021, the NCAA required lacrosse goalkeepers and field players to wear protective equipment certified to the ND200 standard. [ 11 ]
The process of developing NOCSAE standards is subject to ANSI's principles of "due process, transparency, and openness", and depends heavily on data-gathering and consensus among stakeholder groups represented on the NOCSAE Standard Committee. [ 12 ] NOCSAE bylaws and ANSI accreditation rules also require a balance of the interests among these stakeholder groups so that no single group has control. [ 5 ] [ 13 ] The board members who represent these groups give input during the standards development process and through their work as members of the NOCSAE Standards Committee. [ 14 ]
NOCSAE is part of the voluntary standards system in the U.S. A voluntary system is considered preferable, as opposed to a government mandated system, because greater flexibility is possible in responding to changes in technology and market demand. [ 12 ] As a part of this voluntary system, NOCSAE has no authority to enforce its standards except with equipment-maker licensees whose products have been certified by an independent certifying organization. [ 15 ] [ 5 ] [ 2 ] NOCSAE standards are enforced, however, by several sport governing bodies which have mandated the use of NOCSAE-compliant equipment through their rules of play, including the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the United States Polo Association (USPA), the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFSHS), USALacrosse, and the National Football League (NFL).
The compliance of the equipment to NOCSAE standards is effected through independent, third-party certification. [ 5 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ]
Compliance of equipment to NOCSAE performance standards is "determined by the ability of equipment to withstand certain physical forces"; meaning, this is how the equipment must "perform" to be compliant with the NOCSAE standard. [ 15 ] NOCSAE performance standards do not specify materials or design. [ 15 ]
NOCSAE testing standards specify how products will be tested to certify that the equipment complies with the applicable standard, but the certifying process is carried out independently of NOCSAE by a certifying organization, Safety Equipment Institute (SEI). [ 15 ] [ 16 ]
To be certified compliant to a NOCSAE standard, equipment models must score less than 1200 SI on each of 16 impacts at 12 mph including two at high temperatures and two randomly selected locations, plus seven additional impacts at two different lower speeds which have lower SI threshold requirements. [ 5 ]
Equipment manufacturers apply to SEI to have their new equipment models tested to confirm that the products perform as is required by the NOCSAE standard applicable to the product type. [ 16 ] Another part of the SEI certifying process requires manufacturers who participate in the certification program to pass a quality assurance audit of their facility and operate in accordance with SEI quality assurance requirements. Equipment models which have met the quality control and assurance requirements, and which have met the certification testing requirements, can display a SEI certification label, signifying that the model is compliant with NOCSAE standards. [ 16 ] [ 15 ]
The NOCSAE Board of Directors is composed of representatives selected by national organizations representing stakeholder groups that fall into three general categories. The first category is made up of end-users and groups with direct athlete involvement, which includes two members from the National Athletic Trainers' Association (NATA), the Athletic Equipment Managers Association (AEMA), and the American Football Coaches Association (AFCA). NOCSAE directors representing sports medicine and related scientific research interests category include representatives from the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), the American College Health Association (ACHA), American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine (AOSSM), the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), and the American Medical Society for Sports Medicine (AMSSM). NOCSAE directors representing product and manufacturing interests are selected by the Sports and Fitness Industry Association (SFIA) and the National Athletic Equipment Reconditioners Association (NAERA). In order to maintain balance between the interests represented and to preclude control by any group or interest, some organizations have one seat, while others have two. [ 5 ]
NOCSAE also has two non-voting directors, one representing the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) and one representing the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). [ 5 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Operating_Committee_on_Standards_for_Athletic_Equipment |
The National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers or NOBCChE (pronounced No-be-shay) [ 1 ] is a nonprofit, professional organization. NOBCChE's goal is to increase the number of minorities in science, technology, and engineering fields. The organization accomplishes this by creating bonds with professionals working at science-related companies and faculty at local school districts in order to get more minorities to pursue a career in science and engineering fields. NOBCChE focuses on establishing diversity programs for the professional development of young kids and to spread knowledge in science and engineering. NOBCChE chapters can be found nationwide.
NOBCChE was co-founded in 1972 by a group of chemists and chemical engineers. Initially, the organization was financially aided by the Haas Community Fund and Drexel University . After receiving positive feedback and interest from other black chemists and chemical engineers, the founders decided to expand on their idea and set up a structured idea of what they wanted the society to emphasize. Two years later, the first national meeting was held in New Orleans. At the conference, black chemists and chemical engineers found that they could discuss career-related issues with others who were in similar fields. Today, the national conference features various workshops, research presentations, and high school science bowls. NOBCChE also presents the Percy L. Julian Award , given to African-American scientists who have made significant contributions to the areas of pure or applied research in science or engineering. [ 2 ]
The President has the overall responsibility for affecting the objectives of NOBCChE, oversees the day-to-day activities of the organization, and is the official representative of the organization. For over 45 years, professionals from industry, academia, and government have volunteered their time to lead the organization in the mission of encouraging education and careers in STEM for people of color. Each NOBCChE President develops his or her own set of goals with corresponding initiatives and events. [ 6 ]
*Affiliation at the time of election | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Organization_for_the_Professional_Advancement_of_Black_Chemists_and_Chemical_Engineers |
The National Organization of All Chemical Workers ( Japanese : 全化学産業労働組合連合 , Shin Kagaku) was a trade union representing workers in the chemical industry in Japan.
The union was founded in 1950, and soon after was a founding affiliate of the National Federation Of Industrial Organisations . By 1958 it had 7,049 members, [ 1 ] growing to 12,265 members in 1970. [ 2 ] From the late 1987, it was affiliated to the Japanese Trade Union Confederation , but by 1996, its membership had declined to 8,313. [ 3 ] In 2002, it merged with the Japanese Federation of Chemistry Workers' Unions , the Japan Confederation of Petroleum Industry Workers' Unions , and the National Federation of Cement Workers' Unions of Japan , to form the Japan Federation of Energy and Chemistry Workers' Unions . [ 4 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Organization_of_All_Chemical_Workers |
The National Poisons Information Service is an information service commissioned originally by Public Health England , and currently by the UK Health Security Agency as its successor agency, on behalf of the UK health departments. Poisoning accounts for 1% of NHS admissions. Pesticides used in agriculture (particularly organophosphorus insecticides) are extremely toxic, but 87% of around 120,000 annual poisoning cases in the UK take place in the home.
In August 1962 the Ministry of Health announced it was forming a poisons information service. This was after the Emergency Treatment in Hospital of Cases of Acute Poisoning published by the Central Health Services Council in March 1962. Many more household chemicals were on the market, and the chemical composition was only known to the manufacturers. 4,000 to 5,000 people each year were lethally poisoned, with 6,085 in 1962; however, many of the deaths were (non-accidental) suicides.
It started in 1963 by Dr Roy Goulding [ 1 ] at the Medical Toxicology Unit of Guy's Hospital , with a staff of 65. By the late 1960s, recreational drugs were presenting a widespread danger. Other centres were soon set up in Edinburgh, Belfast and Cardiff.
UKTIS was based in Newcastle from 1995.
It has four units in Birmingham, Cardiff, Edinburgh and Newcastle. It is a member of the European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists .
NPIS Birmingham has the NPIS Product Data Centre, provided by manufacturer's information, and deals with around 2,300 companies.
NPIS supports (24 hours) NHS Direct (for England and Wales) and (24 hours) NHS 24 for Scotland. Northern Ireland has its Northern Ireland Regional Medicines and Poisons Information Service in Belfast, and NPIS is used when this is not available. The Republic of Ireland uses the service, via the TOXBASE database, which is used by the country's National Poisons Information Centre. [ 4 ]
Of all UK nations, Wales has the highest proportionate number of enquiries to the service, with Northern Ireland the fewest. Within England, there is a distribution of higher number of enquiries to the service in the north than the south, with NHS North East having the highest and NHS South of England having the least proportionate number of enquiries. The vast majority (95%) of enquiries come from A&E departments. Around 65% of poisoning is from pharmaceuticals ( paracetamol , ibuprofen , citalopram , diazepam and zopiclone ) and 15% from household chemicals ( detergents , bleach , and isopropanol ). [ 5 ] There are very dangerous chemicals stored in most UK kitchens.
Wednesday is the busiest day of the week for enquiries, with the fewest at the weekend.
The NPIS operates a 24-hour telephone advice service and internet database TOXBASE ( www.toxbase.org for registered healthcare departments only). TOXBASE is free for UK NHS departments, and available by subscription to departments outside the UK NHS. The TOXBASE app is also available for Apple and Android devices. The app is free for individual NHS users.
The TOXBASE database contains information on approximately 17,000 products, together with generic advice on the management of poisoning. In excess of 1.5 million product accesses are made to the database each year. Most of the accesses are made by A&E staff. TOXBASE is not available for public access, and much of its information is exempt from disclosure under the Freedom of Information Act 2000 . [ 6 ]
NHS 111, NHS 24 and NHS Direct all use the TOXBASE database. In the UK poisons information can also be found in the British National Formulary . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Poisons_Information_Service |
The National Priorities List ( NPL ) is the priority list of hazardous waste sites in the United States eligible for long-term remedial investigation and remedial action (cleanup) financed under the federal Superfund program. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations outline a formal process for assessing hazardous waste sites and placing them on the NPL. The NPL is intended primarily to guide EPA in determining which sites are so contaminated as to warrant further investigation and significant cleanup.
As of 2022, 1333 sites are on the list, and 43 sites have been proposed for listing. 448 sites have been deleted from the list. [ 1 ]
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), also known as "Superfund", requires that the criteria provided by the Hazard Ranking System (HRS) be used to make a list of national priorities of the known releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances, pollutants, or contaminants in the United States. [ 2 ] This list is Appendix B of the National Contingency Plan, known as the "National Priorities List."
Hazardous waste sites become eligible for CERCLA/Superfund cleanup when EPA receives a report of a potentially hazardous waste site from an individual, state government, or responsible federal agency. EPA will first enter the potentially contaminated facility into a database known as the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Information System (CERCLIS). Then, either EPA or the state in which the potentially contaminated facility is located will conduct a preliminary assessment, which decides if the facility poses a threat to human health and/or the environment. If the preliminary assessment shows the possibility of contamination, EPA (or the state under agreement with EPA) will conduct a more detailed site inspection. EPA then uses the HRS to review any available data on the site to determine whether its environmental or health risks are enough to qualify the facility for a Superfund NPL cleanup. Generally, facilities with overall scores of 28.50 and greater on the HRS are eligible for the NPL.
Another way facilities can be included in the NPL is if a state or territory designates one top-priority site within its jurisdiction, regardless of the site's HRS score. The last way a site can be included in the NPL is if it meets the following three requirements:
EPA may delete a final NPL site if it determines that no further response is required to protect human health or the environment. Also, sites where a remediation was completed through the Superfund program are typically deleted from the list. As of 2022, 1333 sites are on the list, and 48 sites have been proposed for listing. 443 sites were deleted from the list. [ 1 ]
The primary cleanup goal is to reduce the risks to human health and human health in the environment through a combination of cleanup, engineered controls like caps and site restrictions such as groundwater use restrictions. A secondary goal is to return the site to productive use as a business, recreation or as a natural ecosystem. Identifying the intended reuse early in the cleanup often results in faster and less expensive cleanups. EPA's Superfund Redevelopment Program provides tools and support for site redevelopment. [ 3 ]
The public has the opportunity to comment on facilities that are proposed to be added to the National Priorities List. EPA publishes notices in the Federal Register listing the proposed facilities. The agency will consider all comments received within 60 days after publication in the Register. The complete set of comments are available to the public one week following the close of the comment period. EPA makes a final listing of decisions after considering all the relevant comments that were received during the comment period. [ 4 ]
The Superfund docket contains the Hazard Ranking System score sheets for each proposed facility, a documentation record for each facility that details the information used to compute the score, information for any facility affected by particular statutory requirements or EPA listing policies, and a list of documents referenced in the documentation record. [ 4 ]
TOXMAP was a geographic information system (GIS) application from the Division of Specialized Information Services of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) that used maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the EPA Superfund Basic Research Program and the Toxics Release Inventory . [ 5 ] The application was deprecated in December of 2019 by the first Trump administration . [ 6 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Priorities_List |
The National Prize for Applied and Technological Sciences ( Spanish : Premio Nacional de Ciencias Aplicadas y Tecnológicas ) was created in 1992 as one of the replacements for the National Prize for Sciences under Law 19169. [ 1 ] The other two prizes in this same area are for Exact Sciences and Natural Sciences .
It is part of the National Prize of Chile .
The jury is made up of the Minister of Education , who calls it, two academics assigned by the Council of Rectors , the President of the National Commission for Scientific and Technological Research (CONICYT), and the last recipient of the prize.
The prize consists of: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Prize_for_Applied_Sciences_and_Technologies_(Chile) |
The National Prize for Exact Sciences ( Spanish : Premio Nacional de Ciencias Exactas ) was created in 1992 as one of the replacements for the National Prize for Sciences under Law 19169. [ 1 ] The other two prizes in this same area are for Natural Sciences and Applied Sciences and Technologies .
It is part of the National Prize of Chile .
The jury is made up of the Minister of Education, who calls it, the Rector of the University of Chile , the President of the Chilean Academy of Sciences [ es ] , a representative of the Council of Rectors , and the last recipient of the prize. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Prize_for_Exact_Sciences_(Chile) |
The National Quantum Initiative Act is an Act of Congress passed on December 13, 2018, and signed into law on December 21, 2018. The law gives the United States a plan for advancing quantum technology , particularly quantum computing .
The act was passed unanimously by the United States Senate and was signed into law by President Donald Trump . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] The National Quantum Initiative (NQI) provides an umbrella under which a number of government agencies develop and operate programs related to improving the climate for quantum science and technology in the US, coordinated by the National Quantum Coordination Office . [ 7 ] These agencies include the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the United States Department of Energy (DOE). [ 8 ] Under the authority of the NQI, the NSF and the DOE have established new research centers and institutes, and NIST has established the Quantum Economic Development Consortium (QED-C), a consortium of industrial, academic, and governmental entities. [ 9 ]
In May 2025, U.S. lawmakers introduced the bipartisan Quantum Sandbox for Near-Term Applications Act (S.1344), aiming to amend the National Quantum Initiative Act. [ 10 ] The proposed legislation seeks to establish a public-private partnership to accelerate the development of near-term quantum applications by creating testbeds—referred to as "quantum sandboxes"—for innovators to test quantum technologies in real-world environments. The initiative focuses on applications that can be developed and deployed within 24 months, with emphasis on sectors such as manufacturing, energy, and healthcare. [ 11 ] [ 12 ]
In May 2025, the Texas House of Representatives passed House Bill 4751, establishing the Texas Quantum Initiative. The legislation aims to position Texas as a national leader in quantum technology by fostering advancements in quantum computing, networking, and sensing technologies. The initiative outlines the development of a comprehensive strategic plan, the attraction of quantum projects and partners to Texas, expansion of workforce training opportunities, and support for developing a quantum manufacturing supply chain within the state. An executive committee appointed by the governor will oversee the initiative, and a dedicated fund will be established to support its activities. The bill is scheduled to take effect on September 1, 2025, pending approval by the Texas Senate and the governor. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Quantum_Initiative_Act |
National Quantum Mission India [ 1 ] is an initiative by the Department of Science and Technology , Government of India , to foster quantum technologies related scientific and industrial research and development to support national Digital India , Make India , Skill India and Sustainable development goals . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]
The union cabinet of Government of India approved the National Quantum Mission with a cost of INR 6003.65 cr ($730,297,000) from 2023–24 to 2030–31. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Quantum key distribution (QKD) satellites are being developed by ISRO as part of the National Quantum Mission to provide secure communication. [ 8 ]
In January 2024, [ 9 ] the National Quantum Mission issued a Call for Proposals (CFP), inviting top-tier academic and research institutions to contribute to the development of quantum technologies in four main areas:
1. Quantum Computing
2. Quantum Communication
3. Quantum Sensing & Metrology
4. Quantum Materials & Devices
The initiative garnered an impressive 384 submissions from across the country.
On September 30, 2024, the National Quantum Mission reached a decisive phase with the announcement of the four T-Hubs. [ 10 ] [ 11 ]
After a thorough evaluation, 17 proposals were selected, representing the pinnacle of quantum research excellence. The T-Hubs bring together 152 researchers from 43 institutions nationwide, showcasing India's collective drive to become a global leader in quantum science and technology.
The four T-Hubs will be 1. Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bengaluru for quantum computing 2. Indian Institute of Technology Madras (IIT-M) along with Centre for Development of Telematics New Delhi for Quantum Communications 3. Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT-B) for Quantum Sensing & Metrology and 4. Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IIT-D) for Quantum Materials & Devices and comprises 14 Technical Groups. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Quantum_Mission_India |
The National Research Ethics Service (NRES) is a UK medical quango which deals with research ethics . Principal Investigators must describe the experiment they intend to pursue to the NRES for its approval, failing which the study is prohibited. [ 1 ]
The NRES was launched on 1 April 2007. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]
The adjective "National" was omitted from the name at some unknown point in time. [ 4 ]
In 2009, the NRES issued a leaflet in which it described its purpose: [ 5 ]
The National Research Ethics Service (NRES) reviews research proposals to protect the rights and safety of research participants and enables ethical research which is of potential benefit to science and society.
The substance of the NRES reports can be gleaned from an approval obtained in 2011 by Stephanie Taylor, who was then Professor of Public Health and Primary Care at Queen Mary University of London . [ 6 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Research_Ethics_Service |
The National Resident Matching Program ( NRMP ), also called The Match , [ 1 ] is a United States –based private non-profit non-governmental organization created in 1952 to place U.S. medical school students into residency training programs located in United States teaching hospitals. Its mission has since expanded to include the placement of U.S. citizen and non-U.S. citizen international medical school students and graduates into residency and fellowship training programs. In addition to the annual Main Residency Match that in 2021 encompassed more than 48,000 applicants and 38,000 positions, [ 2 ] the NRMP conducts Fellowship Matches for more than 60 subspecialties through its Specialties Matching Service (SMS). The NRMP is sponsored by a board of directors that includes medical school deans, teaching hospital executives, graduate medical education program directors, medical students and residents, and one public member.
NRMP International, a subsidiary of the National Resident Matching Program, was established in 2010 to provide medical matching services outside the United States and Canada .
From shortly after the first residency programs were formally introduced in the 1920s, the hiring process was "characterized by intense competition among hospitals for (an inadequate supply) of interns." [ 3 ] In general, hospitals benefited from filling their positions as early as possible, and applicants benefited from delaying acceptance of positions. The combination of those factors led to offers being made for positions up to two years in advance of the start of postgraduate training. [ 4 ]
In 1945, medical schools decided not to release any transcripts or permit any letters of recommendation to be written until a particular date. In that way, they managed to move the date of residency selection back to the fourth year of medical school. However, the competition for residents simply took on another form. Programs began to issue offers with a time limit for reply. The time limit rapidly decreased from 10 days in 1945 to less than 12 hours in 1950. Students were being issued "exploding" offers that required them to make a decision about training before hanging up the telephone. [ 5 ]
In the early 1950s, the National Interassociation Committee on Internships (NICI) examined existing matching plans and chose the Boston Pool Plan, utilized at the time by Boston-area programs, as the model for a trial run of a new centralized system. In October 1951, student representatives from 79 medical schools formed the National Student Internship Committee (NSIC) to discuss the findings of the NICI trial Match and consider an NICI proposal to replicate the Boston Pool Plan at the national level. NSIC petitioned to have the algorithm modified to more equitably represent applicants, and the modified algorithm was adopted and used for the first Match on 1952. [ 6 ] That Match was a success, and the NICI recommended the creation of an organization to administer and oversee the running of the Match. The organization, known as the National Intern Matching Program (NIMP), was established in 1952 at the request of medical students. [ 7 ]
Modifications to the algorithm proposed by students in 1951 were based on concerns that the matching process favored hospitals over applicants. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] The students believed the algorithm gave them incentives to misrepresent their true preferences. [ 11 ] A publication in 1962 by David Gale & Lloyd Shapley noted that there always exists a stable solution when colleges are matching with students, but that it is possible to favor colleges as a group over applicants as a group (and vice versa). [ 12 ] That is, Gale and Shapley found that there is a college-optimal stable match and an applicant-optimal stable match. [ 12 ] Lloyd Shapley along with Alvin Roth , would go on to win the 2012 Nobel Prize in Economics for their work on stable allocations. [ 4 ]
A debate arose regarding whether the matching program was susceptible to manipulation or unreasonably fair to programs. [ 13 ] Indeed, it was shown that in simple cases (i.e. those that exclude couples, second-year programs, and special cases for handling unfilled slots) that had multiple "stable" matchings, the algorithm would return the solution that preferred the preferences of programs over applicants. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] A correspondence in New England Journal of Medicine in 1981 recognized that the algorithm in use was program-optimal for individual applicants. [ 16 ]
Later researchers, such as Marilda Sotomayor in 1983, Alvin Roth in 1984, and Klaus et al. in 2007, found that when couples are allowed to match together, there may exist no stable matching. [ 17 ] [ 18 ] However, Fuhito Kojima and Parag Pathak in 2009 demonstrated that if the market is large and the fraction of couples is small, then a stable matching exists with high probability.
The NRMP algorithm saw only minor and incremental changes after its institution in 1952. [ 3 ] [ 19 ] However, in the fall of 1995 the NRMP Board of Directors commissioned a preliminary research study to evaluate the current algorithm and recommend changes to be considered in its operation and description, [ 20 ] as well as a study comparing a new algorithm with the existing one. [ 19 ] A new applicant-proposing algorithm was adopted in May 1997 and has been in use since its first application in March 1998, [ 19 ] although the study showed that the net effect of the change on actual matches has been minimal. [ 21 ]
Matching applicants to programs is a generalization of the stable marriage problem ; as a result, the solutions are very similar. A simplified version of the algorithm that is used to perform the matching process is described below and on the NRMP website . However, this description does not include the handling of couples (pairs of applicants who participate in a Match together, perhaps to stay in the same geographic location), second-year positions, or special handling of residency positions that remain unfilled. The full algorithm is described in Roth & Peranson 1999 .
The application process for residency training begins prior to the opening of the Main Residency Match in September. Applications usually are sent to programs through the Electronic Residency Application Service (ERAS), a service of the Association of American Medical Colleges . After applicants apply to programs, programs review applications and invite selected candidates for interviews held between October and February. After the interview period is over, programs and applicants each compile "rank order lists" that they submit to the NRMP. Programs list applicants, ranked in order from most to least preferred, whom they wish to train. Similarly, applicants rank programs where they wish to train. For applicants matching as a couple, the rank order lists include pairs of program choices that are considered simultaneously by the matching algorithm. Applicants' rank order lists can include a combination of categorical programs (training that is 3–5 years in length and begins in the first post-graduate year); preliminary programs (training that is one year in length and begins in the first post-graduate year); or advanced programs (training that is 3–4 years in length and begins after one or more years of preliminary training). For advanced programs on the rank order list, applicants can append a supplemental list of preliminary programs to attempt to match to a full course of training.
The matching process begins with an attempt to match an applicant to the program most preferred on that applicant's rank order list (ROL). If the applicant cannot be matched to that first choice program, an attempt is made to place the applicant into the second choice program, and so on, until the applicant is tentatively matched to a program that has an open position and who prefers that applicant or all the applicant's choices on the ROL have been exhausted. This process is carried out for all applicants until each applicant has either been tentatively matched to the most preferred choice possible or all choices submitted by all applicants have been exhausted. Tentative matches then become final.
To understand how the current NRMP algorithm works, it is helpful to begin by considering the simpler case where there are no couples or secondary programs.
As in the stable marriage problem , the basic goal is to match applicants to programs so that the results are "stable". "Stability" in this case means that there is no applicant A and program P such that both of the following are true:
It can be shown that for any instance of the problem, there is at least one valid solution. [ 23 ] Under the old (pre-1995) NRMP algorithm that favored programs' preferences over applicants', programs could benefit in certain cases from lying about their preferences. This is no longer possible under the current algorithm. Applicants cannot benefit by lying about their preferences, even if they have perfect knowledge of everyone's preferences. [ 24 ]
Under the current system, it also is impossible for an applicant to be harmed by including more residency programs at the bottom of a list if those programs are indeed preferable to not being matched. [ 25 ]
Couples' rank order lists are processed simultaneously by the matching algorithm, which complicates the problem. In some cases there exists no stable solution (with stable defined the way it is in the simple case). In fact, the problem of determining whether there is a stable solution and finding it if it exists has been proven NP-complete . [ 27 ] Also, while there is no randomization in the NRMP algorithm—so it will always return the same output when given exactly the same input [ 28 ] —different outcomes can be produced by changing trivial features of the data such as the order in which applicants and programs are processed. However, in initial testing of the algorithm over 5 years of residency match data and a variety of different initial conditions, the current NRMP algorithm always terminated quickly on a stable solution. [ 29 ] Testing also showed that "none of [the trivial] sequencing decisions had a large or systematic effect on the matching produced"—the maximum number of applicants ever observed to be affected in a single run was 12 out of 22,938. [ 30 ]
In general once the programs' rank order lists have been set , there is no way for an applicant to match into a better position by deciding to match as part of a couple. For example, if a very strong applicant and a very weak applicant match as a couple, there is no mechanism in the algorithm that allows the stronger applicant to somehow improve the desirability of the weaker applicant. [ 31 ] (Of course, if the programs know prior to processing the matching algorithm that the stronger and weaker applicant are participating in the Match as a couple, they are free to change their lists accordingly, which could affect the outcome.)
It is possible for an applicant not to match to a program. Until the 2010 Main Residency Match, applicants who did not obtain a position went through a process called the Scramble. [ 32 ] At 12:00 p.m. on Monday of Match Week, the NRMP notified applicants whether they had matched to a program (but did not release the name of the program) and released a list of unfilled programs. Applicants then applied en masse to programs that had unfilled positions, frequently having to change their preferred specialty in the process. The Scramble was widely recognized to be chaotic, disorganized, and lacking in transparency. The Scramble ended on Match Day , which was Thursday of Match Week. Most positions filled within the first few hours, and nearly all in the first 48 hours. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Scrambling was extremely competitive: in 2008, roughly 10,600 applicants, many of whom were foreign-trained, scrambled for only 1,392 residency positions. [ 34 ]
After the 2010 Main Residency Match, the Scramble was replaced by the Supplemental Offer and Acceptance Program, or SOAP. [ 32 ] In SOAP, unmatched applicants are offered positions in unfilled programs through a series of rounds, creating a systematic way for applicants to find training positions without the chaos of the Scramble. [ 35 ] In SOAP, all appointments are made through the NRMP (no direct matching allowed, unlike the Scramble), and unmatched applicant data and unfilled program data are released at the same time on Monday of Match Week. [ 33 ] Match Day is now Friday of Match Week.
Of the 35,476 total active applicants who participated in The National Resident Matching Program in 2016, 75.6% (26,836) were able to find PGY -1 ( R-1 ) matches. Out of the total active applicants, 51.27% (18,187) were graduates of conventional US medical schools; 93.8% (17,057) were able to find a match. In comparison, match rates were 80.3% of osteopathic graduates, 53.9% of US citizen international medical school graduates, and 50.5% of non-US citizen international medical schools graduates. [ 36 ]
In 2021, there were a total of 48,700 registered applicants. A total of 38,106 positions were offered in the match. 94.9% of them were filled. 92.8% U.S. MD seniors matched to PGY1 positions, while the percentage for U.S. DO seniors was 89.1%. [ 37 ]
To participate in the NRMP, an international medical graduate must have ECFMG ID. USMLE ID is not required for IMGs, but it can be entered. It is the same as the ECFMG ID. [ 38 ] IMGs must not be completely ECFMG certified but most programs require USMLE Step 2 before "Rank Order List Submission Deadline". [ 39 ] Many programs require ECFMG certificate submitted with the initial application.
In comparison, students and graduates from medical schools in the United States are bound to the graduation requirements of their individual schools. Both U.S. and foreign-trained applicants can participate in the NRMP while completing their final year of medical school before acquiring their medical diplomas.
In 2002, 16 law firms filed a lawsuit on behalf of three residents seeking to represent all residents matching through the NRMP. The plaintiffs put forward a case which sought to show that the NRMP colluded with other national medical and medical education organizations and with residency-sponsoring institutions to depress resident wages, operating in violation of United States antitrust legislation . [ 40 ]
In 2004, after a lobbying effort by the Association of American Medical Colleges and the American Hospital Association, a rider that granted specific immunity to the NRMP was added to a pension act signed into law by President George W. Bush . The provision was sponsored by Senators Edward M. Kennedy , Democrat of Massachusetts, and Judd Gregg , Republican of New Hampshire. Subsequently, a federal district court dismissed the case. [ 41 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Resident_Matching_Program |
The National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity ( NSABB ) is a panel of experts that reports to the Secretary of the United States Department of Health and Human Services . It is tasked with recommending policies on such questions as how to prevent published research in biotechnology from aiding terrorism, without slowing scientific progress. [ 1 ]
The NSABB is a federal advisory committee that addresses issues related to biosecurity and dual use research at the request of the United States Government. The NSABB has up to 25 voting members with a broad range of expertise including molecular biology, microbiology, infectious diseases, biosafety, public health, veterinary medicine, plant health, national security, biodefense, law enforcement, scientific publishing, and other related fields. [ 2 ]
In May 2016, [ 3 ] the NSABB published "RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE EVALUATION AND OVERSIGHT OF PROPOSED GAIN-OF-FUNCTION RESEARCH ". [ 4 ]
The NSABB had published 11 reports as of February 2021. The first report on the list was released in December 2006. [ 5 ]
The NSABB is composed of non-voting ex officio and appointed voting members. As of 2021, the Chair of the NSABB was Gerald W. Parker, Jr., DVM, PhD. [ 6 ]
As of 2017, the ex officio members were: [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Advisory_Board_for_Biosecurity |
The National Sewerage Program was an Australian federal program under the Whitlam and Fraser governments [ 2 ] established to provide funding for the expansion of municipal sewerage systems. [ 3 ] At the time Australia was lagging behind other developed nations [ 4 ] [ 5 ] and, as of the commencement of the program in 1972, 17.2% of the Australian population were not connected to sewerage. [ 6 ] Even in major population centers like Sydney and Melbourne , there was a backlog of over 318,000 homes waiting to be connected to municipal sewerage systems. [ 7 ] The program was administered by the newly formed Department of Urban and Regional Development , and over AUD$330 million of funding was allocated to be distributed to individual states and territories over ten years. [ 8 ] [ 6 ] Over the life of the program the sewerage connection backlog was reduced by 30% to 40%. [ 7 ] The program was abolished in 1977 by the incumbent Fraser government. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Consequently, many communities struggled to connect to sewerage for decades afterwards. [ 11 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Sewerage_Program |
The National Skills Academy for Power is a skills academy for the energy and power industry in the UK.
The National Skills Academy for Power (NSAP) was first announced in October 2008 by the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills . Steve K Davies was made the Chief Executive in September 2009. It was given formal government approval on 18 March 2010.
It was the 15th National Skills Academy. £2.9 million of funding for the project was allocated from the government. The Skills Academy was match funded by the energy and utility sector. Within 2.5 years NSAP became financially independent and continues to operate under the umbrella of the Sector Skills Council, Energy and Utility Skills
NSAP held its first Annual Conference and Awards Dinner on 9 March 2011 at Twickenham Stadium hosted by Sir Clive Woodward . This also included the inaugural "People in Power Awards".
It is based near Monkspath on the A34 .
It is a partnership between the Sector Skills Council, Energy and Utility Skills , and several energy companies:
It also works in conjunction with the IET Power Academy , which was set up in 2004, an industry group that was formed by seven universities (Bath, Cardiff, Imperial College London , Manchester, Queen's University Belfast , Southampton and Strathclyde) and eighteen power companies.
It seeks to focus and coordinate UK-wide training in the power sector by standardising training materials. It also promotes the industry sector, specifically its career choices, in a way similar to a trade association. Similar work, on a much broader focus, is carried out by the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Skills_Academy_for_Power |
The National Society for Histotechnology ( NSH ) is a professional association for clinical laboratory histotechnologists that was founded in 1973. [ 1 ]
This article related to pathology is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This article about a United States health organization is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Society_for_Histotechnology |
The National Space Club is the premier non-profit organization dedicated to advancing space leadership, technology, and education in the United States. Bringing together industry leaders, government officials, educators, and private individuals, the club fosters collaboration in astronautics and ensures that critical space-related information is shared with the public.
The National Space Club supports the next generation of space professionals through scholarships, grants, and internships. It actively encourages space-based educational initiatives, providing students with opportunities to engage in the field and contribute to its future growth. In addition, the club recognizes individuals who have made significant contributions to the advancement of space technology and exploration. It hosts networking events, luncheons, and its signature annual event, the Goddard Memorial Dinner, where leaders in the space community are honored.
The club also disseminates information through newsletters and publications, ensuring that the latest developments in astronautics reach both experts and the general public. Through these initiatives, the National Space Club plays a vital role in shaping U.S. space policy, technological progress, and public engagement in space exploration.
The National Space Club, originally established as the National Rocket Club, was conceived in 1957 by Erik Bergaust in response to the Soviet Union ’s launch of Sputnik , which had sent shockwaves through the western world. Bergaust recognized that the United States needed an organization that could mobilize national efforts and accelerate the country’s involvement in the Space Race . He warned:
"Until recently, top-level officials considered space flight a dirty word. These officials refused to listen to the scientists and engineers who predicted years ago that the nation which controlled space would control the world peace. These officials, I hope, will soon begin to see the light." [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]
Erik Bergaust, a Norwegian-born U.S. citizen, was a leading authority on rocket and missile development and astronautics. As a member of President Eisenhower’s Information Advisory Group on Scientists and Engineers, he was a leader in national discussions on space exploration. He was the executive editor of the influential Missiles and Rockets magazine, president of the American Rocket Society , director of the Aviation Writers Association, and host of Defense Desk a radio show in Washington, D.C. He had authored several books and numerous articles on rockets and missiles as well as being the missile science editor for American Aviation. [ 6 ] [ 4 ] [ 7 ] : 39,175
Bergaust's close friend, Wernher von Braun , had also been searching for ways to promote the expansion of America’s space development. Von Braun, who had been brought to the United States after leading the development of the V-1 and V-2 rocket programs in World War II Germany, was increasingly alarmed by the slow pace of the U.S. space program. He feared that without urgent action, the United States would soon lag significantly behind the Soviet Union. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 4 ]
Another co-founder was Nelson P Jackson , a friend and collaborator of Bergaust and von Braun who shared their commitment to advancing the United States' role in the Space Race. At the time, he was an attorney specializing in space law and had written papers on “Education for the Space Age” and “The Law of Outer Space.” He was also a member of the American Rocket Society and the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences . Bergaust and von Braun considered Jackson the ideal candidate to serve as the Club's first president due to his extensive experience and connections. He was a highly decorated Air Force colonel, involved in the military atomic energy program, had served with the Joint Chiefs of Staff. , and was the D.C. manager for GE 's Atomic Energy Division. His background positioned him as the ideal figure to bridge the interests of government, the military, private industry, and the public. Jackson would serve as the Club's president from January 1958 until his untimely death in a plane crash in November 1960. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ]
One of Bergaust’s colleagues at Missiles and Rockets , Norman L. Baker, was also instrumental in founding the Club. He had previously been a Development Engineer at Boeing , contributing to the Bomarc Missile Program and was credited with the initial proposal for the development of a Space Shuttle vehicle back in October 1955. He had also founded Space Publications, a publishing company covering the defense and aerospace industry through newsletters, such as the Defense Daily and Soviet Aerospace . [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 7 ] : 175
Bergaust’s primary goal for the Club was to capture Washington’s attention on the urgency of the Space Race by staging high-profile events similar to those organized by the Air Force Association . He envisioned banquets filled with dignitaries, extensive media coverage, military color guards, and a grand spectacle designed to command the focus of political and scientific leaders in Washington. Beyond pushing for government action, Bergaust also saw the organization as a platform to honor America’s scientific pioneers—particularly Dr. Robert H. Goddard , whom he regarded as the true hero of spaceflight. He believed that by elevating Goddard’s legacy, the organization could foster national pride and propel the country forward in space exploration. [ 8 ] : 516-521
Within days of conceiving the National Rocket Club, Bergaust reached out to two of his colleagues at Missiles and Rockets magazine, Norman L. Baker and Seabrook Hull, who were two of the most highly regarded space writers of the time, to inform them of the Club’s formation. He outlined plans for an inaugural luncheon within weeks, followed by the first Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Dinner soon after. The highlight of this dinner would be the presentation of the first Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy to Wernher von Braun. The formation of the Club proved to be perfectly timed. In January 1958, just shortly after its establishment, von Braun’s Jupiter-C rocket successfully launched the satellite Explorer 1 into orbit, demonstrating that the United States now had the capability to launch a satellite. This breakthrough catapulted von Braun to national prominence. Time magazine rushed to assemble a cover story on him, while the White House prepared for President Eisenhower to award him the Distinguished Federal Civilian Service Award. With momentum on its side, the National Rocket Club officially launched in spectacular fashion. The first Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Dinner was an immediate success, selling out as top military leaders, scientists, and political figures gathered in black-tie. David Brinkley served as the toastmaster, while Mrs. Esther C. Goddard, widow of Dr. Robert H. Goddard, presented the inaugural Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy to Wernher von Braun. [ 8 ] : 516-521 [ 14 ] : 5
Since its first Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Dinner, the National Space Club has been a key gathering place for the space community, fostering discussions on the future of astronautics. The Club has played a significant role in the U.S. space program, uniting astronauts, engineers, scientists, policymakers, and industry leaders. Distinguished figures such as Robert R. Gilruth , William H. Pickering , James Van Allen , James E. Webb , George P. Miller , and Donald W. Douglas , along with many other pioneers of space exploration, have been frequent speakers at Club events. The Club has also had the privilege of hosting Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson , Richard Nixon , Gerald Ford , Jimmy Carter , and Ronald Reagan as honored speakers. [ 15 ] [ 14 ] : 50 [ 16 ] : 106 [ 17 ] : 4-5 [ 18 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ]
Throughout its history, the National Space Club has consistently pursued its mission of fostering national pride among Americans by emphasizing that the United States is the true birthplace of rocket technology, through the pioneering work of Dr. Robert H. Goddard. At the time of the Club's formation, the country still believed that rocket technology originated primarily from German research with their V-1 and V-2 rockets during World War II. However, Wernher von Braun and the German rocket scientists had actually been building upon Goddard’s earlier American research from the early 20th century. Von Braun himself wished for Americans to understand this and often publicly emphasized that his team's achievements in Germany were directly based on Goddard’s prior innovations. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] The National Space Club, together with other groups, succeeded in making Goddard and his contributions much more widely known to the American public and played a crucial role in renaming the Beltsville Space Center as the Goddard Space Flight Center in his honor. The National Space Club was also directly responsible for Congress officially declaring March 16th 1965 as "Goddard Day," commemorating the date in 1926 that he successfully launched the world's first liquid-propelled rocket. [ 25 ] : 872-873 [ 26 ]
First celebrated in 1958, the Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Dinner is the premier annual event on Washington’s space calendar. Held each year in late March or early April, the dinner coincides with the anniversary of Dr. Robert H. Goddard’s first successful flight of a liquid-fueled rocket. Nearly 2,000 members of the government, military, industry, and academic space community gather to honor significant contributions to space exploration. During the event, awards are presented to individuals for outstanding achievements in spaceflight, engineering, science, management, and education.
The awards include:
The Goddard Memorial Trophy is the most prestigious award given by the National Space Club to honor either a lifetime of achievement or a breakthrough discovery or achievement within the calendar year. [ 27 ]
List of Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy winners
The Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Memorial Award was established in 1960 to honor Nelson P. Jackson , a founder and the first President of the National Space Club. This award is the club’s second most prestigious honor and it recognizes outstanding contributions to advancements in the missile, aircraft, and space fields. [ 28 ] : 196 [ 27 ]
List of Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Memorial Award winners
Established in 1958, this coveted award honors Norman L. Baker, a founder and former president of the National Space Club. It is presented to a space engineer who has made significant personal contributions to the advancement of space technology. [ 28 ]
Formed in 1960, the award recognizes a member of the nation's journalism industry for significant contributions to public knowledge and understanding of astronautics and its impact upon our nation and all humankind. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] : 205
This award honors Joseph V. Charyk , the first Director of the National Reconnaissance Office . Administered by the NRO for the employee making an outstanding personal contribution to the national intelligence space program and its mission. [ 27 ]
The General Bernard Schriever Award honors the General’s legacy and vision as the father of the Air Force's missile and space programs by recognizing excellence in military space operations and acquisition. [ 27 ]
Administered by NOAA recognizing achievements of young professionals in NOAA in the use of satellite data for operational or environmental applications. [ 27 ]
Established in 1984 it is administered and funded by AXA Space (space insurance). A $4,000 stipend is given. Presented to individuals who have made a significant contribution to manned space flight. [ 27 ]
Foundation grant of $1,500 and plaque to outstanding secondary school teacher in motivating and guiding High School students in the study of space, science and technology.
Awarded to encourage STEM related study includes $15,000 grant to a High School, undergrad or graduate student pursuing STEM education. The scholarship includes the opportunity to serve as the Keynote speaker at the Goddard Memorial Dinner. [ 27 ]
The National Space Club and Foundation has expanded over the years and, in addition to its original chapter in Washington, D.C., now has chapters in Huntsville and Florida.
The National Space Club offers a major scholarship each year to encourage study in the field of engineering and science. The scholarship, in the amount of $10,000, is awarded to a U.S. citizen in at least the junior year of an accredited university, who, in the judgment of the award committee, shows the greatest interest and aptitude.
The National Space Club cooperates in the sponsorship of a number of summer internships at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center , and its Wallops Flight Facility . The National Space Clubs Scholars Program is open to graduating high school sophomores, juniors, and seniors who have demonstrated an interest and ability in space technologies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Club |
The National Space Program was a set of policies and organisations under the Hawke and Keating governments created with the goals of developing a national space industry in Australia. [ 2 ] When the Howard government came to power in 1996 the program was abolished following the advice of the Bureau of Industry Economics . The National Space Program was generally considered a failure by most media after its demise. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] During its existence it was crippled by a lack of budget, [ 5 ] and multiple white elephant projects . The Federal Government disbanded the project in 1996 and had covered up most traces of it by 1998. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]
Although Australia has had space interests dating back to the Apollo program , prior to the establishment of the NSP Australia had had no unified space policy. At the time of the implementation of the program, Australia had separate space related programs under the Department of Defence , CSIRO , the Department of Transport and Communications , multiple other departments, as well as multiple private and university programs. [ 8 ] : p. 170 In response to the disorganised state of the industry, the Hawke government commissioned the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences for a report into the state of Australia's space industry. The report, nicknamed the "Madigan Report", was completed in June 1985 and recommended the establishment of a space office, and focusing Australia's space industry towards ground-sensing capabilities. [ 9 ] The report also recommended that A$100 million be budgeted over five years for Australian space programs. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] : p. 2
The National Space Program was primarily made up of the Australian Space Office and the Australian Space Board/Council. The Australian Space Board (replaced with the Australian Space Council in 1994) was formed to advise the Minister for Industry, Technology, and Commerce and government on national space policy, particularly in relation to commercial space programs. The ASO was established shortly afterwards to act as secretariat and to manage the day-to-day running of the policies created by the ASB. [ 12 ] The National Space Program also encompassed to a lesser degree the CSIRO Office of Space Science and Applications , the Defence Science and Technology Office space projects, and various committees and offices dedicated to certain uses of space technology. [ 8 ] : p. 170
The ASO itself was made up of 20 people. [ 10 ] : p. 2
The National Space Program was budgeted as part of the government's Science and Technology budget. Of the A$90 – 120 million dollars dedicated to "Industry and Space" grants each year, [ 1 ] : p. 3.6 the National Space Program received between A$3 million and A$6 million. [ 1 ] : p. 3.16 At the time of the program's demise, over A$500 million was spent annually on satellite programs, mostly internationally. [ 13 ] : p. ii
From the inception of the program to its abolition the government spent a total of A$106 million [ 1 ] on the program. The table below describes how the funding was allocated for the majority of its lifetime:
The objectives of the National Space Program varied over the years it existed, however in 1987 the objectives were stated as:
These objectives were updated in 1992 to the following:
The foundations of the NSP were set up within the Department of Industry, Technology and Commerce in July 1985 in anticipation of the Madigan report . [ 10 ] : p. 1
That year the Department of Industry, Technology and Commerce gave a A$500,000 grant to the Australian National University to fund the development of an existing ultraviolet spectroscopy telescope project. The grant was the first of a total A$2.6 million invested into the project. [ 17 ]
The next year the NSP began in earnest with the creation of the Australian Space Board, which reported to the Minister for Industry, Technology and Commerce on matters to do with space program funding, particularly pertaining to commercial and private industry space interests. Although the Madigan report had recommended the establishment of a dedicated space agency, this would not happen until the next year with the creation of the Australian Space Office . That year the government also announced the formation of the NSP, specifying the major goal was "To encourage greater involvement by Australian industry in space research and development activities to promote development of commercially viable industries based on space technologies". [ 18 ] Additionally funding for the program was increased from A$3.2 million to A$5.4 million, [ 19 ] of which A$4 million went to the ASO. For the rest of the life of the program funding remained around A$6 million annually. [ 10 ]
In 1992, the telescope developed under the program, Endeavour , was launched. [ 16 ]
In 1994, the ASB was replaced with the Australian Space Council (ASC) and a new five-year plan was introduced. [ 20 ] Additionally a Remote Sensing Board was established to provide a broader perspective on remote sensing policy matters. In its year of existence it published a study detailing an Australian Earth Observation Network. [ 1 ] : p. 2.15
From the years 1994 to 1996 a total of A$750,000 was contributed towards a collaborative program with Japan to develop hypersonic technologies. [ 1 ] : p. 2.92
In 1996, the Australian Government formally rendered the project as Defunct. Funding was removed from Federal white papers and the Australian Space Council was liquidated. By 1998, the Australian Government had covered up all remaining traces of the project.
In the mid eighties the Hughes Aircraft Company was awarded a contract to build a new generation of AUSSAT communications satellites. [ 21 ] Although this was not a program funded by the NSP, the ASO signed an offsets agreement with Hughes to provide a program of work for Australian industry in the development of AUSSAT's satellites. [ 22 ] ASO hoped the offset obligations would help develop the space manufacturing industry in Australia. [ 10 ] : p. 51
As part of the project Australian companies were given contracts by Hughes to supply A$22 million of equipment, of which A$7.85 million was invested into new facilities and increasing their workforce. [ 10 ] : p. 52
In 1988, the ASB created the SCWP to provide specialist advice on the future development of a commercial satellite communications industry. The aim of the SCWP was to formulate a national strategy for the satellite communications industry. [ 23 ]
The LMSS Office was formed by recommendation of the SCWP to assist Australian industry to better understand the nature of commercial opportunities with L-Band mobile satellite systems. [ 23 ] The office was established in November 1989, [ 10 ] : p. 55 and with the entry of Telecom as a partner of AUSSAT it was seen as a guarantee that LMSS would be commercially viable. However, shortly after a review, Telecom withdrew from the partnership, delaying efforts. [ 10 ] : p. 55 The LMSS Office was shut down afterwards. [ 11 ]
In 1991, the program started a Space Industry Development Centres (SIDCs) initiative directed at the development of an Australian commercial space industry. The program aimed to convince private industry to divert R&D resources into space related ventures in collaboration with University research centres. [ 24 ] The SIDCs program was especially interested in increasing the space communications industry. [ 10 ] : p. 57 The government hoped the initiative would create Australian products and services capable of competing in international markets. [ 24 ] By 1996, SIDCs had been established in Griffith University , Queensland University of Technology , and the University of South Australia . [ 1 ] : p. 5.65
The Cape York spaceport project was by far the most famous of the NSP's initiatives. Both spaceport projects were primarily considered because of the geographic advantages of launching space craft inside Australia, however commercial viability was uncertain. [ 10 ] : p. 17 : p. 62 By 1992, the Cape York project was scrapped. [ 25 ] By the end of the program the NSP had allocated over A$2 million of funds towards the project with uncertainty that the project would ever proceed. [ 10 ] : Table 4.2
The Woomera spaceport was the second spaceport proposal, designed to take advantage of the emerging market for placing lightsats (<1000 kg satellites) into Low Earth orbit . The location of a lightsat in Australia was attractive due to its geographical location and general stability. The Woomera program never got out of planning before the downfall of the program. [ 10 ] : p. 17
The remote sensing projects of the NSP were the most successful of the NSP initiatives, with many of the programs living on today under different departments or its decedents. [ 10 ] : p. 66 It also received the most funding of all the areas, totaling 48.2% of awarded funds. [ 10 ] : Table 4.2
The remote sensing developments funded under the program were vital to a range of public goods and services including meteorology, resource management, mapping, and research conducted by the CSIRO. The mining industry was the largest user of remote sensing techniques, making up half of the entire market capital. [ 10 ] : Footnote 80
The Endeavour project was the first and largest of the successful NSP programs. Receiving over A$10 million in funding over the lifetime of the program, [ 13 ] : p. 10 the satellite telescope was built primarily to test the Australian developed low light detector array. The satellite was developed by the CSIRO and built by Canberra based company, Auspace Ltd. [ 26 ]
On 23 January 1992, the telescope was launched on the Space Shuttle Discovery as part of flight STS-42 , however the test failed due to various technical difficulties experienced in the third stage of flight. [ 26 ]
By the end of the satellite program the Endeavour had flown twice. [ 13 ] : p. 10
The Along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR) was a joint venture between Auspace and British Aerospace Australia to build and use remote sensing equipment for use on the European ERS-2 spacecraft in 1995. The project evolved into the Advanced ATSR (AATSR) program in 1999, [ 13 ] : p. 10 which was in use until 2012. [ 27 ]
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Program |
The National Strategic Computing Initiative ( NSCI ) is a United States initiative calling for the accelerated development of technologies for exascale supercomputers , and funding research into post-semiconductor computing. [ 1 ] The initiative was created by an executive order issued by President Barack Obama in July 2015. [ 1 ] Ten United States government departments and independent agencies are involved in the initiative. The initiative initially brought together existing programs, with some dedicated funding increases proposed in the Obama administration's 2017 budget request . The initiative's strategic plan was released in July 2016.
The program has five strategic themes: [ 2 ]
At an April 2016 forum, engaging independent software vendors to develop software platforms for HPC was seen as a major hurdle of the initiative, as was attracting a workforce to work on HPC given the dominance of startup companies in attracting talent, and raising awareness of government HPC resources to outside parties. [ 3 ]
Justifications for the initiative include the increasing capabilities of China in supercomputing, as well as the increasing relevance of HPC to industry rather than only academic applications. [ 4 ]
There are three lead agencies: the Department of Energy and Department of Defense will jointly focus on advanced simulation, with Defense also focusing on data analysis, while the National Science Foundation will focus on scientific discovery and workforce development. [ 1 ] Energy's involvement will be through the Office of Science and the National Nuclear Security Administration . The FY2017 budget proposal envisions the preexisting Exascale Computing Initiative continuing to deal with research and development for exascale computing, but a new Exascale Computing Program would assume responsibility for development and procurement of actual machines, along the lines of Energy's other scientific instruments such as the Advanced Photon Source the Spallation Neutron Source . [ 5 ] The National Science Foundation's involvement would mainly be centered in its Advanced Cyberinfrastructure program, although the Mathematical and Physical Sciences Directorate would co-lead. [ 6 ]
There are two foundational research and development agencies: the Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA) will focus on alternative post-silicon computing paradigms, while the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will focus on measurement science needed for future computing technologies. [ 1 ] IARPA's programs in superconducting computing are aligned with the initiative. [ 7 ]
The five deployment agencies, which will be involved in design and testing for projects related to their missions, are NASA , Federal Bureau of Investigation , National Institutes of Health , Department of Homeland Security , and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). [ 1 ] While NASA and NOAA already have high-performance computing programs, those at the other three deployment agencies would be new. [ citation needed ]
The initiative was created by Executive Order 13702, signed by President Barack Obama on July 29, 2015. [ 1 ] The initiative had been under development since 2012. The July 2015 executive order formally establishing the program was seen as the result of deadlock and opposition in Congress to the Obama administration's fiscal year 2016 budget request. [ citation needed ] As part of the initiative, a request for information on "Science Drivers Requiring Capable Exascale High Performance Computing" was issued by the National Science Foundation on September 15, 2015. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The initiative's Implementation Plan was issued on October 27, 2015, although it was not immediately released to the public to avoid preempting higher-level budgetary planning. [ 8 ]
Although the Obama administration's fiscal year 2017 budget request, released in February 2016, included $285 million for the Department of Energy and $33 million for the National Science Foundation through the NSCI, [ 5 ] [ 10 ] few additional details about the initiative had emerged in the following months. [ 8 ] [ 10 ] [ 3 ] Although there was concern that the initiative might not survive the upcoming elections and change of presidential administration, [ 3 ] Office of Science and Technology Policy director John Holdren in May 2016 expressed confidence that it would survive into the next administration regardless of who the next President would be. [ 11 ]
The strategic plan was released in July 2016, on the first anniversary of the initiative. [ 12 ] It was reported that the perceived delay in implementation was due to its expansiveness across many government agencies and that it was during a contentious election year. Workforce development was cited as a particularly thorny issue during a July 2016 NSCI workshop in Washington, D.C. [ 13 ] At the time the initiative was criticized for bringing existing programs, such as the Cancer Breakthroughs 2020 , under a new umbrella initiative rather than starting new programs. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] In late 2016, the first exascale systems were expected to be operational by 2022. [ 15 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Strategic_Computing_Initiative |
The National Supercomputing Center for Energy and the Environment (NSCEE), is a supercomputing facility housed at UNLV in Las Vegas , Nevada . [ 1 ] It was established in 1989 by an act of Congress, PL-101. [ citation needed ] The facility is used to address a wide variety of scientific studies and applications. [ 2 ]
This Nevada -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it .
This computing article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Supercomputing_Center_for_Energy_and_the_Environment |
The National Take Back Initiative is a voluntary program in the United States, encouraging the public to return excess or expired drugs. The take back events occur twice annually, in the spring and in the fall. The program is coordinated by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). [ 1 ]
Drug take-back programs are a common and environmentally supportive method for avoiding the improper disposal of unused pharmaceuticals. [ 2 ] One of the objectives of the program is to avoid disposal of drugs by flushing them to the local sewage system, which causes water pollution . Municipal sewage treatment plants are not designed to treat pharmaceuticals, and the drugs tend to pass through the plant untreated, to the receiving water body. [ 3 ]
In 2010, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , enough pharmaceuticals were prescribed to medicate every American adult around-the-clock for one month. Some of these prescriptions and over the counter drugs decay in the home and are highly susceptible to diversion, misuse, and abuse. Often, more Americans currently abuse prescription drugs than the number of those using cocaine, hallucinogens, heroin, and inhalants combined, according to the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health. [ 4 ] Studies show that the majority of teens who abuse prescription drugs obtain them from family or friends for free, including from the home medicine cabinet. [ 5 ] Improper disposal methods can pose both safety and environmental hazards.
Four days following the DEA’s first Take-Back Day on September 25, 2010, Congress approved and amendment to the Controlled Substances Act . This action provided the DEA with the option to develop a permanent process for people to safely and conveniently dispose of their prescription drugs. President Barack Obama signed the Secure and Responsible Drug Disposal Act of 2010, and the DEA immediately began installing regulations for a more permanent solution. [ 6 ]
The DEA’s Take-Back events are also a reflection of the President's prescription drug abuse prevention strategy entitled "Epidemic: Responding to America’s Prescription Drug Abuse Crisis" developed and promoted by the Office of National Drug Control Policy . Ridding medicine cabinets of unused or expired medications in American homes is one of the four main items addressed the strategy for reducing diversion prescription drug abuse. The other action items include educating the public as well as health care providers. In turn, this system establishes prescription drug monitoring programs in all the states.
In April 2021, the program reported the collection of 420 short tons (380,000 kg) of drugs at 5,060 sites around the country. [ 1 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Take_Back_Initiative |
National Timber Group (NTG) is one of the largest independent timber distribution and processing groups in the UK. The group has 60 processing and branch/distribution sites across the UK providing nationwide coverage, and employs at least 1450 people.
The group was formed in 2018 by specialist private equity investment firm Cairngorm Capital through the acquisition of Thornbridge, [ 1 ] [ 2 ] NYTimber, [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Rembrand [ 5 ] [ 6 ] and Arnold Laver . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The CEO is Scott Cairns. [ 10 ]
NTG acquired Scotia Roofing & Building Supplies and Glow Insulation - both Rembrand subsidiary companies - in June 2019, the assets of Cotswold Manufacturing [ 11 ] [ 12 ] in November 2019, independent timber merchant Hymor Timber [ 13 ] [ 14 ] in February 2021, and Orchard Timber Products [ 15 ] [ 16 ] in November 2021. In September 2022 SV Timber [ 17 ] [ 18 ] was acquired.
Four new brands - National Timber Systems, Timberworld.co.uk, Intelligent Door Solutions and Alco Timber - have been developed within the group.
Through the companies, NTG's customer base includes carpenters and joiners, housebuilders and building contractors. It is a supplier to large-scale infrastructure projects.
Group turnover is over £350 million. They have sites from the north of Scotland to London and the south west of England, providing customers with high quality timber, panel, decorative surfaces and engineered wood products supported by comprehensive timber knowledge and expertise. [ 19 ] [ 20 ]
NTG is a member of the Timber Trade Federation and is listed on Companies House . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Timber_Group |
The National Toxicology Program ( NTP ) is an inter-agency program run by the United States Department of Health and Human Services to coordinate, evaluate, and report on toxicology within public agencies. [ 1 ]
The National Toxicology Program is headquartered at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). The NIEHS Director, currently Richard Woychik , also concurrently serves as NTP Director. [ 1 ]
The program was established in 1978 by Joseph A. Califano Jr., then the United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare (today known as the Secretary of Health and Human Services). The program arose from congressional concerns about the health effects of chemical agents in the environment. In October 1981, Secretary Richard S. Schwiker granted permanent status to the program. [ 2 ]
The NTP Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods (NICEATM) supports the development and evaluation of new, revised, and alternative methods for chemical safety testing. Alternative methods are methods for safety testing of chemicals and chemical products that use fewer or no animals or that minimize or prevent animal pain and distress. NICEATM is directed by Dr. Warren Casey, PhD, DABT . [ citation needed ]
The NIH Revitalization Act of 1993 [ 3 ] directed NIEHS to establish criteria for the validation and regulatory acceptance of alternative test methods and a process for their subsequent implementation. This led to the establishment of the Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods via the ICCVAM Authorization Act of 2000, [ 4 ] which stated that ICCVAM would exist as a permanent interagency committee of NIEHS under NICEATM. [ citation needed ]
In addition to supporting ICCVAM, NICEATM activities include:
NICEATM publishes results of its analyses of alternative test methods and approaches in the peer-reviewed literature and presents at meetings of the Society of Toxicology and the World Congress on Alternatives and Animal Use in the Life Sciences . [ citation needed ]
The United States federgovernment's NIEHS National Toxicology Program's Office of the Report on Carcinogens is responsible for publishing a Report On Carcinogens , first issued in 1980. [ 5 ]
The latest edition is the 15th Report, issued in 2021. [ 6 ] The 14th Report, published in 2016, contains "248 listings of agents, substances, mixtures, and exposure circumstances that are known or reasonably anticipated to cause cancer in humans." This edition added seven newly reviewed listings, of which the only synthetic chemical was trichloroethylene . [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Toxicology_Program |
The National Tsunami Warning Center ( NTWC ) is one of two tsunami warning centers in the United States, covering all coastal regions of the United States and Canada , except Hawaii , Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands , Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands . Until 2013, it was known as the West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center.
The NTWC, operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) , detects and analyzes earthquakes worldwide, issuing warnings to local officials in the hazard zones about the advisability of evacuating low-lying coastal areas and moving ships to deep water.
The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has the responsibility for areas of the U.S. which are not covered by NTWC.
Following the March 27, 1964 Alaska earthquake and tsunami, the NTWC (formerly known as The Palmer Observatory) was established in 1967 in Palmer , Alaska, under the auspices of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey . This earthquake alerted State and Federal officials that a facility was necessary to provide timely and effective tsunami warnings and earthquake information to the coastal areas of Alaska . Congress provided funds in 1965 to construct two new observatories and establish a tsunami warning system in Alaska. The first observatory constructed was at the U.S. Naval Station on Adak Island in the Andreanof Islands in the Central Aleutians . The City of Palmer, in the Matanuska Valley 42 miles northeast of Anchorage , was selected as the site for the primary observatory due to its proximity to bedrock for instrumentation and to communications facilities. Construction of the observatory installations, the task of engineering and assembling the data systems, and the hookup of the extensive telecommunications and data telemetry network was completed in the summer of 1967. With the dedication of the Palmer Observatory on September 2, 1967, the Alaska Regional Tsunami Warning System (ARTWS) became operational.
Originally, the tsunami warning responsibility for Alaska was shared by the three observatories located at Palmer, Adak and Sitka . Sitka, a seismological observatory since 1904, and Fairbanks were the only two seismic stations operating in Alaska in 1964. The responsibilities of Adak and Sitka were limited to issuing a tsunami warning for events occurring within 300 miles of their location. In later years, the responsibility to provide tsunami warning services for Alaska was transferred from the Adak and Sitka observatories to the Palmer Observatory. Sitka and Adak Observatories were eventually closed in the early 1990s, although the seismic instrumentation is still maintained.
In 1973, the Palmer Observatory was transferred to the National Weather Service 's Alaska Region and changed its name to Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (ATWC). In 1982, its area of responsibility (AOR) was enlarged to include the issuing of tsunami warnings to California , Oregon , Washington , and British Columbia for potential tsunamigenic earthquakes occurring in their coastal areas. In 1996, the responsibility was again expanded to include all Pacific-wide tsunamigenic sources that could affect the California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia and Alaska coasts, and the name was changed to the West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC) to reflect those new responsibilities.
In 2003, a new Tsunami Warning Center building was constructed in the yard of the original building. This new facility was the first LEED certified building in the state of Alaska, and within the U.S. Department of Commerce . LEED ( Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ) certification is granted by the U.S. Green Building Council , and awards environmentally sensitive construction practices. This new facility provides upgraded power and communications capability, as well as office space for the expanded staff, assuring that the center will continue to provide quality products to the public well into the future.
Following the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami in late 2004 , the WC/ATWC expanded its scope to the U.S. Atlantic coast , and the Atlantic coast of Canada . On 1 October 2013, the name was changed to the National Tsunami Warning Center (NTWC) to reflect this expanded geographical zone of responsibility.
NTWC is the tsunami warning authority for the following regions:
Other parts of the United States are covered by the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center .
To accomplish its mission of providing accurate and timely tsunami bulletins to its area-of-responsibility (AOR) – which includes Canadian coastal regions, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands , and the ocean coasts of all U.S. States except Hawaii – the NTWC detects, locates, sizes, and analyzes earthquakes worldwide. Earthquakes that activate the center's alarm system initiate an earthquake and tsunami investigation which includes the following four basic steps: automatic locating and sizing the earthquake; earthquake analysis and review; sea level data analysis to verify the existence of a tsunami and to calibrate models; and disseminating information to the appropriate emergency management officials.
Tsunami bulletins are issued to state/province departments of emergency services; federal disaster preparedness agencies; National Weather Service offices; Canada's Atlantic Storm Prediction Center; Federal Aviation Administration offices; the U.S. Coast Guard ; military bases; local emergency managers; United States Geological Survey offices; and many other recipients located in the U.S. and Canada. Earthquakes large enough to be felt near the coast, but below the tsunami warning/watch/advisory threshold size, prompt informational statements to the same recipients as warnings to help prevent needless evacuations .
In addition to its basic functions, the center conducts a community preparedness program intended to increase public awareness of the tsunami hazard and improve tsunami planning at the community level. The center also actively pursues developmental projects which enhance tsunami warning operations.
The center operates 24 hours every day with two watchstanders on duty. Center personnel are notified of activity by an alarm system which is activated by several methods:
In 1995, NOAA began developing the Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) system. By 2001, an array of six stations had been deployed in the Pacific Ocean . [ 3 ]
Beginning in 2005, as a result of the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake , plans were announced to add 32 more DART buoys to be operational by mid-2007. [ 4 ]
These stations give detailed information about tsunamis while they are still far off shore. Each station consists of a sea-bed bottom pressure recorder (at a depth of 1000–6000 m) which detects the passage of a tsunami and transmits the data to a surface buoy via acoustic modem. The surface buoy then radios the information to the NTWC via the GOES satellite system. The bottom pressure recorder lasts for two years while the surface buoy is replaced every year. The system has considerably improved the forecasting and warning of tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Tsunami_Warning_Center |
The National Union of Chemical, Footwear, Rubber, Leather and Non-Metallic Employees (NUCFRLANMPE) is a trade union representing workers in various industries in Nigeria.
The union was founded in 1996, when the Government of Nigeria merged the weak Footwear, Leather and Rubber Products Workers' Union of Nigeria with the strong National Union of Chemical and Non-Metallic Products Workers. Like both its predecessors, it affiliated to the Nigeria Labour Congress . [ 1 ] The union had about 40,000 members in 2013, but following job losses in the industry, by 2018 it had only 20,000 members. [ 2 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Union_of_Chemical,_Footwear,_Rubber,_Leather_and_Non-Metallic_Employees |
The Office of Special Masters of the U.S. Court of Federal Claims , popularly known as " vaccine court ", administers a no-fault system for litigating vaccine injury claims. These claims against vaccine manufacturers cannot normally be filed in state or federal civil courts, but instead must be heard in the U.S. Court of Federal Claims , sitting without a jury.
The National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program ( VICP or NVICP ) was established by the 1986 National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (NCVIA), passed by the United States Congress in response to a threat to the vaccine supply due to a 1980s scare over the DPT vaccine . Despite the belief of most public health officials that claims of side effects were unfounded, large jury awards had been given to some plaintiffs, most DPT vaccine makers had ceased production, and officials feared the loss of herd immunity . [ 1 ]
Between its inception in 1986 and May 2023, it has awarded a total of $4.6 billion, with the average award amount between 2006 and 2020 being $450,000, and the award rate (which varies by vaccine) being 1.2 awards per million doses administered. The Health Resources and Services Administration reported in July 2022 that "approximately 60 percent of all compensation awarded by the VICP comes as result of a negotiated settlement between the parties in which HHS has not concluded, based upon review of the evidence, that the alleged vaccine(s) caused the alleged injury". [ 2 ] Cases are settled to minimize the risk of loss for both parties, to minimize the time and expense of litigation, and to resolve petitions quickly. [ 2 ] [ attribution needed ]
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services set up the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program (VICP) in 1988 to compensate individuals and families of individuals injured by covered childhood vaccines. [ 3 ] The VICP was adopted in response to concerns over the pertussis portion of the DPT vaccine. [ 1 ] Several U.S. lawsuits against vaccine makers won substantial awards. Most makers ceased production, and the last remaining major manufacturer threatened to do so. [ 1 ] The VICP uses a no-fault system for resolving vaccine injury claims. [ 1 ] Compensation covers medical and legal expenses, loss of future earning capacity, and up to $250,000 for pain and suffering; a death benefit of up to $250,000 is available. If certain minimal requirements are met, legal expenses are compensated even for unsuccessful claims. [ 4 ] Since 1988, the program has been funded by an excise tax of 75 cents on every purchased dose of covered vaccine. To win an award, a claimant must have experienced an injury that is named as a vaccine injury in a table included in the law within the required time period or show a causal connection. The burden of proof is the civil law preponderance-of-the-evidence standard, in other words a showing that causation was more likely than not. Denied claims can be pursued in civil courts, though this is rare. [ 1 ]
The VICP covers all vaccines listed on the Vaccine Injury Table maintained by the Secretary of Health and Human Services; in 2007 the list included vaccines against diphtheria , tetanus , pertussis (whooping cough), measles , mumps , rubella (German measles), polio , hepatitis B , varicella (chicken pox), Haemophilus influenzae type b , rotavirus , and pneumonia . [ 5 ] From 1988 until January 8, 2008, 5,263 claims relating to autism, and 2,865 non-autism claims, were made to the VICP. Of these claims, 925 (see previous rulings ), were compensated, with 1,158 non-autism and 350 autism claims dismissed, and one autism-like claim compensated; awards (including attorney's fees) totaled $847 million. [ 6 ] The VICP also applies to claims for injuries suffered before 1988; there were 4,264 of these claims of which 1,189 were compensated with awards totaling $903 million. [ 6 ] [ failed verification ] As of October 2019, $4.2 billion in compensation (not including attorneys fees and costs) has been awarded. [ 7 ]
As of December 2020 [update] , filing a claim with the Court of Federal Claims requires a $402.00 filing fee, [ 8 ] which can be waived for those unable to pay. Medical records such as prenatal, birth, pre-vaccination, vaccination, and post-vaccination records are strongly suggested, as medical review and claim processing may be delayed without them. Because this is a legal process most people use a lawyer, though this is not required. [ 4 ] By 1999 the average claim took two years to resolve, and 42% of resolved claims were awarded compensation, as compared with 23% for medical malpractice claims through the tort system. [ 9 ] There is a three-year statute of limitations for filing a claim, timed from the first manifestation of the medical problem. [ 10 ]
More than 5,300 petitions alleging autism caused by vaccines have been filed in the vaccine court. In 2002, the court instituted the Omnibus Autism Proceeding in which plaintiffs were allowed to proceed with the three cases they considered to be the strongest before a panel of special masters. In each of the cases, the panel found that the plaintiffs had failed to demonstrate a causal effect between the MMR vaccine and autism. [ 11 ] Following this determination, the vaccine court has routinely dismissed such suits, finding no causal effect between the MMR vaccine and autism. [ 12 ]
Many studies have failed to conclude that there is a causal link between autism spectrum disorders and vaccines, [ 13 ] and the current scientific consensus is that routine childhood vaccines are not linked to the development of autism .
Several claimants have attempted to bypass the VICP process with claims that thimerosal in vaccines had caused autism, but these were ultimately not successful. They have demanded medical monitoring for vaccinated children who do not show signs of autism and have filed class-action suits on behalf of parents. [ 1 ] In March 2006, the U.S. Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that plaintiffs suing three manufacturers of thimerosal could bypass the vaccine court and litigate in either state or federal court using the ordinary channels for recovery in tort . [ 14 ] This was the first instance where a federal appeals court has held that a suit of this nature may bypass the vaccine court. The argument was that thimerosal is a preservative, not a vaccine, so it does not fall under the provisions of the vaccine act. [ 15 ] The claims that vaccines (or thimerosal in vaccines) caused autism eventually had to be filed in the vaccine court as part of the Omnibus Autism Proceeding . [ citation needed ]
The scientific consensus , developed from substantial medical and scientific research, states that there is no evidence supporting these claims, and the rate of autism continues to climb despite elimination of thimerosal from most routine early childhood vaccines. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 13 ] [ 18 ] Major scientific and medical bodies such as the Institute of Medicine [ 18 ] and World Health Organization , [ 19 ] [ 20 ] as well as governmental agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration [ 21 ] and the CDC [ 22 ] reject any role for thimerosal in autism or other neurodevelopmental disorders. [ 1 ]
As of May 2023, nearly $4.6 billion in compensation and $450 million in attorneys’ fees have been awarded. [ 3 ]
The following table shows the awards by main classes of vaccines made to victims in the years 2006-2017. [ 23 ] This shows that on average 1.2 awards were made per million vaccine doses. It also shows that multiple vaccines such as MMR do not have an abnormal award rate.
* This covers the vaccinations known by the abbreviations DT, DTaP, DTaP-HIB, DTaP-IPV, DTap-IPV-HIB, Td, Tdap
Self representation is permitted, although the NVICP also pays attorneys fees out of the fund, separate from any compensation given to the petitioner. [ 24 ] This is "to ensure that vaccine claimants have readily available a competent bar to prosecute their claims". [ 25 ]
The Homeland Security Act of 2002 provides another exception to the exclusive jurisdiction of the vaccine court. If smallpox vaccine were to be widely administered by public health authorities in response to a terrorist or other biological warfare attack, persons administering or producing the vaccine would be deemed federal employees and claims would be subject to the Federal Tort Claims Act , in which case claimants would sue the U.S. Government in the U.S. district courts, and would have the burden of proving the defendants' negligence, a much more difficult standard. [ 26 ]
Notably, the Health Resources and Services Administration reported in July 2022 that "approximately 60 percent of all compensation awarded by the VICP comes as result of a negotiated settlement between the parties in which HHS has not concluded, based upon review of the evidence, that the alleged vaccine(s) caused the alleged injury". [ 2 ] Cases are settled to minimize the risk of loss for both parties, to minimize the time and expense of litigation, and to resolve petitions quickly. [ 2 ]
Of the remaining cases, in the vaccine court, as in civil tort cases, the burden of proof is a preponderance of evidence , but while in tort cases this is met by expert testimony based on epidemiology or rigorous scientific studies showing both general and specific causation, in the vaccine court, the burden is met with a three prong test established in Althen , [ 27 ] a 2005 United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruling. [ 28 ] Althen held that an award should be granted if a petitioner either establishes a "Tabled Injury" or proves "causation in fact" by proving three prongs:
This ruling held that tetanus vaccine caused a particular case of optic neuritis , even though no scientific evidence supported the petitioner's claim. [ 29 ] Other rulings have allowed petitioners to gain awards for claims that the MMR vaccine causes fibromyalgia , that the Hib vaccine causes transverse myelitis , and that the hepatitis B vaccine causes Guillain–Barré syndrome , chronic demyelinating polyneuropathy, and multiple sclerosis . [ 29 ] In the most extreme of these cases, a 2006 petitioner successfully claimed that a hepatitis B vaccine caused her multiple sclerosis despite several studies showing that the vaccine neither causes nor worsens the disease, and despite a conclusion by the Institute of Medicine that evidence favors rejection of a causal relationship. [ 29 ]
In 2008, the federal government settled a case brought to the vaccine court by the family of Hannah Poling , a girl who developed autistic-like symptoms after receiving a series of vaccines in a single day. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] The vaccines given were DTaP , Hib , MMR , varicella , and inactivated polio . Poling was diagnosed months later with encephalopathy (brain disease) caused by a mitochondrial enzyme deficit, a mitochondrial disorder ; it is not unusual for children with such deficits to develop neurologic signs between their first and second years. [ 29 ] There is little scientific research in the area: no scientific studies show whether childhood vaccines can cause or contribute to mitochondrial disease, and there is no scientific evidence that vaccinations damage the brains of children with mitochondrial disorders. [ 30 ] [ 32 ] Although many parents view this ruling as confirming that vaccines cause regressive autism, most children with autism do not seem to have mitochondrial disorders, and the case was settled without proof of causation. [ 30 ] [ 33 ]
With the commencement of hearings in the case of Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services (Case #98-916V), the argument over whether autism is a vaccine injury moved into the vaccine court. A panel of three special masters began hearing the first cases of the historic Omnibus Autism Proceedings in June 2007. [ 34 ] There were six test cases in all, and the entire record of the cases is publicly available. [ 35 ] The lead petitioners, the parents of Michelle Cedillo, claimed that Michelle's autism was caused by a vaccine. Theresa and Michael Cedillo contended that thimerosal seriously weakened Michelle's immune system and prevented her body from clearing the measles virus after her vaccination at the age of fifteen months. At the outset Special Master George Hastings, Jr. said "Clearly the story of Michelle's life is a tragic one," [ 36 ] while pledging to listen carefully to the evidence. On February 12, 2009, the court ruled in three test cases that the combination of the MMR vaccine and thimerosal-containing vaccines were not to blame for autism. Hastings concluded in his decision, "Unfortunately, the Cedillos have been misled by physicians who are guilty, in my view, of gross medical misjudgment." [ 37 ] The ruling was appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals, [ 12 ] and upheld.
On March 13, 2010, the court ruled in three test cases that thimerosal-containing vaccines do not cause autism . Special Master Hastings concluded, "The overall weight of the evidence is overwhelmingly contrary to the petitioners' causation theories." [ 12 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Vaccine_Injury_Compensation_Program |
The National Warning System (NAWAS) is an automated telephone system used to convey warnings to United States –based federal, state and local governments, as well as the military and civilian population. [ 1 ] The original mission of NAWAS was to warn of an imminent enemy attack or an actual accidental missile launch upon the United States. NAWAS still supports this mission but the emphasis is on natural and technological disasters. [ 1 ] Organizations are able to disseminate and coordinate emergency alerts and warning messages through NAWAS and other public systems by means of the Integrated Public Alert and Warning System . [ 2 ]
NAWAS is operated and fully funded by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
Today, the system consists of what is essentially a 2200+ telephone party line . The phone instruments are designed to provide protection for lightning strikes so they may be used during storms. The interconnecting lines provide some protection by avoiding local telephone switches. This ensures they are available even when the local system is down or overloaded. NAWAS has major terminals at each state Emergency Operations Center [ 3 ] and State Emergency Management Facility. Other secondary terminals include local emergency management agencies, National Weather Service field offices and Public-safety answering points (PSAPs).
NAWAS is used to disseminate warning information concerning natural and technological disasters to approximately 2200 warning points throughout the continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii and the Virgin Islands. This information includes acts of terrorism including Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), after aircraft incidents/accidents, earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, nuclear incidents/accidents, severe thunderstorms, tornadoes, tsunamis and winter storms or blizzards. NAWAS allows issuance of warnings to all stations nationwide or to selected stations as dictated by the situation.
When the NAWAS is not being used for emergency traffic/tests, State and local government personnel are encouraged to use it for official business. [ 1 ]
This article related to telecommunications is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Warning_System |
The 50th Anniversary National Wilderness Conference is the culminating commemorative event for the 50th anniversary of the Wilderness Act . The conference was held in Albuquerque, NM, from October 15-19, 2014. [ 1 ]
This conference is a multi-day event including presentations, panel discussions, exhibits, field trips, and skill-development workshops. The conference will provide ample opportunity to network and share ideas, celebrate recent successes, share lessons learned, and discuss emerging challenges in wilderness stewardship. Conference tracks will include history, stewardship, education, experience, civic engagement, and science. [ 2 ]
The conference is convened to provide a forum for discussing growing challenges to wilderness values while deepening and enabling participants’ engagement in wilderness stewardship in a time of unprecedented environmental and social change; [ 3 ] meanwhile, it also aims to honor the achievement of a half-century of permanent protection for America’s wild places under the Wilderness Act .
The National Wilderness Conference was produced by the Wilderness50, a diverse coalition of non-profit organizations, government agencies, and academic institutions [ 3 ] —including the Pew Charitable Trusts, Wilderness Society, Sierra Club, Back Country Horsemen of America, Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics, Conservation Lands Foundation, Bureau of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife Service, Forest Service, and National Park Service. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Wilderness_Conference |
The National Wind Tunnel Facility (NWTF), is an initiative in which 17 wind tunnels distributed across seven UK universities (host institutions) are made open access (for up to 25% of time) to external researchers in the UK and abroad, from both university and industry based. [ 1 ]
NWTF is intended to be as inclusive as possible while still supporting the best science. The scheme was announced on 9 January 2014 by David Willetts , Minister for Science and Universities. [ 2 ] The total funding for the Facility is £13.3 million, £10.7 million coming from EPSRC and £2.6 million from the UK Aerospace Technology Institute. [ 3 ]
The EPSRC and ATI decided to fund the NWTF in order to match the UK talent base to world-class wind tunnel facilities. The enhanced UK capability in experimental aerodynamics is available to all UK-based researchers. The stated aim was to create nodes of excellence attracting young researchers. Another aim was to establish a closer tie with industry, creating a pull-through environment and an intended spill-over of the collaboration and benefits to other sectors. [ 4 ]
The NWTF programme was to have a duration of five years. A mid-term review was to review the progress made during the first two and a half years. The current end date is December 2018,
The NWTF has a management board (MB) that meets approximately every 3 months. This is composed of a Principal Investigator from each of the current host institutions and the NWTF Project Manager. The current MB members are Professor Holger Babinsky ( University of Cambridge ), Professor Chris Atkin ( City University ), Professor Kevin Garry ( Cranfield University ), Dr Richard Green ( University of Glasgow ), Professor Jonathan Morrison ( Imperial College ), Professor Peter Ireland ( University of Oxford ), Professor Bharathram Ganapathisubramani ( University of Southampton ) and Dr Kevin Gouder (NWTF Project Manager).
An advisory board (AB) oversees the broader aims of the NWTF, monitors the running of the NWTF and reviews progress versus Key Performance Indicators. The AB is composed of representatives from EPSRC, ATI, senior academics (from the UK and abroad), representatives from industry, an existing National Facility Manager and is chaired by an independent senior UK-based aerodynamicist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Wind_Tunnel_Facility |
Japan has a nationwide system of national highways ( 一般国道 , Ippan Kokudō ) distinct from the expressways . The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism and other government agencies administer the national highways. Beginning in 1952, Japan classified these as Class 1 or Class 2. Class 1 highways had one- or two-digit numbers, while Class 2 highways had three-digit numbers. For example, routes 1 and 57 were Class 1 highways while 507 (the one with the highest number) was a Class 2 highway.
A 1964 amendment to the governing law resulted in a unification of the classes, which took effect in April of the following year. Highways numbered since that time have had three-digit numbers, so the numbers 58–100, which had so far been unused, remained unused. However, when Okinawa Prefecture reverted to Japanese control in 1972, Route 58, with its southern endpoint in Okinawa's capital city of Naha , was established. The numbers from 59 to 100 remain unused. Some other numbers have been vacated by the joining or changing of routes: 109 (joined with 108), 110 (renumbered as 48), 111 (renumbered as 45), 214–216 (joined to form 57).
Initially established as "Class 1 highways", except Route 58
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American National Standard Pipe Thread standards, often called national pipe thread standards for short, are United States national technical standards for screw threads used on threaded pipes and pipe fittings . They include both tapered and straight thread series for various purposes, including rigidity, pressure -tight sealing, or both. [ 1 ] The types are named with a full name and an abbreviation, such as NPT , NPS , NPTF , or NPSC .
MIP is an abbreviation for male iron pipe, and FIP is an abbreviation for female iron pipe. [ 2 ]
Outside North America, some US pipe thread sizes are widely used, as well as many British Standard Pipe threads and ISO 7–1, 7–2, 228–1, and 228-2 threads.
The various types are each named with an abbreviation and a full name, as follows: [ 3 ]
Threaded pipes can provide an effective seal for pipes transporting liquids , gases , steam , and hydraulic fluid. These threads are now used in materials other than steel and brass, including PTFE , PVC , nylon , bronze , and cast iron .
The taper on NPT threads allows them to form a seal when torqued as the flanks of the threads compress against each other, as opposed to parallel/straight thread fittings or compression fittings in which the threads merely hold the pieces together and do not provide a seal. The various types of pipe threads are designed for use both with or without thread sealants, [ 1 ] as particular applications demand. The sealants, where used, are typically thread seal tape thread sealant or a thread seal paste pipe dope (sometimes similar in composition to plumber's putty ).
Because the thread body is tapered (0.75 in/ft or 62.5 mm/m), a larger diameter keeps compressing into a smaller diameter and finally forms a seal (no clearance remains between the crests and roots of the threads because of the taper). This means that NPT fittings should be burr -free and lubricated using a lubricant like lubricating paste or thread seal tape. The use of tape also helps to limit corrosion on the threads, which otherwise can make future disassembly nearly impossible.
Commonly used sizes are 1 ⁄ 8 , 1 ⁄ 4 , 3 ⁄ 8 , 1 ⁄ 2 , 3 ⁄ 4 , 1, 1 + 1 ⁄ 4 , 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 , 2, 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 , 3, 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 , 4, 5, and 6 inch, as pipe and fittings by most US suppliers. Sizes smaller than 1 ⁄ 8 inch are occasionally used for compressed air, while sizes larger than 6 inches are often joined by other methods.
NPT is defined by ANSI / ASME standard B1.20.1. [ 4 ]
The taper rate for all NPT threads is 1 inch of diameter in 16 inches of length ( 3 ⁄ 4 inch per foot or 62.5 millimeters per meter) measured by the change of diameter (of the pipe thread) over distance of thread. The half-angle (between the taper surface and the axis of the pipe) is arctan ( 1 ⁄ 32 ) ≈ 1.7899° ≈ 1° 47′.
The standard for Nominal Pipe Size (often abbreviated NPS, which should not be confused with the abbreviation NPS for the straight thread form standard) is loosely related to the inside diameter of Schedule 40 series of sizes. Because of the pipe wall thickness of Schedule pipe, the actual diameter of the NPT threads is larger than the Nominal Pipe Size diameter, and considerably so for small sizes. Pipe of a given size in a different Schedule than Schedule 40 provides a different wall thickness while maintaining the same outside diameter and thread profile as Schedule 40. Thus the inside diameter of a given size of Schedule pipe differs from the Nominal Pipe Size, while outside diameters for a given nominal Schedule size are the same between Schedules.
National Pipe Thread series have the same 60° included angle as Sellers thread . On the other hand, for sealing capability, tapered (pressure-tight) threads have crest and root shapes that differ from Sellers. For example, the NPT has a crest width of 0.038 to 0.062 pitch, which is sharper than the 0.125 pitch of Sellers. [ 4 ]
National Pipe Taper Fuel ( NPTF , also called Dryseal American National Standard Taper Pipe Thread , defined by ASME B1.20.3) is designed to provide a more leak-free seal without the use of PTFE tape (often referred to by the popular brand name "Teflon") or another sealant compound. NPTF threads have the same basic shape but with crest and root heights adjusted for an interference fit, eliminating the spiral leakage path.
In 1864, William Sellers , then president of Franklin Institute , presented a standard for nuts, bolts, and screws. Out of this effort came the first United States Standard threads , including pipe threads. [ 7 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_pipe_thread |
The Native Vegetation Management: A Framework for action 2002 is a Victorian strategy which aims to protect, enhance and revegetate Victoria's native vegetation . The Framework's main goal is to "achieve a reversal, across the entire landscape of the long-term decline in the extent and quality of native vegetation, leading to a net gain." [1] . The framework is notable for the inclusion of offsets, which allow authorised land clearing , providing there is a net gain in biodiversity , and for the fact that a monetary value is being placed on biodiversity. The "habitat hectare" has been defined as the trading currency of the framework, and provides a reliable and repeatable measurement of the quality of the native vegetation when correctly administered by an experienced assessor. [2] The trading in "habitat hectares" is a form of biodiversity banking , which occurs in the private market responding to the supply and demand of the available remnant vegetation.
The act is administered by the Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE).
This environment -related article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Vegetation_Management_Framework |
In protein folding , a native contact is a contact between the side chains of two amino acids that are not neighboring in the amino acid sequence (i.e., they are more than four residues apart in the primary sequence in order to remove trivial i to i+4 contacts along alpha helices) but are spatially close in the protein's native state tertiary structure . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The fraction of native contacts reproduced in a particular structure is often used as a reaction coordinate for measuring the deviation from the native state of structures produced during molecular dynamics simulations [ 3 ] or in benchmarks of protein structure prediction methods. [ 4 ]
The contact order is a measure of the locality of a protein's native contacts; [ 5 ] that is, the sequence distance between amino acids that form contacts. Proteins with low contact order are thought to fold faster [ 5 ] [ 6 ] and some may be candidates for downhill folding .
This biochemistry article is a stub . You can help Wikipedia by expanding it . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_contact |
A native metal is any metal that is found pure in its metallic form in nature. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Metals that can be found as native deposits singly or in alloys include antimony , arsenic , bismuth , cadmium , chromium , cobalt , indium , iron , manganese , molybdenum , nickel , niobium , rhenium , tantalum , tellurium , tin , titanium , tungsten , vanadium , and zinc , as well as the gold group ( gold , copper , lead , aluminium , [ 3 ] mercury , silver ) and the platinum group ( platinum , iridium , osmium , palladium , rhodium , ruthenium ). Among the alloys found in native state have been brass , bronze , pewter , German silver , osmiridium , electrum , white gold , silver-mercury amalgam , and gold-mercury amalgam.
Only gold, silver, copper and the platinum group occur native in large amounts. [ citation needed ] Over geological time scales, very few metals can resist natural weathering processes like oxidation , so mainly the less reactive metals such as gold and platinum are found as native metals. The others usually occur as isolated pockets where a natural chemical process reduces a common compound or ore of the metal, leaving the pure metal behind as small flakes or inclusions.
Metals are not the only type of chemical element that can occur in the native state. Non-metallic elements occurring in the native state include carbon , sulfur , and selenium . Silicon , a semi-metal, has rarely been found in the native state as small inclusions in gold. [ 4 ]
Native metals were prehistoric man's only access to metal, since the process of extracting metals from their ores ( smelting ) is thought to have been discovered around 6500 BC. However, native metals could be found only in impractically small amounts, so while copper and iron were known well before the Copper Age and Iron Age , they did not have a large impact until smelting appeared.
Most gold is mined as native metal and can be found as nuggets, veins or wires of gold in a rock matrix, or fine grains of gold, mixed in with sediments or bound within rock. The iconic image of gold mining for many is gold panning , which is a method of separating flakes and nuggets of pure gold from river sediments due to their great density . Native gold is the predominant gold mineral on the earth. It is sometimes found alloyed with silver and/or other metals, but true gold compound minerals are uncommon, mainly a handful of selenides and tellurides.
Native silver occurs as elongated dendritic coatings or irregular masses. It may also occur as cubic, octahedral, or dodecahedral crystals. It may occur alloyed with gold as electrum . It often occurs with silver sulfide and sulfosalt minerals. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Various amalgams of silver and mercury or other metals and mercury do occur rarely as minerals in nature. An example is the mineral eugenite (Ag 11 Hg 2 ) and related forms. [ 7 ] Silver nuggets, wires, and grains are relatively common, but there are also a large number of silver compound minerals owing to silver being more reactive than gold.
Natural alloys of the platinum group metals include: native osmium ( Os,Ir,Ru ), rutheniridosmine ( Ir,Os,Ru ), ruthenium ( Ru,Ir ), palladium ( Pd,Pt ), platinum Pt, and rhodium ( Rh,Pt) . In addition, gold, copper, iron, mercury, tin, and lead may occur in alloys of this group. [ 8 ] As with gold, salts and other compounds of the platinum group metals are rare; native platinum and related metals and alloys are the predominant minerals bearing these metals. These metals occur associated with ultramafic intrusions , and placer deposits derived from those intrusions.
Native copper has been historically mined as an early source of the metal.
The term Old Copper Complex is used to describe an ancient North American civilization that utilized native copper deposits for weapons, tools, and decorative objects. This society existed around Lake Superior , where they found sources of native copper and mined them between 6000 and 3000 BC. [ 9 ] Copper would have been especially useful to ancient humans as it was much stronger than gold, hard enough to be made into useful items such as fishhooks and woodworking tools, but still soft enough to be easily shaped, unlike meteoric iron .
The same deposits of native copper on the Keweenaw Peninsula and Isle Royale were later mined commercially . From 1845 until 1887, the Michigan Copper Country was the leading producer of copper in the United States. Masses of native copper weighing hundreds of tons were sometimes found in the mines.
The spectrum of copper minerals closely resembles that of silver, ranging from oxides of its multiple oxidation states through sulfides and silicates to halides and chlorates, iodates, nitrates and others. Natural alloys of copper (particularly with silver; the two metals can also be found in separate but co-mingled masses) are also found.
Telluric iron (Earth born) is very rare, with only one major deposit known in the world, located on or near Disko Island in Greenland . Most of the native iron on earth is actually not in fact "native", in the traditional sense, to Earth. It mainly comes from iron-nickel meteorites that formed millions of years ago but were preserved from chemical attack by the vacuum of space, and fell to the earth a relatively short time ago. Metallic meteorites are composed primarily of the iron-nickel alloys : taenite (high nickel content) and kamacite (low nickel content). However, there are a few areas on earth where truly native iron can be found. [ 10 ] [ 11 ]
Native nickel has been described in serpentinite due to hydrothermal alteration of ultramafic rocks in New Caledonia and elsewhere. [ 12 ] [ 13 ]
Metallic cobalt has been reported in the Canadian Lorraine Mine, Cobalt-Gowganda region , the Timiskaming District , Ontario , Canada, and in the Aidyrlya gold deposit in Orenburgskaya Oblast of the Southern Urals . [ 14 ]
All other native metals occur only in small quantities or are found in geologically special regions.
For example, metallic cadmium was only found at two locations including the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia . [ 16 ] Native molybdenum has been found in lunar regolith and in the Koryakskii volcano in Kamchatka Oblast of Russia. [ 17 ] Elsewhere in this region native indium, aluminium, tantalum, tellurium, and other metals have been reported. [ citation needed ] Native lead [ 18 ] is quite rare but somewhat more widespread, as are tin, [ 19 ] mercury, [ 20 ] arsenic, [ 21 ] antimony, [ 22 ] and bismuth. [ 23 ]
Native chromium has been found in small grains in Sichuan, China [ 24 ] and other locations. [ 25 ] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_metal |
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