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The following is alist ofMicrosoft Windowscomponents.
This list is not all-inclusive.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Microsoft_Windows_components#Services
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Thereare a number ofsecurity and safetyfeatures new toWindows Vista, most of which are not available in any priorMicrosoft Windowsoperating systemrelease.
Beginning in early 2002 with Microsoft's announcement of itsTrustworthy Computinginitiative, a great deal of work has gone into making Windows Vista a more secure operating system than its predecessors. Internally, Microsoft adopted a "Security Development Lifecycle"[1]with the underlying ethos of "Secure by design, secure by default, secure in deployment". New code for Windows Vista was developed with the SDL methodology, and all existing code was reviewed and refactored to improve security.
Some specific areas where Windows Vista introduces new security and safety mechanisms include User Account Control, parental controls,Network Access Protection, a built-in anti-malwaretool, and new digital content protection mechanisms.
User Account Controlis a new infrastructure that requires user consent before allowing any action that requires administrative privileges. With this feature, all users, including users with administrative privileges, run in a standard user mode by default, since most applications do not require higher privileges. When some action is attempted that needs administrative privileges, such as installing new software or changing system or security settings, Windows will prompt the user whether to allow the action or not. If the user chooses to allow, the process initiating the action is elevated to a higher privilege context to continue. While standard users need to enter a username and password of an administrative account to get a process elevated (Over-the-shoulder Credentials), an administrator can choose to be prompted just for consent or ask for credentials. If the user doesn't click Yes, after 30 seconds the prompt is denied.
UAC asks for credentials in aSecure Desktopmode, where the entire screen is faded out and temporarily disabled, to present only the elevation UI. This is to prevent spoofing of the UI or the mouse by the application requesting elevation. If the application requesting elevation does not havefocusbefore the switch toSecure Desktopoccurs, then its taskbar icon blinks, and when focussed, the elevation UI is presented (however, it is not possible to prevent a malicious application from silently obtaining the focus).
Since theSecure Desktopallows only highest privilegeSystemapplications to run, no user mode application can present its dialog boxes on that desktop, so any prompt for elevation consent can be safely assumed to be genuine. Additionally, this can also help protect againstshatter attacks, which intercept Windows inter-process messages to run malicious code or spoof the user interface, by preventing unauthorized processes from sending messages to high privilege processes. Any process that wants to send a message to a high privilege process must get itself elevated to the higher privilege context, via UAC.
Applications written with the assumption that the user will be running with administrator privileges experienced problems in earlier versions of Windows when run from limited user accounts, often because they attempted to write to machine-wide or system directories (such asProgram Files) or registry keys (notablyHKLM)[2]UAC attempts to alleviate this usingFile and Registry Virtualization, which redirects writes (and subsequent reads) to a per-user location within the user's profile. For example, if an application attempts to write to “C:\program files\appname\settings.ini” and the user doesn't have permissions to write to that directory, the write will get redirected to “C:\Users\username\AppData\Local\VirtualStore\Program Files\appname\.”
BitLocker, formerly known as "Secure Startup", this feature offersfull disk encryptionfor the system volume. Using the command-line utility, it is possible to encrypt additional volumes. Bitlocker utilizes a USB key or Trusted Platform Module (TPM) version 1.2 of the TCG specifications to store its encryption key. It ensures that the computer running Windows Vista starts in a known-good state, and it also protects data from unauthorized access.[3]Data on the volume is encrypted with a Full Volume Encryption Key (FVEK), which is further encrypted with a Volume Master Key (VMK) and stored on the disk itself.
Windows Vista is the first Microsoft Windows operating system to offer native support for the TPM 1.2 by providing a set of APIs, commands, classes, and services for the use and management of the TPM.[4][5]A new system service, referred to as TPM Base Services, enables the access to and sharing of TPM resources for developers who wish to build applications with support for the device.[6]
Encrypting File System (EFS) in Windows Vista can be used to encrypt the systempage fileand the per-userOffline Filescache. EFS is also more tightly integrated with enterprisePublic Key Infrastructure(PKI), and supports using PKI-based key recovery, data recovery through EFS recovery certificates, or a combination of the two. There are also new Group Policies to requiresmart cardsfor EFS, enforce page file encryption, stipulate minimum key lengths for EFS, enforce encryption of the user'sDocuments folder, and prohibit self-signed certificates. The EFS encryption key cache can be cleared when a user locks his workstation or after a certain time limit.
The EFS rekeying wizard allows the user to choose a certificate for EFS and to select and migrate existing files that will use the newly chosen certificate. Certificate Manager also allows users to export their EFS recovery certificates and private keys. Users are reminded to back up their EFS keys upon first use through aballoon notification. The rekeying wizard can also be used to migrate users in existing installations from software certificates tosmart cards. The wizard can also be used by an administrator or users themselves in recovery situations. This method is more efficient than decrypting and reencrypting files.
Windows Vistasignificantly improves the firewall[7]to address a number of concerns around the flexibility ofWindows Firewallin a corporate environment:
Windows Vista includes Windows Defender, Microsoft's anti-spyware utility. According to Microsoft, it was renamed from 'Microsoft AntiSpyware' because it not only features scanning of the system for spyware, similar to other free products on the market, but also includes Real Time Security agents that monitor several common areas of Windows for changes which may be caused by spyware. These areas include Internet Explorer configuration and downloads, auto-start applications, system configuration settings, and add-ons to Windows such as Windows Shell extensions.
Windows Defender also includes the ability to removeActiveXapplications that are installed and block startup programs. It also incorporates theSpyNetnetwork, which allows users to communicate with Microsoft, send what they consider is spyware, and check which applications are acceptable.
Windows Vista allow administrators to enforce hardware restrictions viaGroup Policyto prevent users from installing devices, to restrict device installation to a predefined white list, or to restrict access to removable media and classes of devices.[8][9]
Windows Vista includes a range ofparental controlsfor administrators to monitor and restrict computer activity of standard user accounts that are not part of adomain;User Account Controlenforces administrative restrictions. Features include:Windows Vista Web Filter—implemented as aWinsockLSPfilter to function across all Web browsers—which prohibits access to websites based on categories of content or specific addresses (with an option to block all file downloads);Time Limits, which prevents standard users from logging in during a date or time specified by an administrator (and which locks restricted accounts that are already logged in during such times);Game Restrictions, which allows administrators to block games based on names, contents, or ratings defined by avideo game content rating systemsuch as theEntertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB), with content restrictions taking precedence over rating restrictions (e.g.,Everyone 10+ (E10+)games may be permitted to run in general, butE10+games with mild language will still be blocked if mild language itself is blocked);Application Restrictions, which usesapplication whitelistsfor specific applications; andActivity Reports, which monitors and records activities of restricted standard user accounts.
Windows Parental Controls includes an extensible set of options, withapplication programming interfaces(APIs) for developers to replace bundled features with their own.
Windows Vista usesAddress Space Layout Randomization(ASLR) to load system files at random addresses in memory.[10]By default, all system files are loaded randomly at any of the possible 256 locations. Other executables have to specifically set a bit in the header of thePortable Executable (PE)file, which is the file format for Windows executables, to use ASLR. For such executables, the stack and heap allocated is randomly decided. By loading system files at random addresses, it becomes harder for malicious code to know where privileged system functions are located, thereby making it unlikely for them to predictably use them. This helps prevent most remote execution attacks by preventingreturn-to-LIBCbuffer overflowattacks.
ThePortable Executableformat has been updated to support embedding ofexceptionhandler address in the header. Whenever an exception is thrown, the address of the handler is verified with the one stored in the executable header. If they match, the exception is handled, otherwise it indicates that the run-time stack has been compromised, and hence the process is terminated.
Function pointers are obfuscated byXOR-ingwith a random number, so that the actual address pointed to is hard to retrieve. So would be to manually change a pointer, as the obfuscation key used for the pointer would be very hard to retrieve. Thus, it is made hard for any unauthorized user of the function pointer to be able to actually use it. Also metadata for heap blocks are XOR-ed with random numbers. In addition, check-sums for heap blocks are maintained, which is used to detect unauthorized changes and heap corruption. Whenever a heap corruption is detected, the application is killed to prevent successful completion of the exploit.
Windows Vista binaries include intrinsic support for detection of stack-overflow. When a stack overflow in Windows Vista binaries is detected, the process is killed so that it cannot be used to carry on the exploit. Also Windows Vista binaries place buffers higher in memory and non buffers, like pointers and supplied parameters, in lower memory area. So to actually exploit, a buffer underrun is needed to gain access to those locations. However, buffer underruns are much less common than buffer overruns.
Windows Vista introducesMandatory Integrity Controlto set integrity levels for processes. A low integrity process can not access the resources of a higher integrity process. This feature is being used to enforce application isolation, where applications in a medium integrity level, such as all applications running in the standard user context can not hook into system level processes which run in high integrity level, such as administrator mode applications but can hook onto lower integrity processes like WindowsInternet Explorer 7or8. A lower privilege process cannot perform a window handle validation of higher process privilege, cannot SendMessage or PostMessage to higher privilege application windows, cannot use thread hooks to attach to a higher privilege process, cannot use Journal hooks to monitor a higher privilege process and cannot perform DLL–injection to a higher privilege process.
Windows Vista offers full support for theNX(No-Execute) feature of modern processors.[11]DEP was introduced in Windows XP Service Pack 2 and Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1. This feature, present as NX (EVP) inAMD'sAMD64processors and as XD (EDB) inIntel's processors, can flag certain parts of memory as containing data instead of executable code, which prevents overflow errors from resulting in arbitrary code execution.
If the processor supports the NX-bit, Windows Vista automatically enforces hardware-basedData Execution Preventionon all processes to mark some memory pages as non-executable data segments (like the heap and stack), and subsequently any data is prevented from being interpreted and executed as code. This prevents exploit code from being injected as data and then executed.
If DEP is enabledfor all applications, users gain additional resistance againstzero-day exploits. But not all applications are DEP-compliant and some will generate DEP exceptions. Therefore, DEP is not enforcedfor all applications by defaultin 32-bit versions of Windows and is only turned on for critical system components. However, Windows Vista introduces additional NX policy controls that allow software developers to enable NX hardware protection for their code, independent of system-wide compatibility enforcement settings. Developers can mark their applications as NX-compliant when built, which allows protection to be enforced when that application is installed and runs. This enables a higher percentage of NX-protected code in the software ecosystem on 32-bit platforms, where the default system compatibility policy for NX is configured to protect only operating system components. For x86-64 applications, backward compatibility is not an issue and therefore DEP is enforced by default for all 64-bit programs. Also, only processor-enforced DEP is used in x86-64 versions of Windows Vista for greater security.
Newdigital rights managementand content-protection features have been introduced in Windows Vista to help digital content providers and corporations protect their data from being copied.
The inclusion of newdigital rights managementfeatures has been a source ofcriticism of Windows Vista.
Windows Service Hardeningcompartmentalizes the services such that if one service is compromised, it cannot easily attack other services on the system. It prevents Windows services from doing operations on file systems, registry or networks[14]which they are not supposed to, thereby reducing the overallattack surfaceon the system and preventing entry of malware by exploitingsystem services. Services are now assigned a per-serviceSecurity identifier(SID), which allows controlling access to the service as per the access specified by the security identifier. A per-service SID may be assigned during the service installation via theChangeServiceConfig2API or by using theSC.EXEcommand with thesidtypeverb. Services can also useaccess control lists(ACL) to prevent external access to resources private to itself.
Services in Windows Vista also run in a less privileged account such asLocal ServiceorNetwork Service, instead of theSystemaccount. Previous versions of Windows ransystem servicesin the same login session as the locally logged-in user (Session 0). In Windows Vista, Session 0 is now reserved for these services, and all interactive logins are done in other sessions.[15]This is intended to help mitigate a class of exploits of the Windows message-passing system, known asShatter attacks. The process hosting a service has only the privileges specified in theRequiredPrivilegesregistry value underHKLM\System\CurrentControlSet\Services.
Services also need explicit write permissions to write to resources, on a per-service basis. By using a write-restrictedaccess token, only those resources which have to be modified by a service are given write access, so trying to modify any other resource fails. Services will also have pre-configured firewall policy, which gives it only as much privilege as is needed for it to function properly. Independent software vendors can also use Windows Service Hardening to harden their own services. Windows Vista also hardens thenamed pipesused byRPCservers to prevent other processes from being able to hijack them.
Graphical identification andauthentication(GINA), used for secure authentication and interactive logon has been replaced byCredential Providers. Combined with supporting hardware, Credential Providers can extend the operating system to enable users to log on throughbiometric devices(fingerprint, retinal, or voice recognition), passwords,PINsandsmart cardcertificates, or any custom authentication package and schema third-party developers wish to create. Smart card authentication is flexible as certificate requirements are relaxed. Enterprises may develop, deploy, and optionally enforce custom authentication mechanisms for all domain users. Credential Providers may be designed to supportSingle sign-on(SSO), authenticating users to a securenetwork access point(leveragingRADIUSand other technologies) as well as machine logon. Credential Providers are also designed to support application-specific credential gathering, and may be used for authentication to network resources, joining machines to a domain, or to provide administrator consent forUser Account Control. Authentication is also supported usingIPv6orWeb services. A new Security Service Provider, CredSSP is available throughSecurity Support Provider Interfacethat enables an application to delegate the user's credentials from the client (by using the client-side SSP) to the target server (through the server-side SSP). The CredSSP is also used by Terminal Services to providesingle sign-on.
Windows Vista can authenticate user accounts usingSmart Cardsor a combination of passwords and Smart Cards (Two-factor authentication). Windows Vista can also use smart cards to storeEFSkeys. This makes sure that encrypted files are accessible only as long as the smart card is physically available. If smart cards are used for logon, EFS operates in asingle sign-onmode, where it uses the logon smart card for file encryption without further prompting for the PIN.
Fast User Switchingwhich was limited to workgroup computers on Windows XP, can now also be enabled for computers joined to a domain, starting with Windows Vista. Windows Vista also includes authentication support for theRead-Only Domain Controllersintroduced inWindows Server 2008.
Windows Vista features an update to the crypto API known as Cryptography API: Next Generation (CNG). TheCNG APIis auser modeandkernel modeAPI that includes support forelliptic curve cryptography(ECC) and a number of newer algorithms that are part of theNational Security Agency(NSA)Suite B. It is extensible, featuring support for plugging in custom cryptographic APIs into the CNG runtime. It also integrates with thesmart cardsubsystem by including a BaseCSPmodule which implements all the standard backend cryptographic functions that developers and smart card manufacturers need, so that they do not have to write complexCSPs. The Microsoftcertificate authoritycan issue ECC certificates and the certificate client can enroll and validate ECC and SHA-2 based certificates.
Revocation improvements include native support for theOnline Certificate Status Protocol(OCSP) providing real-time certificate validity checking,CRLprefetching and CAPI2 Diagnostics. Certificate enrollment is wizard-based, allows users to input data during enrollment and provides clear information on failed enrollments and expired certificates. CertEnroll, a new COM-based enrollment API replaces theXEnrolllibrary for flexible programmability. Credential roaming capabilities replicate Active Directory key pairs, certificates and credentials stored inStored user names and passwordswithin the network.
Windows Vista introducesNetwork Access Protection(NAP), which ensures that computers connecting to or communicating with a network conform to a required level ofsystem healthas set by the administrator of a network. Depending on the policy set by the administrator, the computers which do not meet the requirements will either be warned and granted access, allowed access to limited network resources, or denied access completely. NAP can also optionally provide software updates to a non-compliant computer to upgrade itself to the level as required to access the network, using aRemediation Server. A conforming client is given aHealth Certificate, which it then uses to access protected resources on the network.
ANetwork Policy Server, runningWindows Server 2008acts as health policy server and clients need to useWindows XP SP3or later. AVPNserver,RADIUSserver orDHCPserver can also act as the health policy server.
A number of specific security and reliability changes have been made:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Service_Hardening
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Svchost.exe(Service Host, orSvcHost) is a systemprocessthat can host one or moreWindows servicesin theWindows NTfamily ofoperating systems.[1]Svchost is essential in the implementation ofshared service processes, where a number of services can share a process in order to reduce resource consumption. Grouping multiple services into a single process conserves computing resources, and this consideration was of particular concern to NT designers because creating Windows processes takes more time and consumes more memory than in other operating systems, e.g. in theUnixfamily.[2]However, if one of the services causes an unhandled exception, the entire process may crash. In addition, identifying component services can be more difficult for end users. Problems with various hosted services, particularly withWindows Update,[3][4]get reported by users (and headlined by the press) as involving svchost.
The svchost process was introduced inWindows 2000,[5]although the underlying support for shared service processes has existed sinceWindows NT 3.1.[2]
Its executable image,%SystemRoot%\System32\Svchost.exeor%SystemRoot%\SysWOW64\Svchost.exe(for 32-bit services running on 64-bit systems) runs in multiple instances, each hosting one or more services.
Services running in SvcHost are implemented asdynamically-linked libraries(DLLs). Each service's registry key must have a value namedServiceDllunder theParameterssubkey, pointing to the respective service's DLL file. TheirImagePathdefinition is of the form%SystemRoot%\System32\svchost.exe -k%service group%; (i.e.netsvcs). Services sharing the same SvcHost process specify the same parameter, having a single entry in theSCM's database. The first time that a SvcHost process is launched with a specific parameter, it looks for a value of the same name under theHKLM\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\Svchostkey, which it interprets as a list of service names. Then it notifies the SCM of all the services that it hosts. SCM does not launch a second SvcHost process for any of those received services; instead, it simply sends a "start" command to the respective SvcHost process containing the name of the service that should be launched within its context, and whose respective DLL SvcHost loads.
According to a 2003 Microsoft presentation, the minimumworking setof a shared service is approximately 150 KB instead of 800 KB for a standalone process.[6]
Starting with Windows 10 version 1703, Microsoft changed the way services are grouped into host processes. On client computer systems with more than 3.5 GB of memory, services are no longer grouped into shared host processes. Instead, each service is run in its own process. This results in better isolation of services, making the computer system more resilient to service failures and vulnerabilities and easier to debug. However, it adds some memory overhead.[7]
Starting with Windows Vista, the internal identification of services inside shared processes (svchost included) is achieved by so-called service tags. The service tag for each thread is stored in the SubProcessTag of itsthread environment block(TEB). The tag is propagated across all threads that a main service thread subsequently starts, except for threads created indirectly by Windowsthread-poolAPIs.[8]
The set of service tag management routines is currently an undocumentedAPI, although it is used by some Windows utilities likenetstatto display theTCPconnections associated with each service. Some third-party tools like ScTagQuery also make use of this API.[8]
InWindows XPand later editions, the commandtasklist /svcshows a list of the services being run by each listed process (i.e. by each running instance of svchost.exe), with each separate instance of the svchost process identified by a unique Process ID number (PID).
InWindows VistaandWindows 7, the "Services" tab inWindows Task Managerincludes a list of services, showing their groups and Process IDs (PIDs); right-clicking on an svchost instance in the Task Manager's "Processes" tab and selecting "Go to Service(s)" switches to that list of services and selects the service running under the corresponding svchost instance.
InWindows 8, the Task Manager interface was streamlined so that each svchost entry can be expanded by a single click to a sub-list of services running inside it.
TheSysinternalsProcess Explorer(available as a free download from Microsoft) provides additional information about services running undersvchost.exeprocesses, when the user hovers the mouse over an svchost instance in Process Explorer.
None of the above methods allows the user to identify which of the multiple services running inside an svchost instance accesses a particular resource, i.e. processor, disk, network or memory; the WindowsResource Monitoronly accounts for (most of) those resources at process level. It does however show processor usage at service level, on the "CPU" tab.[9]A service-aware list of TCP connections and UDP ports opened can be obtained using the commandnetstat -b.[10]
In order to troubleshoot other kinds of problems with a service running inside an svchost instance, the service(s) suspected to be causing the problem must (all) be reconfigured so that each runs inside its own svchost instance. For example,sc config foo type= ownwill reconfigure the service named "foo" to run in its own svchost instance. Changing thetypeback tosharedis done by an analogous command. The service must be restarted for such a configuration change to take effect. This debugging process is not foolproof however; in some cases, aheisenbugmay occur, which causes the problem to go away when the service is running separately.[11]
A more complex method of troubleshooting is to create an isolated service group.[12]
InWindows 10, starting with release 1703, svchost was redesigned by Microsoft to host only one service per process, depending on available system memory.[13]The default setting causes services to be hosted independently if the system has at least3.5 GBof RAM.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svchost.exe
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Incomputer security,executable-space protectionmarksmemoryregions as non-executable, such that an attempt to executemachine codein these regions will cause anexception. It relies on hardware features such as theNX bit(no-execute bit), or on software emulation when hardware support is unavailable. Software emulation often introduces a performance cost, oroverhead(extra processing time or resources), while hardware-based NX bit implementations have no measurable performance impact.
Early systems like theBurroughs 5000, introduced in 1961, implemented executable-space protection using atagged architecture(memory tagging to distinguish code from data), a precursor to modern NX bit technology. Today, operating systems use executable-space protection to mark writable memory areas, such as thestackandheap, as non-executable, helping to preventbuffer overflowexploits. These attacks rely on some part of memory, usually the stack, being both writable and executable; if it is not, the attack fails.
Many operating systems implement or have an available executable space protection policy. Here is a list of such systems in alphabetical order, each with technologies ordered from newest to oldest.
A technology supplying Architecture Independentemulationwill be functional on all processors which aren't hardware supported. The "Other Supported" line is for processors which allow some grey-area method, where an explicit NX bit doesn't exist yet hardware allows one to be emulated in some way.
As ofAndroid2.3 and later, architectures which support it have non-executable pages by default, including non-executable stack and heap.[1][2][3]
Initial support for theNX bit, onx86-64andIA-32processors that support it, first appeared inFreeBSD-CURRENT on June 8, 2004. It has been in FreeBSD releases since the 5.3 release.
TheLinux kernelsupports the NX bit onx86-64andIA-32processors that support it, such as modern 64-bit processors made by AMD, Intel, Transmeta and VIA. The support for this feature in the 64-bit mode on x86-64 CPUs was added in 2004 byAndi Kleen, and later the same year,Ingo Molnáradded support for it in 32-bit mode on 64-bit CPUs. These features have been part of theLinux kernel mainlinesince the release of kernel version 2.6.8 in August 2004.[4]
The availability of the NX bit on 32-bit x86 kernels, which may run on both 32-bit x86 CPUs and 64-bit IA-32-compatible CPUs, is significant because a 32-bit x86 kernel would not normally expect the NX bit that anAMD64orIA-64supplies; the NX enabler patch assures that these kernels will attempt to use the NX bit if present.
Some desktopLinux distributions, such asFedora,UbuntuandopenSUSE, do not enable the HIGHMEM64 option by default in their default kernels, which is required to gain access to the NX bit in 32-bit mode, because thePAEmode that is required to use the NX bit causes boot failures on pre-Pentium Pro(including Pentium MMX) andCeleron MandPentium Mprocessors without NX support. Other processors that do not support PAE areAMD K6and earlier,Transmeta Crusoe,VIA C3and earlier, andGeodeGX and LX.VMware Workstationversions older than 4.0,Parallels Workstationversions older than 4.0, andMicrosoft Virtual PCandVirtual Serverdo not support PAE on the guest. Fedora Core 6 and Ubuntu 9.10 and later provide a kernel-PAE package which supports PAE and NX.
NX memory protection has always been available in Ubuntu for any systems that had the hardware to support it and ran the 64-bit kernel or the 32-bit server kernel. The 32-bit PAE desktop kernel (linux-image-generic-pae) in Ubuntu 9.10 and later, also provides the PAE mode needed for hardware with the NX CPU feature. For systems that lack NX hardware, the 32-bit kernels now provide an approximation of the NX CPU feature via software emulation that can help block many exploits an attacker might run from stack or heap memory.
Non-execute functionality has also been present for other non-x86 processors supporting this functionality for many releases.
Red Hatkernel developerIngo Molnárreleased a Linux kernel patch namedExec Shieldto approximate and utilize NX functionality on32-bitx86 CPUs. The Exec Shield patch was released to theLinux kernel mailing liston May 2, 2003, but was rejected for merging with the base kernel because it involved some intrusive changes to core code in order to handle the complex parts of the emulation. Exec Shield's legacy CPU support approximates NX emulation by tracking the upper code segment limit. This imposes only a few cycles of overhead during context switches, which is for all intents and purposes immeasurable. For legacy CPUs without an NX bit, Exec Shield fails to protect pages below the code segment limit; an mprotect() call to mark higher memory, such as the stack, executable will mark all memory below that limit executable as well. Thus, in these situations, Exec Shield's schemes fails. This is the cost of Exec Shield's low overhead. Exec Shield checks for twoELFheader markings, which dictate whether the stack or heap needs to be executable. These are called PT_GNU_STACK and PT_GNU_HEAP respectively. Exec Shield allows these controls to be set for both binary executables and for libraries; if an executable loads a library requiring a given restriction relaxed, the executable will inherit that marking and have that restriction relaxed.
The PaX NX technology can emulate NX functionality, or use a hardware NX bit. PaX works on x86 CPUs that do not have the NX bit, such as 32-bit x86. The Linuxkernelstill does not ship with PaX (as of May, 2007); the patch must be merged manually.
PaX provides two methods of NX bit emulation, called SEGMEXEC and PAGEEXEC. The SEGMEXEC method imposes a measurable but low overhead, typically less than 1%, which is a constant scalar incurred due to the virtual memory mirroring used for the separation between execution and data accesses.[5]SEGMEXEC also has the effect of halving the task's virtual address space, allowing the task to access less memory than it normally could. This is not a problem until the task requires access to more than half the normal address space, which is rare. SEGMEXEC does not cause programs to use more system memory (i.e. RAM), it only restricts how much they can access. On 32-bit CPUs, this becomes 1.5 GB rather than 3 GB.
PaX supplies a method similar to Exec Shield's approximation in the PAGEEXEC as a speedup; however, when higher memory is marked executable, this method loses its protections. In these cases, PaX falls back to the older, variable-overhead method used by PAGEEXEC to protect pages below the CS limit, which may become quite a high-overhead operation in certainmemory access patterns. When the PAGEEXEC method is used on a CPU supplying a hardware NX bit, the hardware NX bit is used, thus no significant overhead is incurred.
PaX supplies mprotect() restrictions to prevent programs from marking memory in ways that produce memory useful for a potentialexploit. This policy causes certain applications to cease to function, but it can be disabled for affected programs.
PaX allows individual control over the following functions of the technology for each binary executable:
PaX ignores both PT_GNU_STACK and PT_GNU_HEAP. In the past, PaX had a configuration option to honor these settings but that option has been removed for security reasons, as it was deemed not useful. The same results of PT_GNU_STACK can normally be attained by disabling mprotect() restrictions, as the program will normally mprotect() the stack on load. This may not always be true; for situations where this fails, simply disabling both PAGEEXEC and SEGMEXEC will effectively remove all executable space restrictions, giving the task the same protections on its executable space as a non-PaX system.
macOSfor Intel supports the NX bit on all CPUs supported by Apple (from Mac OS X 10.4.4 – the first Intel release – onwards). Mac OS X 10.4 only supported NX stack protection. In Mac OS X 10.5, all 64-bit executables have NX stack and heap; W^X protection. This includesx86-64(Core 2 or later) and 64-bitPowerPCon theG5Macs.
As ofNetBSD2.0 and later (December 9, 2004), architectures which support it have non-executable stack and heap.[6]
Architectures that have per-page granularity consist of:alpha,amd64,hppa,i386(withPAE),powerpc(ibm4xx),sh5,sparc(sun4m,sun4d), sparc64.
Architectures that can only support these with region granularity are: i386 (without PAE), other powerpc (such as macppc).
Other architectures do not benefit from non-executable stack or heap; NetBSD does not by default use any software emulation to offer these features on those architectures.
A technology in theOpenBSDoperating system, known as W^X, marks writable pages by default as non-executable on processors that support that. On 32-bitx86processors, the code segment is set to include only part of the address space, to provide some level of executable space protection.
OpenBSD 3.3 shipped May 1, 2003, and was the first to include W^X.
Solarishas supported globally disabling stack execution on SPARC processors since Solaris 2.6 (1997); in Solaris 9 (2002), support for disabling stack execution on a per-executable basis was added.
The first implementation of a non-executable stack for Windows (NT 4.0, 2000 and XP) was published by SecureWave via their SecureStack product in 2001, based on the work of PaX.[7][8]
Starting withWindows XPService Pack2 (2004) andWindows Server 2003Service Pack 1 (2005), the NX features were implemented for the first time on thex86architecture. Executable space protection on Windows is called "Data Execution Prevention" (DEP).
Under Windows XP or Server 2003 NX protection was used on criticalWindows servicesexclusively by default. If thex86processor supported this feature in hardware, then the NX features were turned on automatically in Windows XP/Server 2003 by default. If the feature was not supported by the x86 processor, then no protection was given.
Early implementations of DEP provided noaddress space layout randomization(ASLR), which allowed potentialreturn-to-libc attacksthat could have been feasibly used to disable DEP during an attack.[9]ThePaXdocumentation elaborates on why ASLR is necessary;[10]a proof-of-concept was produced detailing a method by which DEP could be circumvented in the absence of ASLR.[11]It may be possible to develop a successful attack if the address of prepared data such as corrupted images orMP3scan be known by the attacker.
Microsoft added ASLR functionality inWindows VistaandWindows Server 2008. On this platform, DEP is implemented through the automatic use ofPAEkernelin 32-bit Windows and the native support on 64-bit kernels. Windows Vista DEP works by marking certain parts of memory as being intended to hold only data, which the NX or XD bit enabled processor then understands as non-executable.[12]In Windows, from version Vista, whether DEP is enabled or disabled for a particular process can be viewed on theProcesses/Detailstab in theWindows Task Manager.
Windows implements software DEP (without the use of theNX bit) through Microsoft's "SafeStructured Exception Handling" (SafeSEH). For properly compiled applications, SafeSEH checks that, when an exception is raised during program execution, the exception's handler is one defined by the application as it was originally compiled. The effect of this protection is that an attacker is not able to add his own exception handler which he has stored in a data page through unchecked program input.[12][13]
When NX is supported, it is enabled by default. Windows allows programs to control which pages disallow execution through itsAPIas well as through the section headers in aPE file. In the API, runtime access to the NX bit is exposed through theWin32API callsVirtualAlloc[Ex]andVirtualProtect[Ex]. Each page may be individually flagged as executable or non-executable. Despite the lack of previous x86 hardware support, both executable and non-executable page settings have been provided since the beginning. On pre-NX CPUs, the presence of the 'executable' attribute has no effect. It was documented as if it did function, and, as a result, most programmers used it properly. In the PE file format, each section can specify its executability. The execution flag has existed since the beginning of the format and standardlinkershave always used this flag correctly, even long before the NX bit. Because of this, Windows is able to enforce the NX bit on old programs. Assuming the programmer complied with "best practices", applications should work correctly now that NX is actually enforced. Only in a few cases have there been problems; Microsoft's own .NET Runtime had problems with the NX bit and was updated.
In Microsoft'sXbox, although the CPU does not have the NX bit, newer versions of theXDKset the code segment limit to the beginning of the kernel's.datasection (no code should be after this point in normal circumstances). Starting with version 51xx, this change was also implemented into the kernel of new Xboxes. This broke the techniques old exploits used to become aterminate-and-stay-resident program. However, new exploits were quickly released supporting this new kernel version because the fundamental vulnerability in the Xbox kernel was unaffected.
Where code is written and executed at runtime—aJIT compileris a prominent example—the compiler can potentially be used to produce exploit code (e.g. usingJIT Spray) that has been flagged for execution and therefore would not be trapped.[14][15]
Return-oriented programmingcan allow an attacker to execute arbitrary code even when executable space protection is enforced.
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TheComputer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986(CFAA) is aUnited Statescybersecuritybill that was enacted in 1986 as an amendment to existingcomputer fraudlaw (18 U.S.C.§ 1030), which had been included in theComprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984.[1]Prior to computer-specific criminal laws, computer crimes were prosecuted asmail and wire fraud, but the applying law was often insufficient.[2]
The original 1984 bill was enacted in response to concern that computer-related crimes might go unpunished.[3]The House Committee Report to the original computer crime bill included a statement by a representative ofGTE-ownedTelenetthat characterized the 1983 techno-thriller filmWarGames—in which a young teenager (played byMatthew Broderick) fromSeattlebreaks into a U.S. militarysupercomputerprogrammed to predict possible outcomes ofnuclear warand unwittingly almost startsWorld War III—as "a realistic representation of the automatic dialing and access capabilities of thepersonal computer."[4]
The CFAA was written to extend existingtort lawtointangible property, while, in theory, limitingfederal jurisdictionto cases "with a compelling federal interest—i.e., where computers of thefederal governmentor certainfinancial institutionsare involved or where the crime itself is interstate in nature", but its broad definitions have spilled over intocontract law(see "Protected Computer", below). In addition to amending a number of the provisions in the originalsection 1030, the CFAA also criminalized additional computer-related acts. Provisions addressed the distribution ofmalicious codeanddenial-of-service attacks. Congress also included in the CFAA a provision criminalizing trafficking inpasswordsand similar items.[1]
Since then, the Act has been amended a number of times—in 1989, 1994, 1996, in 2001 by theUSA PATRIOT Act, 2002, and in 2008 by the Identity Theft Enforcement and Restitution Act. With each amendment of the law, the types of conduct that fell within its reach were extended. In 2015, PresidentBarack Obamaproposed expanding the CFAA and theRICO Act.[5]DEF CONorganizer andCloudflareresearcherMarc Rogers, SenatorRon Wyden, and RepresentativeZoe Lofgrenstated opposition to this on the grounds it would make many regular internet activities illegal.[6]In 2021, the Supreme Court ruled inVan Buren v. United Statesto provide a narrow interpretation of the meaning of "exceeds authorized access".[7]
The only computers, in theory, covered by the CFAA are defined as "protected computers". They are defined under section18 U.S.C.§ 1030(e)(2)to mean a computer:
In practice, any ordinary computer has come under the jurisdiction of the law, including cellphones, due to the interstate nature of most Internet communication.[8]
(a) Whoever—
The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act is both a criminal law and a statute that creates aprivate right of action, allowingcompensationandinjunctiveor otherequitable reliefto anyone harmed by a violation of this law. These provisions have allowed private companies to sue disloyal employees for damages for the misappropriation of confidential information (trade secrets).
There have been criminal convictions for CFAA violations in the context of civil law, forbreach of contractorterms of serviceviolations. Many common and insignificant online acts, such as password-sharing and copyright infringement, can transform a CFAAmisdemeanorinto afelony. The punishments are severe, similar to sentences for selling or importing drugs, and may bedisproportionate. Prosecutors have used the CFAA to protect private business interests and to intimidatefree-culture activists, deterring undesirable, yet legal, conduct.[50][51]
One such example regarding the harshness of the law was shown in United States vs. Tyler King,[52]where King refused initial offers by the government for involvement in a conspiracy to "gain unauthorized access" to a computer system for a small company that an ex-girlfriend of King worked for. His role, even while not directly involved, resulted in 6.5 years imprisonment. No financial motive was established. A non-profit was started to advocate against further harshness against others targeted under the broad law.[53]
Tim Wucalled the CFAA "the worst law in technology".[54]
Professor of Law Ric Simmons notes that many provisions of the CFAA merely combine identical language to pre-existing federal laws with "the element of “access[ing] a protected computer without authorization, or [by] exceed[ing] authorized access,"[55]meaning that "the CFAA merely provides an additional charge for prosecutors to bring if the defendant used a computer while committing the crime."[56]Professor Joseph Olivenbaum has similarly criticized the CFAA's "computer-specific approach," noting both the risk of redundancy and resultant definitional problems.[57]
The CFAA increasingly presents real obstacles to journalists reporting stories important to the public’s interest.[58]As data journalism increasingly becomes “a good way of getting to the truth of things . . . in this post-truth era,” as one data journalist told Google, the need for further clarity around the CFAA increases.[58]
As per Star Kashman, an expert in cybersecurity law, the CFAA presents some challenges in cases related to Search Engine Hacking (also known as Google Dorking). Although Kashman states that accessing publicly available information is legal under the CFAA, she also notes that in many cases Search Engine Hacking is ultimately prosecuted under the CFAA. Kashman believes prosecuting cases of Google Dorking under the CFAA could render the CFAA void for vagueness by making it illegal to access publicly available information.[59]
The government was able to bring such disproportionate charges against Aaron because of the broad scope of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) and the wire fraud statute. It looks like the government used the vague wording of those laws to claim that violating an online service's user agreement or terms of service is a violation of the CFAA and the wire fraud statute.
Using the law in this way could criminalize many everyday activities and allow for outlandishly severe penalties.
When our laws need to be modified, Congress has a responsibility to act. A simple way to correct this dangerous legal interpretation is to change the CFAA and the wire fraud statutes to exclude terms of service violations. I will introduce a bill that does exactly that.
In the wake of the prosecution and subsequent suicide ofAaron Swartz(who used a script to download scholarly research articles in excess of whatJSTORterms of service allowed), lawmakers proposed amending the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. RepresentativeZoe Lofgrendrafted a bill that would help "prevent what happened to Aaron from happening to other Internet users".[60]Aaron's Law (H.R. 2454,S. 1196[61]) would excludeterms of serviceviolations from the 1984 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and from the wire fraud statute.[62]
In addition to Lofgren's efforts, RepresentativesDarrell IssaandJared Polis(also on theHouse Judiciary Committee) raised questions in the immediate aftermath of Swartz's death regarding the government's handling of the case. Polis called the charges "ridiculous and trumped up," referring to Swartz as a "martyr."[63]Issa, chair of theHouse Oversight Committee, announced an investigation of the Justice Department's prosecution.[63][64]
By May 2014, Aaron's Law had stalled in committee. FilmmakerBrian Knappenbergeralleges this occurred due toOracle Corporation's financial interest in maintaining the status quo.[65]
Aaron's Law was reintroduced in May 2015 (H.R. 1918,S. 1030[66]) and again stalled. There has been no further introduction of related bills.[as of?]
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Computer trespassis acomputer crimein theUnited Statesinvolving unlawful access to computers. It is defined under theComputer Fraud and Abuse Act. (U.S.C 18§ 1030)
A computer trespass is defined as accessing a computer without proper authorization and gaining financial information, information from a department or agency from any protected computer.[1]Each state has its own laws regarding computer trespassing but they all echo the federal act in some manner.
To be found guilty of computertrespassin New York one must knowingly use a computer, computer service, orcomputer networkwithout authorizationandcommit (or attempt) some further crime.
§ 156.10 Computer trespass.
(A) No person shall knowingly use or operate the property of another without the consent of the owner or person authorized to give consent.
(B) No person, in any manner and by any means, including, but not limited to, computer hacking, shall knowingly gain access to, attempt to gain access to, or cause access to be gained to any computer, computer system, computer network, cable service, cable system, telecommunications device, telecommunications service, or information service without the consent of, or beyond the scope of the express or implied consent of, the owner of the computer, computer system, computer network, cable service, cable system, telecommunications device, telecommunications service, or information service or other person authorized to give consent.[3]
Under federal law, the punishment for committing a computer trespass is imprisonment for no more than 10 or 20 years, depending on the severity of the crime committed.[4](subsection (a) (b) (c) (1) (A) (B))
Years after the CFAA was put into law, many have become uncomfortable with the law's language because of the drastic difference between today's technology and the technology of the 1980s. Legal scholars such asOrin KerrandTiffany Curtishave expressed such concerns. In one of Curtis's essays, "Computer Fraud and Abuse Act Enforcement: Cruel, Unusual, and Due for Reform." She expresses how, with the passage of time, the CFAA becomes a more cruel law with the current language used in the act. She then suggests that theUnited States Congressshould take the act into review and refer it to theEighth Amendmentto update the language to better fit modern law and society.[5]Kerr wrote in his essay, "Trespass, Not Fraud: The Need for New Sentencing Guidelines in CFAA Cases," that since the language is so vague in the act, you could be punished in a way that doesn't reflect the crime you committed. He stresses how the language stresses the financial fraud language more than any other part in the law, leaving the rest vague in meaning.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_trespass
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TheConvention on Cybercrime, also known as theBudapest Convention on Cybercrimeor theBudapest Convention, is the first internationaltreatyseeking to addressInternetandcomputer crime(cybercrime) harmonizingnational laws, improving investigative techniques, and increasing cooperation among nations.[1]It was drawn up by theCouncil of EuropeinStrasbourg, France, with the active participation of the Council of Europe's observer statesCanada,Japan, thePhilippines,South Africaand theUnited States.
The Convention and its Explanatory Report was adopted by theCommittee of Ministers of the Council of Europeat its 109th Session on 8 November 2001. It was opened for signature inBudapest, on 23 November 2001 and itentered into forceon 1 July 2004.[2]As of January 2025, 78 states haveratifiedthe convention, while a further two states (Irelandand South Africa) have signed the convention but not ratified it.[3]
Indiahas declined to adopt the Convention on the grounds that they did not participate in its drafting. Since 2018, India has been reconsidering its stand on the Convention after a surge in cybercrime, though concerns about sharing data with foreign agencies remain.[4]Russia opposes the Convention, stating that adoption would violate Russian sovereignty, and has usually refused to cooperate in law enforcement investigations relating to cybercrime. It is the first multilateral legally binding instrument to regulate cybercrime.[5]
On 1 March 2006, theAdditional Protocol to the Convention on Cybercrimecame into force. Those States that have ratified the additional protocol are required to criminalize the dissemination ofracistandxenophobicmaterial through computer systems, as well as threats and insults motivated by racism orxenophobia.[6]
On 8 August 2024, a UN committee approved the first global treaty on cybercrime despite significant opposition from human rights groups and tech companies. The treaty included provisions to criminalize unauthorized access to information systems, online child exploitation, and the distribution of non-consensual explicit content. However, critics argued that it compromised human rights and press freedom, with concerns over data privacy and expanded definitions of cybercrime.[7]
The Convention is the first international treaty on crimes committed via the Internet and other computer networks, dealing particularly withinfringements of copyright,computer-related fraud,child pornography,hate crimes, and violations ofnetwork security.[8]It also contains a series of powers and procedures such as the search of computer networks andlawful interception.
Its main objective, set out in the preamble, is to pursue a common criminal policy aimed at the protection of society against cybercrime, especially by adopting appropriate legislation and fostering.
The Convention aims principally at:
The following offenses are defined by the Convention: illegal access, illegal interception, data interference, system interference, misuse of devices, computer-relatedforgery, computer-relatedfraud, offenses related to child pornography, and offenses related tocopyrightandneighboring rights.
It also sets out such procedural law issues as expedited preservation of stored data, expedited preservation and partial disclosure of traffic data, production order, search and seizure of computer data, real-time collection of traffic data, and interception of content data. In addition, the Convention contains a provision on a specific type of trans-border access to stored computer data which does not require mutual assistance (with consent or where publicly available) and provides for the setting up of a 24/7 network for ensuring speedy assistance among the Signatory Parties. Further, as conditions and safeguards, the Convention requires the provision for adequate protection of human rights and liberties, including rights arising pursuant to obligations underEuropean Convention on Human Rights,International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and other applicableinternational human rights instruments, and shall incorporate theprinciple of proportionality.[9]
The Convention is the product of four years of work by European and international experts. It has been supplemented by an Additional Protocol making any publication of racist and xenophobicpropagandavia computer networks a criminal offense, similar to Criminal Libel laws. Currently,cyber terrorismis also studied in the framework of the Convention.
Its ratification by theUnited States Senateby unanimous consent in August 2006 was both praised and condemned.[10]The United States became the 16th nation to ratify the convention.[11][12]The Convention entered into force in the United States on 1 January 2007.
Senate Majority LeaderBill Fristsaid: "While balancing civil liberty and privacy concerns, this treaty encourages the sharing of critical electronic evidence among foreign countries so that law enforcement can more effectively investigate and combat these crimes".[13]
The Electronic Privacy Information Center said:
The Convention includes a list of crimes that each signatory state must transpose into their own law. It requires the criminalization of such activities ashacking(including the production, sale, or distribution ofhacking tools) and offenses relating tochild pornography, and expandscriminal liabilityfor intellectual property violations. It also requires each signatory state to implement certain procedural mechanisms within their laws. For example, law enforcement authorities must be granted the power to compel anInternet service providerto monitor a person's activities online in real time. Finally, the Convention requires signatory states to provide international cooperation to the widest extent possible for investigations and proceedings concerning criminal offenses related to computer systems and data, or for the collection of evidence in electronic form of a criminal offense. Law enforcement agencies will have to assist police from other participating countries to cooperate with their mutual assistance requests.[14]
Although a common legal framework would eliminate jurisdictional hurdles to facilitate the law enforcement of borderless cyber crimes, a complete realization of a common legal framework may not be possible. Transposing Convention provisions into domestic law is difficult especially if it requires the incorporation of substantive expansions that run counter to constitutional principles. For instance, the United States may not be able to criminalize all the offenses relating to child pornography that are stated in the Convention, specifically the ban on virtual child pornography, because of itsFirst Amendment's free speech principles. Under Article 9(2)(c) of the Convention, a ban on child pornography includes any "realistic images representing a minor engaged in sexually explicit conduct". According to the Convention, the United States would have to adopt this ban on virtual child pornography as well, however, the U.S. Supreme Court, inAshcroft v. Free Speech Coalition, struck down as unconstitutional a provision of the CPPA that prohibited "any visual depiction" that "is, or appears to be, of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct". In response to the rejection, the U.S. Congress enacted thePROTECT Actto amend the provision, limiting the ban to any visual depiction "that is, or is indistinguishable from, that of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct" (18 U.S.C. § 2252(B)(b)).
The Convention was signed by Canada, Japan, the United States, and South Africa on 23 November 2001, in Budapest. As of January 2025, the non–Council of Europe states that have ratified the treaty areArgentina,Australia,Azerbaijan,Benin,Brazil,Cabo Verde,Cameroon,Canada,Chile,Colombia,Costa Rica,Côte d'Ivoire,Dominican Republic,Ecuador,Fiji,Ghana,Grenada,Guatemala,Israel,Japan,Kasakhstan,Kenya,Kiribati,Malawi,Mauritius,Mexico,Morocco,Mozambique,New Zealand,Niger,Nigeria,Panama,Paraguay,Peru, thePhilippines,South Korea,Rwanda,São Tomé and Príncipe,Senegal,Sierra Leone,Sri Lanka,Timor-Leste,Tonga,Trinidad and Tobago,Tunisia, theUnited States,Uruguay, andVanuatu.
AlthoughEgypthas not signed off on the Convention, Egyptian Presidentel-Sisi's government in 2018 has legislated two major computer-crime related laws. Targetingsocial networking servicesuch asFacebookandTwitter, the legislation criminalizesfake newsand terrorism, setting a flag on accounts which carry more than 5,000 subscribers or followers. The early legislation had been criticized byAmnesty International, thus websites can appeal to the courts within 7 days of blacklisting.[15][16][17][relevant?]
In factIndiatoo "was reconsidering its position on becoming a member of the Budapest Convention because of the surge in cyber crime, especially after a push for digital India."[4]
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Cyber crime, orcomputer crime, refers to any crime that involves acomputerand anetwork.[1]The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target.Netcrimerefers, more precisely, to criminal exploitation of theInternet.[2]Issues surrounding this type of crime have become high-profile, particularly those surroundinghacking,copyright infringement,identity theft,child pornography, andchild grooming. There are also problems ofprivacywhenconfidentialinformation is lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise.
On the global level, both governments and non-state actors continue to grow in importance, with the ability to engage in such activities asespionage, and other cross-border attacks sometimes referred to ascyber warfare. The international legal system is attempting to hold actors accountable for their actions, with theInternational Criminal Courtamong the few addressing this threat.[3]
A cybercountermeasureis defined as an action, process, technology, device, or system that serves to prevent or mitigate the effects of a cyber attack against a victim, computer, server, network or associated device.[4]Recently there has been an increase in the number of international cyber attacks. In 2013 there was a 91% increase in targeted attack campaigns and a 62% increase in security breaches.[5]
A number ofcountermeasuresexist that can be effectively implemented in order to combat cyber-crime and increase security.
Malicious codeis a broad category that encompasses a number of threats to cyber-security. In essence it is any “hardware, software, or firmware that is intentionally included or inserted in a system for a harmful purpose.”[6]Commonly referred to asmalwareit includescomputer viruses,worms,Trojan horses,keyloggers,BOTs,Rootkits, and anysoftware security exploits.[7]
Malicious code also includesspyware, which are deceptive programs, installed without authorization, “that monitor a consumer’s activities without their consent.”[8]Spyware can be used to send users unwantedpopup ads, to usurp the control of a user’sweb browser, or to monitor a user’s online habits. However, spyware is usually installed along with something that the user actually wishes to install. The user consents to the installation, but does not consent to the monitoring tactics of the spyware. The consent for spyware is normally found in theend-user license agreement.[8]
A network attack is considered to be any action taken to disrupt, deny, degrade, or destroy information residing on a computer and computer networks.[9]An attack can take four forms: fabrication, interception, interruption, and modification. A fabrication is the “creation of some deception in order to deceive some unsuspecting user”; an interception is the “process of intruding into some transmission and redirecting it for some unauthorized use”; an interruption is the “break in a communication channel, which inhibits the transmission of data”; and a modification is “the alteration of the data contained in the transmissions.”[6]Attacks can be classified as either being active or passive. Active attacks involve modification of the transmission or attempts to gain unauthorized access to a system, while passive attacks involve monitoring transmissions. Either form can be used to obtain information about a user, which can later be used to steal that user’s identity. Common forms of network attacks includeDenial of Service (Dos)andDistributed Denial of Service(DDoS),Man-in-the-middle attack,packet sniffing,TCP SYN Flood,ICMP Flood,IP spoofing, and even simple web defacement.[10]
Network abuses are activities which violate a network'sacceptable use policyand are generally considered fraudulent activity that is committed with the aid of a computer.SPAMis one of the most common forms of network abuse, where an individual will email list of users usually withunsolicited advertisementsorphishingattacks attempting to use social engineering to acquire sensitive information such any information useful inidentity theft, usernames, passwords, and so on by posing as a trustworthy individual.
Social engineeringis the act ofmanipulatingpeople into performing actions or divulging confidential information, rather than by breaking in or using technical cracking techniques.[11]This method of deception is commonly used by individuals attempting to break into computer systems, by posing as an authoritative or trusted party and capturing access information from the naive target.[12]Email Phishing is a common example of social engineering's application, but it is not limited to this single type of attack.
There are a variety of different technical countermeasures that can be deployed to thwart cybercriminals and harden systems against attack.Firewalls, network or host based, are considered the first line of defense in securing a computer network by settingAccess Control Lists (ACLs)determining which what services and traffic can pass through the check point.[13]
Antiviruscan be used to prevent propagation of malicious code. Most computer viruses have similar characteristics which allow for signature based detection. Heuristics such as file analysis and file emulation are also used to identify and remove malicious programs. Virus definitions should be regularly updated in addition to applying operating systemhotfixes,service packs, andpatchesto keep computers on a network secure.[14]
Cryptographytechniques can be employed to encrypt information using an algorithm commonly called a cipher to mask information in storage or transit. Tunneling for example will take a payload protocol such asInternet Protocol (IP)and encapsulate it in an encrypted delivery protocol over aVirtual Private Network (VPN),Secure Sockets Layer (SSL),Transport Layer Security (TLS),Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP),Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP), orInternet Protocol Security (IPSec)toensure data security during transmission. Encryption can also be employed on the file level using encryption protocols likeData Encryption Standard(DES),Triple DES, orAdvanced Encryption Standard (AES)to ensure security of information in storage.[15]
Additionally,network vulnerability testingperformed by technicians or automated programs can be used to test on a full-scale or targeted specifically to devices, systems, and passwords used on a network to assess their degree of secureness.[16]Furthermore,network monitoringtools can be used to detect intrusions or suspicious traffic on both large and small networks.[17]
Physical deterrents such as locks, card access keys, orbiometricdevices can be used to prevent criminals from gaining physical access to a machine on a network. Strong password protection both for access to a computer system and the computer's BIOS are also effective countermeasures to against cyber-criminals with physical access to a machine.[18]
Another deterrent is to use a bootablebastion hostthat executes a web browser in a known clean and secure operating environment. The host is devoid of any known malware, where data is never stored on the device, and the media cannot be overwritten. The kernel and programs are guaranteed to be clean at each boot. Some solutions have been used to create secure hardware browsers to protect users while accessingonline banking.
The Counter-Terror Social Network Analysis and Intent Recognition (CT-SNAIR) project uses the Terrorist Action Description Language (TADL) to model and simulateterroristnetworks and attacks. It also models links identified in communication patterns compiled frommultimediadata, and terrorists’ activity patterns are compiled from databases of pastterrorist threats.[19]Unlike other proposed methods, CT-SNAIR constantly interacts with the user, who uses the system both to investigate and to refine hypotheses.[19]
Multimedia data, such as voice, text, and network session data, is compiled and processed. Through this compilation and processing, names, entities, relationships, and individual events are extracted from the multimedia data. This information is then used to perform asocial network analysison the criminal network, through which the user can detect and track threats in the network. The social network analysis directly influences and is influenced by the intent recognition process, in which the user can recognize and detect threats. In the CT-SNAIR process, data and transactions from prior attacks, or forensic scenarios, is compiled to form a sequential list of transactions for a given terrorism scenario.
The CT-SNAIR process also includes generating data fromhypotheticalscenarios. Since they are imagined and computer-generated, hypothetical scenarios do not have any transaction data representing terrorism scenarios.[19]Different types of transactions combine to represent the types of relationships between individuals.
The final product, or target social network, is a weighted multiplex graph in which the types of edges (links) are defined by the types of transactions within the social network.[20]The weights within these graphs are determined by the content-extraction algorithm, in which each type of link is thought of as a separate graph and “is fed into social network algorithms in part or as a whole.”[20]Links between two individuals can be determined by the existence of (or lack of) the two people being mentioned within the same sentence in the compiled multimedia data or in relation to the same group or event.[21]
The final component in the CT-SNAIR process is Intent Recognition (IR). The goal of this component is to indicate to an analyst the threats that a transaction stream might contain.[22]Intent Recognition breaks down into three subcategories: detection of “known or hypothetical target scenarios,” prioritization of these target scenarios, and interpretation “of the resulting detection.”[22]
The optimal level of cyber-security depends largely on the incentives facing providers and the incentives facing perpetrators. Providers make their decision based on the economic payoff and cost of increased security whereas perpetrators decisions are based on the economic gain and cost of cyber-crime. Potentialprisoner’s dilemma,public goods, andnegative externalitiesbecome sources of cyber-securitymarket failurewhen private returns to security are less than the social returns. Therefore, the higher the ratio of public to private benefit the stronger the case for enacting new public policies to realign incentives for actors to fight cyber-crime with increased investment in cyber-security.[23]
In the United States a number of legal statutes define and detail the conditions for prosecution of a cyber-crime and are used not only as a legal counter-measure, but also functions as a behavioral check against the commission of a cyber-crime. Many of the provisions outlined in these acts overlap with each.
TheComputer Fraud and Abuse Actpassed in 1986 is one of the broadest statutes in the US used to combat cyber-crime. It has been amended a number of times, most recently by theUS Patriot Actof 2002 and the Identity theft enforcement and Restitution Act of 2008. Within it is the definition of a “protected computer” used throughout the US legal system to further define computer espionage, computer trespassing, and taking of government, financial, or commerce information, trespassing in a government computer, committing fraud with a protected computer, damaging a protected computer, trafficking in passwords, threatening to damage a protected computer, conspiracy to commit a cyber-crime, and the penalties for violation.[24]The 2002 update on theComputer Fraud and Abuse Actexpands the act to include the protection of “information from any protected computer if the conduct involved an interstate or foreign communication.”[8]
TheDigital Millennium Copyright Actpassed in 1998 is a United States copyright law that criminalizes the production and dissemination of technology, devices, or services intended circumventdigital rights management(DRM), and circumvention of access control.[25]
TheElectronic Communications Privacy Actof 1986 extends the government restrictions on wiretaps from telephones. This law is generally thought in the perspective of what law enforcement may do to intercept communications, but it also pertains to how an organization may draft their acceptable use policies and monitor communications.[26]
TheStored Communications Actpassed in 1986 is focused on protecting the confidentiality, integrity and availability of electronic communications that are currently in some form of electronic storage. This law was drafted with the purpose of protecting the privacy of e-mails and other electronic communications.[27]
The Identity Theft and Aggravated Identity Theft statute is a subsection of the Identification and Authentication Fraud statute. It defines the conditions under which an individual has violated identity theft laws.[28]
Identity theftwas declared unlawful by the federal Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act of 1998 (ITADA). Criminals knowingly transferring or using, without lawful authority, “a means of identification of another person with the intent to commit, or to aid abet, any unlawful activity that constitutes a violation of federal law, or that constitutes a felony under any applicable State or local law.”[29]Penalties of the ITADA include up to 15 years in prison and a maximum fine of $250,000 and directly reflect the amount of damage caused by the criminal’s actions and their amount of planning and intent.[8]
TheGramm-Leach-Bliley Act(GLBA) requires that financial institutions and credit agencies increase the security of systems that contain their customers’ personal information. It mandates that all financial institutions “design, implement, and maintain safeguards to protect customer information.”[30]
TheInternet Spyware Prevention Act(I-SPY) prohibits the implementation and use ofspywareandadware. I-SPY also includes a sentence for “intentionally accessing a computer with the intent to install unwanted software.”[31]
18 U.S.C. § 1029 outlines 10 different offenses under which an offender could violate concerning device fraud. These offenses include:
[32]
TheCAN-SPAM Actof 2003 establishes the United States' first national standards for the sending of commercial e-mail and requires theFederal Trade Commission(FTC) to enforce its provisions.[33][34]
TheWire fraudstatute outlined in 18 U.S.C. § 1343 applies to crimes committed over different types of electronic medium such as telephone and network communications.[35]
The communications interference statute listed in 18 U.S.C. § 1362 defines a number of acts under which and individual can be charged with a telecommunications related crime including:
[36]
Behavioral countermeasures can also be an effective tool in combating cyber-crime. Public awareness campaigns can educate the public on the various threats of cyber-crime and the many methods used to combat it. It is also here that businesses can also make us of IT policies to help educate and train workers on the importance and practices used to ensure electronic security such as strong password use, the importance of regular patching of security exploits, signs of phishing attacks and malicious code, etc.[37]
California, Virginia, and Ohio have implemented services for victims of identity theft, though not well publicized. California has a registry for victims with a confirmed identity theft. Once registered, people can request law enforcement officers call a number staffed 24 hours, year round, to "verify they are telling the truth about their innocence.”[38]In Virginia and Ohio, victims of identity theft are issued a special passport to prove their innocence. However, these passports run the same risk as every other form of identification in that they can eventually be duplicated.[38]
Financial agencies such asbanksandcredit bureausare starting to require verification of data that identity thieves cannot easily obtain. This data includes users’ past addresses and income tax information.[38]In the near future, it will also include the data located through use ofbiometrics. Biometrics is the use “of automated methods for uniquely recognizing humans based upon … intrinsic physical or behavioral traits.”[38]These methods includeiris scans,voice identification, andfingerprint authentication. The First Financial Credit Union has already implemented biometrics in the form of fingerprint authentication in their automated teller machines to combat identity theft. With a similar purpose, Great Britain has announced plans to incorporate computer chips with biometric data into their passports.[38]However, the greatest problem with the implementation of biometrics is the possibility of privacy invasion.
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Cyber defamationorcyber insultin South Korean law is acrimeor civiltortconsisting ofdefamationorinsultcommitted through atelecommunications networksuch as the Internet.
The crime of cyber defamation (사이버 명예훼손죄) is defined in the Information and Communications Network Act, which establishes a maximum term of imprisonment of three years if the insulting information is true and seven years if it is false.[1]South Korea's criminal penalties for cyber defamation have attracted attention for their severity relative to other countries.
The cyber defamation law arose from considerations by theKorea Communications Commission(KCC), South Korea's telecommunications and broadcasting regulator, of revising the telecommunications laws to impose more regulations and deeper scrutiny on major Internet portals.[2]
Public anger over the 2008 suicide of celebrityChoi Jin-sil[3]led to a legislative push for stronger legislation againstcyberbullying, including the adoption of areal name system.[4]Among the legislative items pushed by the government was a cyber insult law, which would have imposed greater penalties than those provided for criminal insult under Article 311 of thePenal Code.[5]The legislation was sometimes referred to as the "Choi Jin-sil Law," although the family objected to this use of her name.[6]The governingGrand National Party(GNP) supported the cyber insult law, while the oppositionDemocratic Partyopposed it.[7]A Research & Research survey of 800 Korean people conducted on 14 January 2009 showed that 60% supported theGNP-led bill dealing with cyber defamation, and 32.1% opposed it.[8]
Opposition to the proposed legislation gained force after the acquittal ofMinervain April 2009, which increased concerns over legislative restrictions onfreedom of expression.[9]The legislation was ultimately not adopted.[10]
South Korean plaintiffs have used cyber defamation law tosubpoenainformation from the United States.[11]In 2024 aCaliforniacourt granted the attorney representingNewJeanspermission to obtain the identity information of aYouTubeuser. Other similar cases includeHYBEon behalf ofBTSseeking the identity of aTwitteruser andStarship Entertainmenton behalf ofWonyoungidentifying an individual behind a YouTube channel with help fromGoogle.[12]
The vast majority of cyber defamation police reports in South Korea arise from online games. League of Legends is a game which is notorious for such acts. In 2015 alone, South Korean law enforcement received and investigated over 8000 reports of cyber defamation; over half of these cases involve League of Legends where players head to police stations as a retaliation after being verbally abused by teammates or opponents.[13]
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Internet-relatedprefixessuch ase-,i-,cyber-,info-,techno-andnet-are added to a wide range of existing words to describe new,Internet- orcomputer-related flavors of existing concepts, often electronic products and services that already have a non-electronic counterpart. The adjectivevirtualis often used in a similar manner.[1][2]
Cyber-is derived from "cybernetic", from the Greek κυβερνητικός 'steersman'. Examples:cyberspace,cyberlaw,cyberbullying,cybercrime,cyberwarfare,cyberterrorism,cybersex, andcyberdelic. It is commonly used for policies and politics regarding computer systems and networks (as in the above cases), but also for information technology products and services. Further examples:
E-, standing forelectronic, is used in the termse-mail,e-commerce,e-business,e-banking,e-sports,e-paper,e-cigarette,e-car,e-girl,e-reservation, ande-book.[1][3]
The lowercase initialeprefix was used as early as 1994 byeWorld,Apple's online service.
i-, standing for internet, was used as early as 1994 byiVillage, an internet community site by and for women.[4]More recent examples include theBBC'siPlayer, andGoogle's formeriGoogleservice. It has even been used by companies not in the IT sector for their websites, such asCoca-Cola's now-defunct icoke.com.
Apple Inc.is especially connected to thei-prefix. They first employed it for theiMacline of computers starting in 1998,[5]and have since used it in many of their other product names, includingiCal, iSync, iChat, iBook, iDVD, iLife,iMessage,iPod(and iPod Socks), iSight,iPhone,iWeb,iTunes,iCloud, and others. They have said it stands for "Internet".[6]
Promotional materials for the 2004 filmI, Robot, inspired byIsaac Asimov's short-story collectionof the same name, utilized a lowercaseias a cultural reference to the rising popularity at that time of the prefix in product names.[7]
The letter "i" was also used in the popularNickelodeonshowiCarly, as that show primarily uses the internet as its main theme, and to parodize the fact thatAppleuses "i-" in almost all its products.[citation needed]
The wordvirtualis used in a similar way to the prefixes above, but it is an adjective instead of a prefix. For example, it is used in the termsvirtual reality,virtual world, andvirtual sex.
These prefixes areproductive. Michael Quinion notes that most of these formations arenonce wordsthat will never be seen again. He writes that new terms such as "e-health" are unneeded; in this casetelemedicinealready exists to describe the application oftelecommunicationstomedicine. He similarly points out the redundancy ofe-tail,e-commerce, ande-business.[3]Martin likewise characterizes many of these words as "fad words" and believes many will disappear once the technology that resulted in their coinage becomes better accepted and understood. For example, he writes, "when using computers becomes the standard way to do business, there will be no need to call it 'e-business' — it may be just 'business.'"[8]
There is some confusion over whether these prefixes should behyphenatedand/or inupper case. In the case ofe-mail, it was originally hyphenated and lowercase in general usage, but the hyphen is no longer common.[9]
In 1999, Michael Quinion attributed the forms "email", "E-mail" and "Email" to uncertainty on the parts of newer Internet users.[3]In 2003, Ronald Smithprescribedthat thee-should always be lowercase and hyphenated.[10]In 2013, the Associated Press Stylebook removed the hyphen from "e-mail", following the general usage of the word.[9]
The term 'cybernetics' was used inNorbert Wiener's bookCybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine(MIT Press, 1948). Wiener used the term in reference to the control of complex systems in the animal world and in mechanical networks, in particular self-regulating control systems. By 1960, doctors were performing research into surgically or mechanically augmenting humans or animals to operate machinery in space, leading to the coining of the term "cyborg", for "cybernetic organism".
In 1965, the ABPCThe Avengerstelevision series introduced artificial humanoids calledCybernauts. In 1966, the BBCDoctor WhoserialThe Tenth Planetintroduced a monster calledcybermen.
Fred J Cook (Winner of the 1961 Hillman Award) in his 1966 book "The Corrupted Land : The Social Morality of Modern America" introduces his book with "such ideals as free enterprise, 'rugged individualism' andlaissez faireare anachronisms in this age of CYBERNATION."
By the 1970s, theControl Data Corporation(CDC) sold the "Cyber" range of supercomputers, establishing the wordcyber-as synonymous with computing.Robert TrapplcreditsWilliam Gibsonand his novelNeuromancerwith triggering a "cyber- prefix flood" in the 1980s.[11]
McFedries observes that a backlash against the use ofe-andcyber-can be traced to the late 1990s, quoting Hale and Scanlon requesting writers in 1999 to "resist the urge to use this vowel-as-cliché" when it comes toe-and callingcyber-"terminally overused".[2][12]
A comparable usage from outside the English language is the Japanese prefixdenki(電気), meaning electricity, which was used in Meiji-era Japan to denote products exhibiting a Western sensibility.[13]
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Acyberattack(orcyber attack) occurs when there is an unauthorized action against computer infrastructure that compromises theconfidentiality, integrity, or availabilityof its content.[1]
The rising dependence on increasingly complex and interconnected computer systems in most domains of life is the main factor that causes vulnerability to cyberattacks, since virtually all computer systems havebugsthat can beexploitedby attackers. Although it is impossible or impractical to create a perfectly secure system, there are many defense mechanisms that can make a system more difficult to attack, makinginformation securitya field of rapidly increasing importance in the world today.
Perpetrators of a cyberattack can be criminals,hacktivists, or states. They attempt to find weaknesses in a system, exploit them and createmalwareto carry out their goals, and deliver it to the targeted system. Once installed, the malware can have a variety of effects depending on its purpose. Detection of cyberattacks is often absent or delayed, especially when the malware attempts to spy on the system while remaining undiscovered. If it is discovered, the targeted organization may attempt to collect evidence about the attack, remove malware from its systems, and close the vulnerability that enabled the attack.
Cyberattacks can cause a variety of harms to targeted individuals, organizations, and governments, including significant financial losses andidentity theft. They are usually illegal both as a method of crime andwarfare, although correctly attributing the attack is difficult and perpetrators are rarely prosecuted.
A cyberattack is any attempt by an individual or organization to use computers or digital systems to steal, alter, expose, disable, or destroy information, or to breach computer systems, networks, or infrastructures..[2]Definitions differ as to the type of compromise required – for example, requiring the system to produce unexpected responses or cause injury or property damage.[3]Some definitions exclude attacks carried out by non-state actors and others require the target to be a state.[4]Keeping a system secure relies on maintaining theCIA triad: confidentiality (no unauthorized access), integrity (no unauthorized modification), and availability.[5]Although availability is less important for some web-based services, it can be the most crucial aspect for industrial systems.[6]
In the first six months of 2017, two billion data records were stolen or impacted by cyber attacks, andransomwarepayments reachedUS$2 billion, double that in 2016.[7]In 2020, with the increase of remote work as an effect of the COVID-19 global pandemic, cybersecurity statistics reveal a huge increase in hacked and breached data.[8]The worldwide information security market is forecast to reach $170.4 billion in 2022.[9]
Over time, computer systems make up an increasing portion of daily life and interactions. While the increasing complexity and connectedness of the systems increases the efficiency, power, and convenience of computer technology, it also renders the systems more vulnerable to attack and worsens the consequences of an attack, should one occur.[10]
Despite developers' goal of delivering a product that works entirely as intended, virtually allsoftwareandhardwarecontains bugs.[11]If a bug creates a security risk, it is called avulnerability.[12][13][14]Patchesare often released to fix identified vulnerabilities, but those that remain unknown (zero days) as well as those that have not been patched are still liable for exploitation.[15]The software vendor is not legally liable for the cost if a vulnerability is used in an attack, which creates an incentive to make cheaper but less secure software.[16]Vulnerabilities vary in their ability to beexploitedby malicious actors. The most valuable allow the attacker toinjectand run their own code (calledmalware), without the user being aware of it.[12]Without a vulnerability enabling access, the attacker cannot gain access to the system.[17]
The Vulnerability Model (VM) identifies attack patterns, threats, and valuable assets, which can be physical or intangible. It addresses security concerns like confidentiality, integrity, availability, and accountability within business, application, or infrastructure contexts.[18]
A system's architecture and design decisions play a major role in determining how safe it can be.[19]The traditional approach to improving security is the detection of systems vulnerable to attack andhardeningthese systems to make attacks more difficult, but it is only partially effective.[20]Formalrisk assessmentfor compromise of highly complex and interconnected systems is impractical[21]and the related question of how much to spend on security is difficult to answer.[22]Because of the ever changing and uncertain nature of cyber-threats, risk assessment may produce scenarios that are costly or unaffordable to mitigate.[23]As of 2019[update], there are no commercially available, widely usedactive defensesystems for protecting systems by intentionally increasing the complexity or variability of systems to make it harder to attack.[24]Thecyber resilienceapproach, on the other hand, assumes that breaches will occur and focuses on protecting essential functionality even if parts are compromised, using approaches such asmicro-segmentation,zero trust, andbusiness continuity planning.[25]
The majority of attacks can be prevented by ensuring all software is fully patched. Nevertheless, fully patched systems are still vulnerable to exploits usingzero-day vulnerabilities.[26]The highest risk of attack occurs just after a vulnerability has been publicly disclosed or a patch is released, because attackers can create exploits faster than a patch can be developed and rolled out.[27]
Software solutions aim to prevent unauthorized access and detect the intrusion of malicious software.[28]Training users can avoid cyberattacks (for example, not to click on a suspicious link or email attachment), especially those that depend on user error.[5][29]However, too many rules can cause employees to disregard them, negating any security improvement. Some insider attacks can also be prevented using rules and procedures.[29]Technical solutions can prevent many causes of human error that leave data vulnerable to attackers, such as encrypting all sensitive data, preventing employees from using insecure passwords, installingantivirus softwareto prevent malware, and implementing a robust patching system to ensure that all devices are kept up to date.[30]
There is little evidence about the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of different cyberattack prevention measures.[28]Although attention to security can reduce the risk of attack, achieving perfect security for a complex system is impossible, and many security measures have unacceptable cost or usability downsides.[31]For example, reducing the complexity and functionality of the system is effective at reducing theattack surface.[32]Disconnecting systems from the internetis one truly effective measure against attacks, but it is rarely feasible.[21]In some jurisdictions, there are legal requirements for protecting against attacks.[33]
Thecyber kill chainis the process by which perpetrators carry out cyberattacks.[34]
After the malware is installed, its activity varies greatly depending on the attacker's goals.[40]Many attackers try to eavesdrop on a system without affecting it. Although this type of malware can have unexpectedside effects, it is often very difficult to detect.[41]Botnetsare networks of compromised devices that can be used to sendspamor carry out[42]denial-of-serviceattacks—flooding a system with too many requests for the system to handle at once, causing it to become unusable.[36]Attackers may also use computers to minecryptocurrencies, such asBitcoin, for their own profit.[43]
Ransomwareis software used to encrypt or destroy data; attackers demand payment for the restoration of the targeted system. The advent ofcryptocurrencyenabling anonymous transactions has led to a dramatic increase in ransomware demands.[44]
The stereotype of a hacker is an individual working for themself. However, many cyber threats are teams of well-resourced experts.[45]"Growing revenues for cyber criminals are leading to more and more attacks, increasing professionalism and highly specialized attackers. In addition, unlike other forms of crime, cybercrime can be carried out remotely, and cyber attacks often scale well."[46]Many cyberattacks are caused or enabled by insiders, often employees who bypass security procedures to get their job done more efficiently.[47]Attackers vary widely in their skill and sophistication and well as their determination to attack a particular target, as opposed to opportunistically picking one easy to attack.[47]The skill level of the attacker determined which types of attacks they are prepared to mount.[48]Themost sophisticated attackerscan persist undetected on a hardened system for an extended period of time.[47]
Motivations and aims also differ. Depending whether the expected threat is passive espionage, data manipulation, or active hijacking, different mitigation methods may be needed.[41]
Software vendors and governments are mainly interested in undisclosed vulnerabilities (zero-days),[49]while organized crime groups are more interested in ready-to-useexploit kitsbased on known vulnerabilities,[50][51]which are much cheaper.[52]The lack of transparency in the market causes problems, such as buyers being unable to guarantee that the zero-day vulnerability was not sold to another party.[53]Both buyers and sellers advertise on thedark weband usecryptocurrencyfor untraceable transactions.[54][55]Because of the difficulty in writing and maintaining software that can attack a wide variety of systems, criminals found they could make more money by renting out their exploits rather than using them directly.[56]
Cybercrime as a service, where hackers sell prepacked software that can be used to cause a cyberattack, is increasingly popular as a lower risk and higher profit activity than traditional hacking.[55]A major form of this is to create a botnet of compromised devices and rent or sell it to another cybercriminal. Different botnets are equipped for different tasks such as DDOS attacks or password cracking.[57]It is also possible to buy the software used to create a botnet[58]andbotsthat load the purchaser's malware onto a botnet's devices.[59]DDOS as a service using botnets retained under the control of the seller is also common, and may be the first cybercrime as a service product, and can also be committed bySMS floodingon the cellular network.[60]Malware and ransomware as a service have made it possible for individuals without technical ability to carry out cyberattacks.[61]
Targets of cyberattacks range from individuals to corporations and government entities.[10]Many cyberattacks are foiled or unsuccessful, but those that succeed can have devastating consequences.[21]Understanding the negative effects of cyberattacks helps organizations ensure that their prevention strategies are cost-effective.[28]One paper classifies the harm caused by cyberattacks in several domains:[62]
Thousands ofdata recordsare stolen from individuals every day.[10]According to a 2020 estimate, 55 percent of data breaches were caused byorganized crime, 10 percent bysystem administrators, 10 percent byend userssuch as customers or employees, and 10 percent by states or state-affiliated actors.[67]Opportunistic criminals may cause data breaches—often usingmalwareorsocial engineering attacks, but they will typically move on if the security is above average. More organized criminals have more resources and are more focused in theirtargeting of particular data.[68]Both of them sell the information they obtain for financial gain.[69]Another source of data breaches arepolitically motivated hackers, for exampleAnonymous, that target particular objectives.[70]State-sponsored hackers target either citizens of their country or foreign entities, for such purposes aspolitical repressionandespionage.[71]
After a data breach, criminals make money by selling data, such as usernames, passwords,social mediaorcustomer loyaltyaccount information,debitandcredit cardnumbers,[69]and personal health information (seemedical data breach).[72]This information may be used for a variety of purposes, such asspamming, obtaining products with a victim's loyalty or payment information,prescription drug fraud,insurance fraud,[73]and especiallyidentity theft.[43]Consumer losses from a breach are usually a negativeexternalityfor the business.[74]
Critical infrastructureis that considered most essential—such as healthcare, water supply, transport, and financial services—which has been increasingly governed bycyber-physical systemsthat depend on network access for their functionality.[75][76]For years, writers have warned of cataclysmic consequences of cyberattacks that have failed to materialize as of 2023[update].[77]These extreme scenarios could still occur, but many experts consider that it is unlikely that challenges in inflicting physical damage or spreading terror can be overcome.[77]Smaller-scale cyberattacks, sometimes resulting in interruption of essential services, regularly occur.[78]
There is little empirical evidence of economic harm (such asreputational damage) from breaches except the direct cost[79]for such matters as legal, technical, and public relations recovery efforts.[80]Studies that have attempted to correlate cyberattacks to short-term declines instock priceshave found contradictory results, with some finding modest losses, others finding no effect, and some researchers criticizing these studies on methodological grounds. The effect on stock price may vary depending on the type of attack.[81]Some experts have argued that the evidence suggests there is not enough direct costs or reputational damage from breaches to sufficientlyincentivizetheir prevention.[82][83]
Government websites and services are among those affected by cyberattacks.[78]Some experts hypothesize that cyberattacks weaken societal trust or trust in the government, but as of 2023[update]this notion has only limited evidence.[77]
Responding quickly to attacks is an effective way to limit the damage. The response is likely to require a wide variety of skills, from technical investigation to legal and public relations.[84]Because of the prevalence of cyberattacks, some companies plan their incident response before any attack is detected, and may designate acomputer emergency response teamto be prepared to handle incidents.[85][86]
Many attacks are never detected. Of those that are, the average time to discovery is 197 days.[87]Some systems can detect and flag anomalies that may indicate an attack, using such technology asantivirus,firewall, or anintrusion detection system. Once suspicious activity is suspected, investigators look forindicators of attackandindicators of compromise.[88]Discovery is quicker and more likely if the attack targets information availability (for example with adenial-of-service attack) rather than integrity (modifying data) or confidentiality (copying data without changing it).[89]State actors are more likely to keep the attack secret. Sophisticated attacks using valuable exploits are more less likely to be detected or announced – as the perpetrator wants to protect the usefulness of the exploit.[89]
Evidence collection is done immediately, prioritizingvolatileevidence that is likely to be erased quickly.[90]Gathering data about the breach can facilitate later litigation or criminal prosecution,[91]but only if the data is gathered according to legal standards and thechain of custodyis maintained.[92][90]
Containing the affected system is often a high priority after an attack, and may be enacted by shutoff, isolation, use of a sandbox system to find out more about the adversary[90]patchingthe vulnerability, andrebuilding.[93]Once the exact way that the system was compromised is identified, there is typically only one or two technical vulnerabilities that need to be addressed in order to contain the breach and prevent it from reoccurring.[94]Apenetration testcan then verify that the fix is working as expected.[95]Ifmalwareis involved, the organization must investigate and close all infiltration and exfiltration vectors, as well as locate and remove all malware from its systems.[96]Containment can compromise investigation, and some tactics (such as shutting down servers) can violate the company's contractual obligations.[97]After the breach is fully contained, the company can then work on restoring all systems to operational.[98]Maintaining abackupand having tested incident response procedures are used to improve recovery.[25]
Attributing a cyberattack is difficult, and of limited interest to companies that are targeted by cyberattacks. In contrast,secret servicesoften have a compelling interest in finding out whether a state is behind the attack.[99]Unlike attacks carried out in person, determining the entity behind a cyberattack is difficult.[100]A further challenge in attribution of cyberattacks is the possibility of afalse flag attack, where the actual perpetrator makes it appear that someone else caused the attack.[99]Every stage of the attack may leaveartifacts, such as entries in log files, that can be used to help determine the attacker's goals and identity.[101]In the aftermath of an attack, investigators often begin by saving as many artifacts as they can find,[102]and then try to determine the attacker.[103]Law enforcement agencies may investigate cyber incidents[104]although the hackers responsible are rarely caught.[105]
Most states agree that cyberattacks are regulated under the laws governing theuse of force in international law,[106]and therefore cyberattacks as a form of warfare are likely to violate the prohibition of aggression.[107]Therefore, they could be prosecuted as acrime of aggression.[108]There is also agreement that cyberattacks are governed byinternational humanitarian law,[106]and if they target civilian infrastructure, they could be prosecuted as awar crime,crime against humanity, or act ofgenocide.[108]International courts cannot enforce these laws without sound attribution of the attack, without which countermeasures by a state are not legal either.[109]
In many countries, cyberattacks are prosecutable under various laws aimed atcybercrime.[110]Attribution of the attackbeyond reasonable doubtto the accused is also a major challenge in criminal proceedings.[111]In 2021,United Nations member statesbegan negotiating adraft cybercrime treaty.[112]
Many jurisdictions havedata breach notification lawsthat require organizations to notify people whose personal data has been compromised in a cyberattack.[113]
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Data diddlingis a type ofcybercrimein which data is altered as it is entered into a computer system,[1]most often by adata entry clerkor acomputer virus.[2]Computerized processing of the altered data results in afraudulentbenefit. In some cases, the altered data is changed back after processing to conceal the activity.[3][4]The results can be huge. They might include adjusting financial figures up or down marginally, or it could be more complex and make an entire system unusable.[5]
Thiscomputer securityarticle is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
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Adarknetordark netis anoverlay networkwithin theInternetthat can only be accessed with specific software, configurations, or authorization,[1]and often uses a unique customizedcommunication protocol. Two typical darknet types are social networks[2](usually used forfile hostingwith apeer-to-peerconnection),[3]andanonymityproxy networkssuch asTorvia an anonymized series of connections.[4]
The term "darknet" was popularized by major news outlets and was associated withTor Onion serviceswhen the infamous drug bazaarSilk Roadused it,[5]despite the terminology being unofficial. Technology such asTor,I2P, andFreenetare intended to defend digital rights by providing security, anonymity, or censorship resistance and are used for both illegal and legitimate reasons. Anonymous communication betweenwhistle-blowers, activists, journalists and news organisations is also facilitated by darknets through use of applications such asSecureDrop.[6]
The term originally described computers onARPANETthat were hidden, programmed to receive messages but not respond to or acknowledge anything, thus remaining invisible and in the dark.[7]
SinceARPANET, the usage of dark net has expanded to includefriend-to-friendnetworks (usually used forfile sharingwith apeer-to-peerconnection) andprivacynetworks such as Tor.[8][9]The reciprocal term for a darknet is aclearnetor thesurface webwhen referring to content indexable by search engines.[10]
The term "darknet" is often usedinterchangeablywith "dark web" because of the quantity ofhidden servicesonTor's darknet. Additionally, the term is often inaccurately used interchangeably with thedeep webbecause of Tor's history as a platform that could not be search-indexed. Mixing uses of both these terms has been described as inaccurate, with some commentators recommending the terms be used in distinct fashions.[11][12][13]
"Darknet" was coined in the 1970s to designate networks isolated fromARPANET(the government-founded military/academical network which evolved into theInternet), for security purposes.[7]Darknet addresses could receive data from ARPANET but did not appear in the network lists and would not answerpingsor other inquiries.
The term gained public acceptance following publication of "The Darknet and the Future ofContent Distribution", a 2002 paper byPeter Biddle, Paul England, Marcus Peinado, and Bryan Willman, four employees ofMicrosoftwho argued the presence of the darknet was the primary hindrance to the development of workabledigital rights management(DRM) technologies and madecopyright infringementinevitable.[14]This paper described "darknet" more generally as any type of parallel network that is encrypted or requires a specific protocol to allow a user to connect to it.[1]
JournalistJ. D. Lasica, in his 2005 bookDarknet: Hollywood's War Against the Digital Generation, described the darknet's reach encompassing file sharing networks.[15]Subsequently, in 2014, journalistJamie Bartlettin his bookThe Dark Netused the term to describe a range of underground and emergentsubcultures, includingcamgirls,cryptoanarchists,darknet drug markets,self harmcommunities,social mediaracists, andtranshumanists.[16]
Darknets in general may be used for various reasons, such as:
All darknets require specific software installed or network configurations made to access them, such asTor, which can be accessed via a customized browser fromVidalia(aka the Tor browser bundle), or alternatively via aproxyconfigured to perform the same function.
Tor is the most popular instance of a darknet,[19]and it is often mistakenly thought to be the only online tool that facilitates access to darknets.
Alphabetical list:
Media related toDarknetat Wikimedia Commons
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Thedeep web,[1]invisible web,[2]orhidden web[3]are parts of theWorld Wide Webwhose contents are notindexedby standardweb search-engine programs.[4]This is in contrast to the "surface web", which is accessible to anyone using the Internet.[5]Computer scientistMichael K. Bergman is credited with inventing the term in 2001 as a search-indexing term.[6]
Deep web sites can be accessed by a directURLorIP address, but may require entering a password or other security information to access actual content.[7][8]Uses of deep web sites includeweb mail,online banking,cloud storage, restricted-accesssocial-mediapages and profiles, andweb forumsthat require registration for viewing content. It also includespaywalledservices such asvideo on demandand some online magazines and newspapers.
The first conflation of the terms "deep web" and "dark web" happened during 2009 when deep web search terminology was discussed together with illegal activities occurring on theFreenetanddarknet.[9]Those criminal activities include the commerce of personalpasswords,false identity documents,drugs,firearms, andchild pornography.[10]
Since then, after their use in the media's reporting on the black-market websiteSilk Road, media outlets have generally used "deep web"synonymouslywith thedark webordarknet, a comparison some reject as inaccurate[11]and consequently has become an ongoing source of confusion.[12]WiredreportersKim Zetter[13]andAndy Greenberg[14]recommend the terms be used in distinct fashions. While the deep web is a reference to any site that cannot be accessed by a traditional search engine, the dark web is a portion of the deep web that has been hidden intentionally and is inaccessible by standard browsers and methods.[15][16][17][18][19][excessive citations]
Bergman, in a paper on the deep web published inThe Journal of Electronic Publishing, mentioned that Jill Ellsworth used the termInvisible Webin 1994 to refer to websites that were not registered with any search engine.[20]Bergman cited a January 1996 article by Frank Garcia:[21]
It would be a site that's possibly reasonably designed, but they didn't bother to register it with any of the search engines. So, no one can find them! You're hidden. I call that the invisible Web.
Another early use of the termInvisible Webwas by Bruce Mount and Matthew B. Koll ofPersonal Library Software, in a description of the No. 1 Deep Web program found in a December 1996 press release.[22]
The first use of the specific termdeep web, now generally accepted, occurred in the aforementioned 2001 Bergman study.[20]
Methods that prevent web pages from being indexed by traditional search engines may be categorized as one or more of the following:
While it is not always possible to discover directly a specific web server's content so that it may be indexed, a site potentially can be accessed indirectly (due tocomputer vulnerabilities).
To discover content on the web, search engines useweb crawlersthat follow hyperlinks through known protocol virtualport numbers. This technique is ideal for discovering content on the surface web but is often ineffective at finding deep web content. For example, these crawlers do not attempt to find dynamic pages that are the result of database queries due to the indeterminate number of queries that are possible.[6]It has been noted that this can be overcome (partially) by providing links to query results, but this could unintentionally inflate the popularity of a site of the deep web.
DeepPeep,Intute,Aleph Open Search,Deep Web Technologies,Scirus, andAhmia.fiare a few search engines that have accessed the deep web. Intute ran out of funding and is now a temporary static archive as of July 2011.[27]Scirus retired near the end of January 2013.[28]
Researchers have been exploring how the deep web can be crawled in an automatic fashion, including content that can be accessed only by special software such asTor. In 2001, Sriram Raghavan and Hector Garcia-Molina (Stanford Computer Science Department, Stanford University)[29][30]presented an architectural model for a hidden-Web crawler that used important terms provided by users or collected from the query interfaces to query a Web form and crawl the Deep Web content. Alexandros Ntoulas, Petros Zerfos, and Junghoo Cho ofUCLAcreated a hidden-Web crawler that automatically generated meaningful queries to issue against search forms.[31]Several form query languages (e.g., DEQUEL[32]) have been proposed that, besides issuing a query, also allow extraction of structured data from result pages. Another effort is DeepPeep, a project of theUniversity of Utahsponsored by theNational Science Foundation, which gathered hidden-web sources (web forms) in different domains based on novel focused crawler techniques.[33][34]
Commercial search engines have begun exploring alternative methods to crawl the deep web. TheSitemap Protocol(first developed and introduced by Google in 2005) andOAI-PMHare mechanisms that allow search engines and other interested parties to discover deep web resources on particular web servers. Both mechanisms allow web servers to advertise the URLs that are accessible on them, thereby allowing automatic discovery of resources that are not linked directly to the surface web. Google's deep web surfacing system computes submissions for each HTML form and adds the resulting HTML pages into the Google search engine index. The surfaced results account for a thousand queries per second to deep web content.[35]In this system, the pre-computation of submissions is done using three algorithms:
In 2008, to facilitate users ofTor hidden servicesin their access and search of a hidden.onionsuffix,Aaron SwartzdesignedTor2web—a proxy application able to provide access by means of common web browsers.[36]Using this application, deep web links appear as a random sequence of letters followed by the .oniontop-level domain.
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Domain hijackingordomain theftis the act of changing the registration of adomain namewithout the permission of its original registrant, or by abuse of privileges on domain hosting and registrar software systems.[1]
This can be devastating to the original domain name holder, not only financially as they may have derived commercial income from a website hosted at the domain or conducted business through that domain's e-mail accounts,[2]but also in terms of readership and/or audience for non-profit or artistic web addresses. After a successful hijacking, the hijacker can use the domain name to facilitate other illegal activity such asphishing, where a website is replaced by an identical website that recordsprivate informationsuch as log-inpasswords,spam, or may distributemalwarefrom the perceived "trusted" domain.[3]
Domain hijacking can be done in several ways, generally by unauthorized access to, or exploiting a vulnerability in the domain name registrar's system, throughsocial engineering, or getting into the domain owner's email account that is associated with the domain name registration.[4]
A frequent tactic used by domain hijackers is to use acquired personal information about the actual domain owner to impersonate them and persuade the domainregistrarto modify the registration information and/or transfer the domain to another registrar, a form ofidentity theft. Once this has been done, the hijacker has full control of the domain and can use it or sell it to a third party.
Other methods include email vulnerability, vulnerability at the domain-registration level, keyloggers, and phishing sites.[5]
Responses to discovered hijackings vary; sometimes the registration information can be returned to its original state by the current registrar, but this may be more difficult if the domain name was transferred to another registrar, particularly if that registrar resides in another country. If the stolen domain name has been transferred to another registrar, the losing registrar may invoke ICANN's Registrar Transfer Dispute Resolution Policy to seek the return of the domain.[6]
In some cases, the losing registrar for the domain name is not able to regain control over the domain, and the domain name owner may need to pursue legal action to obtain the court ordered return of the domain.[7]In some jurisdictions, police may arrest cybercriminals involved, or prosecutors may fileindictments.[8]
Although the legal status of domain hijacking was formerly thought to be unclear,[9]certain U.S. federal courts in particular have begun to accept causes of action seeking the return of stolen domain names.[10]Domain hijacking is analogous with theft, in that the original owner is deprived of the benefits of the domain, butthefttraditionally relates to concrete goods such as jewelry and electronics, whereas domain name ownership is stored only in the digital state of the domain name registry, a network of computers. For this reason, court actions seeking the recovery of stolen domain names are most frequently filed in the location of the relevant domain registry.[11]In some cases, victims have pursued recovery of stolen domain names through ICANN'sUniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy(UDRP), but a number of UDRP panels have ruled that the policy is not appropriate for cases involving domain theft. Additionally, police may arrest cybercriminals involved.[8][12][13][14][15]
ICANN imposes a 60-day waiting period between a change in registration information and a transfer to another registrar. This is intended to make domain hijacking more difficult, since a transferred domain is much more difficult to reclaim, and it is more likely that the original registrant will discover the change in that period and alert the registrar.Extensible Provisioning Protocolis used for manyTLDregistries, and uses an authorization code issued exclusively to the domain registrant as a security measure to prevent unauthorized transfers.[25]
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Electronic evidenceconsists of these two sub-forms:
This rather complex relationship can be depicted graphically as shown in this part of an EU-funded project on the topic embedded here at the right. Chapter 10 of the associated 2018 book goes into more detail,[1]as does the website,http://www.evidenceproject.eu/categorization
Electronic evidence can be abbreviated as e-evidence; this shorter term is gaining in acceptance in Continental Europe. This page covers mainly activity there and on the international level.[2]
Access is the area where much of the current activity on the international level is taking place. A network called theInternet & Jurisdiction Policy Networkholds global conferences on the topic at various locations.[3]Here are six key supranational developments in Geneva, New York, Strasbourg, Paris and Brussels. In February 2022 an authoritative report was published covering worldwide developments.[4]
The GPA of Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners "unsurprisingly places greater emphasis on individuals’ privacy rights than did the OECD draft" of 2021.[5]In 2021 GPA developed a document summing up its concerns.[6]
There is an international forensic standard issued by ISO with the International Electrical Commission ISO/IEC 27037.[7]
Late in 2019 Russia and China initiated a move to consider drafting a global cybercrime convention. Western democracies are conspicuously absent from the sponsoring parties.[8]Many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have issued a protest letter claiming the Russian initiative would potentially infringe upon human rights.[9]The General Assembly, to the surprise of many observers, approved both the proposals of the United States and Russia.[10]
TheConvention on Cybercrime(“Budapest Convention”) is "the first international treaty on crimes committed via the Internet".[11]
The CoE is currently drafting an update in the form of a second additional protocol to the Convention.
An international group of national data protection authorities with a secretariat in Germany called the International Working Group on Data Protection in Telecommunications is monitoring the Council of Europe Cybercrime Convention holding 60-some meetings on the access problem, most recently to address events in Brazil, Belgium and China in addition to the Microsoft Ireland case.[12]
The draft protocol has proven quite controversial.[13]Two joint civil society statements have been submitted.[14][15]"The Cybercrime Convention Committee had extended the negotiations of the protocol to December 2020."[16]Meanwhile there are the guidelines from 2019.[17]
In 2021 deliberations began at the OECD to develop common principles among member countries. There are two major methods of access: compelled (or obliged) access and direct (including covert) access. The EU wants to address both, whereas the United States is hesitant to include covert access.[18]
The European Commission (as the only body holding the right of initiative) has made two legislative proposals (a Directive on establishing a legal representative,[19]and a Regulation on access to evidence for criminal investigations).[20]Taken together, these proposals comprise a "package". The legislators, i.e. the Parliament and the Council, have meanwhile found positions in regard to that Commission proposal. The Council calls its position a "general approach".
The committees in the Parliament have different competences, which are sometimes not easily distinguished, so sometimes there are competence disputes. LIBE has received "the lead", or lead competence working on the proposals, and has subsequently produced a report. The rapporteur Birgit Sippel MEP proposed changes to the versions of the Commission and the Council. The report has given rise to both a summary[21]and a more detailed commentary analysing its provisions for their efficiency and protection of human rights.[22]Agreement has been reached in the Parliament on how to enter the trilogue negotiations (EP+CoU+COM).[23]The differences in the two versions prepared by the Council and Parliament respectively are shown in a couple of documents[24]
In what can be seen as an accelerated procedure as opposed to the ordinary first reading/second reading procedure, the report was only voted on in LIBE. The EP Plenary then mandated the committee to take up negotiations with the Council, while the Commission formally played a neutral advisory role. Formally, the first reading will not be closed until the trilogue has reached an agreement. Then the plenary will vote on the trilogue negotiation outcome as its first reading position, and effectively also allow it to become law. There could also be a situation where no agreement can be reached, in which case the Parliament would vote on the unchanged LIBE report to finalise the first reading and make it the Parliament position, before entering into a second reading. In July 2022 there has been movement in the negotiations.[25]
Authoritative texts can be found on the eur-lex website.[26]
In February 2019, the European Commission recommended "engaging in two international negotiations on cross-border rules to obtain electronic evidence," one involving the USA[27]and one at the CoE.[28]Indeed, the USA/EU axis and the CoE are the scenes of work on these issues, as described and compared in a 2019 paper advocating a revamping of theMutual legal assistance treaty, page 17.[29]
The reason for the above development was given as due to the fact that "[i]n the offline world, authorities can request and obtain documents necessary to investigate a crime within their own country, but electronic evidence is stored online by service providers often based in a different country than [sic] the investigator, even if the crime is only in one country." The Commission then gave data supporting this decision.[30]Indeed, this is the reason for treating electronic evidence differently from the ways that other evidence is treated. Moreover, it may expedite convergence or some form of reconciliation between the world's two main legal systems, i.e. common law and civil law, at least as regards this use case. Negotiations are set to begin.[31]However, there are questions as to how the two different systems might converge in a common agreement.[32]A deadlock may exist in Europe.[33]
The core instruments to handle cross-border requests are: a European Production Order (EPOC) and a European Preservation Order (EPOC-PR). The framework for those instruments is the European evidence warrant.[34]
Separately from the above, a dedicated convention has been drafted by a British barrister.[35]
The UK government announced that the new "UK-US Bilateral Data Access Agreement will dramatically speed up investigations and prosecutions by enabling law enforcement, with appropriate authorisation, to go directly to the tech companies to access data, rather than through governments, which can take years."
"It gives effect to the Crime (Overseas Production Orders) Act 2019, which received Royal Assent in February this year and was facilitated by the CLOUD Act in America, passed last year."
"The Agreement does not change anything about the way companies can use encryption and does not stop companies from encrypting data." On encryption, the US, UK and Australia are contacting Facebook directly[36]
The agreement means that UK officials can now apply to the US via the Crime (Overseas Production Orders) Act 2019.[37]
The basis for obtaining cross-border access is theStored Communications Actas amended by theCLOUD Act. A new agreement with the UK was negotiated and it "will enter into force following a six-month Congressional review period mandated by the CLOUD Act, and the related review by UK’s Parliament."[38]
One of the most controversial cases brought yet to a court has been the 2013Microsoft Corp. v. United Statescase.
Potential conflicts between the EU regime and the USCLOUD Acthave led legal scholarsJennifer DaskalandPeter Swireto propose a US/EU agreement.[39]Those authors have also assembled a set of FAQ seeking to address questions specifically that have arisen from the European Union in connection with the CLOUD Act.[40]
Highlighting differences from the status quo, the European Parliament's Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs commissioned a study and held a hearing; the study is available.[41]
Europeans discussing ‘Co-operating in the Digital Age’ in the Internet Governance Forum have been critical of the EU's proposals, fearing that "companies and businesses [might] implement stronger filtering and blocking mechanisms in order to avoid sanctions or reputational damages."[42]Later in November at the Internet Governance Forum 2019 in Berlin panelists described new initiatives in Brazil and Russia respectively.[43]
Some problems quite different from those in the Microsoft case alluded to above have been found and described in an article in the German weekly ZEIT dated 19 December 2018 with 167 comments on the proposed direct access tracks described above under "European Union"; the journalist Martin Klingst entitled it"Nackt per Gesetz"(Naked by Law, meaningexposedto foreign observation by domestic law).[44]
Klingst is appalled at the thought that an EU member state like Hungary might demand his data. Apparently Katharina Barley, German Federal Minister of Justice, agrees. Germany has protections against infringements on one's "informational self-determination" that are the strongest of any EU member state. The European Arrest Warrant is another example of the national limits placed on EU rights in some conditions.
Besides, Klingst sees a contradiction between having Internet companies be the guardians of right and wrong, whereas in a new draft German law they might be punished themselves. Would other MSs respect Germany's interpretation of who maintains confidentiality? he asks rhetorically.
E-evidence could become the first case, Klingst predicts, testing whether Germany's top judges have reserved enough room for the most basic protections.
Much evidence is plain text; but some evidence is encrypted. In 2015 and 2016, another chapter was added to the long-standing encryption controversy with theFBI-Apple encryption dispute. That controversy continues in 2019 with multiple nation-states pressuring Facebook to put a backdoor in its messenger service.[45]
Journals
Books
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Hacking backis a technique to countercybercrimeby hacking the computing devices of the attacker.
The effectiveness[1][2][3]and ethics of hacking back are disputed.[4]
It is also very disputed if it islegalor not, however both participating parties can still beprosecutedfor theircrimes.
There was a bill proposed in 2017 to make this possible, ended consideration in 2019. In 2022 it reappeared.[clarification needed]
Thiscomputer securityarticle is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
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Domain drop catching, also known asdomain sniping, is the practice of registering adomain nameonce registration has lapsed, immediately after expiry.
When a domain is first registered, the customer is usually given the option of registering the domain for one year or longer, with automatic renewal as a possible option.[1]Although somedomain registrarsoften make multiple attempts to notify a registrant of a domain name's impending expiration, a failure on the part of the original registrant to provide the registrar with accurate contact information makes an unintended registration lapse possible. Practices also vary, and registrars are not required to notify customers of impending expiration.[1]Unless the original registrant holds atrademarkor other legal entitlement to the name, they are often left without any form of recourse in getting their domain name back. It is incumbent on registrants to be proactive in managing their name registrations and to be good stewards of their domain names. By law there are no perpetual rights to domain names after payment of registration fees lapses, aside from trademark rights granted bycommon laworstatute.
The Redemption Grace Period is an addition toICANN's Registrar Accreditation Agreement (RAA)[2]which allows a registrant to reclaim their domain name for a number of days after it has expired.[3]This length of time varies byTLD, and is usually around 30 to 90 days.[3]Prior to the implementation of the RGP by ICANN, individuals could easily engage in domain sniping to extort money from the original registrant to buy their domain name back.
After the period between the domain's expiry date and the beginning of the RGP, the domain's status changes to "redemption period" during which an owner may be required to pay a fee (typically around US$100)[4]to re-activate and re-register the domain.[5]ICANN's RAA requires registrars to delete domain registrations once a second notice has been given and the RGP has elapsed. At the end of the "pending delete" phase of 5 days, the domain will be dropped from the ICANN database.[5]
For particularly popular domain names, there are often multiple parties anticipating the expiration. Competition for expiring domain names has since become a purview of drop catching services. These services offer to dedicate their servers to securing a domain name upon its availability, usually at an auction price.[5]Individuals with their limited resources find it difficult to compete with these drop catching firms for highly desirable domain names.[5]
Retail registrars such asGoDaddyoreNomretain names for auction through services such as TDNAM or Snapnames through a practice known asdomain warehousing.[6]Drop catch services are performed by bothICANN-accredited registrarsand non-accredited registrars.
Some registry operators (for example dot-РФ, dot-PL, dot-RU, dot-ST, dot-TM, dot-NO) offer a service by which a back-order (also sometimes known as a "domain future" or "domain option") can be placed on a domain name.
If a domain name is due to return to the open market, then the owner of the back-order will be given the first opportunity to acquire the domain name before the name is deleted and is open to a free-for-all. In this way back-orders will usually take precedence over drop-catch.
There may be a fee for the back-order itself, often only one back-order can be placed per domain name and a further purchase or renewal fee may be applicable if the back-order succeeds.
Back-Orders typically expire in the same way domain names do, so are purchased for a specific number of years.
Different operators have different rules. In some cases back-orders can only be placed at certain times, for example after the domain name has expired, but before it has returned to the open market (seeRedemption Grace Period).
In theCommodity marketsense, a back-order is often more like an "option" than a "future" as there is often no obligation for the new registrant to take the name, even after it has been handed to the owner of the back-order. For example, some registries give the new registrant 30 days to purchase a renewal on the name before it is once again returned to the open market (or any new back-order registrant).
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TheUnited States Immigration and Customs Enforcement(ICE;/aɪs/ⓘ) is afederal law enforcement agencyunder theU.S. Department of Homeland Security. ICE's stated mission is to protect the United States from transnational crime andillegal immigrationthat threatennational securityandpublic safety.[3][4]
ICE enforces over 400 federal statutes, focusing on customs violations, immigration enforcement, terrorism prevention, andtrafficking.[5][6]ICE has two primary and distinct law enforcement components, Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) and Enforcement and Removal Operations (ERO), in addition to three supporting divisions: Management & Program Administration, Office of Principal Legal Advisor (OPLA) and Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR).[7]
Enforcement and Removal Operations (ERO), which primarily deals with the deportation and removal of undocumented immigrants, is among the most public and contentious functions of ICE. ERO maintains custodial facilities used to detain people who are allegedly illegally present in the United States. In interior offices, ERO officers primarily conduct targeted enforcement operations to apprehend immigrants engaged in serious criminal activity. At border offices, ERO officers receive and detain undocumented immigrants apprehended by theUnited States Border Patrol.[8]
ICE maintains domestic offices throughout the United States and detachments at majorU.S. diplomatic missions overseas. ICE personnel (special agents and officers) do not patrol American borders; rather, that role is performed by the Border Patrol.[9][10][11]ERO and HSI operate as two independent law enforcement agencies and have completely separate mission statements. HSI is focused on the disruption of transnational crime, whereas ERO is responsible for the apprehension, detention and removal of undocumented immigrants.[12]
Theacting directorisTodd Lyons.[2]The agency has not had aSenate-confirmeddirector sinceSarah Saldañastepped down on January 20, 2017.[13]
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement was formed under theHomeland Security Actof 2002, following theSeptember 11 attacks. With the establishment of theDepartment of Homeland Security, the functions and jurisdictions of several border and revenue enforcement agencies were combined and consolidated into U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement. Consequently, ICE is the largest investigative arm of the Department of Homeland Security and a contributor to the FBI'sJoint Terrorism Task Force.
The agencies that were either moved entirely or merged in part into ICE included the criminal investigative and intelligence resources of theUnited States Customs Service, the criminal investigative, detention and deportation resources of theImmigration and Naturalization Service, and theFederal Protective Service. The Federal Protective Service was later transferred from ICE to theNational Protection and Programs Directorateeffective October 28, 2009. In 2003,Asa Hutchinsonmoved theFederal Air Marshals Servicefrom theTransportation Security Administration(TSA) to ICE,[14]butMichael Chertoffmoved them back to the TSA in 2005.[15]
The origins of HSI special agents date back to the formations of the United States Customs Service in 1789.[16]The taxing of imports led to the creation of the Treasury Department and its sub-components (i.e. Division of Customs Chief and Revenue Marine (Revenue Cutter Service). Later, the Industrial Revolution led to some of the first immigration related laws targeting forced labor, human trafficking and child exploitation.[17]
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement is responsible for identifying and eliminating border, economic, transportation, and infrastructure security vulnerabilities. There is an estimate of about 20,000 ICE employees in approximately 400 offices within the United States and 53 countries.[18]
The organization is composed of two law enforcement directorates (HSI and ERO) and several support divisions each headed by a director who reports to an executive associate director.[19]The divisions of ICE provide investigation, interdiction and security services to the public and other law enforcement partners in the federal and local sectors.
The director of ICE is appointed at the sub-cabinet level by thepresident of the United States,confirmedby theU.S. Senate, and reports directly to thesecretary of homeland security.[20][21]
HSI is the primary investigative arm of Department of Homeland Security and consists of more than 10,300 employees who are assigned throughout 30 SAC offices in the U.S. and 52 international offices (41 international sub-offices) across the world[when?][citation needed]. Approximately 6,000 special agents (criminal investigators) are included among the over 10,300 HSI employees, making it the second largest investigative service in the United States, behind the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).[23]
HSI special agents investigate violations of more than 400 U.S. laws that threaten the national security of the United States such as counter-proliferation; human smuggling and trafficking; weapons smuggling and export enforcement; narcotics smuggling and trafficking; document and benefit fraud; the manufacturing, sale, and use of counterfeit immigration and identity documents; human rights violations;transnational gangactivity; financial crimes, including money laundering and bulk cash smuggling; cyber crime; child exploitation and sex tourism; trade crimes such as commercial fraud andintellectual property theft; smuggling of counterfeit pharmaceuticals and other merchandise; mass-marketing fraud; art theft; international cultural property and antiquities crimes; and visa security.[24]HSI agents can be requested to provide security for VIPs, and also augment theU.S. Secret Serviceduring overtaxed times such as special security events and elections.
HSI was formerly known as the ICE Office of Investigations (OI). HSI special agents are Series 1811 criminal investigators and have the statutory authority to enforce the Immigration and Nationality Act (Title 8), U.S. customs laws (Title 19), general federal crimes (Title 18), theControlled Substances Act(Title 21), with approval from the Department of Justice, as well as Titles 5, 6, 12, 22, 26, 28, 31, 46, 49, and 50 of the U.S. Code.
The largest cadre of special agents are located within Domestic Operations.[25]In FY 2020, HSI special agents made 31,915 criminal arrests, rescued or identified 1,012 child exploitation victims, and seized $341 million worth of counterfeit goods, 6,195 lbs of fentanyl and $1.8 billion in currency & assets from criminal organizations.[26]
HSI is a global leader in the fight against child exploitation, including the sexual exploitation of children; the production, advertisement and distribution of child pornography; and child sex tourism. HSI’s special agents and analysts prioritize the recovery and support of victims. They also work to educate children, parents, schools, and communities on the tactics of child predators. They also work to identify and arrest those possessing and distributing child sexual abuse material (CSAM).[27]
In 2006, Operation Flicker found that there were a number of government employees, including "dozens of Pentagon staff and contractors with high-level security clearance", who had downloaded child pornography.[28]
The Office of Intelligence is a subcomponent of HSI that employs a variety of special agents and intelligence research specialists to facilitate HSI's tactical and strategic intelligence demands. Collectively, these intelligence professionals collect, analyze, and disseminateintelligencefor use by the operational elements of DHS. The Office of Intelligence works closely with the intelligence components of other federal, state, and local agencies. Many HSI field offices assign intelligence analysts to specific groups, such as financial crimes, counter-proliferation, narcotics, ordocument fraud; or they can be assigned to a residential intelligence unit, known as a Field Intelligence Group (FIG). HSI agents assigned to FIGs generally focus on human intelligence (HUMINT) collection.
International Operations, formerly known as the Office of International Affairs (OIA), is a subcomponent of HSI with agents stationed in 60 locations around the world. HSI's foreign offices, known as attaché offices, work with foreign governments to identify and combat transnational criminal organizations before they threaten the United States. IO also facilitates domestic HSI investigations by providing intelligence from host countries, conducting collateral investigations, and facilitating international investigations conducted by field offices within the United States.
Nineteen HSI field offices maintain a Special Response Team (SRT) that operates as a federalSWATelement for the office's area of responsibility (AOR).[29][needs update]SRT was founded under theU.S. Customs Serviceas the Warrant Entry and Tactical Team (WETT) and were renamed to SRT in 1998.[29]The SRT handles HSI's high-risk arrest and search warrants, barricaded subjects, rural area operations, VIP protection, sniper coverage for high-risk operations, and security for National Security Events. HSI's active SRTs are located in Tampa, Miami, Arizona (Phoenix), New Orleans, Houston, New York, Boston, Dallas, Los Angeles, San Antonio, San Juan, Detroit, San Francisco, El Paso, Chicago, San Diego, Seattle, Buffalo, and Washington, D.C. There is also a team of instructors and coordinators stationed full-time in Columbus, Georgia. These teams primarily deploy to handle high-risk operations, but also assist in events such asHurricane Katrina, theHaiti earthquake 2010, and other natural disasters around the globe.
SRT is a collateral duty open to HSI special agents assigned to an office with a certified team. To qualify, candidates must pass a physical fitness test, qualify with multiple firearms by shooting 90% or better in full tactical gear, and pass an oral interview process. If a candidate passes these stages and is voted on the local team, they are then designated "Green Team" members and allowed to train with the certified team members. Green Team members are eventually sent to the SRT Initial Certification Course at the Office of Firearms and Tactical Programs, Tactical Operations Unit (OFTP/TOU)Fort Benning, Georgia, where they must pass additional physical fitness, firearms, scenario-based and written assessments.[30]Out of approximately 6,500 special agents, there are currently only approximately 300 certified SRT members nationwide.
HSI SRTs often conduct training exercises with various federal, state and local teams, and also assist other teams during national events or large-scale operations that require multiple high-risk scenarios to be conducted simultaneously. The working relationship between the SRTs and theU.S. Department of Defense'sU.S. Special Operations Commandhas led to SOCOM providing the SRTs with excessmine-resistant ambush protected vehicles(MRAPs), firearms, and other gear designed for use by U.S.special operations forces.
ERO is responsible for enforcing the nation’s immigration laws and ensuring the departure of removable immigrants from the United States. ERO uses its detention and deportation officers to identify, arrest, and remove immigrants who violate U.S. immigration law, Deportation officers are responsible for the transportation and detention of immigrants in ICE custody to include the removal of immigrants to their country of origin, Deportation officers arrest immigrants for violations of U.S. immigration law, monitor cases during deportation proceedings, supervise released immigrants, and deportation of illegal immigrants from the United States.[31]
Deportation officers operate strategically placed Fugitive Operations Teams whose function is to locate, apprehend, and remove immigrants who have absconded from immigration proceedings and remain in the United States with outstanding warrants for deportation. Due to limited staffing, ERO Fugitive Operations typically target undocumented immigrants with a history of serious criminal convictions (i.e. homicide, sexual assaults, aggravated felonies).[32]ERO officers do not randomly target undocumented immigrants for detention and civil arrest due to current case law and internal policies.
ERO manages theSecure Communitiesprogram which identifies removable immigrants located in jails and prisons. Fingerprints submitted as part of the normal criminal arrest and booking process will automatically check both the Next Generation Identification (NGI) of the FBI's Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division and the Automated Biometric Identification System (IDENT) of the Department of Homeland Security's US-VISIT Program.
ERO was formerly known as the Office of Detention and Removal Operations (DRO).
The Office of State, Local and Tribal Coordination (OSLTC) is ICE's primary outreach and communications component for state, local and tribal stakeholders. It is responsible for building and improving relationships, and coordinating activities with state, local, territorial, and tribal law enforcement agencies and through public engagement. It also fosters and sustains relationships with federal, state and local government officials and coordinates ICE ACCESS programs (Agreements of Cooperation in Communities to Enhance Safety and Security).
The Office of the Principal Legal Advisor (OPLA) provides legal advice, training and services to support the ICE mission and defends the interests of the United States in the administrative and federal courts.
The Office of Professional Responsibility is responsible for investigating allegations of misconduct involving employees of ICE.
ICE Air is the aviation division of ICE that charters aircraft or books commercial flights to send deportees back to their home countries.[33][34]There are 10 aircraft used to send deportees and has a working list of 185 countries.[34]Deportees have legs and arms secured while boarding, handcuffs are removed during flight and all shackles removed upon disembarking.
ICE Health Service Corps (IHSC) is a division that is responsible for providing direct patient care to approximately 13,500 detainees housed in 21 detention facilities throughout the nation.[35]Their stated mission is to provide the best care to those in ICE custody, practicing on the core values of Integrity, Commitment, Accountability, Service, and Excellence.[36]The IHSC team is made up of around 1,000 members that consist of US Public Health Service Commissioned Corps officers, healthcare professionals, and federal civil service workers.[37]
TheFederal Air Marshal Service(FAMS) was aligned into ICE shortly after the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. On October 16, 2005, Homeland Security SecretaryMichael Chertoffofficially approved the transfer of the Federal Air Marshal Service from the Bureau of Immigration & Customs Enforcement (ICE) to the TSA as part of a broader departmental reorganization to align functions consistent with the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) "Second Stage Review" findings for:
As part of this realignment, the director of the Federal Air Marshal Service also became the assistant administrator for the TSA Office of Law Enforcement (OLE), which houses nearly all TSA law enforcement services.
TheFederal Protective Service(FPS) was moved from theGeneral Services Administration(GSA) to ICE upon the creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The FPS was later moved out of ICE to the National Protection Programs Directorate.
Originally a part of the U.S. Customs Service's Office of Investigations, theOffice of Air and Marine(then called the Air and Marine Interdiction Division) was transferred to ICE in 2003 during the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, becoming the Office of Air and Marine Operations. Due in part to a 500 million dollar budgetary dispute between CBP and ICE, in 2004 ICE Air and Marine Operations was transferred to U.S. Customs and Border Protection. CBP Air and Marine still works closely with ICE to support the agency's domestic and international law enforcement operations.[38][39][40][41]
The Office of Detention Policy and Planning was responsible developing and maintaining ICE's National Detention Standards, which set out detailed rules for how immigration detainees were to be treated differently than criminal inmates.[42]In April 2017, PresidentDonald Trumpdecided to close the office and to stop including the standards in new jail contracts.[42]
Newly hired ICE law enforcement personnel receive their training at theFederal Law Enforcement Training Centers(FLETC) inGlynco, Georgia. FLETC is the largest law enforcement training facility in the United States. To meet division specific academic and practical instruction, the ICE academies vary in length from 4 to 6 months depending on the position. Furthermore, following graduation, all ICE law enforcement personnel undergo additional post academy training, as well as career-continuous training.
HSI Special Agent trainees must complete the inter-agency Criminal Investigator Training Program (CITP) and the HSI Special Agent Training Course (HSI SAT).[43]HSI special agents also receive significantly advanced training regarding U.S. customs law, warrant service, advanced tactics, undercover operations, criminal interrogation, weapons of mass destruction, and other subjects routinely encountered by HSI special agents in the field. HSI Special Agents typically complete CITP in conjunction with other agencies (i.e. Secret Service, Diplomatic Security Service, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco & Firearms, and various Office of Inspector Generals, etc.). However, the agency specific HSI SAT course is only attended by HSI trainees and focuses on customs & immigration related investigations.[44]
ERO Officer trainees must complete the basic 13-week ERO academy.[45]ERO deportation officers undergo several weeks of intensive Spanish language training prior to graduating.
Specific course curriculum is kept confidential, but both ERO officers and HSI special-agent new hires undergo training related to basic law enforcement tactics, immigration law, firearms training, emergency response driving, and Constitutional law.
In 2018, a total of 19 HSI special agents in charge or SACs (who are the senior most officials in each investigative division) sent a letter to the DHS Secretary and asked to be formally separated from ICE. These 19 SACs explained that HSI's investigative mission was repeatedly being hamstrung by ICE's civil immigration enforcement mission. It appeared HSI special agents were routinely being confused for ERO officers both by the public and state/local law enforcement agencies. These senior leaders requested HSI be restructured as a stand-alone agency analogous to the Secret Service. It was also stated "No U.S. Department of Justice law enforcement agency is paired with another disparate entity, i.e., the FBI is not paired with the Bureau of Prisons or DEA." This letter was ultimately ignored by the administration and resulted in no institutional changes.[46]
Since the agency's formation, a variety of weapons have been carried by its agents and officers.
Initially when the agency was formed in 2003, the sidearms issued to its agents and officers were the weapons issued by the legacy agencies: the U.S. Customs Service and the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. The USCS issued sidearms were theGlock 17andGlock 199mm pistols. The INS issued sidearms were the Heckler & KochUSP Compactor Beretta 96D .40 caliber pistols. Duty loads werehollow-point rounds.
In 2007 the agency selected theSIG-Sauer P229DAK.40 caliber pistol as its agency issued sidearm loaded withhollow-point rounds. This weapon stayed in service from 2009 to 2020.[47]
The agency's current duty sidearm, is theSIG Sauer P320C (C for Carry) pistol, chambered in9×19mm Parabellumhollow-point rounds, utilizing astriker-firedmechanism in lieu of adouble action onlyhammersystem.[48]
The agency has a list of personally owned weapons that are authorized for duty and off duty carry. These weapons must be inspected and approved by the agency's firearms unit. The agent and/or officer must qualify with the weapon every three months.[49]
HSI special agents and ERO officers are trained on standard shoulder fired weapons that include theM4 carbine, chambered for5.56×45mm NATOammunition and the 12-gaugeRemington 870shotgun.[49]
Asnon-lethaloptions, special agents and officers are armed with the expandable metalbatonandpepper spray.[49]
In February 2005, ICE beganOperation Community Shield, a national law enforcement initiative that targets violent transnational street gangs through the use of ICE's broad law enforcement powers, including the unique and powerful authority to remove criminal immigrants, including undocumented immigrants and legal permanent residents.[50][51]
Immigration and Nationality Act Section 287(g)allows ICE to establish increased cooperation and communication with state, and local law enforcement agencies. Section 287(g) authorizes thesecretary of homeland securityto enter into agreements with state and local law enforcement agencies, permitting designated officers to perform immigration law enforcement functions, pursuant to a memorandum of agreement (MOA), provided that the local law enforcement officers receive appropriate training and function under the supervision of sworn U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement officers. Under 287(g), ICE provides state and local law enforcement with the training and subsequent authorization to identify, process, and when appropriate, detain immigration offenders they encounter during their regular, daily law-enforcement activity.[52]
The enforcement of immigration laws was historically supported by both major political parties within the United States.[53]In 1995, then President Clinton (Democrat) stated the following in his State of the Union address: "All Americans, not only in the states most heavily affected, but in every place in this country, are rightly disturbed by the large numbers of illegal aliens entering our country. The jobs they hold might otherwise be held by citizens or legal immigrants. The public service they use impose burdens on our taxpayers. That's why our administration has moved aggressively to secure our borders more by hiring a record number of new border guards, by deporting twice as many criminal aliens as ever before, by cracking down on illegal hiring, by barring welfare benefits to undocumented immigrants. In the budget I will present to you we will try to do more to speed the deportation of undocumented immigrants who are arrested for crimes, to better identify undocumented immigrants in the workplace as recommended by the commission headed by former Congresswoman Barbara Jordan."[54]
Similarly, in the 1996 State of the Union, then President Clinton (Democrat) stated the following: "But there are some areas that the federal government should not leave and should address and address strongly. One of these areas is the problem of illegal immigration. After years of neglect, this administration has taken a strong stand to stiffen the protection of our borders. We are increasing border controls by 50 percent. We are increasing inspections to prevent the hiring of undocumented immigrants. And tonight, I announce I will sign an executive order to deny federal contracts to businesses that hire undocumented immigrants. Let me be very clear about this: We are still a nation of immigrants; we should be proud of it. We should honor every legal immigrant here, working hard to become a new citizen. But we are also a nation of laws."[55]
The 287(g) program is one of several ICE ACCESS (ICE "Agreements of Cooperation in Communities to Enhance Safety and Security") programs that increase collaboration between local law enforcement and immigration enforcement agents.[56]
Between 2009 and 2016, theBarack Obama administrationoversaw the deporting of a record 2.4 million undocumented immigrants who had entered the United States, earning him the nickname "Deporter-In-Chief" byJanet Murguía, the president ofNational Council of La Raza.[57][58]According to ICE data, about 40% of those deported by ICE in 2015 had no criminal conviction, while a majority of those convicted were guilty of minor charges.[59]However, this statistic is misleading, as the way in how deportations were counted was changed under the Bush administration and continued under the Obama administration. Before, people caught crossing the southern border were simply bused back and were not counted as deportations. However, with the change, these people were fingerprinted and added to the deportation tally, giving the Obama administration a record number of deportations.[60]
The U.S. Border Patrol apprehended more than 1.3 million illegal crossers in the first eight months of 2021; with a total of 1.6 million apprehensions in Fiscal Year 2021 (highest on record).[61]This figure does not include a daily count of 1,000+ illegal migrants who successfully evade the Border Patrol. Many of these migrants are now coming from third party countries and filing asylum claims, which have log jammed DOJ administrative courts. Not all migrants come from Mexico alone, many have come from other areas, such as: South America, Eastern Europe, Turkey and India. of those who arrived in the United States, two thirds were adults without children. Inversely, there was a record of 145,000 children that arrived in the United States unaccompanied.[62]For example, in FY 2014 there were 56,912 asylum claims, which jumped to 142,760 in FY 2017 and are now even higher.[63]Most undocumented immigrants are released into the United States after processing and ordered to report for a future court date. According to the American Immigration Council, 83% of non-detained immigrants with completed or pending removal cases attended all of their hearings and 96% of non-detained immigrants represented by a lawyer attended all of their hearings.[64]This has been colloquially referred to by U.S. conservatives as theborder crisis, and it has become a significant problem to solve for presidential administrations.[citation needed]
In 2011, HSI special agentsJaime Zapataand Victor Avila, while working in Mexico to combat the flow of illicit narcotics, were ambushed by members of the Los Zetas drug cartel. Special Agent Zapata was killed while Special Agent Avila suffered life-threatening injuries.[65]This was the first assassination of U.S. law enforcement agents since the infamous and gruesome murder of DEA special agentEnrique "Kiki" Camarena.[66]Several members of the drug cartel were extradited to the U.S. and charged for the murders, however, the applicable statute revealed a potential loophole that made it inapplicable for violations committed outside the U.S. In November 2021, President Joe Biden signed the "Jaime Zapata & Victor Avila Federal Officers & Employees Protection Act," which helped extend legal protection to all U.S. personnel working overseas.[67]
In 2005, an undercover HSI special agent was kidnapped in Medellin by members of a Colombian drug cartel, who held him responsible for a buy/bust operation that resulted in the seizure of 217 kilos of cocaine. The agent was moved to a "stash house" where he was assaulted and faced a "narco-trial." U.S. embassy officials eventually became aware of the kidnapping and notified senior officials within the Colombian government. The Colombian drug cartel members eventually obtained access to his hotel room safe and retrieved documents that revealed his true identity as a U.S. federal law enforcement officer. In order to avoid additional scrutiny from the Colombian Security Services, the drug cartel subsequently released the HSI special agent once they determined his true identity. The HSI agent eventually returned home safely and the subsequent investigation resulted in the extradition of several drug traffickers involved in the kidnapping.[68]
ICE ERO operates detention centers throughout the United States that detainillegal immigrantswho are apprehended and placed into removal proceedings. About 34,000 people are held in immigration detention on any given day,[69]in over 500 detention centers, jails, and prisons nationwide.[70]Those detained are both undocumented immigrants apprehended by ERO and other agencies such as Border Patrol.
Due to the United States detention bed quota, mandated by Congress, that number will increase rather than decrease. The quota mandates at least 34,000 beds available for immigrants on any given day.[71][72]Under the Trump administration, the number of people being detained on any given day increased to 52,500 in early June 2019.[73]
Engineering and construction firmKellogg, Brown and Root(KBR) released a press statement on January 24, 2006, that the company had been awarded a no-bid contingency contract from the Department of Homeland Security to support its ICE facilities in the event of an emergency. The maximum total value of the contract is $385 million and consists of a one-year base period with four one-year options. KBR held the previous ICE contract from 2000 through 2005. The contract provides for establishing temporary detention and processing capabilities to expand existing ICE Detention and Removal Operations Program facilities in the event of an emergency influx of immigrants into the U.S., or to support the rapid development of new programs. The contract may also provide migrant detention support to other government organizations in the event of an immigration emergency, the company said.[74]
The Interceptpublished a report by theDHSOffice of Inspector Generalrevealing that 1,224 sexual abuse complaints while in immigration custody were filed between January 2010 and June 2017. Contrary to ICE's claims, only 2% of these complaints were investigated.[75][76]In 2020, theKino Border Initiativereceived 442 reports of alleged abuse by US agents, meaning 18% of new arrivals were abused by a US official.[77]
In 2020, multiple human rights groups joined a whistleblower to accuse aprivate-ownedU.S. immigration detention centre inGeorgiaofforcibly sterilizingwomen. The reports claimed a doctor conducted unauthorized medical procedures on women detained by ICE.[78]The whistleblower, Dawn Wooten, was a nurse and former employee. She claims a high rate of sterilizations were performed on Spanish-speaking women and women who spoke various Indigenous languages common in Latin America. Wooten said the centre did not obtain proper consent for these surgeries, or lied to women about the medical procedures.
More than 40 women submitted testimony in writing to document these abuses, one attorney said.[79]Jerry Flores, a faculty member at theUniversity of Toronto Mississaugasaid the alleged treatment of women constituted a violation of human rights andgenocideaccording to the standards of the United Nations.[78]Just Securityof theNew York University School of Lawsaid the U.S. bore "international responsibility for the forced sterilization of women in ICE detention".[80]In September 2020, Mexico demanded more information from US authorities on medical procedures performed on migrants in detention centers, after allegations that six Mexican women were sterilized without their consent. Another woman said she had undergone a gynecological operation, although there was nothing in her detention file to support she agreed to the procedure.[81]
In 2020, CNN reported that Muslim detainees at a federal immigration facility inMiami,Florida, were repeatedly served pork or pork-based products against their religious beliefs, according to claims made by immigrant advocates.[82][83][84]There are dozens of Muslim detainees at the facility for whom it is religiouslyforbidden to consume pork, civil rights groups said in a letter to ICE and federal oversight agencies.[82]The Muslim detainees at the Krome detention facility in Miami were forced to accept pork because religiously compliant/halalmeals that ICE served had been consistently rotten and expired.[82]In one instance, theChaplainat Krome's allegedly dismissed pleas from Muslim detainees for help, saying, "It is what it is."[83]
A letter by civil rights lawyers stated "Many have suffered illness, like stomach pains, vomiting, and diarrhea, as a result."[83]A spokesman claimed that ICE did not deny any "reasonable and equitable opportunity for persons to observe their religious dietary practices." Representatives of the facility, including the chaplain did not respond to requests for comment.[84]Previously in 2019, a Pakistani-born man with a valid American work permit was reportedly given nothing but pork sandwiches for six consecutive days.[83]
From 2012 to early 2018, ICE wrongfully arrested and detained 1,480 U.S. citizens, including many who spent months or years in immigration detention.[85]A 2018Los Angeles Timesinvestigation found that ICE's reliance on incomplete and error-prone databases and lax investigations led to the erroneous detentions.[85]From 2008 to 2018, ICE was sued for wrongful arrest by more than two dozen U.S. citizens, who had been detained for periods ranging from one day to over three years. Some of the wrongfully detained U.S. citizens had been arrested by ICE more than once.[85]The inaccurate government data that ICE used had shown that both immigrants and U.S. citizens were both targets of being detained. In 2019, a U.S. citizen that was detained stated that he lost 26 pounds from the horrendous conditions that the detention center offered.[86]
As part of the 2018Trump administration's zero tolerance policy, nearly 3,000[87]minors were separated from their parents, or the adults accompanying them, while trying to illegally cross theU.S.–Mexico borderand placed in detention camps.[88][89]Rolling Stonelikened these centers to "prisons" whileThe Houston Chroniclereported that a movement swelled online to call them "concentration camps."[90][91]Similarly, former first lady of the United StatesLaura Bushcompared the images of the centers toU.S. Japanese internment campsduring the Second World War.[92]16 out of 34[93]of the centers located in Texas had previously been cited by Texas officials for more than 150 health violations.[94][relevant?]The former head of US Immigration and Customs Enforcement,John Sandweg, was critical of child separation, telling NBC News, "You could easily end up in a situation where the gap between a parent's deportation and a child's deportation is years," and that many children might never see their parents again.[95]
Detained children have also been given up for adoption. In a series of court cases, foster families were successfully able to gain full custody of migrant children that they were housing without notifying their parents.[96]Most notably, the agency Bethany Christian Services, an agency that facilitates the care of foster children in Michigan has been criticized for promoting adoption of migrant children instead of trying to reunite them with their families. In a previous Facebook post, they had waived the previous $550 international adoption application fee for the month of June.[97]This had led to public outcry and protests have been held against this agency and their practices.[98]
This policy in particular has led to theAbolish ICEmovement gaining traction in June 2018.
Sanctuary citiesare cities that limit their cooperation with ICE ERO, particularly in regards to illegal migrants arrested for state criminal violations. When an illegal immigrant is arrested by state or local police for criminal offenses, their information is placed into a federal database that ERO officers can access. In a non-sanctuary city, ERO Officers can ask the police to hold that person after they would normally have been released until ERO can pick them up.[99]However, sanctuary cities believe this is unconstitutional and view being an illegal immigrant as not a crime but a civil violation. As such, policies or ordinances in these cities prevent the police from continuing to hold a person based on an ERO request if that person was otherwise cleared for release.[100]
Sanctuary cities were one of the many focal points for the Trump administration's attempts to reform the country's immigration policies. In early 2017, President Trump issued anexecutive orderto deny sanctuary cities federal grants if they did not comply with ICE.[101]By November 2017, this order was struck down by theUnited States District Court for the Northern District of California.[102]Despite this, the Trump administration continued to seek ways to challenge sanctuary cities, such as implementing a policy that preferentially awards policing grants that cooperate with ICE.[103]
Numerous protests have emerged across the nation in response to theTrump administration's ICE policies. Many of the protesters are occupying areas around ICE facilities in hopes of disrupting operations. TheOccupy ICEmovement began on June 17, 2018, outside Portland, Oregon. It initially began as a vigil for the people suffering from ICE policies but spontaneously grew into a larger movement as more people showed up. The movement ultimately spread into other major cities like Philadelphia, San Francisco, San Diego, and New York. As the movement grew, they faced counter protesters and arrests, but protesters remained undeterred and vowed to continue fighting the Trump administration's ICE policies. As Occupy ICE groups spread to different cities, there has also been a greater amount of coordination between them.[104]Other grassroots protests have sprung up across the nation as well. On August 1, 2019, a month-long peaceful protest event was started outside the San Francisco ICE office, where protesters beat drums and demanded that family separation at the border be stopped.[105]In addition to blocking ICE facilities, protesters are also protesting technology companies such as Microsoft for providing technology to aid ICE. One such instance of this was the sit in at the Microsoft store on 5th Avenue in NYC led by Close the Camps NYC on September 14, 2019.[106]In the 2020 protests and riots in Portland, Oregon, the local ICE office had its window broken.[107]
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Initial access brokers(orIABs) are cyberthreat actorswho specialize in gaining unauthorized access tocomputer networksand systems and then selling that access to other threat actors such asransomware. IABs are parts ofransomware as a serviceeconomy, also called "cybercrime as a service economy".[1][2]
IABs use a variety of methods to gain initial access, including exploitingvulnerabilitiesinremote access serviceslikeRDPandVPNs,bruteforcinglogin credentials, and leveragingmalwarethat steals account information. Access are often sold onauctionsin underground criminal forums or directly provided toransomware affiliategroups to expedite attacks.[3][4]
IABs seek access tovirtual private networks,remote desktop protocol,Web applications, andemail servers. Email services will be used to commitspear phishingandbusiness email compromise(BEC).[5]
In 2020, the average price for a network access is $5,400. The median price is $1,000.[1]
By providing initial access, IABs allow othercyber criminalslikeransomware groupsto more quickly infiltratenetworksand launch attacks without wasting time to gain entry themselves. This access as a service model - in analogy to thesoftware as a servicemodel - provides scalability and efficiency tocybercriminaloperations. Ransomware in particular has benefited from collaboration with IABs.[3]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_access_broker
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Note: Varies byjurisdiction
Note: Varies byjurisdiction
Internet homicide, also calledinternet assassination, refers to killing in which victim and perpetrator met online, in some cases having known each other previously only through the Internet.[1][2][3]AlsoInternet killeris an appellation found in media reports for a person who broadcasts thecrimeofmurderonline or who murders a victim met through theInternet.[4][5]Depending on the venue used, other terms used in the media areInternet chat room killer,Craigslist killer,Facebook serial killer.Internet homicide can also be part of anInternet suicide pactorconsensual homicide.[4]Some commentators believe that reports on these homicides have overemphasized their connection to the Internet.[6]
Serial killersare murderers who target three or more victims sequentially, with a "cooling off" period between each murder, and whose motivation for killing is largely based onpsychologicalgratification.[7][8]Such killers have used forms of social networking to attract victims long before the advent of the Internet. For example, between 1900 and 1914, Hungarian serial killerBéla Kisslured his 24 victims by usingpersonal adspublished in newspapers.[9]
According to Paul Bocj, the author ofCyberstalking: Harassment in the Internet Age and How to Protect Your Family, "The idea that a serial killer may have operated via the Internet is, understandably, one that has resulted in a great deal of public anxiety."[10]InHarold Schecter'sA to Z Encyclopedia of Serial Killers, the entry for "Internet" reads in part: "If the Internet has become a very useful tool for people interested in serial killers, there's some indication that it may also prove to be a resource for serial killers themselves."[11]Maurice Godwin, a forensic consultant, argued that "There are some sadistic predators that rely on the Mardi Gras Effect ["the ability to hide one's identity on the Internet"] to lure and murder repeatedly."[12]The first serial killer known to have used the Internet to find victims wasJohn Edward Robinson, who was arrested in 2000 and was referred to inLaw Enforcement Newsas the "USA's first Internet serial killer" and "the nation's first documented serial killer to use the Internet as a means of luring victims."[13][14]
Online predators, participants ininternet suicide and suicide-homicide pacts, and internet killers may seek out victims throughinternet forums,chat rooms,listservs,email,bulletin boards,social networking sites,online role playing games,online dating services,Yahoo groups, orUsenet.[15][16][17]
Onlinechatroomsare sometimes used by killers to meet and bait potential victims.[2][3][18]For example, the Japanese serial murdererHiroshi Maeueis known to have found victims by using online suicide chat rooms.[19]The killerLisa Marie Montgomeryis reported to have met her victim in an online chatroom forrat terrierlovers called "Ratter Chatter."[20]
Online chatrooms are also used, in some cases, to plan consensual homicides. For example, in 1996, aMarylandwoman,Sharon Lopatka, apparently agreed to be killed bytortureandstrangulationin a conversation with a man in an online chatroom.[21][22]Robert Frederick Glass pleaded guilty to killing Lopatka and later died in prison while serving his sentence. In a case that might be regarded as a quasi-consensual homicide, "John," a teenage boy fromAltrincham, England, allegedly tricked another teenager into killing him using long conversations in an online chatroom. The other teenager, Mark, apparently believed he was being recruited by a female Secret Service agent. The suicide-by-homicide failed and on May 29, 2004 John pleaded guilty to inciting someone to murder him and was sentenced to three years supervision. Mark pleaded guilty to attempted murder and was sentenced to two years supervision. The boys were forbidden to contact each other.[23]
As an article in theNew York Daily Newsexplained in 2009, "Long before there was a craigslist or dot-com dating, there were places where men and women who were too shy or busy to meet face to face could find romance. Calling themselves "matrimonial bureaus," these organizations were known mostly as the "lonely hearts clubs," and they flourished through the middle of the 20th century."[24]It was in venues like these—print media such asnewspaperclassified adsandpersonal or lonely hearts club ads—that 20th century murderers such asHarry Powers, the so-called "Matrimonial Bureau Murderer,"[24]andHarvey Carignan, "the Want Ad Killer"[25]met their victims.
Electronic advertising has gradually replaced printed ads and the Internet is now a venue where murderers who employ a similarmodus operandican meet their victims; in Schecter'sEncyclopedia, the entry for "Ads" mentions Internet dating and the use of Internet ads by the so-called "Internet Cannibal"Armin Meiwes.[11]Since 2007, several accused and convicted killers have contacted victims through advertising services such asCraigslist, a popularclassified advertisingwebsite. These killers are sometimes referred to in the media as "Craigslist killers";[26][27][28]the first use of the termCraigslist killingsmay date to October 31, 2007, when the phrase appeared in a headline in theSaint Paul Pioneer PressinMinnesota, in reference to the murder of Katherine Olson by Michael John Anderson, who was then dubbed "the Craigslist killer".[29]
Since 2007, several suspected and convicted perpetrators have met their victims or solicited murder through Craigslist. Of those cases, two were convicted for crimes in the three-month period encompassing February to April 2009 and a further four were accused of crimes during the 13-month span of March 2008 through April 2009.[26][27][28][30]Although, by definition, Craigslist will have been the initial contact point and a killing will have taken place in order for the suspected, accused, or convicted perpetrator to be dubbed a Craigslist killer, the actual motivations of these criminals are varied. The victims' deaths may result from arobberyor asexualencounter that turned violent. Some of these perpetrators may not have intended to commit murder, but killed their victims during the course of a struggle or to prevent capture. Each case is different.
In 1995, Match.com was launched as the first online dating application. In the following decades internet dating has become the second largest paid Internet industry. However, often people suffering from relatedness frustration will seek affection and care online, but find their needs are not met. The self-esteem enhancement was found to produce problematic usage of internet dating apps due to the sex motive.[31]
According to Michael Largo, the author ofFinal Exits: The Illustrated Encyclopedia of How We Die,[32]"Internet dating is becoming very popular, but since 1995, there's been[...] over 400 instances where a homicide has been related to the person that [the victim] met online."[33][failed verification–see discussion]
Several legal and technology experts have questioned the idea that there is a phenomenon of Internet killings. A legal theorist pressed for an Internet angle on a murder by a journalist related that "I asked her whether, if I called her up and asked her out on a blind date and murdered her, she would think it was a "telephone-related murder"?".[34]
Leslie Harris, CEO of theCenter for Democracy and Technologysaid of the term "Craigslist Killer" that "A great many of the tragic incidents that tangentially involve the Internet have little or nothing to do with the Internet itself. The Craigslist case is the latest example of that phenomenon. Craigslist is an innovative and valuable resource, which frankly, is being unfairly smeared because it is an Internet site."[6]The bookHypercrimeargues that "The more one looks, the more these widely circulated instances of 'cyberkilling' appear to vanish into the smoke of a 'cyberspace'."[4]
Susan Brenner, a professor of law and technology wrote that "Is it a cybercrime for John to meet Mary on the Internet, correspond with her and use e-mail to lure her to a meeting where he kills her? News stories often describe conduct such as this as a cybercrime, or as 'Internet murder.' But why is this anything other than murder? We do not, for example, refer to killings orchestrated over the telephone as 'tele-murder' or by snail mail as 'mail murder.' It seems that this is not a cybercrime, that it is simply a real-world crime the commission of which happens to involve the use of computer technology," but she conceded that "there may be reasons to treat conduct such as this differently and to construe it as something other than a conventional crime."[35]
The following individuals have been arrested and/or convicted of crimes in which police claimed that Internet services such as chat rooms and Craigslist advertisements were used to contact victims or hire a murderer. Despite sharing a similar method of contacting victims, they apparently have varied motivations. In the list below, the victims' deaths may have been premeditated, especially if the perpetrator is aserial killer, but they may also have resulted from a robbery,insurance fraud, or a sexual encounter that turned violent.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_homicide
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Asuicide pactis an agreed plan between two or more individuals to die bysuicide. The plan may be to die together, or separately and closely timed.
Suicide pacts are an important concept in thestudy of suicide, and have occurred throughout history, as well as in fiction. An example of this isthe suicide pactbetweenRudolf, Crown Prince of AustriaandBaroness Mary Vetsera.[1]
Suicide pacts are sometimes contrasted withmass suicides, understood as incidents in which a larger number of people kill themselves together for the same ideological reason, often within a religious, political, military or paramilitary context. "Suicide pact" tends to connote small groups and non-ideological motivations, as do bonding as married or romantic partners, as family members or friends, or even as criminal partners.
InEngland and Wales, suicide pact is a partial defense, under section 4 of theHomicide Act 1957, which reducesmurdertomanslaughter. InNorthern Ireland, this defense is created bysection 14of theCriminal Justice Act (Northern Ireland) 1966(c. 20) (N.I.).
One of the first Internet suicides inIsraeloccurred in 1997, when Eran Aderet, a 19-year-old soldier, died after expressing a desire to kill himself online, and received detailed instructions on how to accomplish this with anM16 riflein his possession.[2]Following this case, in 1999, a new Israeli association, SAHAR, sought toprevent suicideby providing supportive conversations and referrals to relevant resources.[3]In 2005, following an increase in the number of Internet suicide cases, the police established a special unit which consists of six police officers and specializes in helping people who communicate online that they want to die by suicide. The unit keeps in contact with forum moderators, who are asked to look out for posts from suicidal users. About 200 cases are detected each year, preventing dozens of suicides.
Following the success of the Israeli model, similar units have been founded inSweden,GermanyandFrance.[4]
Although the majority of such Internet-related suicide pacts have occurred inJapan[5][6][7](where it takes the name ofnetto shinjū,ネット心中), similar incidents have also been reported from other countries includingChina,South Korea,Germany,Australia,Norway, theUnited Kingdom,[8]Canadaand theUnited States.
The first known Internet-related suicide pact occurred in February 2000, when one Norwegian man and one Austrian woman plunged 300 metres down the famous cliffPreikestolen, inRogalandcounty,Norway. Later, a Norwegian woman came forward stating that the Norwegian man had met her on an Internet forum, and planned to die by suicide with her too, but he had instead chosen to go with the Austrian woman. Both victims were in their 20s.[9][10]
Despite the alarmed response of the media, Internet-connected suicide pacts are still relatively rare. Even in Japan, where most of such pacts have occurred, they still represent only 2% of all group suicide-pacts, and less than 0.01% of all suicides combined. However, they have been increasing in the country: 34 deaths from such pacts occurred in 2003; at least 50 are estimated to have occurred in 2004; and 91 deaths occurred in 2005.[11][12][13]One notable example would beHiroshi Maeue, who on March 28, 2007, wassentenced to deathbyhanging, alleged to have murdered three participants in a suicide pact.[14]
An article published in theBritish Medical Journalin December 2004, by Sundararajan Rajagopal, Consultant Psychiatrist from St. Thomas' Hospital inLondon, highlighted the emergence of the relatively new phenomenon of cybersuicide pacts, addressing it from a psychiatric perspective.[15]Rajagopal commented "The recent suicide pacts in Japan might just be isolated events in a country that has even previously been shown to have the highest rate of suicide pacts. Alternatively, they might herald a new disturbing trend in suicide pacts, with more such incidents, involving strangers meeting over the Internet, becoming increasingly common. If the latter is the case then the epidemiology of suicide pacts is likely to change, with more young people living on their own, who may have died by suicide alone, joining with like-minded suicidal persons to die together".
An article published by theCanterbury Suicide Project[16]makes some notable comparisons between the nature of "traditional" suicide pacts and more recent Internet-related suicide pacts (or, as described in the article, "cyber-based suicide pacts"). It points out that traditionally suicide pacts:
On the other hand, Internet-related suicide pacts are almost the exact opposite:
The article also points out that the trend of Internet-related suicide pacts is changing the way thatmental-healthworkers need to deal with depressed and/or suicidal young people, advising that it is "prudent for clinicians to ask routinely if young people have been accessing Internet sites, obtaining suicide information from such sites, and talking in suicide chat rooms".
A person who enters into an Internet suicide pact can also be lying intentionally.William Francis Melchert-Dinkelis an example of a person who made multiple Internet suicide pacts, in which he falsely promised to hang himself after the other person died by suicide.[17]Melchert-Dinkel was later convicted of criminally assisting or attempting to assist in two suicides by providing detailed information about a suicide method.[18]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_suicide_pact
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Information technology law(IT law), also known asinformation, communication and technology law(ICT law) orcyberlaw, concerns the juridical regulation ofinformation technology, its possibilities and the consequences of its use, includingcomputing, software coding,artificial intelligence, theinternetand virtual worlds. The ICT field of law comprises elements of various branches of law, originating under various acts or statutes of parliaments, the common and continental law and international law. Some important areas it covers are information and data, communication, and information technology, both software and hardware and technical communications technology, including coding and protocols.
Due to the shifting and adapting nature of the technological industry, the nature, source and derivation of this information legal system and ideology changes significantly across borders, economies and in time. As a base structure, Information technology law is related to primarily governing dissemination of both (digitized) information andsoftware,information securityand crossing-bordercommerce. It raises specific issues ofintellectual property,contractlaw,criminal lawandfundamental rightslikeprivacy, theright to self-determinationandfreedom of expression. Information technology law has also been heavily invested of late in issues such as obviating risks ofdata breachesandartificial intelligence.
Information technology law can also relate directly to dissemination and utlilzation of information within the legal industry, dubbedlegal informatics. The nature of this utilisation of data and information technology platform is changing heavily with the advent ofArtificial Intelligencesystems, with major lawfirms in theUnited States of America,Australia,China, and theUnited Kingdomreporting pilot programs of Artificial Intelligence programs to assist in practices such as legal research, drafting and document review.
IT law does not constitute a separate area of law; rather, it encompasses aspects of contract, intellectual property, privacy and data protection laws.Intellectual propertyis an important component of IT law, includingcopyrightandauthors' rights, rules onfair use, rules oncopy protectionfor digital media and circumvention of such schemes. The area ofsoftware patentshas beencontroversial, and is still evolving in Europe and elsewhere.[1][page needed]
The related topics ofsoftware licenses,end user license agreements,free software licensesandopen-source licensescan involve discussion of product liability, professional liability of individual developers, warranties, contract law, trade secrets and intellectual property.
In various countries, areas of the computing and communication industries are regulated – often strictly – by governmental bodies.
There are rules on the uses to which computers and computer networks may be put, in particular there are rules onunauthorized access,data privacyandspamming. There are also limits on the use ofencryptionand of equipment which may be used to defeat copy protection schemes. The export of hardware and software between certain states within theUnited Statesis also controlled.[2]
There are laws governing trade on the Internet, taxation,consumer protection, and advertising.
There are laws oncensorshipversus freedom of expression, rules on public access to government information, and individual access to information held on them by private bodies. There are laws on what data must be retained for law enforcement, and what may not be gathered or retained, for privacy reasons.
In certain circumstances and jurisdictions, computer communications may be used in evidence, and to establish contracts.
New methods of tapping and surveillance made possible by computers have wildly differing rules on how they may be used by law enforcement bodies and as evidence in court.
Computerized voting technology, from polling machines to internet and mobile-phone voting, raise a host of legal issues.
Some states limit access to the Internet, by law as well as by technical means.
Global computer-based communications cut across territorial borders; issues of regulation,jurisdictionandsovereigntyhave therefore quickly come to the fore in the era of theInternet. They have been solved pretty quickly as well, because cross-border communication, negotiating or ordering was nothing new; new were the massive amounts of contacts, the possibilities of hiding one's identity and sometime later thecolonisationof the terrain by corporations.[3]
Jurisdiction is an aspect ofstate sovereigntyand it refers to judicial, legislative and administrative competence. Although jurisdiction is an aspect of sovereignty, it is not coextensive with it. The laws of a nation may have extraterritorial impact extending the jurisdiction beyond the sovereign and territorial limits of that nation. The medium of the Internet, likeelectrical telegraph,telephoneorradio, does not explicitly recognize sovereignty and territorial limitations.[4][page needed]There is no uniform, international jurisdictional law of universal application, and such questions are generally a matter of international treaties and contracts, orconflict of laws, particularly private international law. An example would be where the contents stored on a server located in the United Kingdom, by a citizen of France, and published on a web site, are legal in one country and illegal in another. In the absence of a uniform jurisdictional code, legal practitioners and judges have solved these kind of questions according the general rules for conflict of law; governments and supra-national bodies did design outlines for new legal frameworks.
Whether to treat the Internet as if it were physical space and thus subject to a given jurisdiction's laws, or that the Internet should have a legal framework of its own has been questioned. Those who favor the latter view often feel that government should leave the Internet to self-regulate. American poetJohn Perry Barlow, for example, has addressed the governments of the world and stated, "Where there are real conflicts, where there are wrongs, we will identify them and address them by our means. We are forming our own Social Contract. This governance will arise according to the conditions of our world, not yours. Our world is different".[5]Another view can be read from awiki-website with the name "An Introduction to Cybersecession",[6]that argues for ethical validation of absolute anonymity on the Internet. It compares the Internet with the human mind and declares: "Human beings possess a mind, which they are absolutely free to inhabit with no legal constraints. Human civilization is developing its own (collective) mind. All we want is to be free to inhabit it with no legal constraints. Since you make sure we cannot harm you, you have no ethical right to intrude our lives. So stop intruding!"[7]The project is defining "you" as "all governments", "we" is undefined. Some scholars argue for more of a compromise between the two notions, such asLawrence Lessig's argument that "The problem for law is to work out how the norms of the two communities are to apply given that the subject to whom they apply may be in both places at once."[8]
With the internationalism of the Internet and the rapid growth of users,jurisdictionbecame a more difficult area than before, and in the beginning courts in different countries have taken various views on whether they have jurisdiction over items published on the Internet, or business agreements entered into over the Internet. This can cover areas from contract law, trading standards and tax, through rules onunauthorized access,data privacyandspammingto areas of fundamental rights such as freedom of speech and privacy, via state censorship, to criminal law with libel or sedition.
The frontier idea that laws do not apply in "cyberspace" is however not true in a legal sense. In fact, conflicting laws from different jurisdictions may apply, simultaneously, to the same event. The Internet does not tend to make geographical and jurisdictional boundaries clear, but both Internet technology (hardware), the providers of services and its users remain in physical jurisdictions and are subject to laws independent of their presence on the Internet.[9]As such, a single transaction may involve the laws of at least three jurisdictions:
So a user in one of the United States conducting a transaction with another user that lives in theUnited Kingdom, through a server in Canada, could theoretically be subject to the laws of all three countries and of international treaties as they relate to the transaction at hand.[10]
In practical terms, a user of the Internet is subject to the laws of the state or nation within which he or she goes online. Thus, in the U.S., in 1997,Jake Bakerfaced criminal charges for his e-conduct, and numerous users of peer-to-peerfile-sharingsoftware were subject to civil lawsuits forcopyright infringement. This system runs into conflicts, however, when these suits are international in nature. Simply put, legal conduct in one nation may be decidedly illegal in another. In fact, even different standards concerning theburden of proofin a civil case can cause jurisdictional problems. For example, an American celebrity, claiming to be insulted by an online American magazine, faces a difficult task of winning a lawsuit against that magazine forlibel. But if the celebrity has ties, economic or otherwise, to England, he or she can sue for libel in the English court system, where theburden of proof for establishing defamationmay make the case more favorable to the plaintiff.
Internet governanceis a live issue in international fora such as theInternational Telecommunication Union(ITU), and the role of the current US-based co-ordinating body, theInternet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN) was discussed in the UN-sponsoredWorld Summit on the Information Society(WSIS) in December 2003.
Directives, Regulations and other laws regulating information technology (including the internet, e-commerce, social media and data privacy) in the EU include:
As of 2020, theEuropean Unioncopyrightlaw consists of 13 directives and 2 regulations, harmonising the essential rights of authors, performers, producers and broadcasters. The legal framework reduces national discrepancies, and guarantees the level of protection needed to foster creativity and investment in creativity.[11]Many of the directives reflect obligations under theBerne Conventionand theRome Convention, as well as the obligations of the EU and its Member States under the World Trade Organisation 'TRIPS' Agreementand the two 1996 World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) Internet Treaties: theWIPO Copyright Treatyand theWIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty. Two other WIPO Treaties signed in 2012 and 2016, are theBeijing Treaty on the Protection of Audiovisual Performancesand theMarrakesh VIP Treatyto Facilitate Access to Published Works for Persons who are Blind, Visually Impaired or otherwise Print Disabled. Moreover, free-trade agreements, which the EU concluded with a large number of third countries, reflect many provisions of EU law.
In 2022 theEuropean Parliamentdid adopt landmark laws forinternet platforms, the new rules will improve internet consumer protection and supervision of online platforms, theDigital Services Act(DSA) and theDigital Markets Act(DMA).
Thelawthat regulates aspects of the Internet must be considered in the context of the geographic scope of the technical infrastructure of Internet and state borders that are crossed in processing data around the globe. The global structure of theInternetraises not only jurisdictional issues, that is, the authority to make and enforce laws affecting the Internet, but made corporations and scholars raise questions concerning the nature of the laws themselves.
In their essay "Law and Borders – The Rise of Law in Cyberspace", from 2008,David R. JohnsonandDavid G. Postargue that territorially-based law-making and law-enforcing authorities find this new environment deeply threatening and give a scientific voice to the idea that became necessary for the Internet to govern itself. Instead of obeying the laws of a particular country, "Internet citizens" will obey the laws of electronic entities like service providers. Instead of identifying as a physical person, Internet citizens will be known by their usernames or email addresses (or, more recently, by their Facebook accounts). Over time, suggestions that the Internet can be self-regulated as being its own trans-national "nation" are being supplanted by a multitude of external and internal regulators and forces, both governmental and private, at many different levels. The nature of Internet law remains a legalparadigm shift, very much in the process of development.[12]
Leaving aside the most obvious examples of governmental content monitoring andinternet censorshipin nations likeChina,Saudi Arabia,Iran, there are four primary forces or modes of regulation of the Internet derived from a socioeconomic theory referred to asPathetic dot theorybyLawrence Lessigin his 1999 book,Code and Other Laws of Cyberspace:
These forces or regulators of the Internet do not act independently of each other. For example, governmental laws may be influenced by greater societal norms, and markets affected by the nature and quality of the code that operates a particular system.
Another major area of interest isnet neutrality, which affects the regulation of the infrastructure of the Internet. Though not obvious to most Internet users, every packet of data sent and received by every user on the Internet passes through routers and transmission infrastructure owned by a collection of private and public entities, including telecommunications companies, universities, and governments. This issue has been handled in the paast for electrical telegraph, telephone and cable TV. A critical aspect is that laws in force in one jurisdiction have the potential to have effects in other jurisdictions when host servers or telecommunications companies are affected.
The Netherlands became in 2013 the first country in Europe and the second in the world, after Chile, to pass law relating to it.[13][14]In the U.S, on 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of its new net neutrality rule. On 13 April 2015, the FCC published the final rule on its new regulations.
Article 19 of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightscalls for the protection offree opinion and expression.[15]Which includes right such as freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
In comparison to print-based media, the accessibility and relative anonymity of internet has torn down traditional barriers between an individual and his or her ability to publish. Any person with an internet connection has the potential to reach an audience of millions.
These complexities have taken many forms, three notable examples being theJake Bakerincident, in which the limits of obscene Internet postings were at issue, the controversial distribution of theDeCSScode, andGutnick v Dow Jones, in which libel laws were considered in the context of online publishing. The last example was particularly significant because it epitomized the complexities inherent to applying one country's laws (nation-specific by definition) to the internet (international by nature). In 2003,Jonathan Zittrainconsidered this issue in his paper, "Be Careful What You Ask For: Reconciling a Global Internet and Local Law".[16]
In the UK in 2006 the case ofKeith-Smith v Williamsconfirmed that existinglibellaws applied to internet discussions.[17]
In terms of thetortliability of ISPs and hosts of internet forums, Section 230(c) of theCommunications Decency Actmay provide immunity in the United States.[18]
In many countries, speech through ICT has proven to be another means of communication which has been regulated by the government. The "Open Net Initiative" by theHarvard UniversityBerkman Klein Center, theUniversity of Torontoand the Canadian SecDev Group[19][20]whose mission statement is "to investigate and challenge state filtration and surveillance practices" to "...generate a credible picture of these practices," has released numerous reports documenting the filtration of internet-speech in various countries. WhileChinahas thus far (2011) proven to be the most rigorous in its attempts to filter unwanted parts of the internet from its citizens,[21]many other countries – includingSingapore,Iran,Saudi Arabia, andTunisia– have engaged in similar practices ofInternet censorship. In one of the most vivid examples of information control, the Chinese government for a short time transparently forwarded requests to theGooglesearch engine to its own, state-controlled search engines.[citation needed]
These examples of filtration bring to light many underlying questions concerning the freedom of speech. For example, do government have a legitimate role in limiting access to information? And if so, what forms of regulation are acceptable? For example, some argue that the blocking of "blogspot" and other websites inIndiafailed to reconcile the conflicting interests of speech and expression on the one hand and legitimate government concerns on the other hand.[22]
At the close of the 19th century, concerns aboutprivacycaptivated the general public, and led to the 1890 publication of Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis: "The Right to Privacy".[23]The vitality of this article can be seen today, when examining the USSC decision ofKyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27 (2001) where it is cited by the majority, those in concurrence, and even those in dissent.[24]
The motivation of both authors to write such an article is heavily debated amongst scholars, however, two developments during this time give some insight to the reasons behind it. First, the sensationalistic press and the concurrent rise and use of "yellow journalism" to promote the sale of newspapers in the time following the Civil War brought privacy to the forefront of the public eye. The other reason that brought privacy to the forefront of public concern was the technological development of "instant photography". This article set the stage for all privacy legislation to follow during the 20 and 21st centuries.
In 1967, the United States Supreme Court decision inKatz v United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967) established what is known as the Reasonable Expectation of Privacy Test to determine the applicability of the Fourth Amendment in a given situation. The test was not noted by the majority, but instead it was articulated by the concurring opinion of Justice Harlan. Under this test, 1) a person must exhibit an "actual (subjective) expectation of privacy" and 2) "the expectation [must] be one that society is prepared to recognize as 'reasonable'".
Inspired by theWatergate scandal, theUnited States Congressenacted the Privacy Act of 1974 just four months after the resignation of then PresidentRichard Nixon. In passing this Act, Congress found that "the privacy of an individual is directly affected by the collection, maintenance, use, and dissemination of personal information by Federal agencies" and that "the increasing use of computers and sophisticated information technology, while essential to the efficient operations of the Government, has greatly magnified the harm to individual privacy that can occur from any collection, maintenance, use, or dissemination of personal information".
Codified at 50 U.S.C. §§ 1801–1811, this act establishes standards and procedures for use of electronic surveillance to collect "foreign intelligence" within the United States. §1804(a)(7)(B). FISA overrides the Electronic Communications Privacy Act during investigations when foreign intelligence is "a significant purpose" of said investigation.50 U.S.C.§ 1804(a)(7)(B) and §1823(a)(7)(B). Another interesting result of FISA, is the creation of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC). All FISA orders are reviewed by this special court of federal district judges. The FISC meets in secret, with all proceedings usually also held from both the public eye and those targets of the desired surveillance.For more information see:Foreign Intelligence Act
The ECPA represents an effort by the United States Congress to modernize federal wiretap law. The ECPA amended Title III (see:Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968) and included two new acts in response to developing computer technology and communication networks. Thus the ECPA in the domestic venue into three parts: 1) Wiretap Act, 2) Stored Communications Act, and 3) The Pen Register Act.
The DPPA was passed in response to states selling motor vehicle records to private industry. These records contained personal information such as name, address, phone number, SSN, medical information, height, weight, gender, eye color, photograph and date of birth. In 1994, Congress passed the Driver's Privacy Protection (DPPA), 18 U.S.C. §§ 2721–2725, to cease this activity.For more information see:Driver's Privacy Protection Act
-This act authorizes widespread sharing of personal information by financial institutions such as banks, insurers, and investment companies. The GLBA permits sharing of personal information between companies joined or affiliated as well as those companies unaffiliated. To protect privacy, the act requires a variety of agencies such as the SEC, FTC, etc. to establish "appropriate standards for the financial institutions subject to their jurisdiction" to "insure security and confidentiality of customer records and information" and "protect against unauthorized access" to this information.15 U.S.C.§ 6801For more information see:Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act
-Passed by Congress in 2002, the Homeland Security Act,6 U.S.C.§ 222, consolidated 22 federal agencies into what is commonly known today as the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). The HSA, also created a Privacy Office under the DoHS. The Secretary of Homeland Security must "appoint a senior official to assume primary responsibility for privacy policy." This privacy official's responsibilities include but are not limited to: ensuring compliance with the Privacy Act of 1974, evaluating "legislative and regulatory proposals involving the collection, use, and disclosure of personal information by the Federal Government", while also preparing an annual report to Congress.For more information see:Homeland Security Act
-This Act mandates that intelligence be "provided in its most shareable form" that the heads of intelligence agencies and federal departments "promote a culture of information sharing." The IRTPA also sought to establish protection of privacy and civil liberties by setting up a five-member Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board. This Board offers advice to both the President of the United States and the entire executive branch of the Federal Government concerning its actions to ensure that the branch's information sharing policies are adequately protecting privacy and civil liberties.For more information see:Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act
Centers and groups for the study of cyberlaw and related areas
Topics related to cyberlaw
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_aspects_of_computing
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Convicted computer criminals are people who are caught andconvictedofcomputer crimessuch as breaking intocomputersorcomputer networks.[1]Computer crime can be broadly defined as criminal activity involving information technology infrastructure, including illegal access (unauthorized access), illegal interception (by technical means of non-public transmissions of computer data to, from or within a computer system), data interference (unauthorized damaging, deletion, deterioration, alteration or suppression of computer data), systems interference (interfering with the functioning of a computer system by inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing computer data), misuse of devices, forgery (oridentity theft) and electronic fraud.[2]
In the infancy of thehackersubculture and thecomputerunderground,[3]criminal convictions were rare because there was an informal code of ethics that was followed bywhite hat hackers.[4]Proponents of hacking claim to be motivated by artistic and political ends, but are often unconcerned about the use of criminal means to achieve them.[5]White hat hackers break past computer security for non-malicious reasons and do no damage, akin to breaking into a house and looking around.[6]They enjoy learning and working with computer systems, and by this experience gain a deeper understanding of electronic security.[6]As the computer industry matured, individuals with malicious intentions (black hats) would emerge to exploit computer systems for their own personal profit.[6]
Convictions of computer crimes, or hacking, began as early as 1984 with the case ofThe 414sfrom the414 area codeinMilwaukee. In that case, six teenagers broke into a number of high-profile computer systems, includingLos Alamos National Laboratory,Sloan-Kettering Cancer CenterandSecurity Pacific Bank. On May 1, 1984, one of the 414s,Gerald Wondra, was sentenced to two years of probation.[7]In May 1986, the first computer trespass conviction to result in a jail sentence was handed down to Michael Princeton Wilkerson, who received two weeks in jail for his infiltration ofMicrosoft,Sundstrand Corp.,Kenworth Truck Co. and Resources Conservation Co.[8]
In 2006, a prison term of nearly five years was handed down toJeanson James Ancheta, who created hundreds ofzombie computersto do his bidding via giant bot networks orbotnets.[9]He then sold the botnets to the highest bidder, who in turn used them fordenial-of-service (DoS) attacks.[10]
As of 2012[update], the longest sentence for computer crimes is that ofAlbert Gonzalezfor 20 years.[11]The next longest sentences are those of 13 years forMax Butler,[12]108 months for Brian Salcedo in 2004 and upheld in 2006 by the U.S. 4th Circuit Court of Appeals,[13][14]and 68 months forKevin Mitnickin 1999.[15]
He is a co-creator ofTrojan horseSpyEye. He stole from 217 American banks in total stealing $400 million and is alleged to have donated all the money to Africa and Palestine, though Trial documents did not mention any donations or charity activities.[26]Despite much false information on the internet Bendelladj did not get sentenced to death, and claims saying he donated any money to charity is almost impossible to verify.[27]The SpyEye software was also sold to other hackers and used as part of a botnet.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_criminals
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TheNational Crime Agency(NCA) is anational law enforcementagency in theUnited Kingdom. It is the UK's lead agency againstorganised crime;human,weaponanddrug trafficking;cybercrime; and economic crime that goes across regional and international borders, but it can be tasked to investigate any crime. The NCA has a strategic role as part of which it looks at serious crime in aggregate across the UK, especially analysing how organised criminals are operating and how they can be disrupted. To do this, it works closely with regional organised crime units (ROCUs), local police forces, and other government departments and agencies.
It is the UK's point of contact for foreign agencies such asInterpol,Europoland other international law enforcement agencies. On a day-to-day basis, the NCA assists police forces and other law enforcement agencies (and vice versa) under voluntary assistance arrangements. In extremis, theNCA Director Generalhas the power to direct a chief officer of a police force to give directed assistance with NCA tasks where necessary (but only with consent of the relevant Secretary of State).[3]The NCA itself can also be directed by the Secretary of State to give directed assistance to a police force or other law enforcement agency.[4]
It was established in 2013 as anon-ministerial government department,[5]replacing theSerious Organised Crime Agencyand absorbed the previously separateChild Exploitation and Online Protection Centre(CEOP) as one of its commands.[6]It also assumed a number of responsibilities from other law enforcement agencies.
The NCA has also assumed a range of functions from theNational Policing Improvement Agency, which has been scrapped as part of the government's changes to policing.[7]These include a specialist database relating to injuries and unusual weapons, expert research on potentialserial killers, and the National Missing Persons Bureau. The agencies going into the NCA had a combined budget of £812 million, yet the new agency only had £464 million in its first year—a decrease of 43%.[8]Some of the responsibilities of the formerUK Border Agency(nowImmigration EnforcementandBorder Force) relating to border policing also became part of the NCA. Like its predecessor SOCA, the NCA has been dubbed the "BritishFBI" by the media.[3]
The NCA's leadership team sets the Agency's strategic direction and provides senior operational oversight. Executive and non-executive directors bring a wealth of experience and expertise from across policing, government and the private sector.
As of October 2021, the director general is Graeme Biggar.[9]
The proposed agency was first publicly announced in a statement to the House of Commons byTheresa May, the thenHome Secretary, on 26 July 2010.[10]On 8 June 2011, she declared that the NCA would comprise a number of distinct operational commands: Organised Crime, Border Policing, Economic Crime and the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, and that it would house theNational Cyber Crime Unit. She added that capabilities, expertise, assets and intelligence would be shared across the new agency; that each command would operate as part of one single organisation; and that the NCA would be a powerful body of operational crime fighters, led by a seniorchief constableand accountable to the Home Secretary. In her statement to theHouse of Commons, May stated that the new agency would have the authority to "undertake tasking and coordination, ensuring appropriate action is taken to put a stop to the activities of organised crime groups".[11]
In June 2011, the coalition government announced thatSOCA's operations (serious drug trafficking investigative and intelligence sections) would be merged into a largerNational Crime Agencyto launch in 2013.
On 23 September 2011, the Home Affairs Select Committee called for theMetropolitan Police's counterterrorism role to be given to the NCA when it became operational, saying that the terrorist threat was a "national problem" and that there would be "advantages" in transferring responsibility.[12][13]The Metropolitan Police raised concerns around the cost of such a move.[14]
TheHome Affairs Select Committeemet again on 9 May 2014 to discuss counterterrorism.[15]As a part of the report, the committee reconsidered the question of moving counterterrorism responsibilities to the NCA. The committee came to the conclusion that:
"The Metropolitan Police have a wide remit which has many complexities and the current difficulties faced by the organisation lead us to believe that the responsibility for counter-terrorism ought to be moved to the NCA in order to allow the Met to focus on the basics of policing London. The work to transfer the command ought to begin immediately with a view to a full transfer of responsibility for counter-terrorism operations taking place, for example within five years after the NCA became operational, in 2018. When this takes place, it should finally complete the jigsaw of the new landscape of policing."[16][17]
However, the report acknowledged that the NCA was still a new agency and that at the time it was not fully operational in Northern Ireland. Questions have been raised as to how effective this model would be[18]and, with a limited budget, whether other responsibilities would suffer and not be resourced as properly as they should be.[19]If the whole ofCounter Terrorism Commandwere to transfer from the Metropolitan police to the NCA, the NCA would receive a further 1,500 officers or more if other counterterrorism units transferred in as well. It raised the question of what other national police units could be absorbed into the NCA, such as theNational Wildlife Crime Unit,National Domestic Extremism and Disorder Intelligence Unit,National Vehicle Crime Intelligence Serviceand other units with a national remit from ACPO, the Metropolitan Police and other forces. Plans are being discussed for the second time of moving theSerious Fraud Officeinto the NCA.[20]
The process of looking at moving counterterrorism into the NCA was put on hold on 9 October 2014 by Home Secretary Theresa May due to an increase in the terror threat level.[21]
In October 2011, it was announced that Keith Bristow, the then Chief Constable ofWarwickshire Police, would head the organisation.[22]
The NCA came into existence under provisions granted by theCrime and Courts Act 2013, which receivedRoyal Assenton 25 April 2013.[23]
Until 20 May 2015, the agency was only able to carry out border and customs functions in Northern Ireland. This was due to the fact that under the 1998Good Friday Agreementthat led to a political settlement and power-sharing in Northern Ireland, policing was subjected to a far higher degree of community oversight and monitoring than in other parts of the UK. The chief constable and officers are responsible to the Policing Board.[24][25]
The NCA operates across the UK, respecting the devolution of policing in Scotland and Northern Ireland.[26]
A large number of NCA officers, including Investigators, can be designated with the powers and privileges of a police constable, immigration officer, customs officer, or a general customs officer (or any combination of the four sets of powers) under Section 10 of The Courts and Crime Act 2013.[26][27]When NCA officers are designated with all three sets of powers it is known as being triple warranted, or "tri-warranted".[28]
Although NCA officers can be designated with the above powers, they do not hold the office of constable and are civil servants.[29]This is a different legal position to police officers who serve in the various police forces of the UK. The NCA is not a police force but an operationally independent non-ministerial government department.[30]
In Scotland, the NCA's operations and powers are limited to those inherited from its predecessor, theSerious Organised Crime Agency, and the powers to operate in Scotland are conditional on authorisation from theLord Advocateand through co-operation withPolice Scotland.[31]: 5Previously co-operation was with theScottish Crime and Drug Enforcement Agency(a police force which was responsible for similar matters in Scotland).
InNorthern Ireland, the NCA is "fully operational", through the passage ofThe Crime and Courts Act 2013 (National Crime Agency and Proceeds of Crime) (Northern Ireland) Order 2015which extended provisions of theCrime and Courts Act 2013to Northern Ireland.[32][33]A general authorisation was signed byMinister of Justicefor Northern Ireland and the Director General granted trained and qualified NCA officers the powers of aconstablein Northern Ireland.[34]However, the NCA requires authorisation from theChief Constable of the Police Service of Northern Irelandfor the use ofcovert techniques.[31]: 5
The NCA also has a role in assisting the Crown Dependencies, having assistedGuernseyandJerseypolice on matters of serious crime.[35][36][37]
The NCA faces several challenges. The first of these is the scale of the growing problem facing them. At the end of 2014 UK law enforcement estimated there were 5,800 organised crime groups – comprising some 40,600 individuals. This is an increase of three hundred organised crime groups and 3,500 people on the year before. The National Crime Agency (NCA) estimates that there are as many as 50,000 people in the UK involved in the downloading and viewing of indecent images online. The Director General of the NCA has suggested that the British public cannot expect every person viewing indecent images to enter the criminal justice system – not least because of the sheer scale of the problem. The NCA received 12,505 referrals from the National Centre for Missing and Exploited Children in its first 12 months, compared to 9,855 in 2012, an increase of almost 27 per cent. Tackling modern slavery is another area that the Home Secretary has identified as requiring more effort. The Home Office's Chief Scientific Adviser estimates that there may have been as many as 13,000 potential victims of modern slavery in the UK in 2013. This figure was increased in August 2017 to "tens of thousands of victims".[38]Most will rely on the services of organised criminal groups at some point in their journey to the UK.[39]
In addition to this the NCA has been tasked with the Rotherham investigation into child sex exploitation. According to the NCA there are 3,300 lines of enquiry, around 1,400 victims and 300 suspects.
The second challenge, of funding and resources, links with the first challenge. Although the NCA budget is half a billion pounds, in proportion to the scale of the problem it is small. The combined budget of previous agencies and units that make up the NCA was almost a billion pounds, so the agency has had an almost 50% cut before its creation.[8]The NCA has 5000 staff only around 1250 of which are investigators, again small when faced with the problem. For the Rotherham investigation the NCA has had to bring in agency staff who are ex-police to assist with the scale of the investigation.
Thirdly there is the challenge of the "failure" of its predecessor agencies, SOCA and the National Crime squad and the fact that its success needs to be judged over years and not months due to the nature of the threat. SOCA was criticised for poor management and that some staff had poor investigation skills due to not working in law enforcement before. It is suggested that around 300 police detectives left SOCA due to this. With the NCA having the same staff this could be an issue. The NCA has already been criticised for not seizing enough assets (even though they seized more than SOCA in their last year of operation[40]as well as using a search warrant that was judged to be illegal after staff at the agency were "deliberately trying to stretch the boundaries imposed upon such investigation agencies by the statutory scheme under which they operate". The judgeMr Justice Hickinbottomstated though "This case smacks of incompetence, not bad faith."[41]
The NCA is organised into eight operational branches, overseen by seven directors, who are in turn overseen by aDirector General, assisted by a Deputy Director General.[42]The commands are as follows:[citation needed]
The Assets Recovery Agency became part of the Serious Organised Crime Agency from April 2008. This then became the Proceeds of Crime Centre in the NCA. The power to launch civil recovery proceedings has also been extended to the three main prosecutors in England and Wales: the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS), the Revenue and Customs Prosecutions Office (RCPO) and the Serious Fraud Office (SFO). It will also be extended to the Public Prosecution Service in Northern Ireland and the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service in Scotland.
The Missing Persons Bureau (MPB) transferred to SOCA in April 2012 along with SCAS. It had previously been based atNew Scotland Yarduntil April 2008 when it was moved to the NPIA and based in Bramshill.
The bureau acts as the centre for the exchange of information connected with the search for missing persons nationally and internationally. It is responsible for cross-matching missing persons with unidentified persons or bodies, as well as maintaining an index of dental records of missing persons and unidentified bodies.
The MPB also manages a missing persons and Child Rescue Alert website, and analyses data to identify trends and patterns in disappearances.
The National Injuries Database also transferred from the NPIA. It provides additional support to police forces by providing analysis of weapons and wounds, and seeking to identify similarities to aid investigators in determining which weapon may have been used. The database holds over 4,000 cases of suspicious deaths, murders and clinical cases, and contains over 20,000 images.
SOCA via the UK Financial Intelligence Unit took over responsibility for dealing with suspicious activity reports (SARs), previously made to the National Criminal Intelligence Service (NCIS) under the money laundering legislation. This function is now part of NCA.
NCIS received just under 200,000 SARs in 2005 and throughout its life was heavily critical of the banking and financial services sector, and the Financial Services Authority, for not being more transparent or forthcoming in reporting their customers' suspicious activity.
Despite criticism from professional representative bodies that the disclosure rules are too broad, SOCA said that up to one in three SARs lead to or add substantially to terrorism investigations; that HMRC estimates that around one in five SARs identifies new subjects of interest, and one in four SARs lead to direct tax enquiries; and many arrests and confiscations of criminal assets.
The Serious Crime Analysis Section moved to SOCA from the National Policing Improvement Agency on 1 April 2012 in advance of the planned establishment of the National Crime Agency in 2013. SCAS is based at Foxley Hall in the grounds of the Police Staff College, Bramshill in Hampshire.[43]It was originally formed by the Home Office in 1998 to identify the potential emergence ofserial killersandserial rapistsat the earliest stage of their offending. This scope has since broadened to include the analysis by specialist staff of rapes, serioussexual assaultsand motiveless or sexually motivated murders.
Criminal case files are received by SCAS from all police forces in the UK at an early stage in the investigations. The information is coded and placed on a singledatabase, ViCLAS (Violent Crime Linkage Analysis System). The system was developed in Canada by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
The investigating officer receives a report from a crime analyst with a number of key elements designed to assist the investigation. It will identify if there are grounds to believe that the offender has previously been identified. It will also provide a breakdown of the behaviour exhibited in the offence, often with a statistical description of some of the elements involved. This can alert an investigator to the importance of some aspects of the offence not immediately apparent. SCAS are also responsible for identifying good practice, or "what works", so the analyst's report may contain "investigative suggestions" that might guide the officer to a specific line of enquiry not yet considered. The report may also suggest possible suspects that the unit has identified from a number of databases. When a prime suspect has been identified and charged with an offence, senior analysts are able to provide specialist evidence in court, to assist with the prosecution of offenders.
The NCA is the UK single point of contact for Interpol, Europol and theSchengenInformation System, and also the point of contact for international enquiries from all UK police and law enforcement agencies. It has 24/7 capacity for Interpol and Europol with direct connections to their databases, provides international Liaison Officers, and co-ordinates all inbound and outbound Cross Border Surveillance requests with Schengen partners. It also has a dedicated Fugitives Unit that acts as the UK Central Authority for all extraditions.
In 2010, nine regional organised crime units (ROCUs) were created across England and Wales outside of London to investigate organised crime in their region and to support the NCA. Each ROCU is supported by a regional intelligence unit which is staffed by police officers and staff from each ROCU's constituent forces.[45]
The Police Service of Northern Ireland, Police Scotland, the City of London Police, and the Metropolitan Police Service each have individual organised crime units which also support the NCA.
The nine ROCUs are:
Regional organised crime units bring together a number of specialised teams and functions under the one structure:[46]
There are special multi-agency teams, an example is the National County Lines Coordination Centre (NCLCC), a multi-agency team drawn from the NCA, police forces and ROCUs. The team develops a national intelligence picture of the threat from county lines crime to improve understanding and scale of child sexual abuse crimes. The NCLCC is responsible for coordinating the response to county lines and managing the flow of intelligence to the police forces and ROCUs.[47]
On 22 May 2014 at around 22:50, NCA officers were involved in a shootout inTottenham.[48]Several shots were fired, including from NCA officers. Two men were arrested at the scene by the NCA forattempted murderand possession of a firearm with intent to endanger life. The Metropolitan Police arrived and arrested a third man forpossession of a firearm.[49][50]This is believed to be the first incident in which NCA officers fired shots.
On 25 May 2014 at 00:00 hrs, a second NCA operation was carried out in Tottenham, along with officers from the Metropolitan Police, after the NCA received intelligence about the earlier shoot out. Two more men were arrested, one for attempted murder and possession of a firearm with intent to endanger life and the other for assisting an offender, after their car was stopped by armed officers. One shot was fired by a Metropolitan Police officer during the operation.[51]
In May 2014, the NCA conducted a major operation that resulted in the seizing of more than 100 kg ofcocainefrom a Greekbulk freighterin Scotland. The ship had been returning fromColombia; the operation resulted in the arrest of three men.[52]
In July 2014, the NCA with partners jointly disrupted the "Shylock" bankingtrojanbelieved to have infected at least 30,000 computers.[53]
Also in July 2014, the NCA co-ordinated the arrest of 660 suspected paedophiles. 39 of those arrested wereregistered sex offenders, but the majority had not previously come to the attention of law enforcement. 400 children are believed to have been protected by this operation, which included apprehending several individuals who had unsupervised access to children such as doctors, teachers and care workers.[54][55][56]
In November 2016, the NCA began a campaign, including releasing a video,[57]to educate the public onsextortion, providing advice on protecting oneself from being subject to sextortion and how to respond to a case of online blackmail.[58]
On 2 July 2020, the NCA reported it had co-ordinated the largest law enforcement operation of its kind in the UK when it announced the results of Operation Venetic. Working with all the police forces of the UK and other law enforcement bodies, officers made 746 arrests and seized £54 million of drug money, 77 firearms, 1,800 rounds of ammunition, 4 hand grenades, 55 high value (possibly stolen) cars and 2 tonnes of illegal drugs. The operation was possible after an international law enforcement team cracked the encryption of a mobile phoneinstant messaging servicefromEncroChat. Law enforcement inFranceand theNetherlandsalso carried out related operations with the assistance ofEuropol.Home SecretaryPriti Patelsaid: "This operation demonstrates that criminals will not get away with using encrypted devices to plot vile crimes under the radar. The NCA's relentless targeting of these gangs has helped to keep us all safe. I congratulate them and law enforcement partners on this significant achievement".[59]
On 20 February 2024 the NCA, in collaboration withEuropoland other law enforcement agencies, announced that it had seized websites and infrastructure belonging to theransomwaregroupLockBit.[60]Over 1,000 decryption keys were obtained, with the victims of the attacks to be contacted about the decryption of their data.[61]
On 4 December 2024, the NCA revealedOperation Destabilise, an NCA-led international investigation into two Russian money laundering networks, Smart and TGR Group. The two networks had links to criminal organisations in the UK,drug cartelsinSouth America, theKinahan Organised Crime Group, Russian espionage efforts andsanctionavoidance.[62][63][64]The investigation up to that point had led to the arrest of 84 people, 71 of which were arrested in the UK, while six individuals, both major money laundering networks and several companies had been sanctioned, while a seventh linked individual was arrested for the facilitation of money laundering. In total, approximately £20 million had been seized out of an estimated £700 million in drugs sales.[62][64][65][66]
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Apenetration test, colloquially known as apentest, is an authorized simulatedcyberattackon a computer system, performed to evaluate thesecurityof the system;[1]this is not to be confused with avulnerability assessment.[2]The test is performed to identify weaknesses (orvulnerabilities), including the potential for unauthorized parties to gain access to the system's features and data,[3][4]as well as strengths,[5]enabling a fullrisk assessmentto be completed.
The process typically identifies the target systems and a particular goal, then reviews available information and undertakes various means to attain that goal. A penetration test target may be awhite box(about which background and system information are provided in advance to the tester) or ablack box(about which only basic information other than the company name is provided). Agray boxpenetration test is a combination of the two (where limited knowledge of the target is shared with the auditor).[6]A penetration test can help identify a system's vulnerabilities to attack and estimate how vulnerable it is.[7][5]
Security issues that the penetration test uncovers should be reported to the system owner.[8]Penetration test reports may also assess potential impacts to the organization and suggest countermeasures to reduce the risk.[8]
The UKNational Cyber Security Centerdescribes penetration testing as: "A method for gaining assurance in the security of an IT system by attempting to breach some or all of that system's security, using the same tools and techniques as an adversary might."[9]
The goals of a penetration test vary depending on the type of approved activity for any given engagement, with the primary goal focused on finding vulnerabilities that could be exploited by a nefarious actor, and informing the client of those vulnerabilities along with recommended mitigation strategies.[10]
Penetration tests are a component of a fullsecurity audit. For example, thePayment Card Industry Data Security Standardrequires penetration testing on a regular schedule, and after system changes.[11]Penetration testing also can support risk assessments as outlined in the NIST Risk Management Framework SP 800-53.[12]
Several standard frameworks and methodologies exist for conducting penetration tests. These include the Open Source Security Testing Methodology Manual (OSSTMM), the Penetration Testing Execution Standard (PTES), theNISTSpecial Publication 800-115, the Information System Security Assessment Framework (ISSAF) and theOWASPTesting Guide. CREST, a not for profit professional body for the technical cyber security industry, provides its CREST Defensible Penetration Test standard that provides the industry with guidance for commercially reasonable assurance activity when carrying out penetration tests.[13]
Flaw hypothesis methodology is asystems analysisand penetration prediction technique where a list of hypothesizedflawsin asoftware systemare compiled through analysis of thespecificationsand documentation for the system. The list of hypothesized flaws is then prioritized on the basis of the estimated probability that a flaw actually exists, and on the ease of exploiting it to the extent of control or compromise. The prioritized list is used to direct the actual testing of the system.
There are different types of penetration testing, depending upon the goal of the organization which include: Network (external and internal), Wireless, Web Application, Social Engineering, and Remediation Verification.
Even more recently a common pen testing tool called a flipper was used to hack the MGM casinos in 2023 by a group calledScattered Spiders[14]showing the versatility and power of some of the tools of the trade.
By the mid 1960s, growing popularity oftime-sharingcomputer systems that made resources accessible over communication lines created new security concerns. As the scholars Deborah Russell and G. T. Gangemi Sr. explain, "The 1960s marked the true beginning of the age of computer security."[15]: 27
In June 1965, for example, several of the U.S.'s leading computer security experts held one of the first major conferences on system security—hosted by the government contractor, theSystem Development Corporation(SDC). During the conference, someone noted that one SDC employee had been able to easily undermine various system safeguards added to SDC'sAN/FSQ-32time-sharing computer system. In hopes that further system security study would be useful, attendees requested "...studies to be conducted in such areas as breaking security protection in the time-shared system." In other words, the conference participants initiated one of the first formal requests to use computer penetration as a tool for studying system security.[16]: 7–8
At the Spring 1968 Joint Computer Conference, many leading computer specialists again met to discuss system security concerns. During this conference, the computer security expertsWillis Ware, Harold Petersen, and Rein Turn, all of theRAND Corporation, and Bernard Peters of theNational Security Agency(NSA), all used the phrase "penetration" to describe an attack against a computer system. In a paper, Ware referred to the military's remotely accessible time-sharing systems, warning that "Deliberate attempts to penetrate such computer systems must be anticipated." His colleagues Petersen and Turn shared the same concerns, observing that online communication systems "...are vulnerable to threats to privacy," including "deliberate penetration." Bernard Peters of the NSA made the same point, insisting that computer input and output "...could provide large amounts of information to a penetrating program." During the conference, computer penetration would become formally identified as a major threat to online computer systems.[16]: 8
The threat that computer penetration posed was next outlined in a major report organized by theUnited States Department of Defense(DoD) in late 1967. Essentially, DoD officials turned to Willis Ware to lead a task force of experts from NSA,CIA, DoD, academia, and industry to formally assess the security of time-sharing computer systems. By relying on many papers presented during the Spring 1967 Joint Computer Conference, the task force largely confirmed the threat to system security that computer penetration posed. Ware's report was initially classified, but many of the country's leading computer experts quickly identified the study as the definitive document on computer security.[16]Jeffrey R. Yost of theCharles Babbage Institutehas more recently described the Ware report as "...by far the most important and thorough study on technical and operational issues regarding secure computing systems of its time period."[17]In effect, the Ware report reaffirmed the major threat posed by computer penetration to the new online time-sharing computer systems.
To better understand system weaknesses, the federal government and its contractors soon began organizing teams of penetrators, known astiger teams,to use computer penetration to test system security. Deborah Russell and G. T. Gangemi Sr. stated that during the 1970s "...'tiger teams' first emerged on the computer scene. Tiger teams were government and industry-sponsored teams of crackers who attempted to break down the defenses of computer systems in an effort to uncover, and eventually patch, security holes."[15]: 29
A leading scholar on the history of computer security, Donald MacKenzie, similarly points out that, "RAND had done some penetration studies (experiments in circumventing computer security controls) of early time-sharing systems on behalf of the government."[18][19]Jeffrey R. Yost of the Charles Babbage Institute, in his own work on the history of computer security, also acknowledges that both the RAND Corporation and the SDC had "engaged in some of the first so-called 'penetration studies' to try to infiltrate time-sharing systems in order to test their vulnerability."[17]In virtually all these early studies, tiger teams successfully broke into all targeted computer systems, as the country's time-sharing systems had poor defenses.
Of early tiger team actions, efforts at the RAND Corporation demonstrated the usefulness of penetration as a tool for assessing system security. At the time, one RAND analyst noted that the tests had "...demonstrated the practicality of system-penetration as a tool for evaluating the effectiveness and adequacy of implemented data security safeguards." In addition, a number of the RAND analysts insisted that the penetration test exercises all offered several benefits that justified its continued use. As they noted in one paper, "A penetrator seems to develop a diabolical frame of mind in his search for operating system weaknesses and incompleteness, which is difficult to emulate." For these reasons and others, many analysts at RAND recommended the continued study of penetration techniques for their usefulness in assessing system security.[16]: 9
Presumably the leading computer penetration expert during these formative years was James P. Anderson, who had worked with the NSA, RAND, and other government agencies to study system security. In the early 1971, the U.S. Air Force contracted Anderson's private company to study the security of its time-sharing system at the Pentagon. In his study, Anderson outlined a number of major factors involved in computer penetration. Anderson described a general attack sequence in steps:
Over time, Anderson's description of general computer penetration steps helped guide many other security experts, who relied on this technique to assess time-sharing computer system security.[16]: 9
In the following years, computer penetration as a tool for security assessment became more refined and sophisticated. In the early 1980s, the journalistWilliam Broadbriefly summarized the ongoing efforts of tiger teams to assess system security. As Broad reported, the DoD-sponsored report by Willis Ware "...showed how spies could actively penetrate computers, steal or copy electronic files and subvert the devices that normally guard top-secret information. The study touched off more than a decade of quiet activity by elite groups of computer scientists working for the Government who tried to break into sensitive computers. They succeeded in every attempt."[20]
While these various studies may have suggested that computer security in the U.S. remained a major problem, the scholar Edward Hunt has more recently made a broader point about the extensive study of computer penetration as a security tool. Hunt suggests in a recent paper on the history of penetration testing that the defense establishment ultimately "...created many of the tools used in modern day cyberwarfare," as it carefully defined and researched the many ways that computer penetrators could hack into targeted systems.[16]: 5
A wide variety ofsecurity assessment toolsare available to assist with penetration testing, including free-of-charge,free software, andcommercial software.
Several operating system distributions are geared towards penetration testing.[21]Such distributions typically contain a pre-packaged and pre-configured set of tools. The penetration tester does not have to hunt down each individual tool, which might increase the risk of complications—such as compile errors, dependency issues, and configuration errors. Also, acquiring additional tools may not be practical in the tester's context.
Notable penetration testing OS examples include:
Many other specialized operating systems facilitate penetration testing—each more or less dedicated to a specific field of penetration testing.
A number of Linux distributions include known OS and application vulnerabilities, and can be deployed astargetsto practice against. Such systems help new security professionals try the latest security tools in a lab environment. Examples include Damn Vulnerable Linux (DVL), the OWASP Web Testing Environment (WTW), and Metasploitable.
There are hardware tools specifically designed for penetration testing. However, not all hardware tools used in penetration testing are purpose-built for this task. Some devices, such as measuring and debugging equipment, are repurposed for penetration testing due to their advanced functionality and versatile capabilities.
The process of penetration testing may be simplified into the following five phases:
Once an attacker has exploited one vulnerability they may gain access to other machines so the process repeats i.e. they look for new vulnerabilities and attempt to exploit them. This process is referred to as pivoting.
Legal operations that let the tester execute an illegal operation include unescaped SQL commands, unchanged hashed passwords in source-visible projects, human relationships, and old hashing or cryptographic functions. A single flaw may not be enough to enable a critically serious exploit. Leveraging multiple known flaws and shaping the payload in a way that appears as a valid operation is almost always required. Metasploit provides a ruby library for common tasks, and maintains a database of known exploits.
When working under budget and time constraints,fuzzingis a common technique that discovers vulnerabilities. It aims to get an unhandled error through random input. The tester uses random input to access the less often used code paths. Well-trodden code paths are usually free of errors. Errors are useful because they either expose more information, such as HTTP server crashes with full info trace-backs—or are directly usable, such asbuffer overflows.
Imagine a website has 100 text input boxes. A few are vulnerable toSQL injectionson certain strings. Submitting random strings to those boxes for a while will hopefully hit the bugged code path. The error shows itself as a broken HTML page half rendered because of an SQL error. In this case, only text boxes are treated as input streams. However, software systems have many possible input streams, such as cookie and session data, the uploaded file stream, RPC channels, or memory. Errors can happen in any of these input streams. The test goal is to first get an unhandled error and then understand the flaw based on the failed test case. Testers write an automated tool to test their understanding of the flaw until it is correct. After that, it may become obvious how to package the payload so that the target system triggers its execution. If this is not viable, one can hope that another error produced by the fuzzer yields more fruit. The use of a fuzzer saves time by not checking adequate code paths where exploits are unlikely.
The illegal operation, or payload in Metasploit terminology, can include functions for logging keystrokes, taking screenshots, installingadware, stealing credentials, creating backdoors usingshellcode, or altering data. Some companies maintain large databases of known exploits and provide products that automatically test target systems for vulnerabilities:
TheGeneral Services Administration(GSA) has standardized the "penetration test" service as a pre-vetted support service, to rapidly address potential vulnerabilities, and stop adversaries before they impact US federal, state and local governments. These services are commonly referred to as Highly Adaptive Cybersecurity Services (HACS) and are listed at the US GSA Advantage website.[23]
This effort has identified key service providers which have been technically reviewed and vetted to provide these advanced penetration services. This GSA service is intended to improve the rapid ordering and deployment of these services, reduce US government contract duplication, and to protect and support the US infrastructure in a more timely and efficient manner.
132-45A Penetration Testing[24]is security testing in which service assessors mimic real-world attacks to identify methods for circumventing the security features of an application, system, or network. HACS Penetration Testing Services typically strategically test the effectiveness of the organization's preventive and detective security measures employed to protect assets and data. As part of this service, certified ethical hackers typically conduct a simulated attack on a system, systems, applications or another target in the environment, searching for security weaknesses. After testing, they will typically document the vulnerabilities and outline which defenses are effective and which can be defeated or exploited.
In the UK penetration testing services are standardized via professional bodies working in collaboration with National Cyber Security Centre.
The outcomes of penetration tests vary depending on the standards and methodologies used. There are five penetration testing standards: Open Source Security Testing Methodology Manual[25](OSSTMM),Open Web Application Security Project(OWASP),National Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST00), Information System Security Assessment Framework (ISSAF), and Penetration Testing Methodologies and Standards (PTES).
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ThePolice Central e-Crime Unit(PCeU) was part of theSpecialist Crime Directorateof theMetropolitan Police Servicein London, dedicated to combatinge-crimein England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The unit had a national remit, and was created in April 2008[1]to centralise the efforts of all police forces in the UK (excluding Scotland) to fight all forms of E-crime.
The unit's responsibilities were quite specific and included activities once carried out by other bodies while excluding other activities, currently done by others.[clarification needed][2]
The unit's stated mission was to improve the police response to victims of e-crime by developing the capability of the police service across England, Wales and Northern Ireland, co-ordinating the law enforcement approach to all types of e-crime, and by providing a national investigative capability for the most serious e-crime incidents.
The PCeU was created on 1 October 2008 and was responsible for improving the UK national policing response to cyber crime. The unit was housed within the Specialist Crime Directorate (SCD6) part of the Metropolitan Police Service based in central London. It had jurisdiction within England, Wales and Northern Ireland.[3]However the unit worked closely with theSCDEAin Scotland and international law enforcement. The PCeU had a seat at the table at both theEuropolandInterpolcyber workstreams.
Since February 2012 the PCeU had a presence outside London with the creation of 3 regional hubs. The hubs are located in England in the North West, North East and Midlands areas. The hubs were launched at theACPOcyber conference in Sheffield.
The PCeU was one of the strands of work within the ACPO e-crime programme led by DAC Janet Williams.[citation needed]
As of 2013[update], the PCeU is being merged into theNational Cyber Crime Unit, part of the newNational Crime Agency.[4][needs update]
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Protected computersis a term used in Title 18, Section 1030 of theUnited States Code, (theComputer Fraud and Abuse Act) which prohibits a number of different kinds of conduct, generally involving unauthorized access to, or damage to the data stored on, "protected computers". The statute, as amended by theNational Information Infrastructure Protection Actof 1996,[1]defines "protected computers" (formerly known as "federal interest computers") as:
a computer—
(A) exclusively for the use of a financial institution or the United States Government, or, in the case of a computer not exclusively for such use, used by or for a financial institution or the United States Government and the conduct constituting the offense affects that use by or for the financial institution or the Government; or
(B) which is used ininterstate or foreign commerceor communication, including a computer located outside the United States that is used in a manner that affects interstate or foreign commerce or communication of the United States.[2]
The law prohibits unauthorized obtaining of "information from any protected computer if the conduct involved an interstate or foreign communication,"[3]and makes it a felony[4]to intentionally transmit malware to a protected computer if more than $5000 in damage (such as to the integrity of data) were to result.
TheUS Justice Departmentexplains:
In the 1994 amendments(of the National Information Infrastructure Act), the reach of this subsection(E. Subsection 1030(a)(5))was broadened by replacing the term "federal interest computer" with the term "computer used in interstate commerce or communications." The latter term is broader because the old definition of "federal interest computer" in 18 U.S.C. § 1030(e)(2)(B) covered a computer "which is one of two or more computers used in committing the offense, not all of which are located in the same State." This meant that a hacker who attacked other computers in the same state was not subject to federal jurisdiction, even when these actions may have severely affected interstate or foreign commerce. For example, individuals who attack telephone switches may disrupt interstate and foreign calls. The 1994 change remedied that defect.
However, the definition of federal interest computer actually covered more than simply interstate activity. More specifically, 18 U.S.C. § 1030(e)(2)(A) covered, generically, computers belonging to the United States Government or financial institutions, or those used by such entities on a non-exclusive basis if the conduct constituting the offense affected the Government's operation or the financial institution's operation of such computer. By changing § 1030(a)(5) from "federal interest computer" to "computer used in interstate commerce or communications," Congress may have inadvertently eliminated federal protection for those government and financial institution computers not used in interstate communications. For example, the integrity and availability of classified information contained in an intrastate local area network may not have been protected under the 1994 version of 18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(5), although its confidentiality continued to be protected under 18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(1). To remedy this situation in the 1996 Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1030(a)(5) was redrafted to cover any "protected computer," a new term defined in § 1030(e)(2) and used throughout the new statute--in § 1030(a)(5), as well as in §§ 1030(a)(2), (a)(4), and the new (a)(7). The definition of "protected computer" includes government computers, financial institution computers, and any computer "which is used in interstate or foreign commerce or communications."
This broad definition addresses the original concerns regarding intrastate "phone phreakers" (i.e., hackers who penetrate telecommunications computers). It also specifically includes those computers used in "foreign" communications. With the continually expanding global information infrastructure, with numerous instances of international hacking, and with the growing possibility of increased global industrial espionage, it is important that the United States have jurisdiction over international computer crime cases. Arguably, the old definition of "federal interest computer" contained in 18 U.S.C. § 1030(e)(2) conferred such jurisdiction because the requirement that the computers used in committing the offense not all be located in the same state might be satisfied if one computer were located overseas. As a general rule, however, Congress's laws have been presumed to be domestic in scope only, absent a specific grant of extraterritorial jurisdiction. E.E.O.C. v. Arabian American Oil Co., 499 U.S. 244 (1991). To ensure clarity, the statute was amended to reference international communications explicitly.[5]
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Atechno-thrillerortechnothrilleris a hybrid genre drawing fromscience fiction,thrillers,spy fiction,action, andwar novels. They include a disproportionate amount (relative to other genres) of technical details on their subject matter (typically military technology); onlyhard science fictiontends towards a comparable level of supporting detail on the technical side. The inner workings of technology and the mechanics of various disciplines (espionage,martial arts,politics) are thoroughly explored, and the plot often turns on the particulars of that exploration. This genre began to exist and establish itself in the early 20th century with further developments and focus on the genre in the mid 20th century.[1]
The genre dates back to early in the 20th century.Invasion of the Seaby Jules Verne (1905) has been called an early techno-thriller.[2]Many techno-thrillers are comparable to science fiction—and several modes within science-fiction. The popularity of the genre has maintained itself and evolved over the years.[1]
One of the earliest techno-thrillers is thought to beThe Satan Bug(1962) byAlistair MacLean,[3]while much of what counted forscience fiction in the pre-war and early post-war Soviet Unionwere essentially techno-thrillers, full of technical details and featuring complex spy-rich plots, one of the most enduring example being theGrigory Adamov'sThe Mystery of the Two Oceans(1939).Michael CrichtonandTom Clancyare considered to be the fathers of the "modern techno-thriller";[4]Crichton's bookThe Andromeda Strainand Clancy's bookThe Hunt for Red Octoberset out the type example which defined the genre, although many authors had been writing similar material earlier, such asCraig Thomas.BBC Newscredits Thomas as an early innovator, saying that fans regard him "as the inventor of the techno-thriller,"[5]and his 1977 novelFirefoxhas been credited with starting the genre.[6]
Techno-thrillers focus strongly on details, especially on the technology, which is frequently of military origin.[7][8]Techno-thrillers tend to have a broad scope in the narrative, and can often be regarded as contemporaryspeculative fiction; world wars are a common topic. Techno-thrillers often overlap, as far as the genre goes, with near-future science fiction,military fiction, andespionage fiction.[9]To the extent that technology is now a dominant aspect of modern global culture, most modern thrillers are "techno-thrillers" in broad sense, and the genre is somewhat diffuse. Techno-thrillers blur smoothly into the category ofhard science fiction; the defining characteristics of techno-thriller are an emphasis on real-world or plausible near-future technology. There is often a focus on military or military-political action. Techno-thrillers also overlap withconspiracy fictionandapocalyptic fiction. While techno-thrillers borrow concepts and ideas from other forms and styles of other genres, notably science-fiction and its subcategories, it is a fresh and still developing style with it being more of a hybrid genre, more closely related to thrillers and technology. Since technology is always changing, that brings a fresh take on techno thrillers with advancement always on the scope.[1]
Techno-thrillers have at least five varieties within the genre. These are military techno-thrillers, spy techno-thrillers, crypto-techno-thrillers, disaster techno-thrillers, and science-fiction techno-thrillers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-thriller
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Trespass to chattels, also calledtrespass to personaltyortrespass to personal property, is atortwhereby the infringing party has intentionally (or, in Australia,negligently) interfered with another person's lawful possession of achattel(movable personalproperty). The interference can be any physical contact with the chattel in a quantifiable way, or any dispossession of the chattel (whether by taking it, destroying it, or barring the owner's access to it). As opposed to the greater wrong ofconversion, trespass to chattels is argued to be actionableper se.
The origin of the concept comes from the originalwritoftrespassde bonis asportatis. As in most other forms of trespass,remedycan only be obtained once it is proven that there was direct interference regardless of damage being done, and the infringing party has failed to disprove either negligence or intent.
In some common-law countries, such as the United States and Canada, a remedy for trespass to chattels can only be obtained if the direct interference was sufficiently substantial to amount to dispossession, or alternatively where there had been an injury proximately related to the chattel. (SeeRestatement (Second) of Torts, 1965.)
TheRestatement of Torts, Second§ 217 defines trespass to chattels as "intentionally… dispossessing another of the chattel, or using or intermeddling with a chattel in the possession of another." Harm to personal property or diminution of its quality, condition or value as a result of a defendant's use can also result in liability under § 218(b) of the Restatement.
Certain specific circumstances may lend themselves to liability for the action. The Restatement (Second) of Torts § 218 states further that:
One who commits a trespass to a chattel is subject to liability to the possessor of the chattel if, but only if,
The trespass to chattels cause of action, frequently asserted in recent years against Internet advertisers and email spammers, is often included in complaints against spyware companies. These electronic messaging cases, and their progeny, which have cropped up over the last decade, will typically turn on the situations described in (b) or (d), and, as detailed below, the question of harm caused is a big issue.
In sum, the basic elements of a claim of trespass to chattels are: 1) the lack of the plaintiff's consent to the trespass, 2) interference or intermeddling with possessory interest, and 3) the intentionality of the defendant's actions. Actual damage is not necessarily a required element of a trespass to chattels claim.[1][2]
Damagesfrom a trespass claim are limited to the actual harm sustained by the plaintiff (which can include economic loss consequent on the trespass - e.g. loss of profit on a damaged chattel). In cases of dispossession, the plaintiff is always entitled to damages if they can prove the dispossession occurred, even if no quantifiable harm can be proven.
A related tort isconversion, which involves an exercise of control over another'schatteljustifying restitution of thechattel'sfull value. Some actions constitute trespass and conversion; in these cases, a plaintiff must choose which claim to make based on what amount of damages they seek to recover.
The common law tort of trespass to chattels has been invoked in the modern context of electronic communications to combat the proliferation of unsolicited bulk email, commonly known asspam.[2]In addition, several companies have successfully used the tort to block certain people, usually competitors, from accessing their servers. Though courts initially endorsed a broad application of this legal theory in the electronic context, more recently other jurists have narrowed its scope. As trespass to chattels is extended further to computer networks, some fear that plaintiffs are using this cause of action to quash fair competition and to deter the exercise of free speech; consequently, critics call for the limitation of the tort to instances where the plaintiff can demonstrate actual damages.
The trespass to chattels tort punishes anyone who substantially interferes with the use of another's personal property, or chattels. Plaintiffs must show that the offender had intentional physical contact with the chattel and that the contact caused some substantial interference or damage. The courts that imported this common law doctrine into the digital world reasoned that electrical signals traveling across networks and through proprietary servers may constitute the contact necessary to support a trespass claim. Applying this common law action to computer networks, plaintiffs must first prove that they received some type of electronic communication (typically bulk e-mail or spam) that the defendant intentionally sent to interfere with the plaintiff's interest in his or her property and second that this communication caused a quantifiable harm to their tangible property, such as impaired functioning of the computer, network or server.[3]
In the late 1990s, when the World Wide Web was in its infancy, courts were more receptive to extending the trespass to chattels tort to the electronic context. InCompuServe Inc. v. Cyber Promotions, Inc., a 1997 case that was the first to extend the trespass theory to computer networks, a federal district court held that a marketing company's mass mailing of a high volume ofunsolicited advertisementemails to CompuServe subscribers constituted an actionable trespass to chattels.[4]CompuServe customers repeatedly received unwanted advertisements from Cyber Promotions, a company that specialized in sending marketing email in bulk. Cyber Promotions also modified its equipment and falsified other information to circumvent CompuServe's anti-spam measures. Due to the high volume of email, CompuServe claimed damage to its servers as well as money lost dealing with customer complaints and dissatisfaction. CompuServe also extended its damages claim to its subscribers who spent time deleting unwanted email. The court held that Cyber Promotions's intentional use of CompuServe's proprietary server was an actionable trespass to chattels and granted a preliminary injunction enjoining the spammer from sending unsolicited advertisements to any email address maintained by CompuServe. Cyber Promotions' persistence in sending email to CompuServe's servers after receiving notification that CompuServe no longer consented to the use weighed heavily in favor of a finding of trespass.
A trio of 1998 cases in the Eastern District of Virginia involving America Online more firmly established the use of the trespass to chattels tort as a spam-fighting tool. InAmerica Online, Inc. v. IMS, the court held that the owner of a marketing company committed trespass to chattels against anInternet service provider's (ISP) computer network by sending 60 million unauthorized email advertisements to the ISP's subscribers after being notified that the spam was unauthorized.[5]The court found that the defendant, intentionally and without authorization, caused contact with the plaintiff's computer network by sending the bulk email messages. Such contact injured the plaintiff's business goodwill and diminished the functioning of its computer network.
Similarly, inAmerica Online, Inc. v. LCGM, Inc., a company engaging in pornographic website advertising sent a deluge of spam to AOL's customers, and, in so doing, also forged the AOL domain name in an effort to trick customers into opening the emails.[6]The court once again held that a website operators' transmission of unsolicited bulk emails to customers of an ISP, using the provider's computers and computer network, constituted trespass to chattels.
InAmerica Online, Inc. v. Prime Data Systems, Inc., the defendants sent millions of spam emails to AOL subscribers advertising computer software programs designed to facilitate bulk emailing by allowing users to harvest email addresses from the plaintiff's member directories, chat rooms, and electronic bulletin boards.[7]The defendants also used technology designed to avoid AOL's spam filtering mechanisms. The defendants frequently used false and deceptive "headers" in email messages to make it appear as if AOL had sent the messages. The increased demand on AOL's servers resulting from the spam caused substantial delays of up to 24 hours in the delivery of all email to AOL members, forcing AOL to temporarily stop accepting any new messages. As the spam problem grew worse, AOL had to purchase millions of dollars worth of additional equipment to increase the capacity of its servers to handle the volume of email. The court held that this activity constituted a trespass to chattels and awarded injunctive relief, reasonable attorneys' fees and costs, as well as damages.
Since the early spam cases, courts have extended the electronic trespass to chattels theory even further to encompass screen-scraping and other data "harvesting."Screen-scrapingis the practice of taking information from another website, generally through the use of search agent software, and "harvesting" the data for one's own commercial use. For example, travel websites frequently use this tactic to offer a host of options and prices gleaned from various airlines' sites. Because the courts have entertained such litigation, some companies have specifically banned the conduct in their terms and conditions statements.[8]
IneBay v. Bidder's Edge(2000), eBay successfully used the trespass to chattels tort to prevent Bidder's Edge from employing spiders to cull information about its auctions to display on its own website.[3]Although Bidder's Edge's robots only consumed a small percentage of eBay's computer resources, the court noted that the plaintiff need not demonstrate current substantial interference as conduct which constituted a use of another's property is enough to sustain a trespass to chattels claim. In light of this, the court found that eBay had demonstrated a sufficient likelihood of future injury to warrant granting a permanent injunction: "If the court were to hold otherwise, it would likely encourage other auction aggregators to crawl the eBay site, potentially to the point of denying effective access to eBay's customers."[3]
Register.com, Inc. v. Verio, Inc.(2000) is a further example of this temporary trend in which plaintiffs did not have to demonstrate any real interference.[9]Register.com, a domain name registry service, sued competitorVeriofor using Register.com's proprietaryWHOISlook-up service to find potential leads among its customer base. The court found that, by continuing to access Register.com's online customer database after being told to stop, Verio was trespassing on Register.com's WHOIS server. Register.com had specifically withdrawn its consent to Verio's use of search robots to review Register.com's customer list. The court held that Verio caused harm to Register.com's files through the use of these search robots and that the searches improperly taxed Register.com's server capacity.
These holdings gave the court license to expand the applicability of trespass to chattels to computer networks even further. InOyster Software v. Forms Processing(2001), theNorthern District of Californiadetermined that a plaintiff need not demonstrate any physical interference with a server at all to sustain a trespass to chattels claim and consequently denied the defendant's motion for summary judgment, even though there was no evidence of damage to the plaintiff's computer system.[10]Although Oyster conceded that there was no evidence that the defendant's activities had interfered in any way with the functioning of Oyster's computer system, the court nonetheless denied FPI's motion for summary judgment. According to the court, following the decision ineBay, plaintiffs only need to demonstrate that the defendant's actions "amounted to a 'use' of Plaintiff's computer," and the court determined that copying the metatags amounted to a use.[10]
These cases indicate that, at least in California, a plaintiff did not have to demonstrate any kind of actual interference with the computer system to successfully claim trespass to chattels.
However, some courts subsequently limited tort claims for electronic trespasses, in that a complaining party may be unable to recover for lack of real harm if the party did not suffer any tangible damage to their property.
The Supreme Court of California reversed the trend exemplified byOysterin the seminal caseIntel Corp. v. Hamidi(2003), reaffirming the need for a demonstration either of actual interference with the physical functionality of the computer system or of the likelihood that this would happen in the future.[11]Although Intel conceded that Hamidi's emails caused neither physical damage nor any disruption to their computer system, they alleged that the economic productivity lost due to the disruption caused by the emails could sustain a trespass claim. The Supreme Court of California disagreed, holding that the tort does not extend to claims in which the electronic communication involved "neither damages the recipient computer system nor impairs its function."[11]In reaching this conclusion, the court criticized the understanding ofeBayadvanced inOyster, explaining that previous cases in which courts have found trespass to chattels in the electronic setting have involved either "actual or threatened interference with the computers' function."[11]To that effect, the court inOystermisconstrued the holding ineBay; trespass requires more than use a use—it requires an actual or threatened interference with the physical functionality of the system.
Although the vast majority of states have yet to determine the applicability of the trespass to chattels theory, the courts that have addressed the issue have appliedInteland required that the plaintiff demonstrate damage to the computer system. Asupreme court in New YorkinSchool of Visual Arts v. Kuprewiczdenied the defendant's motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim on the trespass to chattels claim because the plaintiff had alleged actual damage to the functionality of the computer system, which Intel requires; the defendant had sent enough e-mails that it reduced the computer system's functionality and drained the hard drive's memory.[12]The Fourth Circuit inOmega World Travel, Inc. v. Mummagraphics, Inc.also followedIntel, although this resulted in granting a motion for summary judgment for the defendant because the plaintiff did not allege any actual damage on its computer system.[13]The court clarified that Oklahoma courts have yet to recognize the validity of a trespass to chattels claim based on an electronic intrusion to a computer system, but if it were to recognize it, the plaintiff would need to allege more than nominal damages, which in this case it had not.
Although a number of commentators have expressed enthusiasm over the increasing "propertization" of intellectual property (that is to say, the increased application of real property doctrines to intangible property) and the extension of the trespass to chattels doctrine to computer networks,[14]a number of detractors have expressed concern over the ramifications of extending the theory to protect electronic communications that do not actually damage the computer systems in question but only cause nominal damage due to their content.[15][16][17][18]Primarily, these critics worry that extending trespass to chattels in this fashion would stifle free speech on the internet because any unwelcome email might constitute a trespass and may subject the sender not only to civil liability under the trespass theory but to criminal liability as well.[19]This would presumably reduce people's willingness to communicate freely on the Internet and curtail the Internet's ability to function as an open, democratic forum.[20]Particularly in situations where the electronic communication is an email that contains speech that is of importance to the public and the communications do not hamper the functionality of the recipient's computer system, First Amendment free speech protections ought to outweigh the property right in the unharmed computer system.[21]Similarly, critics have also expressed concerns that plaintiffs have employed the doctrine to stifle legitimate competition.[22]For example, the screen-scraping cases indicate that courts might interpret trespass to chattels in such a way that allows major corporations to prevent price comparison sites from employing harmless bots to aggregate information that users want in a readily accessible format since it might encourage consumers to look elsewhere.[23]
Critics of the theory's extension to computer networks also note greater theoretical problems with the applicability of a real property theory to intellectual property. In order to explain why real property theories might extend to the Internet, proponents equate "cyberspace" with real land, arguing that owners of computer servers should have the same right of inviolability as owners of land receive to promote greater efficiency in transactions.[24]However, even if some aspects of cyberspace resemble real space, detractors contend that cyberspace is not like real land at all because "the 'placeness' of cyberspace is a matter of ongoing social construction."[25]Furthermore, even if granting property rights might help to avoid problems of inefficiency and under-cultivation in the context of real property, critics note that nothing suggests that the same principles would also be effective in the context of computer networks—especially because the problem of under-cultivation does not tend to occur online.[26]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trespass_to_chattels
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TheUnited States Secret Service(USSSorSecret Service) is afederal law enforcementagency under theDepartment of Homeland Securitytasked with conducting criminal investigations and providing protection to American political leaders, their families, and visiting heads of state or government.[3]The Secret Service was,until 2003, part of theDepartment of the Treasury, due to their initial mandate of combatingcounterfeiting of U.S. currency.[4]The agency has protected U.S. presidents and presidential candidates since 1901.[5]
The Secret Service is mandated byCongresswith two distinct and critical national security missions: protecting the nation's leaders and safeguarding thefinancialand criticalinfrastructureof theUnited States.
The Secret Service is tasked with ensuring the safety of thepresident of the United States, thevice president of the United States, thepresident-elect of the United States, thevice president-elect of the United States, and their immediate families;former presidents, their spouses and their children under the age of 16; those in thepresidential line of succession, major presidential and vice-presidentialcandidatesand their spouses; and visiting foreign heads of state and heads of government. By custom, it also provides protection to thesecretary of the treasuryandsecretary of homeland security, as well as other people as directed by the president (usually theWhite House chief of staffandnational security advisor, among others). Former Secret Service directorKimberly Cheatletold the congressional oversight committee that as of July 22, 2024 the secret service has a total of 36 protectees. By federal statute, the president and vice president may not refuse this protection.[6]The Secret Service also provides physical security for theWhite House Complex; the neighboringTreasury Departmentbuilding; thevice president's residence; the principal private residences of the president, vice president and former presidents; and all foreign diplomatic missions inWashington, D.C.The protective mission includes protective operations to coordinate manpower and logistics with state and locallaw enforcementin the US, protective advances to conduct site and venue assessments for protectees, and protective intelligence to investigate all manners of threats made against protectees. The Secret Service is the lead agency in charge of the planning, coordination, and implementation of security operations for events designated asNational Special Security Events(NSSE). As part of the service's mission of preventing an incident before it occurs, the agency relies on advance work and threat assessments developed by its Intelligence Division to identify potential risks to protectees.[7]
The Secret Service is tasked with safeguarding the payment andfinancial systemsof theUnited Statesfrom a wide range of financial and cyber-based crimes. Financial investigations include counterfeit U.S. currency, bank and financial institution fraud, mail fraud, wire fraud, illicit financing operations, and major conspiracies. Cyber investigations includecybercrime, network intrusions,identity theft, access device fraud, credit card fraud, and intellectual property crimes. The Secret Service is also a member of theFBI'sJoint Terrorism Task Force(JTTF) which investigates and combats terrorism on a national and international scale. Also, the Secret Service investigates missing and exploited children and is a partner of theNational Center for Missing & Exploited Children(NCMEC).[8]
The Secret Service's initial responsibility was to investigate the counterfeiting of U.S. currency, which was rampant following theAmerican Civil War. The agency then evolved into theUnited States' first domestic intelligence andcounterintelligenceagency. Many of the agency's missions were later taken over by subsequent agencies such as theFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI),Central Intelligence Agency(CIA),Drug Enforcement Administration(DEA),Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives(ATF), andIRS Criminal Investigation Division(IRS-CI).
The Secret Service is also tasked with investigating reports of the existence of specimens of the extremely rare1933 double eaglegold coin, as only a single example of the fourteen known survivors from this mintage year is authorized to be owned or sold.[9]
The Secret Service combines the two responsibilities into a dual objective. The two core missions of protection and investigation synergize with each other, providing benefits to special agents during the course of their careers. Skills developed during the course of investigations which are also used in an agent's protective duties include but are not limited to:
Protection of the nation's highest elected leaders and other government officials is one of the primary missions of the Secret Service. After the 1901assassination of President William McKinley,Congressalso directed the Secret Service to protect thepresident of the United States.[10]The Secret Service investigates thousands of incidents each year of individualsthreatening the president of the United States.
The Secret Service is authorized by 18 U.S.C. § 3056(a) to protect:[11]
In addition to the above, the Secret Service can also protect other individuals by executive order of the president.[12]Under Presidential Policy Directive 22, "National Special Security Events", the Secret Service is the lead agency for the design and implementation of operational security plans for events designated an NSSE by the secretary ofhomeland security.
There have been changes to the protection of former presidents over time. Under the originalFormer Presidents Act, former presidents and their spouses were entitled to lifetime protection, subject to limited exceptions. In 1994, this was amended to reduce the protection period to 10 years after a former president left office, starting with presidents assuming the role after January 1, 1997. On January 10, 2013, PresidentBarack Obamasigned legislation reversing this limit and reinstating lifetime protection to all former presidents.[13]This change impacted Presidents Obama and G.W. Bush, as well as all future presidents.[14]
Protection of government officials is not solely the responsibility of the Secret Service, with many other agencies, such as theUnited States Capitol Police,Supreme Court PoliceandDiplomatic Security Service, providing personal protective services to domestic and foreign officials. However, while these agencies are nominally responsible for services to other officers of the United States and senior dignitaries, the Secret Service provides protective services at the highest-level – i.e. for heads of state and heads of government.
The Secret Service's other primary mission is investigative; to protect the payment and financial systems of the United States from a wide range of financial and electronic-based crimes including counterfeit U.S. currency, bank and financial institution fraud, illicit financing operations, cybercrime, identity theft, intellectual property crimes, and any other violations that may affect the United States economy and financial systems. The agency's key focus is on large, high-dollar economic impact cases involving organized criminal groups. Financial criminals include embezzling bank employees, armed robbers at automatic teller machines, heroin traffickers, and criminal organizations that commit bank fraud on a global scale.
The USSS plays a leading role in facilitating relationships between other law enforcement entities, the private sector, and academia. The service maintains the Electronic Crimes Task Forces, which focus on identifying and locating international cyber criminals connected to cyber intrusions, bank fraud, data breaches, and other computer-related crimes. Additionally, the Secret Service runs the National Computer Forensics Institute (NCFI), which provides law enforcement officers, prosecutors, and judges with cyber training and information to combat cybercrime.
In the face of budget pressure, hiring challenges and some high-profile lapses in its protective service role in 2014, theBrookings Institutionand some members of Congress are asking whether the agency's focus should shift more to the protective mission, leaving more of its original mission to other agencies.[15][16]
Following the Civil War, counterfeiting of U.S. currency was a problem.[17]Abraham Lincolnestablished a commission to make recommendations to remedy the problem. According to a Clinton White House archive, the day that Abraham Lincoln signed the approval of starting the Secret Service, Lincoln was shot.[18]The Secret Service was later established on July 5, 1865, inWashington, D.C.,[19]ChiefWilliam P. Woodwas sworn in bySecretary of the TreasuryHugh McCulloch. It was commissioned inWashington, D.C., as the "Secret Service Division" of the Department of the Treasury with the mission of suppressing counterfeiting. At the time, the only other federal law enforcement agencies were theU.S. Post Office Department's Office of Instructions and Mail Depredations (originally created by the firstpostmaster generalBenjamin Franklinin 1772 as the position of surveyor and becoming an agency in 1830, now known as theUnited States Postal Inspection Servicesince 1954),[20]United States Customs Service(formed July 31, 1789), theUnited States Marshals Service(formed September 24, 1789) and theUnited States Park Police(originally formed in 1791 as the Park Watchman byGeorge Washington& becoming the Park Police on December 14, 1919). In 1867 Secret Service responsibilities were broadened to include "detecting persons perpetrating frauds against the government" with them investigating theKu Klux Klan, illegaldistillers,smugglers, mail theft and land fraud.[19]In 1870 Secret Service headquarters was moved toNew York Citybut was returned to Washington D.C. four years later in 1874, where it remains to this day.[19]
After theassassinationof PresidentWilliam McKinleyin 1901,Congressinformally requested that the Secret Service provide presidential protection. A year later, the Secret Service assumed full-time responsibility for presidential protection.[21][22]In 1902,William Craigbecame the first Secret Service agent to die while on duty, in a road accident while riding in the presidential carriage.[23]
The Secret Service was the first U.S. domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Domestic intelligence collection and counterintelligence responsibilities were later vested in theFederal Bureau of Investigation(FBI).
In 1909, PresidentWilliam H. Taftagreed to meet with Mexican presidentPorfirio DíazinEl Paso, Texas, andCiudad Juárez, Chihuahua, the first meeting between a U.S. and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president visited Mexico.[24]The historic summit resulted in serious assassination threats and other security concerns for the nascent Secret Service, so theTexas Rangers, 4,000 U.S. and Mexican troops,BOIagents, U.S. Marshals, and an additional 250-man private security detail led byFrederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, were all called in by ChiefJohn Wilkieto provide added security.[25][26]On October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham discovered a man holding a concealedpalm pistolstanding at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route.[27]The man was captured and disarmed only a few feet from Díaz and Taft.[28]
The first unofficial female special agent was Florence Bolan.[29]She joined the service in 1917.[30]In 1924, Bolan was promoted to operative (the title preceding special agent) where she performed duties, such as searching female prisoners and engaging in occasional fieldwork.[30]
The Secret Service assisted in arresting Japanese American leaders and in theJapanese American internmentduringWorld War II.[31]
In 1950, PresidentHarry S. Trumanwas residing inBlair Housewhile the White House, across the street, was undergoing renovations. On November 1, 1950, twoPuerto Ricannationalists,Oscar CollazoandGriselio Torresola, approached Blair House with the intent toassassinate President Truman. Collazo and Torresola opened fire on PrivateLeslie Coffeltand other White House Police officers. Though mortally wounded by three shots from a9 mmGermanLugerto his chest and abdomen, Private Coffelt returned fire, killing Torresola with a single shot to his head. Collazo was also shot, but survived his injuries and served 29 years in prison before returning to Puerto Rico in late 1979.[citation needed]Coffelt is the only member of the Secret Service killed while protecting a US president against an assassination attempt (Special AgentTim McCarthystepped in front of PresidentRonald Reaganduring theassassination attemptof March 30, 1981, and took a bullet to the chest but made a full recovery[32]).
In 1968, as a result ofRobert F. Kennedy's assassination, Congress authorized protection of major presidential and vice presidential candidates and nominees.[33]In 1965 and 1968, Congress also authorized lifetime protection of the spouses of deceased presidents unless they remarry and of the children of former presidents until age 16.[34]
In 1970, Phyllis Shantz became the first female officer sworn into theUnited States Secret Service Uniformed Division, then called the Executive Protective Service. In 1971, the first five official female Special Agents were sworn in - Laurie Anderson, Sue Baker, Kathryn Clark, Holly Hufschmidt, and Phyllis Shantz.[35][36]
In 1984, the US Congress passed theComprehensive Crime Control Act, which extended the Secret Service's jurisdiction over credit card fraud and computer fraud.[38]
In 1990, the Secret Service initiatedOperation Sundevil, which they originally intended as a sting against malicioushackers, allegedly responsible for disrupting telephone services across the entire United States. The operation, which was later described byBruce Sterlingin his bookThe Hacker Crackdown, affected a great number of people unrelated to hacking, and led to no convictions. The Secret Service, however, was sued and required to pay damages.[citation needed]On March 1, 1990, the Secret Service served a search warrant onSteve Jackson Games, a small company inAustin, Texas, seizing three computers and over 300 floppy disks. In the subsequent lawsuit, the judge reprimanded the Secret Service, calling their warrant preparation "sloppy."[39]
In 1994 and 1995, it ran an undercover sting calledOperation Cybersnare.[40]The Secret Service has concurrent jurisdiction with the FBI over certain violations of federal computer crime laws. They have created 24 Electronic Crimes Task Forces (ECTFs) across the United States. These task forces are partnerships between the service, federal/state and local law enforcement, the private sector and academia aimed at combating technology-based crimes.[41]
In 1998, PresidentBill ClintonsignedPresidential Decision Directive 62, which establishedNational Special Security Events(NSSE). That directive made the Secret Service responsible for security at designated events. In 1999, the United States Secret Service Memorial Building was dedicated in DC, granting the agency its first headquarters. Prior to this, the agency's different departments were based in office space around the DC area.[42]TheGeneral Services Administrationacquired the United States Secret Service Memorial Building's adjoining property, theWebster School, for the Secret Service.[43]
The New York City Field office was located at7 World Trade Center. Immediately after theWorld Trade Centerwas attacked as part of theSeptember 11 attacks, Special Agents and other New York Field office employees were among the first to respond with first aid. Sixty-seven Special Agents in New York City, at and near the New York Field Office, helped to set uptriageareas and evacuate the towers. One Secret Service employee, Master Special Officer Craig Miller,[44]died during the rescue efforts. On August 20, 2002, DirectorBrian L. Staffordawarded the Director's Valor Award to employees who assisted in the rescue attempts.[45]
Effective March 1, 2003, the Secret Service transferred from the Treasury to the newly established Department of Homeland Security.[46]
TheUSA Patriot Act, signed into law by PresidentGeorge W. Bushon October 26, 2001, mandated the Secret Service to establish a nationwide network of ECTFs in addition to the one already active in New York. As such, this mandate expanded on the agency's first ECTF—the New York Electronic Crimes Task Force, formed in 1995—which brought together federal, state and local law enforcement, prosecutors, private-industry companies, and academia. These bodies collectively provide necessary support and resources to field investigations that meet any one of the following criteria: significant economic or community impact; participation of organized criminal groups involving multiple districts or transnational organizations; or use of schemes involving new technology.[47][48]
The network prioritizes investigations that meet the following criteria:
Investigations conducted by ECTFs include crimes such as computer generated counterfeit currency; bank fraud; virus and worm proliferation; access device fraud; telecommunications fraud; Internet threats; computer system intrusions and cyberattacks; phishing/spoofing; assistance with Internet-related child pornography and exploitation; and identity theft.[49]
On July 6, 2009, the U.S. Secret Service expanded its fight oncybercrimeby creating the firstEuropean Electronic Crime Task Force, based on the successful U.S. domestic model, through a memorandum of understanding with Italian police and postal officials. Over a year later, on August 9, 2010, the agency expanded its European involvement by creating its second overseas ECTF in theUnited Kingdom.[50][51]
Both task forces are said to concentrate on a wide range of "computer-based criminal activity," including:
In September 2014, the United States Secret Service came under criticism following two high-profile incidents involving intruders at the White House.One such intruder entered the East Roomof the White House through an unlocked door.[52]
On April 15, 2020, the ICE Homeland Security Investigations unit[53]launched "Operation Stolen Promise" that targetsCOVID-19relatedfraud. The operation conscripted resources from various branches of law enforcement and the government, including the U.S. Secret Service.[54]About $2 trillion in the relief package known as theCARES Actwere earmarked by law in March 2020, bringingunemployment benefitsand loans to millions of Americans. However, as Secret Service spokesmen subsequently pointed out, the Act also opened up opportunities for criminals to fraudulently apply for aid. By the end of 2021, nearly two years into the COVID-19 pandemic, the Secret Service had seized more than $1.2 billion in relief funds appropriated by fraudsters.[55]
On June 1, 2020, during a peaceful protest outsideLafayette Square, the U.S. Secret Service acted contrary to an operational plan and began advancing seven minutes before U.S. Park Police gave any dispersal warnings.[56]This early deployment increased tensions between law enforcement and the protesters.[56]They faced resistance and used pepper spray in response to eggs and bottles being thrown.[56]Attorney GeneralWilliam Barrspoke with the U.S. Park Police operational commander seven minutes before the Secret Service began advancing, and again later,before President Trump visiteda nearby Parish House to pose for a photo while holding a Bible.[56]The U.S. Secret Service later apologized[56]butJoseph Cuffari, the Department of Homeland Security Inspector General, prevented career officials from investigating the role U.S. Secret Service played in the Trump administration’s controversial use of force to remove protesters that day.[57]
In August 2020, a Secret Service officer shot a man once in the chest at the corner of 17th Street and Pennsylvania during one of then-President Trump’s press conferences. The president was evacuated but returned later and told the White House press corps that the man had a gun. However, according to court documents, the man was actually holding a comb, told the officers he was armed and took a shooting stance before being shot. The man is schizophrenic and was charged with simple assault of a law enforcement officer.[58][59]
A day before theJanuary 6 United States Capitol attackin 2021, the Secret Service warnedCapitol Policeof threats of violence that Capitol Police officers could face violence at the hands of supporters of PresidentDonald Trump.[60]On January 6, Secret Service agents provided security in and around theUnited States Capitol, as well as evacuating Vice PresidentMike Penceduring the riot.[61]Testimony in Congress indicates Pence was concerned his security detail would remove him from the Capitol, stopping him from completing his duty to oversee the final count of electoral college votes. At the center of the controversy surrounding the Secret Service and January 6 investigations isAnthony M. Ornato, who had been the head of Trump's security detail, but took the unprecedented step of leaving the Secret Service to become deputy White House chief of staff and becoming a "key part of Trump’s effort to get reelected."[62]
The Secret Service assisted in the seizure of hacker forumRaidForumsin 2022.[63]
In April 2022, four Secret Service agents, one of whom was assigned to First LadyJill Biden, were placed on leave after accepting lavish gifts, rent free apartments, and other bribes from two men ultimately convicted of impersonating federal officers.[64][65]
On August 24, 2022, PresidentJoe BidennamedKimberly Cheatle, the senior director of global security atPepsiCo, as the agency's new director. Cheatle was in the Secret Service for 27 years and became the first woman to serve as assistant director of protective operations, a department tasked with protecting the president and dignitaries.[66]
On November 12, 2023, a Secret Service agent guardingNaomi Bidenfired shots at three people seen breaking into an unoccupied government vehicle inGeorgetown.[67][68]
On July 13, 2024, Secret Service agents protecting former PresidentDonald Trumpat a campaign rally inButler, Pennsylvaniain advance of his presumptiveRepublicancandidacy in the2024 United States presidential election, shot and killedThomas Matthew Crooksduring anassassination attempton Trump.[69][70]Crooks, armed with anAR-15–style rifle, had shot at Trump from an elevated position near the venue.[71]Trump was injured in his right ear and quickly rushed to hospital, while Crooks was killed by a Secret Service counter-sniper.[72][73]One other attendee, 50-year-old Corey Comperatore, was also killed by Crooks and several others in attendance were injured.[74]On July 23, 2024,Kimberly Cheatleresigned from her position as the director of the Secret Service just one day after she testified before theUnited States House Committee on Oversight and Accountabilityabout the assassination attempt and acknowledged it was "the most significant operational failure at the Secret Service in decades".[75][76][77][78]
Since the 1960s, presidentsJohn F. Kennedy(killed),Gerald Ford(twice attacked, but uninjured) andRonald Reagan(seriously wounded) have been attacked while appearing in public.[79][80]Agents on scene, though not injured, during attacks on presidents includeWilliam GreerandRoy Kellerman. One of the agents wasRobert DeProspero, the Special Agent In Charge (SAIC) of Reagan's Presidential Protective Division (PPD) from January 1982 to April 1985. DeProspero was deputy toJerry Parr, the SAIC of PPD during the Reagan assassination attempt on March 30, 1981.[81][82]
TheKennedy assassinationspotlighted the bravery of two Secret Service agents. First, an agent protecting Mrs. Kennedy,Clint Hill, was riding in the car directly behind the presidential limousine when the attack began. While the shooting continued, Hill leaped from the running board of the car he was riding on and jumped onto the back of the president's moving car and guided Mrs. Kennedy from the trunk back into the rear seat of the car. He then shielded the president and the first lady with his body until the car arrived at the hospital.
Rufus Youngbloodwas riding in the vice-presidential car. When the shots were fired, he vaulted over the front seat and threw his body over Vice PresidentLyndon B. Johnson.[83]That evening, Johnson called Secret Service ChiefJames J. Rowleyand cited Youngblood's bravery.[84][85]Youngblood would later recall some of this in his memoir,Twenty Years in the Secret Service.
The period following the Kennedy assassination was the most difficult in the modern history of the agency. Press reports indicated that morale among the agents was "low" for months following the assassination.[86][87]The agency overhauled its procedures in the wake of the Kennedy killing. Training, which until that time had been confined largely to "on-the-job" efforts, was systematized and regularized.
TheReagan assassination attemptalso involved several Secret Service agents, particularly agentTim McCarthy, who spread his stance to protect Reagan as six bullets were being fired by the would-be assassin,John Hinckley Jr.[88]McCarthy survived a .22-caliber round in the abdomen. For his bravery, McCarthy received theNCAA Award of Valorin 1982.[89]Jerry Parr, the agent who pushed President Reagan into the limousine, and made the critical decision to divert the presidential motorcade to George Washington University Hospital instead of returning to the White House, was also honored with U.S. Congress commendations for his actions that day.[90]
One significant Secret Service investigation was the arrest and indictment ofMax Ray Butler, co-founder of the Carders Marketcardingwebsite. Butler was indicted by a federalgrand juryinPittsburgh, Pennsylvania, after his September 5, 2007 arrest, onwire fraudandidentity theftcharges. According to the indictment, Butler hacked into computers at financial institutions and credit card processing centers over theInternetand sold the tens of thousands of credit card numbers that he acquired in the process.[91]
In October 2004, 28 suspects—located across eight U.S. states and six countries—were arrested on charges of identity theft, computer fraud, credit-card fraud, and conspiracy. Nearly 30 national and foreign field offices of the U.S. Secret Service, including the newly established national ECTFs, and countless local enforcement agencies from around the globe, were involved in this operation. Collectively, the arrested suspects trafficked in at least 1.7 million stolen credit card numbers, which amounted to $4.3 million of losses to financial institutions. However, authorities estimated that prevented loss to the industry was in the hundreds of millions of dollars. The operation, which started in July 2003 and lasted for more than a year, led investigators to identify three cybercriminal groups:Shadowcrew, Carderplanet, and Darkprofits.[92]
From the investigation, there was the arrest and indictment ofAlbert Gonzalezand 11 other individuals: three U.S. citizens, one from Estonia, three from Ukraine, two from the People's Republic of China, one from Belarus, and one known only by an online alias. They were arrested on August 5, 2008, for the theft and sale of more than 40 million credit and debit card numbers from major U.S. retailers, includingTJX Companies,BJ's Wholesale Club,OfficeMax,Boston Market,Barnes & Noble,Sports Authority,Forever 21, andDSW. Gonzalez, the main organizer of the scheme, was charged with computer fraud, wire fraud, access device fraud, aggravated identity theft, and conspiracy for his leading role in the crime.[93]
As of 2010, the service had over 6,500 employees: 3,200 Special Agents, 1,300 Uniformed Division Officers, and 2,000 technical and administrative employees.[94]Special agents serve on protective details and investigate financial, cyber, andhomeland security-related crimes.
The Secret Service's most familiar personnel are the plain-clothes investigators and personal protectors, who form almost half their total number. Thisspecial agentposition is highly selective, with for example in 2011, the service accepting less than 1% of its 15,600 special agent applicants.[95]
At a minimum, a prospective agent must be a U.S. citizen, possess a current valid driver's license, be in excellent health and physical condition, possess visual acuity no worse than 20/100 uncorrected or correctable to 20/20 in each eye, and be between age 21–37 at the time of appointment,[96]but eligible veterans may apply past age 37. In 2009, the Office of Personnel Management issued implementation guidance on theIsabella v. Department of Statecourt decision: OPM Letter.[97]
Prospective agents must also qualify for a TS/SCI (Top Secret /Sensitive Compartmented Information) clearance, and undergo an extensive background investigation, to include in-depth interviews, drug screening, medical diagnosis, and full-scope polygraph examination.[96]
Special agents receive training in two locations, totaling approximately 31 weeks. The first phase, the Criminal Investigator Training Program (CITP) is conducted at the U.S. Department of Homeland Security'sFederal Law Enforcement Training Centers(FLETC) inGlynco, Georgia, lasting approximately 13 weeks. The second phase, the Special Agent Training Course (SATC) is conducted at the Secret Service Academy,James J. Rowley Training Center(JJRTC), just outsideWashington, D.C.inLaurel, Maryland, lasting approximately 18 weeks.[98]
A typical special agent career path, depending upon performance and promotions that affect individual assignments, begins with the first six to eight years on the job assigned to a field office. Applicants are directed to list their office location preference during the application process, and upon receiving a final job offer, usually have several locations to choose from.[96]After their field office experience, agents are usually transferred to a protective assignment where they will stay for three to five years. Following their protective assignment, many agents return to a field office for the rest of their careers, or opt for a headquarters based assignment located in Washington, D.C. During their careers, agents also have the opportunity to work overseas in one of the agency's international field offices. This typically requires foreign language training to ensure language proficiency when working alongside the agency's foreign law enforcement counterparts.[96]
Special agents are hired at theGL-07, GL-09, or GS-11 grade level, depending on individual qualifications and/or education.[96]Agents are eligible for promotion on a yearly basis, from GL-07, to GL-09, to GS-11, to GS-12, to GS-13. The full performance grade level for a journeyman field agent is GS-13, which a GL-07, GL-09, or GS-11 agent may reach in as little as four, three, or two years respectively. GS-13 agents are eligible for competitive promotion to supervisory positions, which encompasses the GS-14, GS-15, and SES grade levels. Higher ranks continue to use variations on the "Special Agent" title, as with several other Federal agencies with a plainclothes or investigatory role. GS-13 agents who wish to remain as rank-and-file field agents, will continue to advance the GS-13 step level, capping at GS-13 Step 10.
Special agents also receive Law Enforcement Availability Pay (LEAP), a type of premium overtime pay which provides them with an additional 25% bonus pay on top of their salary, as agents are required to work an average workweek of 50 hours as opposed to 40.[99]As of 2025, an agent living in the Washington, DC area (DC, VA, MD) will earn an annual salary of $80,985 (GL-07), $90,317 (GL-09), $105,751 (GS-11), $126,751 (GS-12), $150,723 (GS-13), $178,110 (GS-14), and $195,200 (GS-15). Journeyman field agents at GS-13 Step 10 are also paid a salary of $195,200.[100]
Due to the nature of their work, Secret Service agents are regularly eligible for overtime pay in addition to LEAP, and are compensated up to $225,700 per year (Level II of the Executive Schedule).[101]
The Secret Service Uniformed Division is asecurity policesimilar to theU.S. Capitol PoliceorDHS Federal Protective Service, with "police" rather than "agent"-style ranks. It is in charge of protecting the physicalWhite Housegrounds and foreign diplomatic missions in theWashington, D.C.area. Established in 1922 as theWhite House Police, this organization was fully integrated into the Secret Service in 1930. In 1970, the protection of foreign diplomatic missions was added to the force's responsibilities, and its name was changed to the Executive Protective Service. The name United States Secret Service Uniformed Division was adopted in 1977.
Secret Service Uniformed Division officers provide protection for the White House Complex, the vice president's residence, the main Treasury Building and Annex, and foreign diplomatic missions and embassies in the Washington, D.C., area. Additionally, Uniformed Division officers travel in support of presidential, vice presidential and foreign head of state government missions.[102]Officers may, as their careers progress, be selected to participate in one of several specialized units, including the:
Since the agency's inception, a variety of weapons have been carried by its agents.
As anon-lethaloption, Special Agents, Special Officers, and Uniformed Division Officers are armed with the ASP 16" expandablebaton, and Uniformed Division officers also carrypepper spray.
Special agents and special officers of the Secret Service wear attire that is appropriate for their surroundings, in order to blend in as much as possible. In most circumstances, the attire of a close protection shift is a conservative suit, but it can range from a tuxedo to casual clothing as required by the environment. Stereotypically, Secret Service agents are often portrayed wearing reflective sunglasses and a communication earpiece. Often their attire is customized to conceal the wide array of equipment worn in service. Agents wear a distinctivelapel pinthat identifies them to other agents.[109]
The attire for Uniformed Division Officers includes standard police uniforms orutility uniformsand ballistic/identification vests for members of the counter-sniper team, Emergency Response Team (ERT), and canine officers. Theshoulder patchof the Uniformed Division consists of the U.S. coat of arms on white or black, depending on the garment. Also, the shoulder patch is embroidered with "U.S. Secret Service Uniformed Division Police" around the emblem.[110]
When transporting the president in a motorcade, the Secret Service uses a fleet of custom-built armoredCadillacLimousines, the newest and largest version of which is known as "The Beast". ArmoredChevrolet Suburbansare also used when logistics require such a vehicle or when a more low-profile appearance is required. For official movement, the limousine is affixed with U.S. and presidential flags and the presidential seal on the rear doors. For unofficial events, the vehicles are left sterile and unadorned.[45]
Government audits have criticized the Secret Service for a "slow embrace of technology", according toThe New York Times.[111]
The Secret Service has agents assigned to 136 field offices and field agencies, and the headquarters in Washington, D.C. The service's offices are located in cities throughout the United States and the world. The offices inLyon(France) andThe Hague(Netherlands) are respectively responsible for liaison with the headquarters ofInterpolandEuropol, located in those cities.[112]
On April 14, 2012, the U.S. Secret Service placed 11 agents on administrative leave as the agency investigated allegations that the men brought prostitutes to their hotel rooms inCartagena, Colombia, while on assignment to protect President Obama and that a dispute ensued with one of the women over payment the following morning.[113]
After the incident was publicized, the Secret Service implemented new rules for its personnel.[114][115][116][117]The rules prohibit personnel from visiting "non-reputable establishments"[115]and from consuming alcohol less than ten hours before starting work. Additionally, they restrict who is allowed in hotel rooms.[115]
In 2015, two inebriated senior Secret Service agents drove an official car into the White House complex and collided with a barrier. Chairperson of theUnited States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reformthat investigated the incident wasJason Chaffetz. Chaffetz, whose committee oversees the Secret Service, never disclosed that he had applied for and was rejected from the agency in the 2000s.[citation needed]
In September 2015, it was revealed that 18 Secret Service employees or supervisors, including Assistant Director Ed Lowery, accessed an unsuccessful 2003 application by Chaffetz for employment with the agency and discussed leaking the information to the media in retaliation for Chaffetz' investigations of agency misconduct. The confidential personal information was later leaked toThe Daily Beast. Agency Director Joe Clancy apologized to Chaffetz and said that disciplinary action would be taken against those responsible.[118]
In March 2017, a member of Vice PresidentMike Pence's detail was suspended after the agent was caught visiting a prostitute at a hotel in Maryland.[119]
In July 2022, during President Biden's trip to the Middle East, a Secret Service agent was sent back to the United States from Israel after indiscriminately assaulting a woman who was walking in the street, next to a bar inMachane Yehuda. A Secret Service spokesman said in a statement that the agency was informed of the encounter, and the agent, who was working in Israel, was "briefly detained and questioned by Israeli police, who released him without charges."[120]
On July 15, 2022,The Interceptreported that a letter from the Department of Homeland Security revealed the Secret Service had erased text messages from the day before and day of theJanuary 6 insurrection, shortly after those messages were requested by oversight officials investigating the agency’s response to the US Capitol riots.[121]The agency claimed that the messages “were erased as part of a device-replacement program,” although the agency is bound by regulation to preserve all records of its activity (including text messages, emails, and other electronic communications). According toPoliticoon July 19, 2022, as new material becomes available to theUnited States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack, "a potentialsecond round of hearingsgets slated for the fall [of 2022]".[122]Such related new materials may include further details regarding “the potential unauthorized deletion” of text messages, particularly those from around January 5 and 6, 2021, by the Secret Service, then headed by DirectorJames M. Murray, an appointee by then-President Trump in 2019.[123][124]The Department of Homeland Security’s inspector general has initiated a criminal investigation into the erasure of text messages exchanged by Secret Service agents relating to the January 6 Capitol breach.[125][126]
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Virtual crimecan be described as a criminal act conducted in avirtual world– usuallymassively multiplayer online role-playing games(MMORPGs). To grasp the definition of virtual crime, the modern interpretation of the term "virtual" must be assessed to portray the implications of virtual crime. In this sense, virtual crime describes those online acts that “evoke the effects of real crime” but are not widely considered to be prosecutable acts.[1]
There are several interpretations of the term "virtual crime". One scholar defined virtual crime as needing to have all the qualities of a real crime, and so it was not a new subset of crime at all.[2]It is difficult to prove that there are real-life implications of virtual crime, thus it is not widely accepted as prosecutable.[2]
Examples of virtual crimes include mugging,sexual assault,theft, and construction ofsweatshops— all of which are usually committed withinvirtual worlds,metaversesandeconomies.[3][4]
MMORPG-Massively multiplayer online role-playing game, which is a video game that combines aspects of a role-playing video game and a massively multiplayer online game. MMORPGs are a platform susceptible to virtual crime.
MMOGorMMO-Massively multiplayer online game, which is an online video game with a large number of players on the sameserver. MMOGs are also platforms susceptible to virtual crime.
Metaverse- In science fiction, the metaverse is a hypothetical iteration of theInternetas a single, universal, and immersive virtual world facilitated by the use ofvirtual reality(VR),augmented reality(AR), andmixed/extended reality(MR/XR) headsets.[3]In colloquial usage, a metaverse is a network of 3D virtual worlds focused on social and economic connection.[3][5][6][7]In scientific research, it is defined as “a three-dimensionalonline environmentin which users represented byavatarsinteract with each other in virtual spaces decoupled from the real physical world”.[5]
Virtual world- Also called a virtual space, avirtual worldis acomputer-simulatedenvironment which may be populated by many users who can create a personal avatar, simultaneously and independently explore the virtual world, participate in its activities, and communicate with others.[8][9][10]This is where virtual crime takes place.
Virtual economy- Also called a synthetic economy, avirtual economyexists within a virtual world, and users utilize it to buy, sell, and invest in virtual items, services, and properties.[4]With the rise of virtual worlds,virtual economiessee an increase in usage, demand, and currency exchange within, much like in real life.[4]In 2014, the exchange of currency for virtual property inSecond Life, a popular virtual world, was US$3.2 billion.[4]For perspective, this was the estimated combined annual trade for virtual economies in 2004.[4]
Individuals or players within virtual worlds explore, build theircharacters, and collect items throughgameplayor various tasks.[4]These goods and services carry demonstrable value standard conceptions ofeconomic valuebecause players are willing to substitute real economicresourcesof time and money (monthly fees) in exchange for these resources.[4]However, in most games, players do not own, materially orintellectually, any part of thegame world, and merely pay to use it.[4]The ownership players have over in-game assets has evolved with the emergence ofblockchain games.[11]
As virtual worlds become more popular and we see the rise of virtual economies, many issues and many opportunities rise as well.[4]For example,eBay, along with specialisttrading sites, have allowed players to sell their wares. This has attractedfraudulentsales as well astheft.[12]Manygame developers, such asBlizzard Entertainment(responsible forWorld of Warcraft), oppose and even prohibit the practice.[13]
In the online world of Britannia, the currency of one Annum equates to about $3.4 US.[14]If someone were to steal another player'svirtual currency, they could convert it toUS dollarsviaPayPal, though this problem has not yet been reported. This stems controversy over whether or not this should be dealt with like real crime, as there are real-life implications.[15]
While not resulting in physical injury or physicalassault, virtual sexual assault can inflictemotional harmandpsychological trauma.[16]One of the earliest reported instances of virtual sexual assault occurred in 1993 in thecomputer programmingworld ofLambdaMOO.[16]In 2007, aBelgiancitizen reported an instance of non-consensualsexual activity in the virtual worldSecond Lifeto Belgian police.[16]
In 2005, in the gameThe Sims Online, a 17-year-old boy going by the in-game name "Evangeline" was discovered to have built a cyber-brothel, where customers would pay sim-money for minutes ofcybersex. This led to the cancellation of his accounts but no legal action, mainly because he was above theage of consentin his area.[17]
In July 2018, a mother in the United States posted on Facebook that her daughter's avatar onRobloxhad beengang rapedby two other users. Roblox stated that it was outraged that a "bad actor" had violated its community policies and rules of conduct, and that they had zero tolerance over such acts.[18]The incident led to TheVillage Voicereprinting its 1993 article, "A Rape in Cyberspace".[19]In July 2021, a formally convicted sex offender was arrested in Illinois for allegedlygroomingandsolicitingaminorthrough the use of Roblox.[20]
In November 2021, a beta user ofHorizon Worldsreported beinggropedin-game and that other users supported the conduct.[21]Meta responded that there are built-in tools to block interactions with other users, which are not enabled by default, and that although the incident was "absolutely unfortunate," it provides good feedback in making the blocking feature "trivially easy and findable."[21]A month later on Horizon Worlds, metaverse researcher andpsychotherapistNina Jane Patel reported that her avatar was gang-raped within 60 seconds of joining the platform.[22]Elena Martellozzo, an associate professor of criminology atMiddlesex Universitysays that such abuse may be the result ofdisinhibitiondue to the lack of face-to-face interaction that is exacerbated on the metaverse.[22]
In 2022, a BBC News researcher posing as a 13-year-old girl onVRChatwas approached by adult men and directed to sex shops.[23]BBC News also reported that a safety campaigner knows of children who were groomed in games and forced to take part invirtual sex.[23]
More examples of sexual assault in the virtual reality space include an incident in 2021 — Chanelle Siggens logged into the virtual reality gamePopulation Oneand another player simulated groping and ejaculating on her.[24]
In 2024, the BBC reported that police were investigating a virtual sexual assault case.[25]
The virtual economies of manyMMOs, and the exchange of virtual items and currency for real money, have resulted in the existence of in-game sweatshops. In virtual sweatshops, workers in thedeveloping world— typically China, although there have been reports of this type of activity inEastern Europeancountries — earn real-world wages for long days spent monotonously performing in-game tasks.[26]Instances typically involvefarming of resources or currency, which has given rise to the epithetChinese Adena Farmer, because of its first reported widespread use inLineage II.
More egregious cases involve using exploits such asdupingcurrency or items. There have also been reports ofcollusionorvertical integrationamong farmers and virtual currency exchanges. In 2002, a company called Blacksnow Interactive, a game currency exchange, admitted to using workers in a "virtual sweatshop" inTijuana, Mexico to farm money and items fromUltima OnlineandDark Age of Camelot.[27]WhenMythic Entertainmentcracked down on the practice, Blacksnow attempted to sue the game company.[27]
In November 2007, it was reported that a Dutch teenager had been arrested for allegedly stealing virtual furniture from "rooms" in 3D social-networking serviceHabbo Hotel.[28]The teenagers involved were accused of creating fakeHabbowebsites in order to lure users into entering their account details, which would then be used to steal virtual furniture bought with real money totaling €4000.[29]
In China, Qiu Chengwei was sentenced to life in prison in 2005 after stabbing and killing fellowThe Legend of Mir 3gamer Zhu Caoyuan.[30]In the game Qiu had lent Zhu a powerful sword (a "dragon sabre"), which Zhu then went on to sell on eBay for 7,200 Yuan (about £473 or US$870).[30]
The term "virtual mugging" was coined in Japan in 2005 when a player ofLineage IIusedbotsto defeat other players’ characters and take their items.[31]TheKagawaprefectural police arrested a Chinese foreign exchange student on Aug. 16 following the reports of virtual mugging and online sales of the stolen items.[31]
In Sweden, a man threatened the families of 26 underage girls if they did not perform sexual acts online – he was sentenced to 10 years in prison and made to pay $131,590 in damages.[32]Official prosecution proceedings regarding virtual crime currently exist in countries like Sweden but not for a majority of the modern world.[32]
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The term "white-collar crime" refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violentcrimecommitted by individuals, businesses and government professionals.[1]The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains.[2]It was first defined by the sociologistEdwin Sutherlandin 1939 as "a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation".[3]Typical white-collar crimes could includewage theft,fraud,bribery,Ponzi schemes,insider trading,labor racketeering,embezzlement,cybercrime,copyright infringement,money laundering,identity theft, andforgery.[4]White-collar crime overlaps withcorporate crime.
Modern criminology generally prefers to classify the type of crime and the topic:
The types of crime committed are a function of what is available to the potential offender. Thus, those employed in relatively unskilled environments have fewer opportunities to exploit than those who work in situations where large financial transactions occur.[9]Blue-collar crime tends to be more obvious and thus attracts more active police attention such asvandalismorshoplifting.[10]In contrast, white-collar employees can incorporate legitimate and criminal behavior, thus making themselves less obvious when committing the crime. Therefore, blue-collar crime will more often use physical force. In contrast, the corporate world, the identification of a victim is less obvious and the issue of reporting is complicated by a culture of commercial confidentiality to protectshareholdervalue. It is estimated that a great deal of white-collar crime is undetected or, if detected, it is not reported.
Corporate crime benefits the corporation (company or other type of business organization), rather than individuals. It may, however, result from the decisions of high-ranking individuals within the corporation.[11]Corporations are not, unlike individuals, litigated in criminal courts, which means the term "crime" does not really apply.[12]Litigation usually takes place in civil courts or by institutions with jurisdiction over specific types of offences, such as theU.S. Securities and Exchange Commissionwhich litigates violations of financial market and investment statutes.[13]
State-corporate crime is “illegal or socially injurious actions that occur when one or more institutions or political governance pursue a goal in direct cooperation with one or more institutions of economic production and distribution.”[14]The negotiation of agreements between a state and a corporation will be at a relatively senior level on both sides, this is almost exclusively a white-collar "situation" which offers the opportunity for crime. Although law enforcement claims to have prioritized white-collar crime,[15]evidence shows that it continues to be a low priority.[16]
When senior levels of a corporation engage in criminal activity using the company this is sometimes calledcontrol fraud.
Organizedtransnational crimeis organized criminal activity that takes place across national jurisdictions, and with advances in transportation and information technology, law enforcement officials and policymakers have needed to respond to this form of crime on a global scale.[17]Some examples includehuman trafficking,money laundering,drug smuggling, illegal arms dealing,terrorism, andcybercrime. Although it is impossible to precisely gauge transnational crime, theMillennium Project, an international think tank, assembled statistics on several aspects of transnational crime in 2009:[18]
When a white-collar criminal turns violent, it becomes red-collar crime. This can take the form of killing a witness in a fraud trial to silence them or murdering someone who exposed the fraud, such as a journalist, detective or whistleblower. Perri and Lichtenwald defined red-collar crime as follows:
“This sub-group is referred to as red-collar criminals because they straddle both the white-collar crime arena and, eventually, the violent crime arena. In circumstances where there is the threat of detection, red-collar criminals commit brutal acts of violence to silence the people who have detected their fraud and to prevent further disclosure.”[19]
According to a 2018 report by theBureau of Labor Statistics, homicide is the third highest cause of death in the American workplace.[20][21]The Atlantic magazine reported that red-collar criminals often have traits of narcissism and psychopathy, which ironically, are seen as desirable qualities in the recruitment process, even though it puts a company at risk of employing a white-collar criminal.
One investigator,Richard G. Brody, said that the murders might be difficult to detect, being mistaken for accidents or suicides:
“Whenever I read about high-profile executives who are found dead, I immediately think red-collar crime,” he said. “Lots of people are getting away with murder.”
Occupational crime is “any act punishable by law that is committed through opportunity created on the course of an occupation that is legal.”[22]Individuals may commit crimes during employment or unemployment. The two most common forms aretheftandfraud. Theft can be of varying degrees, from a pencil to furnishings to a car.Insider trading, the trading of stock by someone with access to publicly unavailable information, is a type of fraud.[18]
The crimes related to the national interests consist mainly of treason. In the modern world, there are a lot of nations which divide crimes into some laws. "Crimes Related to Inducement of Foreign Aggression" is the crime of communicating withalienssecretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. "Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression" is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside. "Crimes Related to Insurrection" is the internal treason. Depending on the country, criminal conspiracy is added to these. One example isJho Low, a Malaysian businessman and international fugitive who stole billions of US dollars from1MDB, a Malaysiansovereign wealth fund.[23]
According to a 2016 American study,[24]
A considerable percentage of white-collar offenders are gainfully employed middle-aged Caucasian men who usually commit their first white-collar offense sometime between their late thirties through their mid-forties and appear to have middle-class backgrounds. Most have some higher education, are married, and have moderate to strong ties to community, family, and religious organizations. Whitecollar offenders usually have a criminal history, including infractions that span the spectrum of illegality, but many do not overindulge in vice. Recent research examining the five-factor personality trait model determined that white-collar offenders tend to be more neurotic and less agreeable and conscientious than their non-criminal counterparts.
In the United States, sentences for white-collar crimes may include a combination ofimprisonment,fines,restitution,community service,disgorgement,probation, or other alternative punishment.[25][26]These punishments grew harsher after theJeffrey SkillingandEnron scandal, when theSarbanes–Oxley Actof 2002 was passed by theUnited States Congressand signed into law by PresidentGeorge W. Bush, defining new crimes and increasing the penalties for crimes such asmail and wire fraud. Sometimes punishment for these crimes could be hard to determine due to the fact that convincing the courts that what the offender has done is challenging within itself.[27]In other countries, such asChina, white-collar criminals can be given thedeath penaltyunder aggravating circumstances,[28]yet some countries have a maximum of 10–25 years imprisonment. Certain countries likeCanadaconsider the relationship between the parties to be a significant feature of a sentence when there is a breach of trust component involved.[29]Questions aboutsentencing disparityin white-collar crime continue to be debated.[30]TheFBI, concerned with identifying this type of offense, collects statistical information on several different fraud offenses (swindles and cons, credit card or ATM fraud, impersonation, welfare fraud, and wire fraud), bribery, counterfeiting and forgery, and embezzlement.[31]
In the United States, the longest sentences for white-collar crimes have included the following:Sholam Weiss(845 years for racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering in connection with the collapse ofNational Heritage Life Insurance Company); Norman Schmidt and Charles Lewis (330 years and 30 years, respectively, for "high-yield investment" scheme);Bernard Madoff(150 years for$65 billion fraud scheme); Frederick Brandau (55 years for $117 millionPonzi scheme); Martin Sigillito (40 years for $56 million Ponzi scheme); Eduardo Masferrer (30 years for accounting fraud); Chalana McFarland (30 years formortgage fraudscheme); Lance Poulsen (30 years for $2.9 billion fraud).[32]
From the perspective of an offender, the easiest targets to entrap in"white collar"crime are those with a certain degree of vulnerability or those with symbolic or emotional value to the offender.[33]Examples of these people can be family members, clients, and close friends who are wrapped up in personal or business proceedings with the offender. The way that most criminal operations are conducted is through a series of different particular techniques. In this case, a technique is a certain way to complete a desired task. When one is committing a crime, whether it be shoplifting or tax fraud, it is always easier to successfully pull off the task with experience in the technique. Shoplifters who are experienced at stealing in plain sight are much more successful than those who do not know how to steal. The major difference between a shoplifter and someone committing a white-collar crime is that the techniques used are not physical but instead consist of acts like talking on the phone, writing, and entering data.[33]
Often these criminals utilize the "blame game theory", a theory in which certain strategies are utilized by an organization or business and its members in order to strategically shift blame by pushing responsibility to others or denying misconduct.[34]This theory is particularly used in terms of organizations and indicates that offenders often do not take the blame for their actions. Many members of organizations will try to absolve themselves of responsibility when things go wrong.[35]
Forbes Magazine lays out four theories for what leads a criminal to commit a "white collar" crime.[36]The first is that there are poorly designed job incentives for the criminal. Most finance professionals are given a certain type of compensation or reward for short-term mass profits. If a company incentivizes an employee to help commit a crime, such as assisting in a Ponzi Scheme, many employees will partake in order to receive the reward or compensation. Often, this compensation is given in the form of a cash "bonus" on top of their salaries. By doing a task in order to receive a reward, many employees feel as though they are not responsible for the crime, as they have not ordered it. The "blame game theory" comes into play as those being asked to carry out illegal activities feel as though they can place the blame on their bosses instead of themselves. The second theory is that the company's management is very relaxed when it comes to enforcing ethics. If unethical practices are already commonplace in the business, employees will see that as a "green light" to conduct unethical and unlawful business practices to further the business. This idea also ties into Forbes' third theory, that most stock traders see unethical practices as harmless. Many see white-collar crime as a victimless crime, which is not necessarily true. Since many of these stock traders cannot see the victims of their crimes, it seems as if it hurts no one. The last theory is that many firms have unrealistic, large goals. They preach the mentality that employees should "do what it takes".[36]
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Inelementary arithmetic, acarryis adigitthat is transferred from onecolumnof digits to another column of more significant digits. It is part of the standardalgorithmtoaddnumbers together by starting with the rightmost digits and working to the left. For example, when 6 and 7 are added to make 13, the "3" is written to the same column and the "1" is carried to the left. When used in subtraction the operation is called aborrow.
Carrying is emphasized intraditional mathematics, while curricula based onreform mathematicsdo not emphasize any specific method to find a correct answer.[citation needed]
Carrying makes a few appearances in higher mathematics as well. In computing, carrying is an important function ofaddercircuits.
A typical example of carry is in the following pencil-and-paper addition:
7 + 9 = 16, and the digit1is the carry.
The opposite is aborrow, as in
Here,7 − 9 = −2, so try(10 − 9) + 7 = 8, and the 10 is got by taking ("borrowing") 1 from the next digit to the left. There are two ways in which this is commonly taught:
Traditionally, carry is taught in the addition of multi-digit numbers in the 2nd or late first year of elementary school. However, since the late 20th century, many widely adopted curricula developed in the United States such asTERComitted instruction of the traditional carry method in favor ofinvented arithmeticmethods, and methods using coloring, manipulatives, and charts. Such omissions were criticized by such groups asMathematically Correct, and some states and districts have since abandoned this experiment, though it remains widely used.[citation needed]
Kummer's theoremstates that the number of carries involved in adding two numbers in basep{\displaystyle p}is equal to the exponent of the highest power ofp{\displaystyle p}dividing a certainbinomial coefficient.
When several random numbers of many digits are added, the statistics of the carry digits bears an unexpected connection withEulerian numbersand the statistics ofriffle shuffle permutations.[1][2][3][4]
Inabstract algebra, the carry operation for two-digit numbers can be formalized using the language ofgroup cohomology.[5][6][7]This viewpoint can be applied to alternative characterizations of thereal numbers.[8][9]
Carry represents one of the basic challenges facing designers and builders ofmechanical calculators. They face two basic difficulties: The first one stems from the fact that a carry can require several digits to change: in order to add 1 to 999, the machine has to increment 4 different digits. Another challenge is the fact that the carry can "develop" before the next digit finished the addition operation.
Most mechanical calculators implement carry by executing a separate carry cycle after the addition itself. During the addition, each carry is "signaled" rather than performed, and during the carry cycle, the machine increments the digits above the "triggered" digits. This operation has to be performed sequentially, starting with the ones digit, then the tens, the hundreds, and so on, since adding the carry can generate a new carry in the next digit.
Some machines, notablyPascal's calculator, the second known calculator to be built, and the oldest surviving, use a different method: incrementing the digit from 0 to 9, cocks a mechanical device to store energy, and the next increment, which moves the digit from 9 to 0, releases this energy to increment the next digit by 1. Pascal used weights and gravity in his machine. Another notable machine using similar method is the highly successful 19th centuryComptometer, which replaced the weights with springs.
Some innovative machines use continuous transmission: adding 1 to any digit, advances the next one by 1/10 (which in turn advances the next one by 1/100 and so on). Some innovative early calculators, notablyChebyshevcalculator from 1870,[10]and a design by Selling,[11]from 1886, used this method, but neither were successful. In the early 1930,Marchant calculatorimplemented continuous transmission with great success, starting with the aptly named "Silent Speed" calculator. Marchant (later to becomeSCM Corporation) continued to use and improve it, and made continuous-transmission calculators with unmatched speed, into the late 1960s, to the end of the mechanical calculator era.
When speaking of adigital circuitlike an adder, the wordcarryis used in a similar sense.
In mostcomputers, the carry from the most significant bit of an arithmetic operation (or bit shifted out from a shift operation) is placed in a specialcarry bitwhich can be used as a carry-in for multiple precision arithmetic or tested and used to control execution of acomputer program. The samecarry bitis also generally used to indicate borrows in subtraction, though the bit's meaning is inverted due to the effects oftwo's complementarithmetic. Normally, a carry bit value of "1" signifies that an addition overflowed theALU, and must be accounted for when adding data words of lengths greater than that of the CPU. For subtractive operations, two (opposite) conventions are employed as most machines set the carry flag on borrow while some machines (such as the 6502 and the PIC) instead reset the carry flag on borrow (and vice versa).
A carry can lead tointeger overflow.
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Nuclear Gandhiis a video gameurban legendpurporting the existence of asoftware bugin the 1991 strategy video gameCivilizationthat would eventually force thepacifistleaderMahatma Gandhito become extremely aggressive and make heavy use ofnuclear weapons. The claim was mentioned on theTV Tropeswiki in 2012, and continued until 2020, when the series' creator,Sid Meier, confirmed that the bug would have been impossible in the original game.[1]Gandhi was programmed to exhibit this behavior inCivilization V, released in 2010, and it is unclear whether this led to the belief that the behavior had also been present in earlier games.
While fictional, Nuclear Gandhi is one of the most recognizablevideo game glitchesand has been used as an example ofinteger overflowin computer science, and was included as anEaster eggin other games in theCivilizationseries.
According to the legend, each leader'sgame AIinCivilizationhad a parameter that described their aggression on a scale from 1 to 10, with 1 being least aggressive and 10 most aggressive.[2][3]Other sources say the scale went from 1 to 12.[4]Indian leaderMahatma Gandhiwas the only leader in the game with the lowest possible aggression rating of 1[5]and, as a result, was only able to wage defensive wars.[6]Once the AI changed its government form todemocracy, which was preferred by peaceful nations such as India,[3]its aggression level decreased by 2. In the case of Gandhi, this would lead to an aggression level of −1.[7]
According to the legend, the aggression level was stored as an8-bit unsigned integer variablethat could only store values in the range from 0 to 255 (or28− 1), and the negative value would therefore result in aninteger overflow, with the value being stored as 255[7]and Gandhi supposedly becoming about 25 times more aggressive than the most aggressive leaders in the game.[6]InCivilization'stechnology tree,nuclear weaponsare generally unlocked only after democracy, so Gandhi's aggression level would have already spiked by the time India became nuclear-capable. This led to India suddenly attacking other civilizations with nuclear missiles.[2]Some versions of the story say that the bug was fixed in later versions of the game,[8]others the developers were so amused by it that they deliberately re-implemented as anEaster egg.[2][9][8]Some versions of the story claim that the bug first appeared inCivilization II.[4]
In reality, according to theCivilization IIleadgame designerBrian Reynolds, there were only three possible aggression levels inCivilization, and even though Gandhi's AI had the lowest possible aggression level, he shared it with one third of all leaders. Additionally, based on his memories ofCivilization's source code, Reynolds stated that there was no unsigned variable in this section of code and that leaders could not act more aggressively than the most aggressive leaders of the game. A leader with an aggression level of 255 would act the same way as a leader with an aggression level of 3.[10]According toSid Meier, since all integer variables aresignedby default in bothCandC++(the programming languages ofCivilizationandCivilization IIrespectively), overflow would not have occurred if Gandhi's aggression were set to –1; moreover, the government form does not affect AI aggressiveness at all, so Gandhi's aggression level remained the same throughout the game.[4]During wars, India could use nuclear weapons just like any other civilization, but Gandhi would not use nuclear weapons more often thanAbraham Lincolnor any other peaceful leaders.[3][4][10]One possible origin of the legend could be India's tendency to discover nuclear technology before most of its opponents because of the peaceful scientific nature of this civilization.[10][4]Reynolds noted that all leaders in the game become "pretty ornery" after their acquisition of nuclear weapons, and suggested that this behavior simply seemed more surprising and memorable when it happened to Gandhi.[10]
ThroughCivilization IV, a popular misconception held that Gandhi was "still" programmed with a tendency to use nuclear weapons as an Easter egg, but no such behavior was purposely added to the games byFiraxis. The first such intentional inclusion of Nuclear Gandhi was inCivilization V.Civilization Vleadgame designerJon Shaferset Gandhi's "Build Nuke" and "Use Nuke" parameters to the highest possible value, 12. Shafer said that he did this as a joke: "it's fun to imagine that an Indian politician promotingSatyagrahamay have a desire to nuke his neighbors". Following the game's release in 2010, players noticed Gandhi's incongruous behavior; it was addressed inThe Escapistmagazine's comicCritical Miss. Players nicknamedCivilization V's Gandhi "Thermonuclear", "destroyer of worlds", and "Kurchatov".[11]
Gandhi is actually one of the most peaceful leaders inCivilization V, but his artificial intelligence parameters that control building and using of nuclear weapons have the value of 12, which is the highest of any leader. The next three leaders have a value of 8, and most leaders have a value between 4 and 6.[7]To bring more diversity to the gameplay, at the start of each game,Civilization Vadjusts these parameters by adding a random value between −2 and +2 to each of these two values; in the case of Gandhi, this means the "Build Nuke" and "Use Nuke" parameters will never go lower than the maximum rating: 10 out of 10.[12]
Civilization VIintroduced a secret agenda mechanic that regulates the artificial intelligence behavior. Each leader has two agendas: the first is constant and based on each leader's personal history, and the second one (as well as a third one inCivilization VI: Gathering Storm) is chosen randomly at the start of each game. Gandhi's fixed goal is "Peacekeeper": Gandhi is much less likely to start wars, and disdains civilizations that do, as well as appreciating those that do the opposite. However, he has a fixed 70% probability of getting "Nuke Happy" as his secondary agenda, which causes him to focus on building nukes, appreciate civilizations that do, and disdain civilizations that do not.[13][14]
In 2012, 21 years after the originalCivilizationwas released, the TV Tropes page forCivilizationwas edited by user Tunafish to add a claim that a software bug caused Gandhi to act much more aggressively, but did not include any proof for the claim.[15][4][3]In November, the same information was added toWikia.[4]According toSid Meier, over the next two years, the story spread across the Internet and each time someone doubted it, alink to a wiki was used as a proof.[3]
In 2014, the story gained publicity after a repostedCritical Misscomic caused a discussion in the comment section onRedditover why Gandhi was made that aggressive.[3]Ten days later, the video game news websiteKotakuposted the article "Why Gandhi Is Such An Asshole In Civilization",[7]which prompted other news websites and blogs to republish the information.[3][4]Soon, "Nuclear Gandhi" became a common video gameInternet memeand joke.[3]Moreover, as the "Nuclear Gandhi" meme spread, many people remembered that they were particularly annoyed by India in the first games ofCivilizationseries, a false memory attributable to theMandela effect.[3]Information about "Nuclear Gandhi" was later added toKnow Your Meme, which stated that the bug first appeared inCivilization II.[4]
On June 18, 2019, Firaxis marketing manager Kevin Schultz posted a tweet stating that he was going offline for two weeks due to a business trip to China, and offered to reflect on the question, "What if the widely shared and reposted story about Gandhi's love for nukes in the originalCivilizationbeing caused by a bug is totally false?" This prompted ex-Eurogamercolumnist Chris Bratt to start ajournalistic investigation.[6]
Bratt contacted2K'sPRdepartment and asked for an interview with a Firaxis representative, but his request was denied. Bratt then contacted ex-Firaxis game designerBruce Shelley, who stated that he did not remember whether the glitch existed, since the development ofCivilizationwas 30 years ago: "I vaguely remember an issue with Gandhi, but the guy you would have to speak with is Sid [Meier]." The next person Bratt contacted was leadCivilization IIgame designerBrian Reynolds, who replied: "Although it's been ~20 years since I've seen the Civ 1 code, I can still tell you with 99.99% certainty the Gandhi bug is completely apocryphal." Bratt contacted 2K and Sid Meier once again but did not receive a direct refutation. Meier stated that he did not know the correct answer, but he thinks that the urban legend is a good thing: "given the limited technology of the time, the original Civ was in many ways a game that took place mainly in players' imaginations", so "I'd be reluctant to limit what that player can imagine by introducing too many of my thoughts". Bratt posted a YouTube video with his investigation's findings.[10]Later, in anArs Technicainterview, Sid Meier similarly stated that the bug was possible, "but it was not intentional".[16]
On September 8, 2020, Sid Meier's autobiography,Sid Meier's Memoir!: A Life in Computer Games, was released, containing confirmation that the Gandhi software bug was fabricated and a detailed background of theurban legend's formation.[3][5][17]
Despite its non-existence, "Nuclear Gandhi" is one of the most recognizablebugsin the history of video games.[6]It has spawned a large number ofInternet memes,[9]and it has been used as an example ofinteger overflowincomputer sciencecourses atHarvard University, among others.[3]One such example is the gameWorms Armageddonwhich features as one of its superweapons a "Indian Nuclear Test".[18]
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On thex86architecture, adouble faultexception occurs if theprocessorencounters a problem while trying to service a pendinginterruptorexception. An example situation when a double fault would occur is when an interrupt is triggered but the segment in which theinterrupt handlerresides is invalid. If the processor encounters a problem when calling the double fault handler, atriple faultis generated and the processor shuts down.
As double faults can only happen due tokernelbugs, they are rarely caused byuser spaceprograms in a modernprotected modeoperating system, unless the program somehow gains kernel access (somevirusesand also some low-levelDOSprograms). Other processors likePowerPCorSPARCgenerally save state to predefined and reserved machine registers. A double fault will then be a situation where another exception happens while the processor is still using the contents of these registers to process the exception. SPARC processors have four levels of such registers, i.e. they have a4-window register system.
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Out of memory(OOM) is an often undesired state ofcomputeroperation where no additionalmemorycan beallocatedfor use by programs or theoperating system. Such a system will be unable to load any additional programs, and since many programs may load additional data into memory during execution, these will cease to function correctly. This usually occurs because all available memory, including diskswap space, has been allocated.
Historically, the out-of-memory condition was more common than it is now, since early computers andoperating systemswere limited to small amounts of physicalrandom-access memory(RAM) due to the inability of early processors to address large amounts of memory, as well as cost considerations. Since the advent ofvirtual memoryopened the door for the usage of swap space, the condition is less frequent. Almost all modern programs expect to be able to allocate and deallocate memory freely at run-time, and tend to fail in uncontrolled ways (crash) when that expectation is not met; older ones often allocated memory only once, checked whether they got enough to do all their work, and then expected no more to be forthcoming. Therefore, they would either fail immediately with an "out of memory" error (OOME) message, or work as expected.[citation needed]
Early operating systems such asMS-DOSlacked support formultitasking. Programs were allocated physical memory that they could use as they needed. Physical memory was often a scarce resource, and when it was exhausted by applications such as those withterminate-and-stay-residentfunctionality, no further applications could be started until running applications were closed.
Modern operating systems provide virtual memory, in which processes are given a range of memory, but where the memory does not directly correspond to actual physical RAM. Virtual memory can be backed by physical RAM, a disk file viammap(onUnix-derivatives) or MapViewOfFile (on Windows), or swap space, and the operating system can move virtual memory pages around as it needs. Because virtual memory does not need to be backed by physical memory, exhaustion of it is rare, and usually there are other limits imposed by the operating system on resource consumption.[citation needed]
As predicted byMoore's law, the amount of physical memory in all computers has grown almost exponentially, although this is offset to some degree by programs and files themselves becoming larger. In some cases, a computer with virtual memory support where the majority of the loaded data resides on the hard disk may run out of physical memory but not virtual memory, thus causing excessivepaging. This condition, known asthrashing, usually renders the computer unusable until some programs are closed or the machine is rebooted. Due to these reasons, an out-of-memory message is rarely encountered by applications with modern computers.[citation needed]
It is, however, still possible to encounter an OOM condition with a modern computer. The typical OOM case in modern computers happens when the operating system is unable to create any more virtual memory, because all of its potential backing devices have been filled or the end-user has disabled them. The condition may arise because of copy-on-write after fork().[further explanation needed]
The kernels of operating systems such asLinuxwill attempt to recover from this type of OOM condition by terminating one or more processes, a mechanism known as theOOM Killer.[1][2]Linux 4.6(released in May 2016) introduced changes in OOM situations, improving detection and reliability.[3][4]cgroupawareness in OOM killer was implemented inLinux kernel 4.19released in October 2018, which adds an ability to kill a cgroup as a single unit.[5]
Due to late activation ofOOM Killeron some Linux systems,[6]there are several daemons and kernel patches that help to recover memory from OOM condition before it was too late.
Apart from the system-wide physical memory limits, some systems limit the amount of memory each process can use. Usually a matter of policy, such a limitation can also happen when the OS has a larger address space than is available at the process level. Some high-end32-bitsystems (such as those withPhysical Address Extensionenabled) come with 8gigabytesor more of system memory, even though any single process can only access 4 GB of it in a 32-bitflat memory model.
A process that exceeds its per-process limit and then attempts to allocate further memory will encounter an error condition. For example, theC standard functionfor allocating memory,malloc(), will returnNULLand a well-behaved application should handle this situation.
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Incomputing, asegmentation fault(often shortened tosegfault) oraccess violationis afailure conditionraised by hardware withmemory protection, notifying anoperating system(OS) the software has attempted to access a restricted area of memory (a memory access violation). On standardx86computers, this is a form ofgeneral protection fault. The operating systemkernelwill, in response, usually perform some corrective action, generally passing the fault on to the offendingprocessby sending the process asignal. Processes can in some cases install a custom signal handler, allowing them to recover on their own,[1]but otherwise the OS default signal handler is used, generally causingabnormal terminationof the process (a programcrash), and sometimes acore dump.
Segmentation faults are a common class of error in programs written in languages likeCthat provide low-level memory access and few to no safety checks. They arise primarily due to errors in use ofpointersforvirtual memoryaddressing, particularly illegal access. Another type of memory access error is abus error, which also has various causes, but is today much rarer; these occur primarily due to incorrectphysicalmemory addressing, or due to misaligned memory access – these are memory references that the hardwarecannotaddress, rather than references that a process is notallowedto address.
Many programming languages have mechanisms designed to avoid segmentation faults and improve memory safety. For example,Rustemploys an ownership-based[2]model to ensure memory safety.[3]Other languages, such asLispandJava, employgarbage collection,[4]which avoids certain classes of memory errors that could lead to segmentation faults.[5]
A segmentation fault occurs when a program attempts to access amemorylocation that it is not allowed to access, or attempts to access a memory location in a way that is not allowed (for example, attempting to write to aread-onlylocation, or to overwrite part of theoperating system).
The term "segmentation" has various uses in computing; in the context of "segmentation fault", it refers to the address space of aprogram.[6]With memory protection, only the program's own address space is readable, and of this, only thestackand the read/write portion of thedata segmentof a program are writable, while read-only data allocated in the const segment and thecode segmentare not writable. Thus attempting to read outside of the program's address space, or writing to a read-only segment of the address space, results in a segmentation fault, hence the name.
On systems using hardwarememory segmentationto providevirtual memory, a segmentation fault occurs when the hardware detects an attempt to refer to a non-existent segment, or to refer to a location outside the bounds of a segment, or to refer to a location in a fashion not allowed by the permissions granted for that segment. On systems using onlypaging, aninvalid page faultgenerally leads to a segmentation fault, and segmentation faults and page faults are both faults raised by thevirtual memorymanagement system. Segmentation faults can also occur independently of page faults: illegal access to a valid page is a segmentation fault, but not an invalid page fault, and segmentation faults can occur in the middle of a page (hence no page fault), for example in abuffer overflowthat stays within a page but illegally overwrites memory.
At the hardware level, the fault is initially raised by thememory management unit(MMU) on illegal access (if the referenced memory exists), as part of its memory protection feature, or an invalid page fault (if the referenced memory does not exist). If the problem is not an invalid logical address but instead an invalid physical address, abus erroris raised instead, though these are not always distinguished.
At the operating system level, this fault is caught and a signal is passed on to the offending process, activating the process's handler for that signal. Different operating systems have different signal names to indicate that a segmentation fault has occurred. OnUnix-likeoperating systems, a signal called SIGSEGV (abbreviated fromsegmentation violation) is sent to the offending process. OnMicrosoft Windows, the offending process receives a STATUS_ACCESS_VIOLATIONexception.
The conditions under which segmentation violations occur and how they manifest themselves are specific to hardware and the operating system: different hardware raises different faults for given conditions, and different operating systems convert these to different signals that are passed on to processes. The proximate cause is a memory access violation, while the underlying cause is generally asoftware bugof some sort. Determining theroot cause–debuggingthe bug – can be simple in some cases, where the program will consistently cause a segmentation fault (e.g., dereferencing anull pointer), while in other cases the bug can be difficult to reproduce and depend on memory allocation on each run (e.g., dereferencing adangling pointer).
The following are some typical causes of a segmentation fault:
These in turn are often caused by programming errors that result in invalid memory access:
In C code, segmentation faults most often occur because of errors in pointer use, particularly inC dynamic memory allocation. Dereferencing a null pointer, which results inundefined behavior, will usually cause a segmentation fault. This is because a null pointer cannot be a valid memory address. On the other hand, wild pointers and dangling pointers point to memory that may or may not exist, and may or may not be readable or writable, and thus can result in transient bugs. For example:
Dereferencing any of these variables could cause a segmentation fault: dereferencing the null pointer generally will cause a segfault, while reading from the wild pointer may instead result in random data but no segfault, and reading from the dangling pointer may result in valid data for a while, and then random data as it is overwritten.
The default action for a segmentation fault or bus error isabnormal terminationof the process that triggered it. Acore filemay be generated to aid debugging, and other platform-dependent actions may also be performed. For example,Linuxsystems using the grsecurity patch may log SIGSEGV signals in order to monitor for possible intrusion attempts usingbuffer overflows.
On some systems, like Linux and Windows, it is possible for the program itself to handle a segmentation fault.[7]Depending on the architecture and operating system, the running program can not only handle the event but may extract some information about its state like getting astack trace,processor registervalues, the line of the source code when it was triggered, memory address that was invalidly accessed[8]and whether the action was a read or a write.[9]
Although a segmentation fault generally means that the program has a bug that needs fixing, it is also possible to intentionally cause such failure for the purposes of testing, debugging and also to emulate platforms where direct access to memory is needed. On the latter case, the system must be able to allow the program to run even after the fault occurs. In this case, when the system allows, it is possible to handle the event and increment the processor program counter to "jump" over the failing instruction to continue the execution.[10]
Writing to read-only memory raises a segmentation fault. At the level of code errors, this occurs when the program writes to part of its owncode segmentor the read-only portion of thedata segment, as these are loaded by the OS into read-only memory.
Here is an example ofANSI Ccode that will generally cause a segmentation fault on platforms with memory protection. It attempts to modify astring literal, which is undefined behavior according to the ANSI C standard. Mostcompilerswill not catch this at compile time, and instead compile this to executable code that will crash:
When the program containing this code is compiled, the string "hello world" is placed in therodatasection of the programexecutable file: the read-only section of thedata segment. When loaded, the operating system places it with other strings andconstantdata in a read-only segment of memory. When executed, a variable,s, is set to point to the string's location, and an attempt is made to write anHcharacter through the variable into the memory, causing a segmentation fault. Compiling such a program with a compiler that does not check for the assignment of read-only locations at compile time, and running it on a Unix-like operating system produces the followingruntime error:
Backtraceof the core file fromGDB:
This code can be corrected by using an array instead of a character pointer, as this allocates memory on stack and initializes it to the value of the string literal:
Even though string literals should not be modified (this has undefined behavior in the C standard), in C they are ofstatic char []type,[11][12][13]so there is no implicit conversion in the original code (which points achar *at that array), while in C++ they are ofstatic const char []type, and thus there is an implicit conversion, so compilers will generally catch this particular error.
In C and C-like languages,null pointersare used to mean "pointer to no object" and as an error indicator, anddereferencinga null pointer (a read or write through a null pointer) is a very common program error. The C standard does not say that the null pointer is the same as the pointer tomemory address0, though that may be the case in practice. Most operating systems map the null pointer's address such that accessing it causes a segmentation fault. This behavior is not guaranteed by the C standard. Dereferencing a null pointer isundefined behaviorin C, and a conforming implementation is allowed to assume that any pointer that is dereferenced is not null.
This sample code creates anull pointer, and then tries to access its value (read the value). Doing so causes a segmentation fault at runtime on many operating systems.
Dereferencing a null pointer and then assigning to it (writing a value to a non-existent target) also usually causes a segmentation fault:
The following code includes a null pointer dereference, but when compiled will often not result in a segmentation fault, as the value is unused and thus the dereference will often be optimized away bydead code elimination:
The following code accesses the character arraysbeyond its upper boundary. Depending on the compiler and the processor, this may result in a segmentation fault.
Another example isrecursionwithout a base case:
which causes thestack to overflowwhich results in a segmentation fault.[14]Infinite recursion may not necessarily result in a stack overflow depending on the language, optimizations performed by the compiler and the exact structure of a code. In this case, the behavior of unreachable code (the return statement) is undefined, so the compiler can eliminate it and use atail calloptimization that might result in no stack usage. Other optimizations could include translating the recursion into iteration, which given the structure of the example function would result in the program running forever, while probably not overflowing its stack.
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The2000s commodities boom,commodities super cycle[1]orChina boomwas the rise of many physicalcommodityprices (such as those of food, oil, metals,chemicalsandfuels) during the early 21st century (2000–2014),[2]following the Great Commodities Depression of the 1980s and 1990s. The boom was largely due to the rising demand fromemerging marketssuch as theBRICcountries, particularly China during the period from 1992 to 2013,[2]as well as the result of concerns over long-term supply availability.[citation needed]There was a sharp down-turn in prices during 2008 and early 2009 as a result of thecredit crunchandEuropean debt crisis, but prices began to rise as demand recovered from late 2009 to mid-2010.[citation needed]
Oil began to slip downwards after mid-2010, but peaked at $101.80 on 30 and 31 January 2011, as theEgyptian revolution of 2011broke out, leading to concerns over both the safe use of theSuez Canaland overall security inArabiaitself. On 3 March, Libya's National Oil Corp said that output had halved due to the departure of foreign workers. As this happened,Brent Crudesurged to a new high of above $116.00 a barrel as supply disruptions and potential for more unrest in the Middle East and North Africa continued to worry investors.[3]Thus theprice of oilkept rising into the 2010s. The commoditiessupercyclepeaked in 2011,[a]"driven by a combination of strong demand from emerging nations and low supply growth".[1][b]Prior to 2002, only 5 to 10 per cent of trading in the commodities market was attributable to investors.[1]Since 2002 "30 per cent of trading is attributable to investors in the commodities market" which "has caused higher pricevolatility".[1][c]
The 2000s commodities boom is comparable to the commodity supercycles which accompaniedpost–World War II economic expansionand theSecond Industrial Revolutionin the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century.[2]
The prices of raw materials were depressed and declining from, roughly, 1982 until 1998. From the mid-1980s to September 2003, theinflation-adjusted price[citation needed]of abarrelofcrude oilonNYMEXwas generally under $25/barrel. Since 1968 the price of gold has ranged widely, from a high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on 21 January 1980, to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on 21 June 1999 (London Gold Fixing).[4]
The analysis of this period is based on the work ofRobert Solowand is rooted inmacroeconomictheories of trade including theMundell–Fleming model.[5]One opinion stated that
"The volatility and interest rates found its way into commodity inputs and all sectors of the world economy."[6]
Hence, in the case of an economic crisis commodities prices follow the trends in exchange rate (coupled) and its prices decrease in case there are downward trends of diminishing money supply.[5]
Foreign exchange impacts commodities prices and so does money supply: the advent of a crisis will pull commodities prices down.[5]
A commodity price bubble, known as the 2000s commodities boom, was created following the collapse of themid-2000s housing bubble. Commodities were seen as a safe bet after thebubble economysurroundinghousingprices had gone from boom to bust in several western nations, including the USA, UK, Ireland,Greeceand Spain.[citation needed]Advisers claimed that commodity prices could be predicted better than stocks, since they are traded for actual usage and the price is based on supply and demand, while stocks are bought for speculation and news immediately influence prices. Still commodity prices have fluctuated outside predictions.
The renewed interest in coal byChina's andTaiwan's energy companies and the rise of alternative power sources likewind farmshelped modify coal prices over the 2000s.[citation needed]
Chlorine price steadily increased throughout 2007 and early 2008 as demand forPVCand some metals like copper, neodymium and tantalum rose due to the increased growth of theBRICcountries' demand for electrical goods.Russiaincreased production, but the US offset this with production cuts in the late 1990s and mid-2000s.[citation needed]
Phosphorus,rhodium,molybdenum,manganese,vanadiumandpalladiumare used in high grade steels, oil based lubricants,automotivecatalytic converters, chemical plants' catalysts, electronics, TV screens and in radio isotopes.[7]Demand for these metals appeared to be increasing as computers and mobile phones became more popular in the mid to late 2000s.Thuliumis used inx-raytubes andneodymiumis used in high strength/high grade magnets.[citation needed]
Molybdenum,rhodium,neodymiumandpalladiumare relatively scarce metals, whilemanganeseandvanadiumare, likephosphorusandsulfur, fairly abundant for minor minerals. The major metals such as iron, lead and tin are commonplace.[citation needed]
Recycling of the aluminum,ferrousmetals, copper fractions, gold,palladiumandplatinumin mobile phones and computers had got under way by the mid-2000s.[8][9][10][11][12]Battery recyclinghas helped bring down both the nickel andcadmiumprices.
Sulfuric acid(an important chemical commodity used in processes such assteel processing,copper productionandbioethanol production) increased in price 3.5-fold in less than 1 year while producers ofsodium hydroxidehave declaredforce majeuredue to flooding, precipitating similarly steep price increases.[13][14]
Both a rising global population and a sharp decline infood cropproduction in favour of a sharp rise inbiofuelcrops helped cause a sharp rise in basic food stock prices.[15]Ethiopiaalso saw a drought threaten its already frail farm lands in 2007.[16]Cocoa was also affected by a bad crop in 2008, due to disease and unusually heavy rain in parts of West Africa.[citation needed]
Rising demand in bothIndiaandEgypthelped to ramp up demand for American wheat during the bull market during August 2007.[17]Discounted wheat sold at about £11–£15/t. August 2007, with non-discounted wheat at slightly higher price. The November 2007 wheat futures market was trading at nearly £165/t, with November 2008 contracts at £128.50.[17]The market became rather bearish as non-futures prices froze and stagnated in December 2007.[18]The price of wheat reached record highs afterKazakhstanbegan to limit supplies being sold overseas in early 2008, but had slowed down by late 2008.Food riotshit Egypt on 12 April 2008, as national bread prices rose rapidly in March and April 2008.[19]
In late April 2008 rice prices hit 24cents(U.S.) per U.S. pound, more than doubling the price in just seven months. The price of wheat had risen from an already high £88 per tonne to £91 from January to March 2010, due to the bullish market and currency concerns.[20]This led to food riots in places such asHaiti, Indonesia,Côte d'Ivoire, Uzbekistan, Egypt[21][22]andEthiopia.[16]
On 31 July, leading economists predicted that food prices, especially wheat would rise inChadasRussiaended exports due to a domestic drought destroying their wheat and barley harvests.[23]By 3 August, wheat prices stood at $7.11 per bushel[24]due to the Russian export ban.
There was in increase in the demand forfertilizerfromChinaandIndia. Also an increase in demand for fertilizer to create biofuels likeEthanol as a Fuelfrom corn in the United States, Brazil, and Europe. Increasedlivestockgrew demand for moregrainand fertilizer causing grain reserves to plunge to a historic low. China put export controls on their fertilizer. Natural gas prices increased a lot during this period and that is used in the process of making some fertilizers (Haber process). Phosphate prices went up because of an increase in price ofsulfurwhich is and input to phosphate fertilizer.[25][26]
Prices rose modestly and briefly because ofHurricane Katrinain 2005 and 2006 but a bigger price climb came later from supply disruptions inIndia,Brazil, and other places around the world.[27]
The price ofrecycled paperhas varied greatly over the last 30 or so years.[28][29][30][31][32][33]The German price of €100/£49 per tonne was typical for the year 2003[30]and it steadily rose over the years. By September 2008 saw American price of $235 per ton had fallen to just $120 per ton,[31]The slump was probably due to the economic down turn in East Asia causing the market for waste paper drying up in China.[31]2010 prices averaged $120.32 at the start of the year, but saw a rapid rise in global prices in May 2010,[29]reaching $217.11 per ton in the US in June 2010 as China's paper market began to reopen.[29]
Coal prices rose to A$73 per tonne in September[34]and then up to A$84 per tonne in the October 2009[34]due to renewed interest by China's andTaiwan's energy companies.
During 2003, the price rose above $30, reached $60 by 11 August 2005, and peaked at $147.30 in July 2008.[35]Commentators attributed the heavy price increases to many factors, including reports from theUnited States Department of Energyand others showing a decline inpetroleum reserves,[36]worries overpeak oil,[37]Middle East tension, and oil price speculation.[38]
For a time, geo-political events and natural disasters indirectly related to the global oil market had strong short-term effects on oil prices, such asNorth Korean missile tests,[39]the2006 conflict between Israel and Lebanon,[40]worries overIranian nuclear plans in 2006,[41]Hurricane Katrina,[42][43]and various other factors.[44]By 2008, such pressures appeared to have an insignificant impact on oil prices given the onset of theglobal recession.[45]The recessioncaused demand for energy to shrink in late 2008, with oil prices falling from the July 2008 high of $147 to a December 2008 low of $32.[46]Oil prices stabilized by October 2009 and established a trading range between $60 and $80.[46]
The price of oil nearly tripled from $50 to $147 from early 2007 to 2008, before plunging as the financial crisis began to take hold in late 2008.[47]Experts debate the causes, which include the flow of money from housing and other investments into commodities to speculation and monetary policy[48]or the increasing feeling of raw materials scarcity in a fast-growing world economy and thus positions taken on those markets, such as Chinese increasing presence in Africa. An increase in oil prices tends to divert a larger share ofconsumer spendinginto gasoline, which creates downward pressure on economic growth in oil importing countries, as wealth flows to oil-producing states.[49]
In January 2008, oil prices surpassed $100 a barrel for the first time, the first of many price milestones to be passed in the course of the year.[50]In July 2008, oil peaked at $147.30[51]a barrel and a gallon of gasoline was more than $4 across most of the US. The high of 2008 may have been part of broader pattern of spiking instability in the price of oil over the preceding decade.[52]This pattern of instability in oil price may be a product of peak oil. There is concern that if the economy was to improve, oil prices might return to pre-recession levels.[53]
In testimony before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation on 3 June 2008, former director of the CFTC Division of Trading & Markets (responsible for enforcement)Michael Greenbergerspecifically named the Atlanta-basedIntercontinentalExchange, founded byGoldman Sachs,Morgan StanleyandBPas playing a key role in the speculative run-up ofoil futures pricestraded off the regulated futures exchanges in London and New York.[54]
The price of oil rose to $77 per barrel on 24 June 2010 as acyclonebegins to form in the south westernCaribbean.[55]The price for July 2010 was about $84–$90 per barrel ofcrude oil.
Oil prices ended the year at $101.80, falling to $100.01 per barrel on 30 and 31 January 2011.[citation needed], then theEgyptiancivil war broke out, as it theoretically put the use of Suez Canal at risk.[56]Making matters worse, a gaspipelinetoJordanwas blown up by saboteurs in theSinaiPeninsula. Prices remained steady until a dramatic drop began the2010s oil glut.
Hurricane KatrinacausedJet fuelprices to rise in 2005 because of slowed down refining in theGulf Coastarea, those prices dipped and the price of jet fuel went up with the price of oil through 2008.[57]
Uraniumtraded at about $15–$20/kg since the late 1980s due to a 10-yearsecular bear market, with a 2001 low of just over $10/kg. TheUranium bubble of 2007started in 2005[58]and began to accelerate badly with the 2006 flooding of theCigar Lake Minein Saskatchewan.[59][60][61]Uraniumprices peaked at roughly $300/kg in mid-2007,[62]began to fall in mid-2008 and are now (end 2010) hovering about $100/kg.[63]The stock prices of many uranium mining and exploration companies rose sharply, only to fall later in this boom.[59]
There was also a resurgence of interest innuclear powerby the UK government between 2006 and 2008 due to the apparently insecure nature of Middle Eastern and Russian oil and after the closure of several old and economically/environmentally unviable coal firedpower stationsat the time. This helped the uranium price to rally at this date.
There was a sharp shift in the prices of gold and, to a lesser extent, both silver andplatinum. Prices were at or near an all-time high in late 2010 due to people using the precious metals as asafe havenfor their money as both the de facto value of cash and thestock marketprices became more erratic in the late 2000s.
The period from 1999 to 2001 marked the "Brown Bottom" after a 20-yearsecular bear marketat $252.90 per troy ounce.[64]Prices increased rapidly from 2001, but the 1980 high was not exceeded until 3 January 2008 when a new maximum of $865.35 pertroy ouncewas set (a.m. London Gold Fixing).[65]Another record price was set on 17 March 2008 at $1,023.50/oz ($32,900/kg) (am. London Gold Fixing).[65]In the fall of 2009, gold markets experience renewed momentum upwards due to increased demand and a weakening US dollar. On 2 December 2009, gold passed the important barrier of US$1,200 per ounce to close at $1,215.[66]Gold further rallied hitting new highs in May 2010 after the European Union debt crisis prompted further purchase of gold as a safe asset.[67][68][69]
Since April 2001, the price of gold has more than tripled in value against the US dollar,[70]prompting speculation that the long secular bear market had ended and abull markethas returned.[71]Gold's price finally stood at $1,350 per troy oz on 1 July 2010.[72]
On 7 October 2010, it cost $1,364.60 per troy ounce,[73]by 7 December reached the all time nominal historic high of $1,429.05 per troy ounce.
Silver cost $4 per troy ounce in 1992,[67]started to rise rapidly in early 2004,[67]reached $18 per troy oz by late 2007, slipped badly to $10 per troy oz during theCredit Crunchof 2008,[67]but was selling in late 2009 and again in early 2010 at just under $18 per troy oz of metal.[67]A year later, the Feb 2011 average was over $30 per oz of silver.[74]On 29 April 2011, silver price reached $47.94 but fell by 12% on 2 May 2011.[67]Prices range around $20–$25 in 2013-2014.
Platinumfirst sold at about $350 pertroy ozin 1992[67]and stayed rather flat save for a small dip to about $325 per troy oz in the mid-1990s[67]and an equally small rise to about $375 per troy ounce in the Millennium period. It started to gain value in mid-2002[67]and grew on anexperiential curvemodel as the prices then began to move sharply upwards.[67]The high point was when it was trading for $2,200 per troy oz in early 2007.[67]Prices declined to $800 per troy oz in January 2008,[67]but the price had increased $1,600 per troy oz by early 2010.[67]
Titanium prices rose to over $16,000 per metric ton in 2006.[75]
Rhodiumprices rose briefly during themillenniumperiod[67]due to increased demand, then collapsed to nearly their original 1995-7starting priceof $500/oz between 2002 and 2004.[67]
Later on, the mysterious and unexpected Rhodium price bubble of 2008 suddenly increased prices from just over $500/oz in late 2006 to $9,000/oz-$9,500/oz in July 2008,[67]only for the price then to tumble down only $1,000/oz in January 2009.[67][76]Both an increase in demand in theAmerican automotive industry, aherd instinctamong investors, a then bullish market in rare metals and arogue speculatoror roguespeculatorsonWall Streetwere all at least partly to blame for the sudden rise and fall in therare metal's price.[77]
Rhodium is mainly mined as a by-product of other metals such as platinum, so the production is based on production of other metals and therefore on demand of them, and less on the demand of rhodium.
Rhodium rose in price extremely sharply in January 2021 and by mid February 2021 it had reached an all time high of $21,400 per Troy ounce making it the most valuable metal ever sold.
Most palladium is used forcatalytic convertersin the automobile industry.[78]It is also used for some medical, high grade steel, industrial, dental and electronic purposes.
Palladiumprices rose sharply during themillenniumperiod[67]due to increased demand, then collapsed to nearly their original starting price by the end 2002,[67]only to start to rise less dramatically in the year 2006.[67]Palladiumprices in 1992 and 2002–04 was about $200/oz. It rapidly shot up to approximately $1,000/oz between 1999 and 2001 and collapsed to only $200/oz by late 2002, but is now just under $500/oz per of Palladium in 2010.[67]
In the run up to 2000, Russian supply of palladium to the global market was repeatedly delayed and disrupted[79]because the export quota was not granted on time, for political reasons. The ensuing market panic drove the palladium price to an all-time high of $1,100 pertroy ouncein January 2001.[80]Around this time, theFord Motor Company, fearing auto vehicle production disruption due to a possible palladium shortage, stockpiled large amounts of the metal purchased near the price high. When prices fell in early 2001, Ford lost nearly US$1 billion.[81]World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to nearly 300 tons in 2000. The global production of palladium from mines was 222 tonnes in 2006 according to theUSGS.
Because of the low availability relative to demand,rheniumis among the most expensive industrial metals, with an average price exceeding US$6,000 per kilogram, as of mid-2009. It first traded in 1928 at US$10,000 per kilogram of metal, but traded at US$250 per Troy ounce in mid-2010.[82]It traded in July 2010, at about US$4,000–4,500/kg.[83]
Aluminiumis a widely used, mined, refined and trusted metal.[84][85]The fortunes of this metal are linked to the rise and fall of the aircraft, electrical andautomotiveindustries.[86][87]
The price of aluminium was 80US centsper lb in 1995 and 45 cents per lb in 1998 and hovered around this until the January 2003, when it started to rise to $1.50 per pound and in 2006 and $1.40 per lb in the December 2007.[88][89]It collapsed down to a mere 60 cents per lb in the November 2008, but is now hovering at about $1.00 per lb, with a new April peak of $1.10 per pound of aluminium.[88][89]
The price ofnickelboomed in the late 1990s, then imploded from around $51,000 /£36,700 pertonnein May 2007 to about $11,550/£8,300 per tonne in January 2009. Prices were only just starting to recover as of January 2010, but most of Australia's nickel mines had gone bankrupt by then.[90]As the price for high gradenickel sulphateorerecovered in 2010, so did the Australian mining industry.[91]Battery recyclinghas helped bring down both the nickel and cadmium prices.
In the years prior to the rise ofcopper pricesin late 2003 as part of the boom various copper mining companies exibited cartel-like behaviour. This consisted of announcements made in late 2001 for production cuts for 2002 which were carried out, and a repetition of similar announcements for 2003 in late 2002.[92]
It was also noticed that acopperprice bubble was occurring at the same time as the oil bubble. Copper traded at about $2,500 pertonnefrom 1990 until 1999, when it fell to about $1,600.[93]The price slump lasted until 2004 which saw a price surge that had copper reaching $9,000 per tonne in the May 2006, but it eventually fell down to $7,040 per tonne in early 2008.[94]When the slump came, it hit some copper mining countries like theDemocratic Republic of the Congo(D.R.C.) very hard. Mining authorities announced on 10 December 2009, that theDikulushi mine, which is situated in the D.R.C.'sKatanga Province, would close due to poor copper prices.[95]It reopened in July 2010. The price rose again to over $10,000 in early 2011 but soon fell to below $8,000, around where it was fairly stable during 2012.[96]The high prices have caused a heavy increase in theft of copper cables, causing interruptions in electrical supply.[97][98]During 2013-2014 there has been a slow decline to below $7,000.
Chilean state-owned copper giantCodelcomade large gains during the boom.[99]Artisan miners known aspirquinerosalso made considerable profits albeit some found it difficult toreskilltogold miningafter copper prices fell in 2008.[100][101]
The prices ofiron orerose sharply from around $10 per tonne in 2003 to around $170 in April 2009 (transported to China). After that (written September 2013) the price was between $100 and $150;[104]in September 2014 it started dropping precipitously, and was below $70 per ton in December 2014. The price ofsteel(at steel plants in Japan) has risen from around $300 per tonne in 2003 to $1,000 in late 2008, stabilizing at $800 in 2012.[105]
The rise in prices made abandoned mines to reopen and new ones to open. It took some years to open mines, so some got a scaled up production around the time the prices dropped (drop partly caused by such production). Furthermore, started construction projects had to be finished so demand only reacted slowly to the rising prices.
The price ofleadrose sharply in early 2007, then collapsed to nearly their original starting price by the end of the next year.[106]Lead prices began to rise in early 2007 due to increased worldwide demand. Prices were about $1,200 per tonne of lead in the July, then rose to $2,220 pertonneby September and collapsed back down to $1,200 per tonne in the October of that year. Despite the bullish market condition, the price had collapsed by the July 2009 and was only worth about $1,400 per tonne of lead.[107]The lead and zinc markets became ratherbearishfor several months afterwards. Prices were hovering at between $1,770 and $2,175 per tonne[108]as the markets became more bullish and increased prices after China's car scrapping scheme had caused a general upturn in lead, zinc, cadmium and aluminium production.[108][109]By the June 2010, prices stood at only $870 per tonne, and were back to about $2,200 in the July 2010.[109][110][111][112]
The price ofzincrose sharply in early 2007 after a five-year secular bear market, then collapsed to nearly their original starting price by the end of the next year.[106]Zinc also exhibited similar bullish trading patterns as most metals did since 2004, but with a different overall price.[109]
Zinc sale prices were 80 cents per pound in July 2008,[113]which was typical of its 2004–2008 pricing levels.[113]By January 2009 it had bottomed out and was worth 45 cents per lb.[113]A spectacular bull market and increased Chinese interest ingalvanised construction steelcaused prices to top off at $1.20 per pound of metal by January 2010.[113]It then quickly fell back to a routine 80 cents by July 2010.[113]
Zinc is popular in manufacturing and building; its ability to createcorrosion-resistantzinc platingof steel (hot-dip galvanizing) is the major application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries and alloys, such as brass. A variety of zinc compounds are commonly used, such aszinc carbonateandzinc gluconate(as dietary supplements),zinc chloride(in deodorants),zinc pyrithione(anti-dandruffshampoos), zinc sulfide (in luminescent paints), and zinc methyl orzinc diethylin the organic laboratory.
Neodymium, a fairly rare metal which is used in high grademagnets,[114][115][116]saw its prices rise due to increased demand, as were typical of this general market trend. The average price was $16.10 per kg in November and December 2009,[117]but it began trading in June 2010 at $20–$45 per kg.[118]
Neodymium serves as a constituent of high strengthneodymium magnets, which are widely used inloudspeakers, computerhard drives, high power-per-weightelectric motors(e.g. for those inhybrid cars) and in high efficiency generators (such as aircraft andwind turbinegenerators).[119]
There was also a strong resurgence of interest inwind farmsby the UK government between 2008 and 2010 due to the continuing fears of insecurity in Middle Eastern oil supplies to the industrialised nations and after the closure of several old and economically/environmentally unviable coal-fuelledpower stationsearlier that decade. This helped the price to rally in 2010.[citation needed]
Thecadmium,tantalum,manganese,thulium,tin, chromium,indium,columbium/niobium,cobalt,molybdenumandvanadiumprices rose sharply in early 2007,[67][106]then collapsed to nearly their original starting price by the end of the next year[67][106][120]due to uncertainty about supplies matching the demand, especially those of theBRICcountries'electronicsindustries in iPods, computers, mobile phones, et al.
Niobium is used in the steel of gaspipe linesdue to thealloy's high strength and lowcorrosionrate.[121]
Battery recycling has helped bring down both the nickel andcadmiumprices. About 86% of all cadmium production was used in batteries during 2009. The rapid growth ofwind farmsand heavy dutymagnetshas made neodymium prices rally again and bothBraziland China's renewed interest in high grade steel has improved the Vanadium price recently. The way these metal's prices rose and fell due to increased demand, were typical of this general market trend.
TheBaltic Dry Indexis a measure of the cost of shippingdry bulkgoods around the world. It increased during the mid 2000s because of global demand for manufactured goods initially and in 2008 the price of oil drove the index higher to an all time high of 11,440 points in May 2008. Because of the2008 recessionthe index dropped to 715 points in late 2008.[122]
In 2002, 95% puresulphuric acidcost £55 and 90% acid cost £40 per tonne.[123]Due to floods inPolandand increased demand in China, the acid's price soared to $329/tonne in May 2008, from just $90/tonne in October 2007. It has become steadily cheaper since the start of 2010.
Mostindustrial chemicalsexhibited similarprice trendsdue to bad weather in the EU and USA along with increased demand by theBRICnations.
Chlorine products such asP.V.C.plastics,caustic soda, industrial paper bleach and ordinary household and industrialbleachssaw their prices rise sharply in 2008 as a result of volatility on the world'schlorinemarket.
As a result of fight of supply and high operating rates in May 1997, two chlorine producers took the bold initiative of calling for an average price rise of $25 per short ton. Other producers were considering bringing the total price increase for the 1997 product year to date of up to $80 per short and fob ton, from $45–$50 per short and fob ton in May 1996. This occurred as both rapidly ascending demand from thevinyl polymerchain market and the unusually strong seasonal demand and no new production capacity on the immediate horizon coincided. The price increase had its firm foundations in the incumbent bullish market dynamics of the mid-2000s.Occidental Chemical Corporationsuggested a minor rise as other firms took a "wait-and-see approach" andRussiaraised production slightly to ease the cost of domestic bleach and swimming pool chloro-tablet costs.[citation needed]
Chlorine prices rose in May 2005 as both growing energy costs, shrinking supply and highmarket tariffsin the EU,NAFTAand Latin America,[124]the increased use of chlorine-based chemicals for the aquatics industry.[124]The price of chlorine caustic was $350 perdry short ton, up from $100 last March.[124]Chlorine was priced at $330 per dry short ton, up $130 on 2008's price of $200.[124]
The gas's price steadily increased throughout 2007 and early 2008 as demand forP.V.C.and some metals like copper, Neodymium and Tantalum rose due to the increased growth of theBRICcountries demand for electrical goods.
America's chlorine prices rose suddenly from about $125–$150 per ton fob between June and August 2009 months on a sharp rise in chlor-alkali production and capacity cuts after a year in which production quotes largely stay flat.[125]The spot price surged more than 300% to about $475–$525 ton fob in August 2009.[125]BothRussiaand the European Union were also increasing chlorine production to stabilise world prices.[125]
Non discounted Americanchlorinewas priced at $390–410 short ton and discounted prices stood at $300 pershort tonbetween November 2009 and February 2010.[126]As the European chlorine production spiked in November to a daily output of 26,971 tonnes, before falling to 23,667 short ton in December due to the Christmas and New Year holidays.[126]Production was about European production was 25.8% higher than December 2008 levels.[126]
The price ofcottonwas rising in 2010 and peaked in early 2011. India the worlds second largest exporter restricted shipments to help its domestictextilesindustry[127]
Many firms, individuals, andhedge fundswent bankrupt or suffered heavy losses due to purchasing commodities at high prices only to see their values decline sharply in mid to late 2008. Many manufacturing companies were also crippled by the rising cost of oil and other commodities such astransition metals.
The food and fuel crises were both discussed at the34th G8 summitin July 2008.[128]
In the second half of 2008, the prices of most commodities fell dramatically on expectations of diminished demand in the world recession and credit crunch.[129]Prices began to rise again in late 2009 to mid-2010 (as supply could not meet demand), triggering another round of boom that lasted until 2014, when fossil fuels and metals prices collapsed in a far more prolonged fashion that looks to far eclipse that of 2008.[citation needed]
The heavy price volatility caused a sudden boom then bust in the mining industry across the world, e.g. inDemocratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia,Zimbabwe, Canada, China, Sweden and Australia. The $900,000,000Tenke Fungurume copper-cobalt mining projectin theDemocratic Republic of Congowas cleared in February 2008 for building to start in a years time and thenLuanshya Copper Minein Zambia closed on 6 March 2009.Zimbabweand Australia also saw nickel and copper mines open close during this time. China opened several new coal mines inQinghaiprovince during the years 2007 and 2008.[130][131][132][133][134][135][136]
Coincidentally, long-onlycommodity index fundsstarted just before the bubbles, became popular at the same time – by one estimate investment increased from $90 billion in 2006 to $200 billion at the end of 2007, while commodity prices increased 71% – which raised concern as to whether these index funds caused the commodity bubble.[137]The empirical research has been mixed.[137]
In February 2008, analyst Gary Dorsch wrote:
Commodities have historically been regarded as wildly volatile and risky, but since 2006, crude oil, gold, copper, silver, platinum, cocoa, and grains have soared, hitting record highs, and have trounced returns in the mismanagedG-7stock markets ... A remarkable run-up in prices of wheat, corn, oilseeds, rice, and dairy products, along with sharply higher energy prices, have been blamed on supply shortfalls, strong demand for bio-fuels, and an inflow of $150 billion from investment funds. From a year ago, Chicago wheat futures have soared +120%, corn +20%, and soybeans are +80% higher. Rough rice is up 55%, and platinum touched $2,000 /oz, up 80% from a year ago, while US cocoa futures hit a 24-year high ... Fund managers are pouring money into commodities across the board as a hedge against the explosive growth of the world's money supply, and competitive currency devaluations engineered by central banks.[138]
EconomistJames D. Hamiltonhas argued that the increase in oil prices in the period of 2007 to 2008 was a significant cause of the recession. He evaluated several different approaches to estimating the impact of oil price shocks on the economy, including some methods that had previously shown a decline in the relationship between oil price shocks and the overall economy. All of these methods "support a common conclusion; had there been no increase in oil prices between 2007:Q3 and 2008:Q2, the US economy would not have been in a recession over the period 2007:Q4 through 2008:Q3".[139]Hamilton's own model, a time-series econometric forecast based on data up to 2003, showed that the decline in GDP could have been successfully predicted to almost its full extent given knowledge of the price of oil. The results imply that oil prices were entirely responsible for the recession; however, Hamilton himself acknowledged that this was probably not the case but maintained that it showed that oil price increases made a significant contribution to the downturn in economic growth.[140]
In the mid-2010s,China experienced a stock market crashand economic slowdown as it moved from manufacturing to a services industry.[141]Leftistpink tidegovernments in Latin America who created unsustainable policies based on China's commodity trade in the 2000s began to experience economic difficulties and began to experience a political decline as income diminished due to the end of the commodities boom.[142][143][144]This downturn in commodities prices also had an important effect on non-left aligned countries in Latin America such as Mexico, Colombia, Peru or Chile, whose economies are largely dependent on mineral resource extraction by foreign companies, plummeting the economic growth in those years. However, these countries recovered economically when oil prices stabilized, unlike the Venezuelan economy. As oil prices declined,Russiaalso had its economy falter as a result of mismanagement.[145]
All prices are in either £, €, $/US$ or A$, depending on the nationality of sources available.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_commodities_boom
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The2020s commodities boomrefers to the rise of manycommodityprices in the early2020sfollowing theCOVID-19 pandemic. TheCOVID-19 recessioninitially made commodity prices drop, butlockdowns,supply chainbottlenecks, anddovishmonetary policylimitedsupplyand created excessdemandcausing a commodity super cycle rise.[1][better source needed]
TheRussian invasion of Ukrainebeginning in February 2022 worsened the bottlenecks, creating the2022–2023 Russia–European Union gas disputeand the2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis, contributing to theGlobal energy crisis (2021–2023). As Russia and Belarus are major fertilizer exporters and natural gas is a primary component in manyfertilizers, fertilizer prices rose accordingly, exacerbating the2022–2023 global food crises.[2]
The previous commodity super cycle was the2000s commodities boom, which was attributed toemerging markets, especially that ofChina, providing a high demand forraw materials.
Global food shortages alreadyexisted due to the COVID-19 pandemicwhen, during the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, RussiablockadedthePort of Odesa, preventing grain exports.[3]Ukraine is known as thebreadbasketof Eastern Europe because of its fertile soil and exports ofwheat,corn, andsunflower oil.[4]
Turkeyand theUnited Nationsbrokered theBlack Sea Grain Initiativebetween Russia and Ukraine, allowing the controlled export of grain through the Port to theBlack Sea, though shipments have yet to reach prewar levels.[5]
Natural gas is in most fertilizers, and fertilizer prices rose due to the Russia–European Union gas dispute, contributing to the food crises.[6]
Hectaresof oats are down inNorth America[clarification needed]along withdroughts in the United Statesis limiting supply. Demand is up around the world for oats and 38.5% in one year forEast Asia.[7][8]
Orange juiceprices have been close to an all-time high in 2022 because of HurricanesIanandNicole.Citrus greening diseasehas been causing damage tocitrus treesin the United States since 1998 when it was discovered, dropping theorangeproduction by half.[9][10][11]
Bird fluoutbreaks2020–2023 H5N8 outbreakand the2020–2023 H5N1 outbreakhas affected the number of egg layinghensand output.[12]
Indiaput an export ban onwhite ricein July 2023, and placed an export tax onparboiled riceexports in August 2023. India is the largest exporter of rice and other counties that export a lot of rice their export prices climbed along with India.Sub-Saharan Africais expected to feel the biggest impact from the export control measures.[13]
West Africa, a top producing region ofcocoawas hit by strongHarmattanwinds that lead to drier climates.[14]The region produces 3/4 of allcocoa beans.[15]
Lumber prices increased with the hot housing market. Potential new Americantariffsof 17.99% on Canadian lumber also sent the price higher. Those tariffs were finalized lower to 11.64% by theBiden administration.[16]New contracts that allowsemi trucksto haul contracts instead of just rail cars starting August 8, 2022, potentially contributing to normalization of prices in the second half of 2022.[17]Mortgage interest rates rising with inflation is another reason for cooling housing demand and consequently lumber as well.[18]
Natural gas prices have increased around the world. In Europe,Russia invaded Ukraine, impacting the continent's dependence on Russia fornatural gasviapipelines. Russia has economically weaponized natural gas and reduced flows on pipelines like theNord Stream 1. Natural gas prices had been increasing worldwide before the invasion of Ukraine and increased substantially thereafter; in some areas, the price of gas has increased more than tenfold.[19][20]
Natural gas recently became more of a global market withliquefied natural gasandLNG shipsmaturing in size withQatarbeing a world leader in exportingLNG.[21]Thisglobalizationof thisfungible commodityhas caused the prices to shadow each other more in different markets. Previously, natural gas was more difficult to ship, and required pipeline infrastructure, which generally can only be emplaced on land, or for relatively short distances undersea. With the increased use of LNG, gas can be shipped by sea, albeit with the requirement of specialized port facilities.
Piped natural gasprices have been rising steadily throughout the U.S. since 2020 but California has experienced exceptionally higher prices because of bad weather, apipe explosionon theEl Paso Natural Gaspipeline, unscheduled maintenance, and theAliso Canyongas leakat the storage facility in the past, so it stores less now.[22]
Crude oil prices dropped dramatically during the first months of the COVID Pandemic (WTIwent negative for a day) and production was cut in anticipation of a prolonged slowdown. Demand soon exceeded supply because of loose monetary policy causing aglobal energy crisisand prices to rise.[23]Russia'sinvasion of Ukrainealso resulted in price increases due to sanctions and trade restrictions.
Kerosene jet fuelrefininghas to compete withDiesel fuelandgasolineat the refineries when refiningpetroleum products.[24]Jet fuel topped $5 a gallon in 2022.
Keroseneheating oilwas approaching $4 per gallon in March 2022. TheEIAstopped reporting the data in March 2022.[25][26][27]
Dieselheating oilwent from around $2 before thepandemicto almost $5 a gallon in 2022. The prices have peaked and are falling in 2022.[citation needed]
RBOBstands forReformulatedBlendstock forOxygenateBlending and is refined fromcrude oiland blended with 10%ethanol fuel. The price of RBOB closely follows the price of crude oil. RBOB plus theexcise taxes on fuelreflect the price paid at the pump for gasoline.[28][29][30]
Electricity prices rose in the United States through 2021 and 2022 mostly from the increase in natural gas prices which makes up the 35% of electricity generated in the United States.[31][verification needed][additional citation(s) needed]
The price oflithium carbonatestarted to rise in 2021 after slumping in 2020 and peaked in early 2022 close to $80,000 perton. Demand for electric vehicles around the world is the primary cause for the price rise. In 2021, electric vehicle sales doubled to 6.6 million from 2020.[32]
The price of copper rose through 2021 and peaked close to $5 per pound in Q2 2022 before retreating. Copper demand is expected to double from 25 million metrictonnesin 2022 to over 50 MMT by the year 2035.[33]The pandemic significantly increased the long-term equilibrium volatility of returns in the copper futures market, nearly doubling it.[34]
In March 2022nickelprices spiked higher over fear of theRussian invasion of Ukraineas Russia produced 15.2% of world nickel in 2021.[35]
Prices oftinwere up 79% in 2021 because of high demand forcircuit boards.[36]
Demand fortitaniumis high because defense spending increases on and resulting from theRusso-Ukrainian War, parts for aircraft makers anddefense contractors; additionally, automotive industry demand fortitanium dioxidepigments remains high.[citation needed]
Hot-rolledsteel prices hit close to $2,000 pertonin 2021.[37]
Palladiumis used widely incatalytic convertersto curb harmful emissions from carexhaust. Russia produces 40% of all palladium in the world, and theRussian invasion of Ukrainehas rattled the palladium market.[38]
Rhodiumis used widely in automotivecatalytic converters. Many countries have agreed to theParis climate agreementto cut car emissions and have higher standards for exhaust.
South Africaproduces 80–90% of Rhodium each year. Russia is the second largest producer of rhodium but it is around 1%. TheCOVID-19 pandemic in South Africacaused the country to enactlockdownrestrictions in March 2020 and again in December 2020 – March 2021. This affected the supply of Rhodium causing the price to increase.[39][40]
Gold started to increase in price at the start of theCOVID-19 pandemicas stocks sunk initially; gold is commonly seen as a safe haven from inflation and stock volatility. Gold crossed the $2,000 mark for the first time in August 2020 and again in March 2022.[41][42]
Chinais the number one consumer ofiron ore, importing 80% of all internationally traded iron ore. The price has been veryvolatilebecause of curbs theCCPhas placed on thesteel industryto meet emission standards.Australia,Brazil, and China are the top three producers of iron ore.[43]
In the Western United States there have been persistent droughts in the 2020s hurting cotton yields among other agricultural products.[44]
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The1970s commodities boomrefers to the rise of manycommodityprices in the1970s. Excess demand was created with money supply increasing too much and supply shocks that came fromArab–Israeli conflict, initially betweenIsraelandEgypt. TheSix-Day Warwhere Israel captured andoccupied the Sinai Peninsulafor 15 years, theClosure of the Suez Canal (1967–1975)for 8 years of that, led to supply shocks. 66% of oil consumed byEuropeat that time came through theSuez Canaland had to be redirected around the continent ofAfrica.[1][verification needed]15% of allmaritime tradepassed through the Suez Canal in 1966, the year before it closed.[2][verification needed]
TheYom Kippur Warin late 1973 was Egypts attempt at crossing the Suez Canal and taking theSinai Peninsulaback from Israeli occupation. On October 19, 1973Richard Nixonrequested $2.2 billion to support Israel in the Yom Kippur War. That resulted inOAPECcountries cutting production of oil and placing anembargoon oil exports to the United States and other countries backing Israel. That was the start of the1973 oil crisis.[4][verification needed]
In the early 1970s, theSoviet Unionand many otherplanned economiesstarted importing large amounts ofgrainsin the global markets, driving up demand for grains andoilseeds.[5][verification needed]
Sugar prices spiked in the 1970s because of Soviet Union demand/hoarding and possible futures contracts market manipulation. The Soviet Union was the largest producer of sugar at the time. In 1974,Coca-Colaswitched over tohigh-fructose corn syrupbecause of the elevated prices.[6][7][verification needed]
The price ofcoffeewent up in the mid 1970s because of ablack frost of 1975that killed 66% ofBrazil's coffee trees, which was the number one producer of coffee at the time. There was a bigearthquake in 1976 in Guatemalathat disrupted supply chains, the world's fifth biggest coffee exporter at the time. TheAngolan Civil Warstarted in 1975 disrupting their coffee production and shipping.[8][verification needed]
The United States weaned itself off thegold standardin the 1970s, allowing the price of gold to float. The price of gold went from a set exchange rate of $42.22 pertroy ouncein 1973 to almost $200 per ounce in 1976.[9][verification needed]
Price controls were implemented in the early 1970s to combat inflation but when those price controls were lifted on commodities like copper the prices appreciated. These quick price rises were known as theNixon shock.[10][11][verification needed]
Coalprice increases in the 1970s were primarily demand driven. There was astrikeby theUnited Mine Workers of AmericacalledThe Brookside Strikein late 1974 that lasted for 3 weeks but was said to have little impact on prices.[12][verification needed]
AfterWorld War IItheBretton Woods systemhadfixed exchange ratesbetween countries andpegged to gold. This kept some commodities like gold very stable. When the Bretton Woods system failed in the early 1970s andfloating exchange ratesstarted to float, commodities also became veryvolatile.[13][10][verification needed]
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A global energy crisis began in the aftermath of theCOVID-19 pandemicin 2021, with much of the globe facing shortages and increased prices in oil, gas andelectricitymarkets. The crisis was caused by a variety of economic factors, including the rapid post-pandemic economic rebound that outpaced energy supply, and escalated into a widespread global energy crisis following theRussian invasion of Ukraine. The price of natural gas reached record highs, and as a result, so did electricity in some markets.Oil priceshit their highest level since2008.[1]
Higher energy prices pushed families into poverty, forced some factories to curtail output or even shut down, and slowed economic growth. It was estimated in 2022 that an additional 11 million Europeans could be driven to poverty due to energy inflation.[2][3]Europe's gas supply is uniquely vulnerable because of its historic reliance on Russia, while many emerging economies have seen higher energy import bills and fuel shortages.[1]
In 2020 theCOVID-19 pandemiccaused a rapid drop in energy demand and a corresponding cut in oil production, and despite the2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war,OPECresponded slowly to the demand recovery undernew normal, causing a supply-demand imbalance. The2021–2023 global supply chain crisisfurther stressed the delivery of extracted petroleum.
Additionally, as Europe sought to replace Russian gas, it bid up prices of U.S., Australian, and Qatari ship-borneliquefied natural gas (LNG), diverting supply away from traditional LNG customers in Asia. Because gas frequently sets the price at which electricity is sold, power prices soared as well. Both LNG producers and importers rushed to build new infrastructure to increase LNG export/import capacity, but these costly projects take years to come online.[1]
In December 2020, after months of restrictions,Chinafully blocked coal imports fromAustralia, which was China's largest source of imported coal.[4]
In 2021,Brazil's worstdroughtin almost a century threatened its electricity supply.[6][7]Brazil relies onhydropowerfor two-thirds of its electricity.[8]
Euractivreported that European Commissioner for Climate ActionFrans Timmermanstold the European Parliament in Strasbourg that "about one fifth" of the energy price increase "can be attributed to risingCO2pricingon the EU'scarbon market".[9]
In 2022, Europe'sdriest summer in 500 yearshad serious consequences for hydropower generation and power plant cooling systems.[10][11][12]According to theNew York Times, the drought "reduced hydropower in Norway, threatened nuclear reactors in France and crimped coal transport in Germany."[13]Record droughts in China andCaliforniaalso threatened hydropower generation.[14][15][16]
Russia is a leading producer and exporter of oil and gas. In 2020, it was the third largest oil producer in the world, behind the United States and Saudi Arabia, with 60% of its oil exports going to Europe.[17][18]Russia is traditionally the world's second-largest producer of natural gas, behind the United States, and has the world's largest gas reserves and is the world's largest gas exporter. In 2021, the country produced 762 bcm of natural gas, and exported approximately 210 bcm via pipeline.[19]
TheRussian military buildup outside Ukraineand subsequentinvasionthreatened theenergy supply from Russia to Europe.[20][21]International sanctionswere introduced afterRussia's annexation of Crimeain 2014, and subsequently tightened after Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022; the newNord Stream 2pipeline's certification was later suspended. Russia had already refused to increase exports to Europe before its invasion,[22]and the state reacted to European sanctions by reducing gas deliveries to Germany through theNord Stream 1pipeline,[23][24]which it fully halted in early September, although the pipelines continued to contain natural gas.[25]Gas leaks in late Septemberresulted in the pipes becoming inoperable. The United States, as former President Joe Biden had promised, with the help of Norway, set depth charges and ruptured three of the four Nord Stream pipelines on September 26, 2022, forcing much of Europe to pay three times the amount for American natural gas, but not able that winter to supply enough to heat all homes that needed it. [Source: Who Bombed the Nord Stream Pipeline?, Barry Barnett, Peace Press April-May 2023 @ pjcsoco.org-peacepress /> Other pipelines, such as theDruzhba pipeline, largely continued to operate.[26]
In October 2022, OPEC+ cut oil production by two million barrels per day.OPEC+ claimed it is trying to prevent price volatility, although some analysts believe the goal is to increase oil prices, which had decreased over the previous few months.[27]Saudi Arabia's foreign ministry stated that the OPEC+ decision was "purely economic" and taken unanimously by all members of the conglomerate.[28]
Food prices increased steeply as Covid lockdowns were lifted and rose even higher following Russia's invasion of Ukraine, putting millions of people at risk. According to the World Food Programme, the number of people facing acute food insecurity more than tripled between 2017 and 2021, and could further increase by 17% to 323 million in 2022. The two countries together account for almost 30% of global wheat exports and play a key role in global fertiliser supply. Russia's blockade of Black Sea ports disrupted food and other commodity exports from Ukraine, while the broader military campaign put the 2022 harvest at risk.[29]
Natural gas is a significant key component in producingfertilizers.[30]The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported globalpopulation growth—it has been estimated that almost half of theworld's populationis currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.[31]
Rising energy prices are pushing agricultural costs higher, contributing toincreasing food prices globally.[32]The agriculture and food industries use energy for various purposes. Direct energy use includes electricity for automated water irrigation, fuel consumption for farm machinery and energy required at various stages of food processing, packaging, transportation and distribution. The use ofpesticidesand mineral fertilizers results in large quantities of indirect energy consumption, with these inputs being highly energy intensive to manufacture.[32][33]While the share varies considerably between regions—depending on factors such as weather conditions and crop types—direct and non-direct energy costs can account for 40% to 50% of total variable costs of cropping in advanced economies such as the United States. Higher energy and fertiliser prices therefore inevitably translate into higher production costs, and ultimately into higher food prices.[33]
In May 2022, Máximo Torero, chief economist at the U.N.Food and Agriculture Organization, warned European politicians that if they move away from natural gas production too soon, the price of fertilizers will rise and more people in the world will suffer from hunger.[34]
In 2023, 64% of firms that took part in a survey on investment were concerned about energy prices, while 46% were concerned about regulatory frameworks and pricing instability. Businesses in Central, Southern and Eastern Europe reported a higher rate of energy consumption increases of 25% or more than the EU average (77% vs. 68%).[35]
Energy savings and energy efficiency were most often mentioned as responses to the energy shock by businesses in Europe, but they were less likely to renegotiate their energy contracts. (62% vs. 67%).[35]
Aside frominflationary pressures, this energy crisis has also increased the use of coal in energy production worldwide. Coal use in Europe increased by 14% in 2021, and was expected to rise another 7% in 2022. Soaringnatural gasprices have made coal more competitive in many markets, and some nations have resorted to coal as a substitute for potentialenergy rationingin the 2022–2023 winter. With demand for coal increasing in Asia and elsewhere, global coal consumption rose by 1.2% in 2022 to more than 8 billion tonnes for the first time in history;[36][37][38]coal-fired power plants have been reopened or had their decommissioning postponed, and coal-production caps have been removed.[38]The high prices offossil fuelsdue to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, however, have made renewable-energy sources more attractive, and a February 2023 analysis byThe Economistfound that the invasion had "fast-tracked thegreen transitionby an astonishing five to ten years".[38]In Europe and the US, the green transition is viewed as a danger by 41% of energy-intensive manufacturers, compared to 31% of enterprises in non-energy heavy industries.[39]
In 2023, approximately 32% of EU enterprises have invested in new, climate friendly business sectors and technology, to stay up to date with the green transition.[40]When compared to the United States, more European Union businesses invest in or implement renewable energy and sustainable transportation.[41][42]
In 2023, 70% of EU enterprises expect energy prices to rise by more than a quarter, compared to only 30% of US firms. In the same year, results from a survey showed that 51% of EU enterprises polled invested in energy efficiency.[43]
Energy prices continue to be a key issue for companies in the EU, with many citing it as a factor for potential investment cuts. With the increase in energy prices in the EU (as compared to 30% of US firms experiencing this), it would take over a decade for energy costs to stabilise at low levels. European enterprises will need to find strategies to cope.[44]
Overall, the response to this rising crisis has been to return tocoaland other polluting energy sources,subsidizingprices, easing gas taxes, or even lowering the price of carbon dioxide emissions. These short-term solutions lower electricity bills but go exactly in the opposite direction of what is needed to prevent the1.5 degree increasein temperatures, increasing the likelihood of aclimate apocalypse.[45][46]
Europeans rushed to increase gas imports from producers such as Algeria, Norway and Azerbaijan. EU members also introduced gas storage obligations and agreed on voluntary targets to cut gas and electricity demand by 15% through efficiency measures, greater use of renewables, and support for efficiency improvements.[1]
The UK government has turned toQatarto seek a long-term gas deal to ensure a stable supply ofliquefied natural gas(LNG) to the UK.[47]Former Prime MinisterBoris Johnsonasked SheikhTamim bin Hamad Al Thani, theEmir of Qatar, for help during a meeting at the UN General Assembly in September 2021.[48][49]EU suspended an antitrust investigation intoQatarEnergyin February 2022.[50]
In October 2021, U.S. producerVenture Global LNGsigned three long-term supply deals with China's state-ownedSinopecto supply liquefied natural gas. China's imports ofU.S. natural gaswill more than double.[51]
On 28 October 2021, natural gas prices in Europe dropped by at least 12% afterGazpromannounced it would increase supplies to Europe after Russian domesticstorage siteswere filled on about 8 November. Norway had increased gas production and lower coal prices in China also helped lower natural gas prices.[52][53]
Hungarian Prime MinisterViktor Orbánblamed a record-breaking surge in energy prices on theEuropean Commission'sGreen Dealplans.[54]Politicoreported that "Despite the impact of high energy prices, [EU Commissioner for Energy]Kadri Simsoninsisted that there are no plans to backtrack on the bloc's Green Deal, which aims to make the EUclimate neutralby 2050."[55]Speaking at theCOP26 climate summitin Glasgow, Czech Prime Minister Babiš denounced the European Green Deal,[56]saying that theEuropean Commission"continues to propose dangerous policies such as the ban on combustible engines in 2035, or carbon allowances for transport and individual housing. Due to improper legislature and speculation, the price of emission allowances has gone out of control, resulting in the surging costs of electricity."[57]
U.S. PresidentJoe Biden's national security adviserJake Sullivanreleased a statement calling onOPEC+ to boostoil productionto "offset previous production cuts that OPEC+ imposed during the pandemic until well into 2022."[58]On 28 September 2021, Sullivan met inSaudi Arabiawith Saudi Crown PrinceMohammed bin Salmanto discuss thehigh oil prices.[59]The price of oil was about US$80 by October 2021, the highest since 2014.[60][61]The United States delivered 16 billion cubic meters of LNG to Europe in January 2022, and 6 billion in February.[62]
Iranianoil minister Javad Owji said if U.S.-ledsanctionson Iran's oil and gas industry are lifted, Iran will have every capability to tackle the global energy crisis.[63][64]The Biden administration was pressed on potential oil deals with Saudi Arabia,Venezuela, andIranthat would have them increase theiroil production.[65]
Qatar's energy ministerSaad Sherida al-Kaabistated that there "is a huge demand from all our customers, and unfortunately we cannot cater for everybody. Unfortunately, in my view, this is due to the market not investing enough in the [gas] industry."[66]
European Commission PresidentUrsula von der Leyensaid that "Europe today is too reliant on gas and too dependent on gas imports. The answer has to do with diversifying our suppliers ... and, crucially, with speeding up the transition to clean energy."[67][68]
European Commissioner for Climate ActionFrans Timmermanssuggested: "the best answer to this problem today is to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels."[69]
In late October 2021, Russian ambassadorAndrei Kelindenied that Russia is withholding gas supplies for political reasons. According to the ambassador, delivery of natural gas throughUkrainehas been increased by up to 15% for November 2021, but it was unclear whether this increase would have an immediate effect on the natural gas supply in Europe. Furthermore, such an increase in gas delivery was hindered by a lack of modernization of the Ukrainian gas pipelines, according to the source.[70]
In the first collective action following the invasion, agreed on 1 March 2022, IEA member countries committed to release 62.7 million barrels of emergency oil stocks. On 1 April, they agreed to make a further 120 million barrels available from emergency reserves, the largest stock release in the IEA's history, which coincided with the release of additional barrels from the U.S.Strategic Petroleum Reserve. The two coordinated drawdowns in 2022 are the fourth and fifth in the history of the IEA, which was created in 1974. Previous collective actions were taken in 1991, 2005 and 2011.[19]
The IEA has also published action plans to cut oil use with immediate impact, as well as plans for how Europe can reduce its reliance on Russian gas and how common citizens can reduce their energy consumption.[1]This includes a 10-point action plan to reduce the EU's reliance on Russian Natural Gas.[73]
German chancellorOlaf Scholzannounced plans to build two new LNG terminals.[75]Economy MinisterRobert Habecksaid Germany reached a long-term energy partnership withQatar,[76]one of the world's largest exporters of liquefied natural gas.[77]Habeck said Germany plans to end imports of Russian natural gas by mid-2024.[78]In May 2022, theEuropean Commissionproposed and approved a partial ban onoil imports from Russia,[79][80]part of the economic response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[81]On 18 May 2022, the European Union published plans to end its reliance on Russian oil, natural gas and coal by 2027.[82]
On 13 July 2022, the Kremlin expressed hope that a visit by President Biden to Saudi Arabia to boost OPEC oil production would not foster anti-Russian sentiments there. Russia is the largest oil and gas exporter after Saudi Arabia and enjoys a highly valued cooperation with the Arab country in the framework of the OPEC group. But at current levels, major Gulf producers have little to spare, and Russia blamesinternational sanctionsfor higher energy prices around the world.[83]
Since the June 2022 G7 meeting, plans had been circulating tocap the price of Russian energy commoditiesas initially suggested byU.S. Treasury SecretaryJanet Yellenand E.U. Commission PresidentUrsula von der Leyen, in order to lower price levels for Western nations and deprive Russia of its profits. After G7 finance ministers expressed their intention to implement a price cap, a Kremlin spokesman responded, "companies that impose a price cap will not be among the recipients of Russian oil." Energy analysts have also expressed skepticism that a price cap would be realistic because the coalition is "not broad enough";OPEC+called the plan "absurd". Likely the U.S. and the E.U. will attempt to follow through with the plan by limiting Russia's access to Western insurance services.[84]
In June 2022, the United States government agreed to allow Italian companyEniand Spanish companyRepsolto importoil from Venezuelato Europe to replace oil imports from Russia.[85]French Finance MinisterBruno Le Mairesaid that France negotiated with theUnited Arab Emiratesto replace some Russian oil imports.[85]
Additionally, on 15 June 2022,Israel,Egyptand the European Union signed a trilateral agreement to increase natural-gas sales to European countries seeking alternative sources to lessen their dependence onRussian energy supplies.[86]In July 2022, the European Commission signed an agreement withAzerbaijanto increase natural gas imports.[87]
In August 2022, policy specialists at theInternational Monetary Fundrecommended that governments institutewindfall profits taxestargeted ateconomic rentsin the energy sector, excludingrenewable energyto prevent hindering its further development.[88]
On 29 September 2022, Germany presented a €200 billion plan to support industry and households.[89]German Economy Minister Robert Habeck complained that the United States and other "friendly" gas supplier nations were profiting from the Ukraine war with "astronomical prices". He called for more solidarity by the U.S. to assist energy-pressed allies in Europe.[90]French PresidentEmmanuel Macroncriticized the United States,Norwayand other "friendly" natural gas supplier states for the extremely high prices of their supplies, saying that Europeans are "paying four times more than the price you sell to your industry. That is not exactly the meaning of friendship."[91][92]For most of the time over the past ten years, the German spot price for electricity has been below €40 per MWh. Spot prices have increased to over €200 on average in 2022.[93][94]
Natural gas prices in Europe reached their highest point in September 2022 at a multiple of roughly 25 compared to two years prior. While gas prices are currently falling quickly on the spot market, the cost to distribute gas in the coming year will still be close to €150 per MWh, or a multiple of about seven.[93][95][96]
According to the IEA, approximately 100 million people with access to clean cooking may switch back to unhealthy cooking, and 75 million people who had recently gained access to electricity may no longer be able to afford it.[93][97][98]
In general, many residents can no longer pay their energy expenses. Governments throughout Europe have responded—according to Bruegel, €674 billion have been set aside, with €264 billion going to Germany alone, to protect businesses and consumers from rising energy costs.[93][94][99]
TheWilhelmshaven LNG terminal—the first of several new German LNG terminals being opened with an abbreviated regulatory process following the Russian invasion of Ukraine[100]—received its first load of LNG in mid-December to initiate the commissioning process of the new terminal. The shipment was of US natural gas that had been carried from the recently openedVenture Global LNGterminal in Louisiana.[101]
Since the last months of 2021 and until now, Europe has experienced an unprecedented increase in gas and energy automation, especially after Russia invaded Ukraine, where Russia has reduced its gas production and exports to EU countries.[102]Russia is considered the most important supplier of the European Union in terms of natural gas, oil, and coal. Still, relations between the European Union and Russia have experienced great tension after the position of the European Union and member states on the Russian invasion of Ukraine. According to the Council of the European Union, the EU decided to ban coal imports from Russia in August 2022 and has denied 90% of Russian oil imports since September 2022.[103]The EU has focused 3.5% of its income to oil and gas productions in the beginning of the Ukraine war.[3]
This contention between Russia and the European Union has led to an increase in the price of gas and electricity. European citizens pay this higher price to meet their daily needs, and the industrial and commercial enterprises that use energy to produce their products, which will lead to an increase in the rate of inflation in Europe, higher prices, a decline in the purchasing power of citizens, and hence the contraction of the European economy.[104]High oil prices have driven a depreciation in the euro and imported inflation.[3]
In this regard, the European Union is facing a great challenge and pressure from European consumers and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to find solutions to reduce the effects of this crisis. Therefore, the European Commission proposes measures and urgent actions to reduce the cost of bills and protect consumers and businesses.[105]82% of EU firms are worried about the energy crisis, with 60% of businesses seeing it as a major issue.[39]According to a survey conducted in 2022, significant uncertainty also reduces investment inenergy efficiencyby 4 percentage points. This is magnified when climate investments are included.[39]
An example of the sharp increase in energy and food prices since Russia's invasion of Ukraine is the proportion of energy-poor German households—those that spend more than 10% of their net income on energy bills—which has doubled since 2021 to 41%.[106][107][108][109]
The debate has intensified in Europe on mechanisms to reform the energy and electricity market in the face of this crisis. One proposed solution is separating gas prices from electricity prices. As European Commission President, Ursula von der Leyen stated in her 2022 State of the Union Address: “The current design of the electricity market no longer does justice to consumers. They should reap the benefits of low-cost renewable energy sources. Therefore, we need to separate the dominant influence of gas on the price of electricity. That is why we are undertaking a deep and comprehensive electricity market reform.”[110]
Indeed, in April this year, Spain and Portugal obtained preliminary approval from the European Commission to set a maximum gas price of 50 euros/MWh for an entire year. This decision and violation of European market rules were justified because Spain and Portugal can get gas from North African pipelines and therefore do not depend primarily on Russian gas, which places them in a safe position.[111]Portugal had 1–3% increase in electricity prices, limited partially due to high levels of domestic sources such as hydropower, solar and wind.[112]
However, the European Commission has yet to decide on this issue, despite numerous suggestions from member states such as Greece.[113]
European customers have proved that price signals can be useful by voluntarily reducing their gas consumption by 23% in August and 7% overall so far in 2022 compared to the average over the previous three years.[93][114][115][116]
The European Commission and the EU member states work together and individually on possible ways to keep gas and energy available in the EU for the winter of 2022 and the future.
According to Marc-Antoine Eyl-Mazzega, the director of the energy and climate center at the French institute for international relations, Europe is no longer the continent of stability and peace it once was. It now has the highest energy cost prices compared to the rest of the world, and strategic competitors now have an advantage over European players.[111]
In August 2022, a regulation has passed under which member states agreed to reduce their demand for gas by 15%. This could be implemented with measures suitable to them. Although the adoption of this regulation was voluntary, the European council can reduce the demand for gas mandatory when running on security supplies.[117]
Cutting energy consumption is a crucial topic of discussion and debate in Europe. The European Parliament, alongside other key EU institutions, has pledged to reduce heating to conserve power. For example, offices of the European Commission have reduced their heating and humidification temperatures by 2 °C.[118]
EU member states have adopted a regulation to fill gas storage and share them in a spirit of solidarity. Although the EU countries face this crisis together as a bloc, the stake is different for each country. Countries with a higher import and use of Russian gas will be affected significantly more than those with less import and dependency.[119]
The European Commission proposed the REPowerEU plan to reduce the EU's dependency on Russian energy supplies by fast-forwarding the clean energy transition of the EU. The Commission outlined a concept that will contribute to the acceleration of the EU energy transition by scaling up the deployment of Hydrogen known as theHydrogen acceleratorconcept. This plan aims to produce and import 10 million tons of renewable Hydrogen respectively in the EU by 2030 (REPowerEU).[120]
In a note highlighting short-term actions that can relieve the energy situation, the president of the EU commission and its members conveyed mission areas in which member states should act. A regulation to fill gas storages, diversify the supply sources of energy and commit to reducing the demand for energy by 15 percent EU member states have adopted this winter. With this, the underground gas reserves of the EU are filled to 83 percent of their capacity.[121]
Power generation companies and companies operating in the fossil fuel sector have enjoyed windfall profits due to the current European market situation, which has led the European Commission to impose mandatory contributions on these companies as a temporary measure to limit the impact of the crisis.[122]
The special temporary tax will be calculated on taxable profits during the year 2022 and at the rate of no less than 33% of excess profits in the oil, gas, coal, and refining sectors. These solidarity contributions will help alleviate the severity of the current crisis. These contributions will be redistributed to all European consumers, including low-income families in the Member States, SMEs, and energy-intensive companies.[123]
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The1970s energy crisisoccurred when theWestern world, particularly theUnited States,Canada,Western Europe,Australia, andNew Zealand, faced substantialpetroleumshortages as well as elevated prices. The two worst crises of this period were the1973 oil crisisand the1979 energy crisis, when, respectively, theYom Kippur Warand theIranian Revolutiontriggered interruptions in Middle Eastern oil exports.[2]
The crisis began to unfold as petroleum production in the United States and some other parts of the world peaked in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[3]World oil production per capita began a long-term decline after 1979.[4]The oil crises prompted the first shift towards energy-saving (in particular, fossil fuel-saving) technologies.[5]
The major industrial centers of the world were forced to contend with escalating issues related to petroleum supply. Western countries relied on the resources of countries in the Middle East and other parts of the world. The crisis led to stagnant economic growth in many countries as oil prices surged.[6]Although there were genuine concerns with supply, part of the run-up in prices resulted from the perception of a crisis. The combination of stagnant growth and price inflation during this era led to the coinage of the termstagflation.[7]By the 1980s, both the recessions of the 1970s and adjustments in local economies to become more efficient in petroleum usage, controlled demand sufficiently for petroleum prices worldwide to return to more sustainable levels.
The period was not uniformly negative for all economies. Petroleum-rich countries in the Middle East benefited from increased prices and the slowing production in other areas of the world. Some other countries, such as Norway, Mexico, and Venezuela, benefited as well. In the United States,TexasandAlaska, as well as some other oil-producing areas, experienced major economic booms due to soaring oil prices even as most of the rest of the nation struggled with the stagnant economy. Many of these economic gains, however, came to a halt as prices stabilized and dropped in the 1980s.
Conflict between Arabs and Israelisin theMiddle Easthas existed sinceIsrael'sdeclaration of independence in 1948, includinga number of wars. TheSuez Crisis, also known as the Second Arab–Israeli war, was sparked when Israel's southern port ofEilatwas blocked by Egypt, which alsonationalizedtheSuez Canalbelonging to Anglo-French investors. One of the objectives of the invasion was the removal of PresidentGamal Abdel Nasserwho was aligning with theSoviet Union.[8]
TheSix-Day Warof 1967 included an Israeli invasion of the EgyptianSinai Peninsula, which resulted in Egypt'sclosure of the Suez Canal for eight years. The canal wascleared in 1974and opened again in 1975[9]after the 1973Yom Kippur War, when Egypt tried to take back the Sinai.[10][11]OAPECcountries cut production of oil and placed anembargoon oil exports to the United States afterRichard Nixonrequested $2.2 billion to support Israel in the war. Nevertheless, the embargo lasted only until January 1974, though the price of oil remained high afterwards.[12]
The real price of petroleum was stable in the 1970 timeframe, but there had been a sharp increase in American imports, putting a strain on American balance of trade, alongside other developed nations. During the 1960s, petroleum production in some of the world's top producers with extraction technology at the time began to peak.West Germanyreached its production peak in 1966,Venezuelaand the United States in 1970, andIranin 1974.[13][14]Canada's conventional oil production peaked around this same time (though non-conventional production later helped revive Canadian production to some degree).[15]The worldwide production per capita peaked soon afterward.[4]
Although production in other parts of the world was increasing, the peaks in these regions began to put substantial upward pressure on world oil prices. Equally as important, control of the oil supply became an increasingly important problem as countries like West Germany and the U.S. became increasingly dependent on foreign suppliers for this key resource.[16]
The 1973 oil crisis was a direct consequence of the US production peak in late 1960 and the beginning of 1971 (and shortages, especially for heating oil, started from there). The "embargo" as described below is the "practical name" given to the crisis. For the main Arab producers, the "embargo" allowed them to show to "theArab street" that they were doing something for the Palestinians. In real market terms (number of barrels) the embargo was almost a non-event, and only from a few countries, towards a few countries.[17]
The embargo was never effective from Saudi Arabia towards the US, as reported byJames E. Akinsin interview at 24:10 in the documentary "la face cachée du pétrole part 2".[18]Akins, who audited US capacity for Nixon after US peak, was US ambassador in Saudi Arabia at that time.Lawrence Rocksand Richard Runyon captured the unfolding of these events at the time in The Energy Crisis book.[19][20]In October 1973, the members ofOrganization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countriesor the OAPEC (consisting of theArabmembers ofOPEC) proclaimed an oilembargo"in response to the U.S. decision to re-supply the Israeli military" during theYom Kippur war; it lasted until March 1974.[21]OAPEC declared it would limit or stopoilshipments to theUnited Statesand other countries if they supportedIsraelin the conflict. With the US actions seen as initiating the oil embargo, the long-term possibility of embargo-related high oil prices, disrupted supply and recession, created a strong rift withinNATO; both European countries and Japan sought to disassociate themselves from the US Middle East policy. Arab oil producers had also linked the end of the embargo with successful US efforts to create peace in the Middle East, which complicated the situation. To address these developments, theNixonAdministration began parallel negotiations with both Arab oil producers to end the embargo, and withEgypt,Syria, and Israel to arrange an Israeli pull back from the Sinai and the Golan Heights after the fighting stopped. By January 18, 1974,Secretary of StateHenry Kissingerhad negotiated an Israeli troop withdrawal from parts of the Sinai. The promise of a negotiated settlement between Israel and Syria was sufficient to convince Arab oil producers to lift the embargo in March 1974. By May, Israel agreed to withdraw from theGolan Heights.[21]
Independently, the OPEC members agreed to use their leverage over the world price-setting mechanism foroilto stabilize their real incomes by raising world oil prices. This action followed several years of steep income declines after the recent failure of negotiations with the major Western oil companies earlier in the month.
For the most part, industrialized economies relied on crude oil,[citation needed]and OPEC was a major supplier.[citation needed]Because of the dramatic inflation experienced during thwasis period, a popular economic theory has been that these price increases were to blame, as being suppressive of economic activity. However, the causality stated by this theory is often questioned.[22]The targeted countries responded with a wide variety of new, and mostly permanent, initiatives to contain their further dependency. The 1973 "oil price shock", along with the1973–1974 stock market crash, have been regarded as the first event since theGreat Depressionto have a persistent economic effect.[23]
A crisis emerged in theUnited Statesin 1979 during the wake of theIranian Revolution. Amid massive protests, theShah of Iran,Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, fled his country in early 1979, allowing theAyatollahKhomeinito gain control. The protests shattered the Iranian oil sector. While the new regime resumed oil exports, it was inconsistent and at a lower volume, forcing prices to go up.Saudi Arabiaand otherOPECnations, under the presidency ofDr. Mana Alotaibaincreased production to offset the decline, and the overall loss in production was about 4 percent.[25]However, a widespread panic resulted, driving the price far higher than would be expected under normal circumstances.
In 1980, following theIraqi invasion of Iran, oil production in Iran nearly stopped, and Iraq's oil production was severely cut as well.
After 1980, oil prices began a decline as other countries began to fill the production shortfalls from Iran and Iraq.
The1973and1979 energy crisishad caused petroleum prices to peak in 1980 at overUS$35 per barrel (US$134 in today's dollars). Following these events slowing industrial economies and stabilization of supply and demand caused prices to begin falling in the 1980s.[26]The glut began in the early 1980s as a result of slowed economic activity in industrial countries (due to the 1973 and 1979 energy crises) and theenergy conservationspurred by high fuel prices.[27]Theinflationadjustedreal 2004 dollar valueof oil fell from an average of $78.2 per barrel in 1981 to an average of $26.8 in 1986.[28]
In June 1981,The New York Timesstated an "Oil glut! ... is here"[29]andTime Magazinestated: "the world temporarily floats in a glut of oil",[30]though the next week a New York Times article warned that the word "glut" was misleading, and that in reality, while temporary surpluses had brought down prices somewhat, prices were still well above pre-energy crisis levels.[31]This sentiment was echoed in November 1981, when the CEO ofExxonalso characterized the glut as a temporary surplus, and that the word "glut" was an example of "our American penchant for exaggerated language". He wrote that the main cause of the glut was declining consumption. In the United States, Europe and Japan, oil consumption had fallen 13% from 1979 to 1981, due to "in part, in reaction to the very large increases in oil prices by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and other oil exporters", continuing a trend begun during the 1973 price increases.[32]
After 1980, reduced demand and overproduction produced a glut on the world market, causing a six-year-long decline in oil prices culminating with a 46 percent price drop in 1986.
The U.S. reported a negative economic growth during the period concerning the 1970s and it remained weak till the 1980s as the post world war II economic boom drew to a close. But it was a different type of recession as it was a scenario of stagflation which is a rare economic consequence.
Other causes that contributed to the recession included theVietnam War, which turned out costly for theUnited Statesand the fall of theBretton Woods system. The emergence ofnewly industrialized countriesrose competition in the metal industry, triggering asteel crisis, where industrial core areas in North America and Europe were forced to re-structure. The1973–1974 stock market crashmade the recession evident.
According to theNational Bureau of Economic Research, the U.S. economy slid into a recession during the period of 1973-75.[34]Inflation levels remained high even when an economic expansion took place afterwards.
During this recession, theGross Domestic Productof the United States fell 3.2%. Although the recession ended in March 1975, the unemployment rate did not peak for several months. In May 1975, the rate reached its height for the cycle of 9%.[35]
The recession also lasted from 1973 to 1975 in theUnited Kingdom. The GDP declined by 3.9%[36][37]or 3.37%[38]depending on the source. It took 14 quarters for the UK's GDP to recover to that at the start of recession.[36]
High oil prices in the 1970s induced investment in oil production by non-OPEC countries, particularly for reserves with a higher cost of production.[39][40]These includedPrudhoe Bayin Alaska, theNorth Sea offshore fieldsof the United Kingdom and Norway, the Cantarell offshore field of Mexico, andoil sandsin Canada.[41][42][43]
As a result of the1973 crisismany nations created strategic petroleum reserves (SPRs), crude oil inventories (or stockpiles) held by the governments of particular countries or private industry, for the purpose of providing economic and national security during an energy crisis. TheInternational Energy Agency(IEA) was formed in the wake of this crisis and currently comprises 31 member countries.[44][45]According to the IEA, approximately 4.1 billion barrels (650,000,000 m3) of oil are held in strategic reserves by the member countries, of which 1.4 billion barrels (220,000,000 m3) is government-controlled. The remainder is held by private industry.[46]These reserves are intended to be equivalent to at least 90 days of net imports. At the moment theU.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserveis one of the largest government-owned reserves, with a capacity of up to 713.5 million barrels (113,440,000 m3).[47]
Recently, other non-IEA countries have begun creating their own strategic petroleum reserves, with China being the second largest overall and the largest non-IEA country.[48]
SinceIsrael's declaration of independencein 1948 this state has found itself in nearly continual conflict with theArab worldand some other predominantlyMuslimcountries. The animosity between the Arabs and the Israelis became a global issue during the 1970s. TheYom Kippur Warof 1973, with the supplying of Israel by its Western allies while some Arab states receivedSovietsupplies, made this one of the most internationally threatening confrontations of the period.
The large oil discoveries in theMiddle Eastgave some Muslim countries unique leverage in the world, beginning in the 1960s. The 1973 and 1979 crises, in particular, were demonstrations of the new power that these countries had found. The United States and other countries were forced to become more involved in the conflicts between these states and Israel.
One of the first challenges OPEC faced in the 1970s was the United States'unilaterally pulling outof theBretton Woods Accordand taking the U.S. off the establishedGold Exchange Standardin 1971. The change resulted in instability in world currencies anddepreciationof the value of theU.S. dollar, as well as other currencies. The revenues of OPEC also took a hit since they priced oil in dollars.
Finally OPEC started pricing oil against gold to combat the situation.[49]But OPEC still struggled to maintain stability in the region as the negotiations between them and other Western oil companies bore little to no positive results.
The major oil-producing regions of the U.S.—Texas,Oklahoma,Louisiana,Colorado,Wyoming, andAlaska—benefited greatly from the price inflation of the 1970s as did theU.S. oil industryin general. Oil prices generally increased throughout the decade; between 1978 and 1980 the price ofWest Texas Intermediatecrude oil increased 250 percent.[50]Although all states felt the effects of the stock market crash and related national economic problems, the economic benefits of increased oil revenue in the Oil Patch states generally offset much of this.
Following the 1970s, theglobal energy consumptionper capita broke away from its previous trend of rapid growth, instead remaining relatively flat for multiple decades until the next century with the rise of large Asian economy like China. In the meantime the use of nuclear energy have picked up, but until 1990s after theChernobyl disasteroccurred, the growth of nuclear energy stopped, and its place have been taken by re-accelerated growth of natural gas, as well as the growing use of coal following an almost a century long stagnation, as well as the growth of other alternative energy.[51]
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TheCondorwas an overnight fast freight train service operated byBritish RailwaysbetweenLondonandGlasgowfrom 1959 until 1965 with all freight carried in containers. The name was derived from 'CONtainers DOoR-to-Door'.[1]
Following the1955 Modernisation Plan,British Railwaysembarked on a series of modernisation plans in all areas of operation, including freight.
Faster freight services had been a goal as far back as the end ofWorld War I, with fast, overnight services between majormarshalling yards. 'Liner' or trunked services were scheduled long-haul freight services, between regional freight depots, usually run overnight. If a wagon load was in the marshalling yard that day, it could have a guaranteed next-day arrival at a similar yard, even travelling the length of the country. Part of the goal was to reduce marshalling for the railway company, who wished to concentrate freight marshalling at fewer, larger and better equipped marshalling yards. In 1928, theLNERhad introduced theGreen Arrowservice.
By the 1950s, there were additional target goals: still a faster freight service to be more attractive than the growing competition from road haulage, but mostly a reduction in operating costs by reducing the manual effort needed in handling freight. A key part of this was to becontainerisation, replacing the network of railwaygoods shedsand manual loading in and out of vans, by pre-loaded containers from the customer factories loaded onto railway wagons by mechanical cranes.[2]There would also be a centralisation of freight services: as well as the increasing development of and investment in marshalling yards,[i]as much freight as possible would becomeblock trains, where a single rake of freight wagons shuttled continuously between two large depots, without needing to stop for shunting operations. Containers were key to this: road haulage would provide local flexibility to move the loads to and from the customer warehouses and the rail operation would concentrate on rapid transfers between a handful of large depots.
The 'container' to be used for this traffic was not the modern familiar stackableintermodal containerorTEU, but a much earlier version, the railwayconflat.[3][4]These were smaller, lighter, wooden containers which resembled a demounted railway wagon body, included the curved roof. They dated from the 1920s in design and were sized for lifting by the mobile cranes of the day. The conflat wagons were four-wheeled, vacuum-braked, and could carry either one Type B container or two smaller Type A.
TheCondorwas the exemplar service for this new containerised operation. A single route would operate, linking the manufacturing base ofGlasgowwith the consumers of centralLondon. Return traffic was largely imported raw materials, supplied from London's docks. The route was fromHendonon theMidland Main LineinNorth Londonto Gushetfaulds freight depot, nearGlasgow South Side railway station[5]running viaLeedsand theSettle and Carlisle line.[6]
Each Condor train was of 27 four-wheeled conflats, of a new design withroller bearingaxles to allow the fastest running and without the risk of stopping for a 'hot box'.[4]Each could carry one or two containers, the containers carrying up to 8 long tons (9.0 short tons; 8.1 t). The Conflats for Condor were heavier at 35.5 long tons (39.8 short tons; 36.1 t) than earlier examples and were later given their ownTOPScode of FC.[7][ii]The train's gross weight could be up to 550 long tons (620 short tons; 560 t). The cost of hiring a container in 1962 was £16 or £18, depending on size, and this included road pickup and delivery byBritish Road Serviceslorries, inside Greater London or within 10 miles (16 km) of Glasgow. As well as the fixed formation of 27 conflat wagons, a specific pool of containers was dedicated to the service. Every wagon on the train always ran carrying a container, regardless of direction. If 27 loads were not available to fill every container, the surplus would be carried empty - this was to ensure a good supply of empty containers at both ends of the service to enable rapid loading of goods inbound from customers.
The service ran daily, one each way, and ran overnight to obtain the clearest running. Both left almost simultaneously, after 7 pm and would arrive some time before 6 am. The 10 hour long service required a very brief, two minute,[8]stop atCarlisle,[iii]at the change of a crew shift, rather than any limitation of the train.
The first Condor services were hauled by pairs of the newly builtMetro-Vick Type 2 Co-Bo locomotives, later known as theclass 28.[10]These were 1,200 bhp (890 kW) locomotives, used in pairs. Pairs were needed as thedieselisationprocess was still new to Britain and the more powerfulType 4locomotives were in short supply and in demand for passenger services. The class 28 had a relatively high tractive effort for a Type 2 loco, of 50,000 lbf (220 kN) compared to 42,000 lbf (190 kN) for theSulzer Type 2. They also had five driven axles, rather than four, giving good traction without wheelslip. The Metro-Vicks were fitted formultiple working, so although two locos were needed, there was only one crew.[iv]Their 'Red Circle' connection system of multiple working was not widely used on BR, compared to the contemporary 'Blue Star', and few other classes used it; hence the Metro-Vicks were used throughout. The Condor service was well-suited to the Metro-Vicks, as the night working allowed a relatively constant power output, with little other traffic to cause signals checks.
TheirCrossleytwo-stroke engineswere unreliable though, and prone to black smoke when throttling up.[11]A further, more unusual, problem with the Metro-Vicks was with their front windscreens. These wrapped around the corners of the cab, to give a better view to the sides, but the engine's vibration could be enough to make the glass panes fall out of their frames. When cracking problems with theircrankcasesbecame evident after a few years, the locomotives were withdrawn from service and the engines rebuilt by Crossley.
If a locomotive failed, it was replaced by another, and often this would be aSulzer Type 2as the Metro-Vicks were only stabled at the ends of the service, not inbetween.[12]In rare cases, a steam locomotive might be all that was available, usually aBlack 5. In either case there could be no multiple working and an extra crew was required.
The first Condor services began in the Spring of 1959. The service was not an immediate success. By August 1959, the formation had been cut in half, now being hauled by only a single locomotive. Traffic grew though and within a year it was running at full traffic capacity.[13]
In 1961, the unreliable Metro-Vicks were all withdrawn temporarily for their engines to be refurbished by the makers,Crossley, in the hope of avoiding their problems. A further problem had developed, that of crankcase cracking in one particular corner.[10]Derby-Sulzer Type 2s, later renumbered as theClass 24s, took over the Condor,[14]with LMS Black Fives serving as a stopgap till a sufficient number of Type 2s were available.[citation needed]
When the Class 28s returned, they had also had their distinctive wrap-around windshields replaced with flat glass, which no longer tended to fall out. The class was redeployed to theBarrow depot, where they worked out the rest of their short careers mostly on passenger services until they were all withdrawn by 1968.[v]
In 1963 an additional service fromBirminghamto Glasgow was added.[1]This ran fromAstonin Birmingham to Glasgow. Class 24s were the usual motive power from its introduction on 17 January 1963, when D5082 hauled the Down train and D5083 the up train, until replaced by the firstFreightlinerservice in 1965.[15]
After the Class 28s and Class 24s, the Condor was hauled by a single Type 4 locomotive.
Condor was successful, and to some extent this individual service became a victim of its own success.Richard Beeching's 1963 reportThe Reshaping of British Railwaysis better known for the cuts it imposed on the branch line network, but it also advocated a shift in almost all freight traffic to replace wagonload traffic with container services.[16]However these containers would be the newly popularstackable rectangular containers, rather than the older railway standard containers, as used by Condor.
In the mid-1960s, BR's emphasis shifted to the newFreightlinerservice. Beeching's plan was for a national network of 55 container depots and by 1968, 17 of these were in operation, including Gushetfauld. Condor was withdrawn in 1965. Most of the early adopters were existing customers, sending bulk trainload cargoes, although now packed into containers. An important one wasFord, who used this to integrate car production across Europe, shipping bodyshells for final assembly across the Channel, by theDover–Dunkerque train ferry. The introduction of the newTOPScomputer system also allowed all operations to be tracked as registered freight, between all depots.
Theheadboardwas a British Railways Type 6. It was unique in two aspects: the backplate colour was in two colours, and the text was in a 'stencil' typeface, with vertical breaks in each letter. The two colours were maroon (left) for theLondon Midland Regionand pale blue for theScottish Region.[17]
Railway artistTerence Cuneoproduced a poster,Night Freightfor BR(M), showing a Metro-Vick hauledCondorcrossing a Black 5 steam loco, outside a coaling depot.[18][19][20]
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Aflatbed trolleya common form of freight transport in distribution environments, for moving bulk loads.Trolleyscan aid in reducing effort required to move a load by allowing the user to pull or push instead of lift and carry.[1]A very simple design offers a basic flat platform with fourcastersand a fixed handle which is used to either push or pull the platform with the load on the platform. Without a flat surface it becomes anopen frame trolleyand without a handle it is abogieordolly.[2]
A flatbed trolley is also sometimes called adray, but the term dray is also used to refer to atruckwith no sides.[3]
The frame is usually fabricated steel. The primary flatbed surface can be constructed from wooden boards, plastic, steel or mesh. Flatbed casters can vary dramatically, made of solid rubber, air filled pneumatic or cast iron. The caster is generally the component on the flatbed trolley that limits the safe working capacity.
There are many types of specialised trolleys, including:
Abaggage trolleyis used to move baggage at an airport, railway station and a bus station.
Apiano trolleyorpiano dollyis a two- or four-wheeled trolley featuring a stronger-than-usual frame.[4]They are typically measuring approximately50 to 80 cm (19+5⁄8to31+1⁄2in) long and are used byremovalscompanies for moving pianos. The piano trolley is placed under the centre of mass of thepianoand allows it to be turned on its axis to manoeuvre round a building. By placing the trolley at one end of the instrument, stairs may be negotiated. In tight spaces the piano may be turned on end and rested on the trolley. Typical features include solid rubber tyres, very strong construction, and thick rubber bumpers along the top and on the ends. Before a piano trolley can be used to move agrand piano, the piano must be protected by apiano shoe, a wooden frame which protects the polished surface and provides additional strength for the sides.
AU-boat trolleyis used to move and stockgoodsby retailers such asgrocery stores, and has two high handles on opposite ends of a narrow flatbed.
Balance trolleysoften have wheels mounted on a central axle to create a pivot point, operating in a similar fashion to aseesaw. These centrally mounted wheels allow the operator to rotate the trolley on a central axis, providing a turning circle no longer than the length of the trolley.
The trolley shown below is termed aturntable trolleydue to its steering mechanism. Unlike a flatbed trolley that is mounted oncastors, turntable trolleys are mounted on solidaxleswhich allows a much higher load capacity. The rear axles are fixed to thechassis, and the front wheels are attached to a steering mechanism that allows the trolley to be turned when moved.
Modern factory systems commonly track individual trolleys digitally to facilitate automatedbills of lading; automated systems may haveremotely operatedorautonomoustrolleys for transport during storage and access.[5][6]
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Aflatbed truck(orflatbed lorryin British English) is a type oftruckthe bodywork of which is just an entirely flat, level 'bed' with no sides or roof.
This allows for quick and easy loading of goods, and consequently they are used to transport heavy loads that are not delicate or vulnerable to rain, and also for abnormal loads that require more space than is available on a closed body.[1]Flatbed trucks can be eitherarticulatedor rigid.
A flatbed has a solid bed, usually of wooden planks.[2]There is no roof and no fixed sides.[3]To retain the load there are often low sides which may behingeddown for loading, as a 'drop-side' truck. A 'stake truck' has no sides but has steel uprightstanchions, which may be removable, again used to retain the load.
Loads are retained by being manually tied down with ropes.[4]The bed of a flatbed truck has tie-down hooks around its edge and techniques such as atrucker's hitchare used to tighten them.[4]Weather protection is optionally provided by manually 'sheeting' the load with atarpaulin, held down by ropes. These manual loading techniques are slow and require some care and skill. There is also the risk that an improperly secured load may be shed in transit, often leading to accidents or road blockages. There is also little theft protection for such a load. The slowness of loading loads like this led to the development of more efficient truck designs with enclosed bodies.
Some improvement was made with the general replacement of ropes byflat webbing straps, tightened with a ratchet. These reduced the skill of 'roping up' and improved the control of tension, leading to fewer shed loads.
Flatbeds became rare in the 1980s as the majority of road freight changed to eithercontainersorpalletloads carried on larger and more efficient trucks, optimised for quicker loading byfork-lift trucks. Containers are carried on specialisedsemi-trailerswithtwistlocksin the corners to retain the container. Pallet loads are carried in either box bodies, loaded through rear doors, orcurtain-sided bodiesloaded through the sides. Both of these protect loads from the weather and can be quickly loaded with standard loads, but are more restrictive for single bulky loads, loaded by crane. The haulage andlogisticsbusiness also changed around the same time as a greater proportion became more regular in nature, such as standard daily loads of equally-sized boxes from a distribution centre to a supermarket, rather than the unpredictablead hocnature of earlier road transport.
Flatbeds are still in use, but are now used for more specialised cargoes, such asconstructional steelworkor lighter abnormal loads, such as machinery, lumber loads/dry wall or any load that requires use of a forklift without the use of a loading dock.
Low loaders, forconstruction machineryand heavy plant vehicles, are not considered as flatbed. Neither are abnormal load carriers forheavy haulage.
In North America, the length is commonly 48 or 53 feet (14.63 or 16.15 m), and the width is either 96 or 192 inches (2.44 or 4.88 m) (including rub rails andstakepockets on the sides, which generally placed every 2 feet or 61 cm). Some older trailers still in service are only 45 feet (13.72 m) or shorter if used in sets of doubles or triples (often used to haul hay). Various lengths and combination setups can only be legally driven on turnpike/toll roadswhich are far too long for most roadways. Body and frame can be one of three general designs: the heaviest and sturdiest is all steel (usually with wood planks), ever-popular combo with steel frame and aluminium bed, these type often have wood portions for nailing downdunnageboards), and aluminium (which is the lightest allowing for more cargo to be legally carried without overweight permits). Incredibly light and very expensive to purchase, all aluminium trailers are very slippery when wet, flex more and are easily damaged. They also have a natural upwards bend so that when loaded they straighten out to be flatter, rather than to sag in the middle under a load.
Another popular type of flatbed trailer is a step deck (or drop deck) with approximately 2 feet lower deck and low profile wheels to accommodate taller loads, without hitting low bridges or tunnels. These stepdecks can come with loading ramps to allow vehicles to roll on and off of the back from ground level. Shorter trailers used for local jobs such as landscaping and building material delivery within urban or local areas can have a "hitchhiker" type forklift truck attached to the back in order for driver alone to deliver and unload pallet/skid items. A bulkhead or "headache rack" is sometimes attached to the front of either a straight or a stepdeck trailer for load securement at the front of the deck. In the event of long pipes or steel or lumber coming loose in a hard braking incident, they save the operator and cab/sleeper in one of two manners in theory. If attached to the trailer they bend while attempting to block forward motion of a loosened cargo, causing the long load to go above the cab and driver.
If attached to the frame behind the cab or sleeper of the tractor, in theory, they protect the back of the cab from impact and if unable to stop the load coming through the cab, they cause the cab to be knocked off of the frame, rather than impale the cab and kill or seriously injure the driver. 48- and 53-foot lengths usually have two axles spread out to over 10 feet (3.05 m) apart at the rear "California spread" in order to allow for more weight distribution on the rear of the deck (40,000 lb instead of 34,000 for a tandem axles design).
The so-called Cali spread was originally designed to comply with bridge weight formulas in that state but has since been adopted in most other parts of the country. These spread axles take a far wider turning radius, and if turning the combination tractor/trailer too sharply, the front axle tires of the trailer may damage the road/parking lot surface, or pop a tire off of the rim, or both. Some trailers have the capability of lifting or lowering the front axle independently to mitigate this risk. The driver may not be able to use this feature if the trailer is loaded, but if the deck is empty the driver can lower the front axle to bring the rear axle off of the ground to significantly decrease the turning radius of the rig for easy maneuvering in tight spaces, or to reduce tire wear during empty/deadhead miles of travel.
Under the deck of the trailer can be attached racks for spare tires, dunnage boards, or tire chains, as well as various tool/storage boxes. On one side (or often both sides for alternating pull-on strap tension) are usually sliding (but sometimes fixed) winches to ratchet down 4-inch straps for load securement. On most 48-foot trailers, these strap/winches may not be placed over a tire as when air pressure releases out of the suspension system when parked, the deck lowers down and will likely pop a trailer tire. Some trailers have an air scale.
When the driver learns how to interpret the scale properly through experience, combined with their knowledge of how much the rig weighs when empty, they can interpret how much cargo can safely and legally be loaded onto the trailer. With different varying loads of cargo, the driver can have an idea how much the gross total weight is, and if they are legal to avoid a ticket (80,000 pounds without a permit in most states, but slightly lower in others). Some decks have pop-up chain systems which have a higher WLL (working load limit) than attaching chains to either thestakepocket/spools, or the frame.
Other decks of trailers can have sliding detachable accessories which greatly diversify the options of where and how to place a chain hook for securement. Besides axles which raise/lower as needed, some spread axle trailers can slide one or both axles forward, or back to create a tandem setup in specific situations when necessary, to comply with weight distribution requirements. Certain amounts of front and rear cargo overhang are allowed (as well as overhang to one or both sides of the trailer) with flags/banners/flashing lights to warn drivers behind and to the side of impending danger of impalement if they follow too closely behind and the truck suddenly stops. In extreme cases, permit loads require an escort vehicle in the front, rear, or both for oversize/over dimension cargo/equipment.
Some vehicle recoverytow truckshave flat beds and are able to winch a recovered vehicle entirely on board.[5]They can then drive the vehicle away for repair without needing to tow it.[5]This allows a faster journey, does not require a driver in the vehicle being towed, and allows a damaged vehicle to be recovered when it cannot be towed. As these flat beds usually slope gradually to the rear, unlike the level bed of a cargo flatbed, they are known as 'beavertails'. Some tow truck beds are demountable and may be lowered behind the truck for easy loading, then both bed and load winched back aboard as one.
Railways also employ flatbed trucks in engineering trains and freight trains. InBritainand the Commonwealth the termbogie flatis often applied to abogieflatbed truck. Although less common, flatbed railway trucks on rigid frames and axles are sometimes used, with both 4-wheel and 6-wheel versions being extant. In British English, the term 'truck' most commonly relates to railway vehicles, with the word 'lorry' more commonly applied to road vehicles.
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Aflatcar(US) (alsoflat car,[1]orflatbed) is a piece ofrolling stockthat consists of an open, flat deck mounted on trucks (US) orbogies(UK) at each end. Occasionally, flat cars designed to carry extra heavy or extra large loads are mounted on a pair (or rarely, more) of bogies under each end. The deck of the car can bewoodorsteel, and the sides of the deck can include pockets forstakesor tie-down points to secure loads. Flatcars designed for carrying machinery have slidingchainassemblies recessed in the deck.[2]
Flatcars are used for loads that are too large or cumbersome to load in enclosed cars such asboxcars, but which will not be harmed by the weather. They are also often used to transportintermodal containers(shipping containers) ortrailersas part ofintermodal freight transportshipping.
Aircraft parts were hauled via conventionalfreight carsbeginning inWorld War II. However, given the ever-increasing size of aircraft assemblies, the "Sky Box" method of shipping parts was developed in the late 1960s specifically to transport parts for theBoeing 747and other "jumbo" jets of the time. The "Sky Box" consists of a two-piece metal shell that is placed atop a standard flatcar to support and protectwingandtailassembliesandfuselagesections in transit (originally,depressed-centeror "fish belly" cars were utilized).
Boeing 737aircraft fuselages constructed bySpirit AerosystemsinWichita, Kansasare hauled as special loads to theBoeing Renton Factoryfor final assembly.
Bulkhead flatcars are designed with sturdy end-walls (bulkheads) to prevent loads from shifting past the ends of the car. Loads typically carried arepipe,steelslabs,utility polesandlumber, though lumber and utility poles are increasingly being hauled by skeleton cars. Bulkheads are typically lightweight when empty. An empty bulkhead on a train puts it at a speed restriction to go no more than 50 mph (80 km/h). Since bulkheads are lightweight when empty,huntingcan occur when the car is above 50 mph (80 km/h). Hunting is the wobbling movement of the trucks on a freight car or a locomotive. If the wheels hunt against the rails for a period of time, there is a high risk of aderailment.
Centerbeam flatcars, centerbeams, center partition railcar, or "lumber racks"[1]are specialty cars designed for carrying bundled building supplies such asdimensional lumber,wallboard, and fence posts. They are essentially bulkhead flatcars that have been reinforced by a longitudinalI-beam, often in the form of aVierendeel truss, sometimes reinforced bydiagonalmembers, but originally in the form of stressed panels perforated by panel-lightening "opera windows", either oval-shaped (seen above) or egg-shaped. These flatcars must be loadedsymmetrically, with half of the payload on one side of the centerbeam and half on the other, to avoid tipping over.
Heavy capacity flatcars are cars designed to carry more than 100short tons(90.72t; 89.29long tons). They often have more than the typical North American standard of fouraxles(one two-axletruckat each end), and may have a depressed center to handle excess-height loads as well as two trucks of three axles each (one at each end) or four trucks (two at each end) of two axles each, connected byspan bolsters. Loads typically handled include electrical power equipment and large industrial production machinery.
A circus train is a modern method of conveyance forcircustroupes. One of the larger users of circus trains was theRingling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus(RBBX), a famousAmericancircusformed when theRingling Brothers Circuspurchased theBarnum and Bailey Circusin 1907, merged in 1919, and closed permanently as a merged company in May 2017.
Some companies, such asCSX Transportation, have former wood-carrying flatcars rebuilt into platforms which mountremote controlequipment for use in operating locomotives. Such platforms are fitted with appropriate headlights,horns, and air brake appliances to operate in the leading position on a cut of cars (i.e. coupled ahead of the locomotive).
COFC (container on flat car) cars are typically 89 feet (27.13 m) long and carry four 20-foot (6.10 m)intermodal containersor two 40-foot (12.19 m)/45-foot (13.72 m) shipping containers (the two 45-foot or 13.72-metre containers are carryable due to the fact that the car is actually 92 ft or 28.04 m long, over thestrike plates). With the rise ofintermodal-freight-transport–specific cars, and given the age of most of these flats, numbers will decline over the next several years. Indeed, when the firstwell carsappeared, allowing double stacking, many container flats were re-built asautoracks. The few "new build" container flats are identifiable by their lack of decking, welded steel frame, and standard 89-foot (27.13 m) length. One variant is the 50-foot (15.24 m) car (which usually carries one large container as a load); these are actually re-built oldboxcars. Commonreporting marksare FEC, CP, SOO and KTTX. The ATTX cars, which feature non-sparking grips and sides, are built for haulingdangerous goods(ammunition, flammable fluids, etc.).
A spine car is a car with only center and side sills and lateral arms to supportintermodal containers.
ATrailer-on-flat-car, orpiggy-back carallows two 28.5-foot (8.69 m) trailer pups or onesemi-trailerup to 57 feet (17.37 m) to be carried. Like well cars, these usually come inarticulatedsets of five or three.
A longer TOFC (trailer on flat car) is usually an 89 ft (27.13 m) car. In the past, these carried three 30 ft (9.14 m) trailers which are, as of 2007, almost obsolete, or one large, 53 ft (16.15 m), two 40-foot (12.19 m) or 45-foot (13.72 m) trailers. As intermodal traffic grows, these dedicated flats are in decline. Most have been modified to also carry containers as well. One notable type isCanadian Pacific Railway'sXTRX service—dedicated five-unit flats that only carrytrailers.
Similar to the spine car except that it is designed to carrylumberorutility poles, a skeleton car is composed of a center sill and lateral arms only. No deck, sometimes no side sills and sometimes no end sills.[3][4][5][6][7]The arms can include pockets forside stakesor tie-down points to secure loads.
In some marine services, thelinkspanbetween aferryorbargeand itsdockis very weak. In order to avoid loss of cargo or heavy locomotives, an old flatcar (which is usually the lightest car available) is used as a bridge between the locomotive on the dock and the cars on the ferry or barge.
Idler flatcars are also used in oversize freight service, as loads such aspipeoften overhang the ends of most standard-sized flatcars. Empty flatcars will be placed on both ends of the loaded car. This protects the cargo ends from damage and ensures that the loads don't bind and damage the ends of adjacent cars.
Often a flat car is placed directly in front of acrane("big hook") in order to:
Idler flatcars are also used to mount one kind ofcoupleron one end and another kind on the other end (dual coupling). This is called a match wagon or abarrier vehicle.
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Adesignis the concept or proposal for an object, process, orsystem. The worddesignrefers to something that is or has been intentionally created by a thinking agent, and is sometimes used to refer to the inherent nature of something – its design. The verbto designexpresses the process of developing a design. In some cases, the direct construction of an object without an explicit prior plan may also be considered to be a design (such as in arts and crafts). A design is expected to have a purpose within a specific context, typically aiming to satisfy certaingoalsand constraints while taking into accountaesthetic, functional and experiential considerations. Traditional examples of designs includearchitecturalandengineeringdrawings,circuit diagrams,sewing patterns, and less tangible artefacts such asbusiness processmodels.[1][2]
People who produce designs are calleddesigners. The term 'designer' usually refers to someone who works professionally in one of the various design areas. Within the professions, the word 'designer' is generally qualified by the area of practice (for example: afashion designer, aproduct designer, aweb designer, or aninterior designer), but it can also designate other practitioners such as architects and engineers (see below: Types of designing). A designer's sequence of activities to produce a design is called a design process, with some employing designated processes such asdesign thinkinganddesign methods. The process of creating a design can be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection,modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design.
Designing is also a widespread activity outside of the professions of those formally recognized as designers. In his influential bookThe Sciences of the Artificial,the interdisciplinary scientistHerbert A. Simonproposed that, "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones."[3]According to the design researcherNigel Cross, "Everyone can – and does – design," and "Design ability is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a naturalcognitivefunction."[4]
The study of design history is complicated by varying interpretations of what constitutes 'designing'. Many design historians, such asJohn Heskett, look to theIndustrial Revolutionand the development of mass production.[5]Others subscribe to conceptions of design that include pre-industrial objects and artefacts, beginning their narratives of design in prehistoric times.[6]Originally situated withinart history, the historical development of the discipline of design history coalesced in the 1970s, as interested academics worked to recognize design as a separate and legitimate target for historical research.[7]Early influential design historians include German-British art historianNikolaus Pevsnerand Swiss historian and architecture criticSigfried Giedion.
In Western Europe, institutions for design education date back to the nineteenth century. TheNorwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industrywas founded in 1818, followed by the United Kingdom'sGovernment School of Design(1837), andKonstfackin Sweden (1844). TheRhode Island School of Designwas founded in the United States in 1877. The German art and design schoolBauhaus, founded in 1919, greatly influenced modern design education.[8]
Design educationcovers the teaching of theory, knowledge, and values in the design of products, services, and environments, with a focus on the development of both particular and general skills for designing. Traditionally, its primary orientation has been to prepare students for professional design practice, based on project work and studio, oratelier, teaching methods.
There are also broader forms of higher education indesign studiesanddesign thinking. Design is also a part of general education, for example within the curriculum topic,Design and Technology. The development of design in general education in the 1970s created a need to identify fundamental aspects of 'designerly' ways of knowing, thinking, and acting, which resulted in establishing design as a distinctdisciplineof study.[9]
Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs.[10]Design researchers Dorst and Dijkhuis acknowledged that "there are many ways of describing design processes," and compare and contrast two dominant but different views of the design process: as a rational problem-solving process and as a process of reflection-in-action. They suggested that these twoparadigms"represent two fundamentally different ways of looking at the world –positivismandconstructionism."[11]The paradigms may reflect differing views of how designingshould bedone and how itactually isdone, and both have a variety of names. The problem-solving view has been called "the rational model,"[12]"technical rationality"[13]and "the reason-centric perspective."[14]The alternative view has been called "reflection-in-action,"[13]"coevolution"[15]and "the action-centric perspective."[14]
The rational model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon,[16][17]an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz.[18]It posits that:
The rational model is based on arationalist philosophy[12]and underlies thewaterfall model,[19]systems development life cycle,[20]and much of theengineering designliterature.[21]According to the rationalist philosophy, design is informed by research and knowledge in a predictable and controlled manner.[22]
Typical stages consistent with the rational model include the following:[23]
Each stage has many associatedbest practices.[25]
The rational model has been widely criticized on two primary grounds:
The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model.[14]It posits that:
The action-centric perspective is based on anempiricist philosophyand broadly consistent with theagile approach[28]and methodical development.[29]Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers.[26]Like the rational model, the action-centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge.[30]
At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve these three basic activities:
The concept of thedesign cycleis understood as a circular time structure,[31]which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas.[32]
Philosophy of designis the study of definitions, assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or preferred approaches.
Some of these values and approaches include:
The boundaries between art and design are blurry, largely due to a range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'.Applied artscan includeindustrial design,graphic design,fashion design, and thedecorative artswhich traditionally includes craft objects. Ingraphic arts(2D image making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made betweenfine artandcommercial art, based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded.
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Asubsidy,subventionorgovernment incentiveis a type ofgovernment expenditurefor individuals and households, as well as businesses with the aim of stabilizing the economy. It ensures that individuals and households are viable by having access to essential goods and services while giving businesses the opportunity to stay afloat and/or competitive. Subsidies not only promote long term economic stability but also help governments to respond to economic shocks during arecessionor in response to unforeseen shocks, such as theCOVID-19 pandemic.[1]
Subsidies take various forms— such as direct government expenditures,tax incentives,soft loans,price support, and government provision of goods and services.[2]For instance, the government may distribute direct payment subsidies to individuals and households during an economic downturn in order to help its citizens pay their bills and to stimulate economic activity. Here, subsidies act as an effective financial aid issued when the economy experiences economic hardship.[3]They can also be a good policy tool to revise market imperfections when rational and competitive firms fail to produce an optimal market outcome. For example, in animperfect marketcondition, governments can inject subsidies to encourage firms to invest in R&D (research and development). This will not only benefit the firms but also produce some positive externalities such that it benefits the industry in which the firms belong, and most importantly, the society at large.[4]
Although commonly extended from the government, the term subsidy can relate to any type of support – for example fromNGOsor as implicit. Subsidies come in various forms including: direct (cash grants, interest-free loans) and indirect (tax breaks, insurance, low-interest loans,accelerated depreciation, rent rebates).[5][6]Furthermore, they can be broad or narrow, legal or illegal, ethical or unethical. The most common forms of subsidies are those to the producer or the consumer. Producer/production subsidies ensure producers are better off by either supplyingmarket price support, direct support, or payments tofactors of production.[6]Consumer/consumption subsidies commonly reduce the price of goods and services to the consumer. For example, in the US at one time it was cheaper to buy gasoline than bottled water.[7]
All countries use subsidies via national and sub-national entities through different forms such as tax incentives and direct grants. Likewise, subsidies have an economic influence on both a domestic and international level. On a domestic level, subsidies affect the allocation decision of domestic resources,income distribution, and expenditure productivity. On an international level, subsidies may increase or decrease international interaction and integration through trade.[8]For this reason, having a thorough subsidy policy is essential as its inadequacy can potentially lead to financial hardship and problems for not only the poor or low income individuals but the aggregate economy as a whole.[9]
At large, subsidies take up a substantial portion of the government and economy. AmongstOECDcountries in 2020, the median of subsidies and other transfers such as social benefits and non-repayable transfers to private and public enterprises was 56.3 percent of total government expenses which was 34.9 percent (weighted average) of GDP in the same year.[10]Yet, the number of subsidy measures in force have been rapidly increasing since 2008.[11]
A production subsidy encourages suppliers to increase the output of a particular product by partially offsetting the production costs or losses.[12]The objective of production subsidies is to expand production of a particular product more so that the market would promote but without raising the final price to consumers. This type of subsidy is predominantly found in developed markets.[6]Other examples of production subsidies include the assistance in the creation of a new firm (Enterprise Investment Scheme), industry (industrial policy) and even the development of certain areas (regional policy). Production subsidies are critically discussed in the literature as they can cause many problems including the additional cost of storing the extra produced products, depressing world market prices, and incentivizing producers toover-produce, for example, a farmer overproducing in terms of his land'scarrying capacity.
A consumption subsidy is one that subsidizes the behavior of consumers. This type of subsidies are most common indeveloping countrieswhere governments subsidise such things as food, water, electricity and education on the basis that no matter how impoverished, all should be allowed those most basic requirements.[6]For example, some governments offer "lifeline" rates for electricity, that is, the first increment of electricity each month is subsidized.[6]Evidence from recent studies suggests that government expenditures on subsidies remain high in many countries, often amounting to several percentage points of GDP. Subsidization on such a scale implies substantialopportunity costs. There are at least three compelling reasons for studying government subsidy behavior. First, subsidies are a major instrument of government expenditure policy. Second, on a domestic level, subsidies affect domestic resource allocation decisions, income distribution, and expenditure productivity. A consumer subsidy is a shift in demand as the subsidy is given directly to consumers.
An export subsidy is a support from the government for products that are exported, as a means of assisting the country's balance of payments.[12]Usha HaleyandGeorge Haleyidentified the subsidies to manufacturing industry provided by the Chinese government and how they have altered trade patterns.[5]Traditionally, economists have argued that subsidies benefit consumers but hurt the subsidizing countries. Haley and Haley provided data to show that over the decade after China joined theWorld Trade Organizationindustrial subsidies have helped give China an advantage in industries in which they previously enjoyed no comparative advantage such as the steel, glass, paper, auto parts, and solar industries.[5]China's shores have also collapsed from overfishing and industrialization, which is why the Chinese government heavily subsidizes its fishermen, who sail the world in search of new grounds.[13]
Export subsidy is known for being abused. For example, some exporters substantially over declare the value of their goods so as to benefit more from the export subsidy. Another method is to export a batch of goods to a foreign country but the same goods will be re-imported by the same trader via a circuitous route and changing the product description so as to obscure their origin. Thus the trader benefits from the export subsidy without creating real trade value to the economy. Export subsidy as such can become a self-defeating and disruptive policy.
Adam Smith observed that special government subsidies enabled exporters to sell abroad at substantial ongoing losses. He did not regard that as a sound and sustainable policy. That was because "… under normal industrial-commercial conditions their own interests soon oblige loss-making businesses to deploy their capital in other ways – or to move into markets where the sales prices do cover the supply costs and yield ordinary profits. Like other mercantilist schemes and devices, export bounties are a means of trying to force business capital into channels it would not naturally enter. The schemes are invariably costly and damaging in various ways."[14]
An import subsidy is support from the government for products that are imported. Rarer than an export subsidy, an import subsidy further reduces the price to consumers for imported goods. Import subsidies have various effects depending on the subject. For example, consumers in the importing country are better off and experience an increase in consumer welfare due to the decrease in price of the imported goods, as well as the decrease in price of the domestic substitute goods. Conversely, the consumers in the exporting country experience a decrease in consumer welfare due to an increase in the price of their domestic goods. Furthermore, producers of the importing country experience a loss of welfare due to a decrease in the price for the goods in their market, while on the other side, the exporters of the producing country experience an increase in well-being due to the increase in demand. Ultimately, the import subsidy is rarely used due to an overall loss of welfare for the country due to a decrease in domestic production and a reduction in production throughout the world. However, that can result in a redistribution of income.[15]
Employment or wage subsidies keep the employment relationship ongoing even during financial crisis. It is particularly beneficial for enterprises to recover quickly after a temporary suspension following a crisis. Workers are prevented from losing their jobs and other associated employment benefits such as annual leave entitlements and retirement pensions.[16]
Employment subsidies allow individual beneficiaries a minimum standard of living at the very least. However, less than half of active jobseekers in around 50% of OECD countries receive unemployment support.[17]The effect of employment subsidies may not be evident immediately. When employers received grants to subside a substantial part of the wages for retaining their employees or to create new jobs during severe recessions such as the 2008 GFC (Global Financial Crisis), there were minor impacts on employment during the first year. However, the subsidy began to yield positive effects on employment, particularly a decrease in the unemployment rate, in the second year as employers began to properly utilise the subsidy.[18]
Tax subsidies, also known as tax breaks ortax expenditures, are a way for governments to achieve certain outcomes without directly providing cash payments. By offering tax breaks, the government can incentivize behavior that is beneficial to the economy or society as a whole. Tax subsidies can also have negative consequences.
One type of tax subsidy is a health tax deduction, which allows individuals or businesses to deduct their health expenses from their taxable income. This can be seen as a way to incentivize people to prioritize their health and well-being. However, it can also create distortions in the economy by encouraging people to spend more on health care than they otherwise would.
Another type of tax subsidy is related toIntellectual Property.Base Erosion and Profit Shifting(BEPS) is a particular form of tax subsidy that involves companies shifting their profits to low-tax jurisdictions in order to reduce their overall tax burden. TheMultilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty Related Measures to Prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shiftingis a treaty signed by half the nations of the world aimed at preventing this type of tax avoidance.
While tax subsidies can be effective in achieving certain outcomes, they are also less transparent than direct cash payments and can be difficult to undo. Some argue that tax breaks disproportionately benefit the wealthy and large corporations, further exacerbating income inequality. Therefore, it is important for governments to carefully consider the potential consequences of offering tax subsidies and ensure that they are targeted towards achieving the greatest public good.
Tax subsidies can have unintended consequences, such as creating market distortions that favor certain industries or companies over others. For example, if a government offers tax breaks to incentivize investment in renewable energy, it may lead to a glut of renewable energy projects and an oversupply of energy in the market. This, in turn, can lead to lower prices for energy and financial losses for investors.
Tax subsidies can be difficult to monitor and enforce, which can lead to abuse and fraud. Companies may claim tax breaks for activities that do not qualify, or may use complex legal structures to shift profits to lower tax jurisdictions. This can result in lost revenue for governments and a lack of fairness in the tax system.
Despite these concerns, tax subsidies remain a popular tool for governments to promote various policy objectives, such as economic growth, job creation, andenvironmental sustainability. The use of tax subsidies is often debated in political circles, with some arguing that they are necessary to support certain industries or to incentivize certain behaviors, while others argue that they create inefficiencies and distortions in the economy.
In conclusion, tax subsidies are a powerful tool for governments to achieve policy goals, but they come with their own set of challenges and limitations. It is important for policymakers to carefully consider the potential unintended consequences of tax subsidies and to design them in a way that maximizes their benefits while minimizing their costs. Additionally, strong monitoring and enforcement mechanisms are needed to ensure that tax subsidies are used appropriately and do not result in abuse or fraud.
Some governments subsidise transport, especially rail and bus transport, which decrease congestion and pollution compared to cars. In the EU,rail subsidiesare around €73 billion, and Chinese subsidies reach $130 billion.[19][20]
Publicly owned airports can be an indirect subsidy if they lose money. The European Union, for instance, criticizes Germany for its high number of money-losing airports that are used primarily bylow cost carriers, characterizing the arrangement as an illegal subsidy.[citation needed]
In many countries, roads and highways are paid for through general revenue, rather than tolls or other dedicated sources that are paid only by road users, creating an indirect subsidy for road transportation. The fact that long-distance buses in Germany do not pay tolls has been called an indirect subsidy by critics, who point to track access charges for railways.
Energy subsidiesare measures that keep prices for customers below market levels, or for suppliers above market levels, or reduce costs for customers and suppliers.[21][22]Energy subsidies may be direct cash transfers to suppliers, customers, or related bodies, as well as indirect support mechanisms, such astax exemptionsandrebates,price controls,trade restrictions, and limits onmarket access.
During FY 2016–22, most US federal subsidies were for renewable energy producers (primarily biofuels, wind, and solar), low-income households, and energy-efficiency improvements. During FY 2016–22, nearly half (46%) of federal energy subsidies were associated with renewable energy, and 35% were associated with energy end uses. Federal support for renewable energy of all types more than doubled, from $7.4 billion in FY 2016 to $15.6 billion in FY 2022.[23]
Fossil fuel subsidiesareenergy subsidiesonfossil fuels. Under a narrow definition, fossil fuel subsidies totalled around $1.5 trillion in 2022.[25]Under more expansive definition, they totalled around $7 trillion.[25]They may betax breaksonconsumption, such as a lowersales taxonnatural gasforresidential heating; or subsidies onproduction, such as tax breaks onexploration for oil. Or they may be free or cheapnegative externalities; such asair pollutionorclimate changedue to burninggasoline,dieselandjet fuel. Some fossil fuel subsidies are viaelectricity generation, such as subsidies forcoal-fired power stations.
Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies would reduce thehealth risks of air pollution,[26]and would greatly reduce globalcarbon emissionsthus helping tolimit climate change.[27]As of 2021[update], policy researchers estimate that substantially more money is spent on fossil fuel subsidies than on environmentally harmfulagricultural subsidiesor environmentally harmfulwater subsidies.[28]TheInternational Energy Agencysays: "High fossil fuel prices hit the poor hardest, but subsidies are rarely well-targeted to protect vulnerable groups and tend to benefit better-off segments of the population."[29]
Housing subsidiesare designed to promote the construction industry and homeownership. As of 2018, U.S housing subsidies total around $15 billion per year. Housing subsidies can come in two types; assistance with down payment and interest rate subsidies. Thededuction of mortgage interestfrom the federal income tax accounts for the largest interest rate subsidy. Additionally, the federal government will help low-income families with the down payment, coming to $10.9 million in 2008.[34]
As a housing policy tool, housing subsidies also help low income individuals gain and maintain liveable residency by easing the cost burdens of housing for low income individuals and households. However, some policy makers and experts believe they are costly to implement and may even reduce incentives for beneficiaries to participate in the labour market. In the contrary, certain literatures have found that subsidy cuts do not encourage employment or participation among beneficiaries. For example, research by Daniel Borbely found that reducing housing subsidies did not increase employment and labour force participation. Though, he also added that claimants relocated to other areas of the rental market to maintain their benefits.[35]
Nonetheless, the most common method for providing housing subsidies is via direct payments to renters by covering a part of their rent on the private rent market. This method of direct transfer of housing subsidies is often referred to as "housing vouchers". In the United States, the so-called Section 8 is a direct payment program subsidising the largest amount of money to renters for rental assistance.[36]
While conventional subsidies require financial support, many economists have described implicit subsidies in the form ofuntaxedenvironmentalexternalities.[7]These externalities include things such as pollution from vehicle emissions,pesticides, or other sources.
A 2015 report studied the implicit subsidies accruing to 20 fossil fuel companies. It estimated that the societal costs from downstream emissions and pollution attributable to these companies were substantial.[37][38]The report spans the period 2008–2012 and notes that: "for all companies and all years, the economic cost to society of their CO2emissions was greater than their after‐tax profit, with the single exception ofExxonMobilin 2008."[37]: 4Pure coal companies fare even worse: "the economic cost to society exceeds total revenue (employment, taxes, supply purchases, and indirect employment) in all years, with this cost varying between nearly $2 and nearly $9 per $1 of revenue."[37]: 4–5
The first important classification of subsidies are direct and indirect subsidies. Subsidies are categorised as direct when it involves actual cash outlays targeted towards a specified individual or household. Popular examples includes cash grants and interest-free loans. Subsidies can also be classified as indirect when they do not involve actual payments. An example would be an increase in disposable income arising from a decrease in price of an essential good or service that the government has enforced in a form of monetary support. In contrast, a decrease in the price of a good or service may lead to an increase in revenue for producers earned from the heightened demand by consumers.[39]
The use of indirect subsidies such as price controls is widespread among developing economies and emerging markets as a necessary tool for social policy. It has proven to be effective in many cases but price controls have a potential to dampen investment activity and growth, cause heavy fiscal burdens for the government, and may even complicate the optimal performance of monetary policy. To prevent the undesirable negative effects, price control regimes may be replaced by creating social safety nets and proposing sound reforms to encourage competition and growth.[40]
Another important classification of subsidies are producer/production subsidies and consumer/consumption subsidies. Production subsidies are designed to ensure producers are advantaged by creating fluid market activity through other market control mechanisms or by providing cash payments for factors of production. Consumption subsidies benefit consumers typically through a reduction in the market price of goods and services. They are commonly used by governments of many developing countries in an attempt to secure the most basic needs for its population.[39]
These various subsidies can be divided into broad and narrow. Narrow subsidies are those monetary transfers that are easily identifiable and have a clear intent. They are commonly characterised by a monetary transfer between governments and institutions or businesses and individuals. A classic example is a government payment to a farmer.[41]
Conversely broad subsidies include both monetary and non-monetary subsidies and is often difficult to identify.[41]A broad subsidy is less attributable and less transparent. Environmental externalities are the most common type of broad subsidy.
Competitive equilibrium is a state of balance between buyers and suppliers, in which the quantity demanded of a good is the quantity supplied at a specified price. When the price falls the quantity demand exceeds the equilibrium quantity, conversely, a reduction in the supply of a good beyond equilibrium quantity implies an increase in the price. The effect of a subsidy is to shift the supply or demand curve to the right (i.e. increases the supply or demand) by the amount of the subsidy. If a consumer is receiving the subsidy, a lower price of a good resulting from the marginal subsidy on consumption increases demand, shifting the demand curve to the right. If a supplier is receiving the subsidy, an increase in the price (revenue) resulting from the marginal subsidy on production results increases supply, shifting the supply curve to the right.
Assuming the market is in a perfectly competitive equilibrium, a subsidy increases the supply of the good beyond the equilibrium competitive quantity. The imbalance creates deadweight loss. Deadweight loss from a subsidy is the amount by which the cost of the subsidy exceeds the gains of the subsidy.[42]The magnitude of the deadweight loss is dependent on the size of the subsidy. This is considered amarket failure, or inefficiency.[42]
Subsidies targeted at goods in one country, by lowering the price of those goods, make them more competitive against foreign goods, thereby reducing foreign competition.[43]As a result, many developing countries cannot engage in foreign trade, and receive lower prices for their products in the global market. This is considered protectionism: a government policy to erect trade barriers in order to protect domestic industries.[44]The problem withprotectionismarises when industries are selected for nationalistic reasons (infant-industry), rather than to gain a comparative advantage. The market distortion, and reduction in social welfare, is the logic behind the World Bank policy for the removal of subsidies in developing countries.[45]
Subsidies create spillover effects in other economic sectors and industries. A subsidized product sold in the world market lowers the price of the good in other countries. Since subsidies result in lower revenues for producers of foreign countries, they are a source of tension between the United States, Europe and poorer developing countries.[46]While subsidies may provide immediate benefits to an industry, in the long-run they may prove to have unethical, negative effects. Subsidies are intended to support public interest, however, they can violate ethical or legal principles if they lead to higher consumer prices or discriminate against some producers to benefit others.[43]For example, domestic subsidies granted by individual US states may be unconstitutional if they discriminate against out-of-state producers, violating the Privileges and Immunities Clause or the Dormant Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution.[43]Depending on their nature, subsidies are discouraged by international trade agreements such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). This trend, however, may change in the future, as needs of sustainable development and environmental protection could suggest different interpretations regarding energy andrenewable energy subsidies.[47]In its July 2019 report, "Going for Growth 2019: The time for reform is now", theOECDsuggests that countries make better use of environmental taxation, phase out agricultural subsidies and environmentally harmful tax breaks.[48][49]
In the Netherlands,auditsare performed to verify whether the funds that have been received has indeed been spent legally (and all requirements of the subsidy provider have been attained), for the purpose intended.[50]It hence preventsfraud.
Although subsidies can be important, many are "perverse", in the sense of having adverseunintended consequences. To be "perverse", subsidies must exert effects that are demonstrably and significantly adverse both economically and environmentally.[6]A subsidy rarely, if ever, starts perverse, but over time a legitimate efficacious subsidy can become perverse or illegitimate if it is not withdrawn after meeting its goal or as political goals change. Perverse subsidies are now so widespread that as of 2007 they amounted $2 trillion per year in the six most subsidised sectors alone (agriculture, fossil fuels, road transportation, water, fisheries and forestry).[51]
The detrimental effects of perverse subsidies are diverse in nature and reach. Case-studies from differing sectors are highlighted below but can be summarised as follows.
Directly, they are expensive to governments by directing resources away from other legitimate should priorities (such as environmental conservation, education, health, or infrastructure),[52][41][53][54]ultimately reducing the fiscal health of the government.[55]
Indirectly, they causeenvironmental degradation(exploitation of resources, pollution, loss of landscape, misuse and overuse of supplies) which, as well as its fundamental damage, acts as a further brake on economies; tend to benefit the few at the expense of the many, and the rich at the expense of the poor; lead to further polarization of development between the Northern and Southern hemispheres; lower global market prices; and undermine investment decisions reducing the pressure on businesses to become more efficient.[7][54][56]Over time the latter effect means support becomes enshrined in human behaviour and business decisions to the point where people become reliant on, even addicted to, subsidies, "locking" them into society.[57]
Consumer attitudes do not change and become out-of-date, off-target and inefficient;[7]furthermore, over time people feel a sense of historical right to them.[56]
Perverse subsidies are not tackled as robustly as they should be. Principally, this is because they become "locked" into society, causing bureaucratic roadblocks and institutional inertia.[58][59]When cuts are suggested many argue (most fervently by those "entitled", special interest groups andpolitical lobbyists) that it will disrupt and harm the lives of people who receive them, distort domesticcompetitivenesscurbing trade opportunities, and increase unemployment.[56][60]Individual governments recognise this as a "prisoner's dilemma" – insofar as that even if they wanted to adopt subsidy reform, by acting unilaterally they fear only negative effects will ensue if others do not follow.[57]Furthermore, cutting subsidies, however perverse they may be, is considered a vote-losing policy.[58]
Reform of perverse subsidies is at a propitious time. The current economic conditions mean governments are forced into fiscal constraints and are looking for ways to reduce activist roles in their economies.[59]There are two main reform paths: unilateral and multilateral. Unilateral agreements (one country) are less likely to be undertaken for the reasons outlined above, although New Zealand,[61]Russia, Bangladesh and others represent successful examples.[7]Multilateral actions by several countries are more likely to succeed as this reduces competitiveness concerns, but are more complex to implement requiring greater international collaboration through a body such as theWTO.[54]Irrespective of the path, the aim of policymakers should be to: create alternative policies that target the same issue as the original subsidies but better; develop subsidy removal strategies allowing market-discipline to return; introduce "sunset" provisions that require remaining subsidies to be re-justified periodically; and make perverse subsidies more transparent to taxpayers to alleviate the "vote-loser" concern.[7]
Support for agriculture dates back to the 19th century. It was developed extensively in the EU and US across the two World Wars and the Great Depression to protect domestic food production, but remains important across the world today.[54][58]In 2005, US farmers received $14 billion and EU farmers $47 billion inagricultural subsidies.[43]Today, agricultural subsidies are defended on the grounds of helping farmers to maintain their livelihoods. The majority of payments are based on outputs and inputs and thus favour the larger producing agribusinesses over the small-scale farmers.[6][62]In the US nearly 30% of payments go to the top 2% of farmers.[54][63][64]
By subsidising inputs and outputs through such schemes as "yield based subsidisation", farmers are encouraged to over-produce using intensive methods, including using more fertilizers and pesticides; grow high-yieldingmonocultures; reducecrop rotation; shorten fallow periods; and promote exploitative land use change from forests, rainforests and wetlands to agricultural land.[54]These all lead to severe environmental degradation, including adverse effects on soil quality and productivity includingerosion, nutrient supply and salinity which in turn affects carbon storage and cycling, water retention anddrought resistance; water quality including pollution, nutrient deposition andeutrophicationof waterways, and lowering of water tables; diversity of flora and fauna including indigenous species both directly and indirectly through the destruction of habitats, resulting in a genetic wipe-out.[6][54][65][66]
Cotton growers in the US reportedly receive half their income from the government under theFarm Bill of 2002. The subsidy payments stimulatedoverproductionand resulted in a record cotton harvest in 2002, much of which had to be sold at very reduced prices in the global market.[43]For foreign producers, the depressed cotton price lowered their prices far below the break-even price. In fact, African farmers received 35 to 40 cents per pound for cotton, while US cotton growers, backed by government agricultural payments, received 75 cents per pound. Developing countries and trade organizations argue that poorer countries should be able to export their principal commodities to survive, but protectionist laws and payments in the United States and Europe prevent these countries from engaging in international trade opportunities.
Today, much of the world's major fisheries areoverexploited; in 2002, theWWFestimate this at approximately 75%. Fishing subsidies include "direct assistant to fishers; loan support programs; tax preferences and insurance support; capital and infrastructure programs; marketing and price support programs; and fisheries management, research, and conservation programs."[67]They promote the expansion offishing fleets, the supply of larger and longer nets, larger yields and indiscriminate catch, as well as mitigating risks which encourages further investment into large-scale operations to the disfavour of the already struggling small-scale industry.[54][68]Collectively, these result in the continued overcapitalization and overfishing of marine fisheries.
There are four categories offisheries subsidies. First are direct financial transfers, second are indirect financial transfers and services. Third, certain forms of intervention and fourth, not intervening. The first category regards direct payments from the government received by the fisheries industry. These typically affect profits of the industry in the short term and can be negative or positive. Category two pertains to government intervention, not involving those under the first category. These subsidies also affect the profits in the short term but typically are not negative. Category three includes intervention that results in a negative short-term economic impact, but economic benefits in the long term. These benefits are usually more general societal benefits such as the environment. The final category pertains to inaction by the government, allowing producers to impose certain production costs on others. These subsidies tend to lead to positive benefits in the short term but negative in the long term.[69]
A survey of manufacturing in Britain found government subsidies had had various unintended dysfunctional consequences. The subsidies had usually been selective or discriminatory – benefiting some companies at the expense of others. Government money in the form of grants and awards of production and R&D contracts had gone to advanced and viable firms as well as old uneconomic enterprises. However, the main recipients had been larger, established companies – while most of the firms pioneering radical technical-product developments with long-term economic growth potential had been new small enterprises.
The study concluded that instead of providing subsidies, governments wanting to benefit industrial-technological development and performance should lower standard rates of business taxation, raise tax allowances for investments in new plant, equipment and products, and remove obstacles to market competition and customer choice.[70]
The US National Football League's (NFL) profits have topped records at $11 billion, the highest of all sports. The NFL had tax-exempt status until voluntarily relinquishing it in 2015, and new stadiums have been built with public subsidies.[71][72]
TheCommitment to Development Index(CDI), published by theCenter for Global Development, measures the effect that subsidies and trade barriers actually have on the undeveloped world. It uses trade, along with six other components such as aid or investment, to rank and evaluate developed countries on policies that affect the undeveloped world. It finds that the richest countries spend $106 billion per year subsidizing their own farmers – almost exactly as much as they spend on foreign aid.[73]
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Abusiness planis a formal written document containing the goals of abusiness, the methods for attaining those goals, and the time-frame for the achievement of the goals. It also describes the nature of the business, background information on theorganization, the organization's financial projections, and thestrategiesit intends to implement to achieve the stated targets. In its entirety, this document serves as a road-map (aplan) that provides direction to the business.[1][2]
Written business plans are often required to obtain abank loanor other kind offinancing. Templates[3]and guides, such as the ones offered in the United States by theSmall Business Administration[4]can be used to facilitate producing a business plan.
Business plans may be internally or externally focused. Externally-focused plans draft goals that are important to outside stakeholders, particularly financial stakeholders. These plans typically have detailed information about the organization or the team making effort to reach its goals. With for-profit entities, external stakeholders include investors and customers,[5]for non-profits, external stakeholders refer to donors andclients,[6]for government agencies, external stakeholders are the tax-payers, higher-level government agencies, and international lending bodies such as theInternational Monetary Fund, theWorld Bank, various economic agencies of theUnited Nations, anddevelopment banks.
Internally-focused business plans target intermediate goals required to reach the external goals. They may cover the development of a new product, a new service, a new IT system, a restructuring of finance, the refurbishing of a factory or the restructuring of an organization. An internally-focused business plan is often developed in conjunction with abalanced scorecardorOGSMor a list of critical success factors. This allows the success of the plan to be measured using non-financial measures.
Business plans that identify and target internal goals, but provide only general guidance on how they will be met are calledstrategic plans.[7]
Operational plans describe the goals of an internal organization, working group or department.[8]Project plans, sometimes known as project frameworks, describe the goals of a particular project. They may also address the project's place within the organization's larger strategic goals.[9]
Business plans are essentialdecision-making tools. The content and format of a business plan depend on its goals and target audience. For example, a business plan for a non-profit organization might emphasize how it aligns with the organization's mission. Banks are particularly concerned about defaults, so a business plan created for a bank loan should convincingly demonstrate the organization’s ability to repay the loan. On the other hand, venture capitalists focus on initial investments, feasibility, and exit valuation. A business plan for a project that requires equity financing needs to explain why current resources, upcoming growth opportunities, and sustainable competitive advantages will contribute to a high exit valuation.
Creating a business plan requires knowledge from various business disciplines, including finance, human resource management, intellectual property management, supply chain management, operations management, and marketing, among others. It can be helpful to view the business plan as a compilation of sub-plans, each addressing a key business discipline.
A well-crafted business plan can help establish credibility, clarity, and appeal for individuals unfamiliar with the business. While writing a good business plan cannot guarantee success, it can significantly reduce the likelihood of failure.
The process of creating a business plan involves five distinct steps. The first step is to clearly outline the main business concept. The second step is to gather data regarding the feasibility of your idea, including specific details about your business. The third step involves organizing the information you have collected and refining your plan. After that, you can start drafting an outline of your business plan, detailing the specifics of your business idea. The fifth and final step is to compile this information into a compelling format that will encourage potential investors to support your business.[10]
The format of a business plan depends on its presentation context. It is common for businesses, especially start-ups, to have three or four formats for the same business plan.
An "elevator pitch" is a short summary of the plan's executive summary. This is often used as a teaser to awaken the interest of potential investors, customers, or strategic partners. It is called an elevator pitch as it is supposed to be content that can be explained to someone else quickly in an elevator. The elevator pitch should be between 30 and 60 seconds.[11]
Apitch deckis a slide show and oral presentation that is meant to trigger discussion and interest potential investors in reading the written presentation. The content of the presentation is usually limited to the executive summary and a few key graphs showing financial trends and key decision-making benchmarks. If a new product is being proposed and time permits, a demonstration of the product may be included.[12]
A written presentation for external stakeholders is a detailed, well written, and pleasingly formatted plan targeted at external stakeholders.
An internal operational plan is a detailed plan describing planning details that are needed by management but may not be of interest to external stakeholders. Such plans have a somewhat higher degree of candor and informality than the version targeted at external stakeholders and others.
Typical structure for a business plan for a start-up venture[13]
Typical questions addressed by a business plan for a start-up venture[14]
Cost andrevenueestimates are central to any business plan for deciding the viability of the planned venture. But costs are often underestimated and revenues overestimated resulting in latercost overruns, revenue shortfalls, and possibly non-viability. During thedot-com bubble1997-2001 this was a problem for many technology start-ups.Reference class forecastinghas been developed to reduce the risks of cost overruns and revenue shortfalls and thus generate more accurate business plans.
Fundraising is the primary purpose of many business plans since they are related to the inherent probable success/failure of the company risk.
Business goals can be defined for both non-profit and for-profit organizations. For-profit business plans typically emphasize financial objectives, such as generating profit and creating wealth. In contrast, non-profit organizations and government agencies often center their plans around their "organizational mission," which underpins their tax-exempt status or governmental role. However, non-profits may also seek to optimize their revenue.
The primary distinction between for-profit and non-profit organizations lies in their fundamental objectives. For-profit organizations aim to maximize wealth, while non-profit organizations focus on serving the greater good of society. In non-profits, a creative tension often emerges as they try to balance their mission-driven goals with the need to generate revenue and maintain financial sustainability.
A notable real-life example of a business plan is the one created byTesla Motorsduring its early days.[15]Tesla's plan focused on revolutionizing the automotive industry by introducing electric vehicles (EVs) that were not only environmentally friendly but also high-performance and stylish. Key elements of their business plan included:
Tesla's business plan attracted significant investor interest and laid the foundation for its success as a leader in the EV market.
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Acontainer port,container terminal, orintermodal terminalis a facility wherecargo containersaretransshippedbetweendifferent transport vehicles, for onward transportation. The transshipment may be betweencontainer shipsand land vehicles, for exampletrainsortrucks, in which case the terminal is described as amaritime container port. Alternatively, the transshipment may be between land vehicles, typically between train and truck, in which case the terminal is described as aninland container port.
In November 1932, the first inland container port in the world was opened by thePennsylvania Railroadcompany inEnola, Pennsylvania.[1]
Port Newark-Elizabethon theNewark Bayin thePort of New York and New Jerseyis considered the world's first maritime container port. On April 26, 1956, theIdeal Xwas rigged for an experiment to use standardized cargo containers that were stacked and then unloaded to a compatible truck chassis at Port Newark. The concept had been developed by the McLean Trucking Company. On August 15, 1962, thePort Authority of New York and New Jerseyopened the world’s first container port, Elizabeth Marine Terminal.[2]
Maritime container ports tend to be part of a largerport, and the biggest maritime container ports can be found situated around majorharbours. Inland container ports tend to be located in or near major cities, with good rail connections to maritime container ports.
It is common for cargo that arrives to a container port in a single ship to be distributed over several modes of transportation for delivery to inland customers. According to a manager from thePort of Rotterdam, it may be fairly typical way for the cargo of a large 18,000TEUcontainer ship to be distributed over 19 container trains (74 TEU each), 32 barges (97 TEU each) and 1,560 trucks (1.6 TEU each, on average).[3]The further container terminal, in April 2015, suchAPM TerminalMaasvlakte II, that adapts the advanced technology ofremotely-controlledSTSgantry cranesand conceptions ofsustainability,renewable energy, and zerocarbon dioxide emission.[4]
Both maritime and inland container ports usually provide storage facilities for both loaded and empty containers. Loaded containers are stored for relatively short periods, whilst waiting for onward transportation, whilst unloaded containers may be stored for longer periods awaiting their next use. Containers are normally stacked for storage, and the resulting stores are known as container stacks.
In recent years methodological advances regarding container port operations have considerably improved, such ascontainer port design process. For a detailed description and a comprehensive list of references see, e.g., the operations research literature.[5][6]
This is a list of the world's top 10 largest container port operators in 2024 according toLloyd's List.[7]
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Strategic planningis the activity undertaken by anorganizationthrough which it seeks to define its future direction and makesdecisionssuch as resource allocation aimed at achieving its intended goals. "Strategy" has many definitions, but it generally involves setting major goals, determining actions to achieve these goals, setting atimeline, and mobilizing resources to execute the actions. A strategy describes how the ends (goals) will be achieved by the means (resources) in a given span of time. Often, Strategic planning is long term and organizational action steps are established from two to five years in the future.[1]Strategy can be planned ("intended") or can be observed as a pattern of activity ("emergent") as the organization adapts to its environment or competes in the market.
The senior leadership of an organization is generally tasked with determining strategy. It is executed by strategic planners orstrategists, who involve many parties and research sources in their analysis of the organization and its relationship to the environment in which it competes.[2]
Strategy includes processes of formulation andimplementation; strategic planning helps coordinate both. However, strategic planning is analytical in nature (i.e., it involves "finding the dots"); strategy formation itself involves synthesis (i.e., "connecting the dots") viastrategic thinking. As such, strategic planning occurs around the strategy formation activity.[2]
Strategic planning became prominent in corporations during the 1960s and remains an important aspect ofstrategic management.
McKinsey & Companydeveloped acapability maturity modelin the 1970s to describe the sophistication of planning processes, with strategic management ranked the highest. The four stages include:
Categories 3 and 4 are strategic planning, while the first two categories are non-strategic or essentially financial planning. Each stage builds on the previous stages; that is, a stage 4 organization completes activities in all four categories.[3]
In 1993, PresidentBill Clintonsigned into law theGovernment Performance and Results Act, which requiredUS federal agenciesto develop strategic plans for how they would deliver high quality products and services to the American people.[4]
In the business sector, McKinsey research undertaken and published in 2006 found that, although many companies had a formal strategic-planning process, the process was not being used for their "most important decisions".[5]
For Michael C. Sekora,Project Socratesfounder in theReagan White House, during theCold Warthe economically challengedSoviet Unionwas able to keep on western military capabilities by using technology-based planning while the U.S. was slowed by finance-based planning, until the Reagan administration launched the Socrates Project, which should be revived to keep up withChina as an emerging superpower.[6]
Strategic planning is a process and thus has inputs, activities, outputs and outcomes. This process, like all processes, has constraints. It may be formal or informal and is typically iterative, with feedback loops throughout the process. Some elements of the process may be continuous and others may be executed as discrete projects with a definitive start and end during a period. Strategic planning provides inputs forstrategic thinking: these are best seen as distinct but complementary activities.[7]Strategic thinking guides the actual strategy formation. Typical strategic planning efforts include the evaluation of the organization's mission and strategic issues to strengthen current practices and determine the need for new programming.[8]The end result is the organization's strategy, including a diagnosis of the environment and competitive situation, a guiding policy on what the organization intends to accomplish, and key initiatives or action plans for achieving the guiding policy.[9]
Michael Porterwrote in 1980 that formulation of competitive strategy includes consideration of four key elements:
The first two elements relate to factors internal to the company (i.e., the internal environment), while the latter two relate to factors external to the company (i.e., the external environment).[10]These elements are considered throughout the strategic planning process.
Data is gathered from various sources, such as interviews with key executives, review of publicly available documents on the competition or market, primary research (e.g., visiting or observing competitor places of business or comparing prices), industry studies, reports of the organization's performance, etc. This may be part of acompetitive intelligenceprogram. Inputs are gathered to help establish a baseline, support an understanding of the competitive environment and its opportunities and risks. Other inputs include an understanding of the values of key stakeholders, such as the board, shareholders, and senior management. These values may be captured in an organization'svisionandmissionstatements.
The essence of formulating competitive strategy is relating a company to its environment.
Strategic planning activities include meetings and other communication among the organization's leaders and personnel to develop a common understanding regarding the competitive environment and what the organization's response to that environment should be. A variety of strategic planning tools may be completed as part of strategic planning activities.
The organization's leaders may have a series of questions they want to be answered in formulating the strategy and gathering inputs.[2][11]
The output of strategic planning includes documentation and communication describing the organization's strategy and how it should be implemented, sometimes referred to as the strategic plan.[12]The strategy may include a diagnosis of the competitive situation, a guiding policy for achieving the organization's goals, and specific action plans to be implemented.[9]A strategic plan may cover multiple years and be updated periodically.
The organization may use a variety of methods of measuring and monitoring progress towards thestrategic objectivesand measures established, such as abalanced scorecardorstrategy map. Organizations may also plan their financial statements (i.e., balance sheets, income statements, and cash flows) for several years when developing their strategic plan, as part of the goal-setting activity. The termoperationalbudgetis often used to describe the expected financial performance of an organization for the upcoming year. Capital budgets very often form the backbone of a strategic plan, especially as it increasingly relates to Information and Communications Technology (ICT).
While the planning process produces outputs,strategy implementationor execution of the strategic plan produces outcomes. These outcomes will invariably differ from the strategic goals. How close they are to the strategic goals and vision will determine the success or failure of the strategic plan. Unintended outcomes might also be an issue. They need to be attended to and understood for strategy development and execution to be a true learning process.
A variety of analytical tools and techniques are used in strategic planning.[2]These were developed by companies and management consulting firms to help provide a framework for strategic planning. Such tools include:
Strategic planning can be used inproject managementwith a focus on the development of a standard repeatable methodology adding to the likelihood of achieving project objectives. This requires a lot of thinking process and interaction among stakeholders. Strategic planning in Project Management provides an organization the framework and consistency of action. In addition, it ensures communication of overall goals and understanding roles of teams or individual to achieve them. The commitment of top management must be evident throughout the process to reduce resistance to change, ensure acceptance, and avoid common pitfalls. Strategic planning does not guarantee success but will help improve likelihood of success of an organization.[14]
strategic planning is also desirable withineducational institutions. We are already in a transitional period in which old practices are no longer permanent but require revision to meet the needs of academia, which is frustrating in the educational sector. To meet the changing needs of this new society, educational institutions must reorganize.[15]Finding ways to maintain achievements while improving effectiveness can be difficult for educational institutions. Keeping up with society's rapid changes. Some strategic planners are hesitant to address societal outcomes, so they often ignore them and assume they will happen on their own. Instead of defining the vision for how we want our children to live, they direct their attention to courses, content, and resources with the mistaken belief that societally useful outcomes will follow. When this occurs, the true strategic plan is never developed or implemented.[16]
Simply extending financial statement projections into the future without consideration of the competitive environment is a form offinancial planningorbudgeting, not strategic planning. In business, the term "financial plan" is often used to describe the expected financial performance of an organization for future periods. The term "budget" is used for a financial plan for the upcoming year. A "forecast" is typically a combination of actual performance year-to-date plus expected performance for the remainder of the year, so is generally compared against plan or budget and prior performance. The financial plans accompanying a strategic plan may include three–five years of projected performance.
Strategic planning has been criticized for attempting to systematizestrategic thinkingand strategy formation, whichHenry Mintzbergargues are inherently creative activities involving synthesis or "connecting the dots" which cannot be systematized. Mintzberg argues that strategic planning can help coordinate planning efforts and measure progress on strategic goals, but that it occurs "around" the strategy formation process rather than within it. It functions remote from the "front lines" or contact with the competitive environment (i.e., in business, facing the customer where the effect of competition is most clearly evident) may not be effective at supporting strategy efforts.[2]
While much criticism surrounds strategic planning, evidence suggests that it does work. In a 2019 meta-analysis including data from almost 9,000 public and private organizations, strategic planning is found to have a positive impact on organizational performance. Strategic planning is particularly potent in enhancing an organization's capacity to achieve its goals (i.e., effectiveness). However, the study argues that just having a plan is not enough. For strategic planning to work, it needs to include some formality (i.e., including an analysis of the internal and external environment and the stipulation of strategies, goals and plans based on these analyses), comprehensiveness (i.e., producing many strategic options before selecting the course to follow) and careful stakeholder management (i.e., thinking carefully about whom to involve during the different steps of the strategic planning process, how, when and why).[17]
Henry Mintzbergin the article "The Fall and Rise of Strategic Planning" (1994),[18]argued that the lesson that should be accepted is that managers will never be able to take charge of strategic planning through a formalized process. Therefore, he underscored the role of plans as tools to communicate and control. It ensures that there is coordination wherein everyone in the organization is moving in the same direction. The plans are the prime media communicating the management's strategic intentions, thereby promoting a common direction instead of individual discretion. It is also the tool to secure the support of the organization's external sphere, such as financiers, suppliers or government agencies, who are helping achieve the organization's plans and goals.[18]
Cornutet al(2012)[19]studied the particular features of the strategic plan genre of communication by examining a corpus of strategic plans from public and non-profit organizations. They defined strategic plans as the "key material manifestation" of organizations' strategies and argued that, even though strategic plans are specific to an organization, there is a generic quality that draws on shared institutional understanding on the substance, form and communicative purposes of the strategic plan. Hence, they posit that strategic plan is a genre of organizational communication (Bhatia, 2004; Yates and Orlikowski, 1992 as cited in Cornutet al., 2012).[19]In this sense, genre is defined as the "conventionalized discursive actions in which participating individuals or institutions have shared perceptions of communicative purposes as well as those of constraints operating their construction, interpretation and conditions of use" (Bhatia, 2004: 87; see also Frow, 2005; Swales, 1990 as cited in Cornutet al., 2012).[19]
The authors compared the corpus of strategic plans with nine other corpora. This included annual reports from the public sector and nongovernment organizations, research articles, project plans, executive speeches, State of the Union addresses, horoscopes, religious sermons, business magazine articles and annual reports for-profit corporations included in the Standard & Poor's 500 largest companies (S&P 500).
The authors used textual analysis, includingcontent analysisandcorpus linguistics.Content analysiswas used to identify themes and concepts, such as values and cognition; whilecorpus linguisticswas used to identify naturally occurring texts and patterns (Biberet al., 1998 as cited in Cornutet al., 2012).[19]
The strategic plans showed significantly less self-reference than all other corpora, with the exemption of project plans and S&P 500 annual reports. The results indicated that strategic plans have more moderate verbs of deontic value. This was interpreted as an indication that "commands and commitments are not overtly hedged, but neither are they particularly strong".
Guidance on the sections of a strategic plan abound but there are few studies about the nature of language used for these documents. Cornutet al.'s (2012)[19]study showed that writers of strategic plans have a shared understanding of what is the appropriate language. Thus, the authors argued, a true strategist is one who is able to instantiate the genre strategic plan through appropriate application of language.[19]
Speeet. al. (2011)[20]explored the strategic planning as communicative process based on Ricoeur's concepts of decontextualization and recontextualization, they conceptualize strategic planning activities as being constituted through the iterative and recursive relationship of talk and text, this elaborate the construction of a strategic plan as a communicative process. This study looks at the way that texts within the planning process, such asPowerPointpresentations, planning documents and targets that are part of a strategic plan, are constructed in preparation, through a series of communicative interface. Throughout the process, strategy documents were essential in detaining the developing strategy as they were constantly revised up until an ultimate plan was accepted.
A book edited by Mandeville-Gamble (2015) sees the roles of managers as important in terms of communicating the strategic vision of the organization.[21]Many of the authors in the book by Mandeville-Gamble agree that a strategic plan is merely an unrealized vision unless it is widely shared and sparks the willingness to change within individuals in the organization. Similarly, Goodman in 2017[22]emphasized that the advent of the internet and social media has become one of the most important vehicle to which corporate strategic plan can be distributed to an organizations internal and external stakeholders. This distribution of knowledge allows for staff of organization to access and share the institutional thinking this able to reformulate it in their own words.
Strategic planning through control mechanisms (mostly by the way of a communication program) is set in the hopes of coming to desired outcomes that reflect company or organizational goals. As further supplement to this idea, controls can also be realized in both measurable and intangible controls, specifically output controls, behavioural controls, and clan controls. By way of simple definition, output controls work toward to tangible and quantifiable results; behavioural controls are geared toward behaviours of people in an organization; and clan controls are dependent and are executed while keeping in mind norms, traditions, and organizational culture. All these three are implemented in order to keep systems and strategies running and focused toward desired results (n.d.).
Strategic planning is both the impetus for and result of critical thinking, optimization, and motivation for the growth and development of organizations. The core disciplines, which are inherent insystems thinking, personal and organizational mastery, mental models, building a shared vision, and team learning. In a time of machine learning and data analytics, these core disciplines remain to be relevant in so far as having human resource and human interest become the driving force behind organizations.
Moreover, it cannot be denied that communication plays a role in the realization of learning organizations and strategic planning. In a study by Barker and Camarata (1998),[23]the authors noted that there are theories that could explain the invaluable role of communication, and these are from Rational Choice Theory to Social Exchange Theory where costs, rewards, and outcomes are valued in maintaining communication and thus relationships to serve the ends of an organization and its members. Thus, while many organizations and companies try their best to become learning organizations and exercise strategic planning, without communication, relationships fail and the core disciplines are never truly met (Barker & Camarata, 1998).[23]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_planning
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Thetriple bottom line(or otherwise noted asTBLor3BL) is anaccountingframework with three parts: social, environmental (or ecological) and economic. Some organizations have adopted the TBL framework to evaluate their performance in a broader perspective to create greater business value.[1]Business writerJohn Elkingtonclaims to have coined the phrase in 1994.[2][3]
In traditional business accounting and common usage, the "bottom line" refers to either the "profit" or "loss", which is usually recorded at the very bottom line on a statement of revenue and expenses. Over the last 50 years, environmentalists andsocial justiceadvocates have struggled to bring a broader definition of bottom line into public consciousness by introducingfull cost accounting. For example, if a corporation shows a monetary profit, but theirasbestosmine causes thousands of deaths fromasbestosis, and theircopper minepollutes a river, and the government ends up spending taxpayer money on health care and river clean-up, how can we capture a fuller societalcost benefit analysis? The triple bottom line adds two more "bottom lines": social and environmental (ecological) concerns.[4]With the ratification of theUnited NationsandICLEITBL standard for urban and community accounting in early 2007,[5]this became the dominant approach topublic sectorfull cost accounting. Similar UN standards apply tonatural capitalandhuman capitalmeasurement to assist in measurements required by TBL, e.g. the EcoBudget standard for reportingecological footprint. Use of the TBL is fairly widespread inSouth African media, as found in a 1990–2008 study of worldwide national newspapers.[6]
An example of an organization seeking a triple bottom line would be asocial enterpriserun as a non-profit, but earning income by offering opportunities for handicapped people who have been labelled "unemployable", to earn a living byrecycling. The organization earns a profit, which is invested back into the community. The social benefit is the meaningful employment of disadvantaged citizens, and the reduction in the society's welfare or disability costs. The environmental benefit comes from the recycling accomplished. In theprivate sector, a commitment tocorporate social responsibility(CSR) implies an obligation to public reporting about the business's substantialimpactfor the better of the environment and people. Triple bottom line is one framework for reporting this material impact. This is distinct from the more limited changes required to deal only with ecological issues. The triple bottom line has also been extended to encompass four pillars, known as the quadruple bottom line (QBL). The fourth pillar denotes a future-oriented approach (future generations,intergenerational equity, etc.). It is a long-term outlook that setssustainable developmentandsustainabilityconcerns apart from previous social, environmental, and economic considerations.[citation needed]
The challenges of putting the TBL into practice relate to the measurement of social and ecological categories. Despite this, the TBL framework enables organizations to take a longer-term perspective and thus evaluate the future consequences of decisions.[1]
Sustainable developmentwas defined by theBrundtland Commissionof the United Nations in 1987.[7]Triple bottom line (TBL) accounting expands the traditional reporting framework to take into account social and environmental performance in addition to financial performance.
In 1981,Freer Spreckleyfirst articulated the triple bottom line framework in a publication calledSocial Audit - A Management Tool for Co-operative Working.[8]In this work, he argued that enterprises should measure and report on financial performance, social wealth creation, and environmental responsibility. The phrase "triple bottom line" was articulated more fully byJohn Elkingtonin his 1997 bookCannibals with Forks: the Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business,[9]where he adopted a question asked by the Polish poetStanisław Lec, "Is it progress if acannibaluses a fork?" as the opening line of his foreword. Elkington suggests that it can be, particularly in the case of "sustainable capitalism", wherein competing corporate entities seek to maintain their relative position by addressing people and planet issues as well asprofit maximisation.[9]
ATriple Bottom Line Investinggroup advocating and publicizing these principles was founded in 1998 byRobert J. Rubinstein.[10]
For reporting their efforts companies may demonstrate their commitment tocorporate social responsibility(CSR) through the following:
The concept of TBL demands that a company's responsibility lies withstakeholdersrather thanshareholders. In this case, "stakeholders" refers to anyone who is influenced, either directly or indirectly, by the actions of the firm. Examples of stakeholders include employees, customers, suppliers, local residents, government agencies, and creditors. According to thestakeholder theory, the business entity should be used as a vehicle for coordinating stakeholder interests, instead of maximizing shareholder (owner) profit. A growing number of financial institutions incorporate a triple bottom line approach in their work. It is at the core of the business of banks in theGlobal Alliance for Banking on Values, for example.
TheDetroit-basedAvalon International Breadsinterprets the triple bottom line as consisting of "Earth", "Community", and "Employees".[11]
The triple bottom line consists of social equity, economic, and environmental factors. The phrase, "people, planet, and profit" to describe the triple bottom line and the goal ofsustainability, was coined by John Elkington in 1994 while at SustainAbility,[3][9]and was later used as the title of the Anglo-Dutch oil company Shell's first sustainability report in 1997. As a result, one country in which the 3P concept took deep root was The Netherlands.
The people, social equity, orhuman capitalbottom line pertains to fair and beneficial business practices toward labour and the community and region in which a corporation conducts its business. A TBL company conceives a reciprocalsocial structurein which the well-being of corporate, labour and other stakeholder interests are interdependent.
An enterprise dedicated to the triple bottom line seeks to provide benefit to many constituencies and not to exploit or endanger any group of them. The "up streaming" of a portion of profit from the marketing of finished goods back to the original producer of raw materials, for example, a farmer infair tradeagricultural practice, is a common feature. In concrete terms, a TBL business would not use child labour and monitor all contracted companies for child labour exploitation, would pay fair salaries to its workers, would maintain a safe work environment and tolerable working hours, and would not otherwise exploit a community or its labour force. A TBL business also typically seeks to "give back" by contributing to the strength and growth of its community with such things as health care and education. Quantifying this bottom line is relatively new, problematic and often subjective. TheGlobal Reporting Initiative(GRI) has developed guidelines to enable corporations andNGOsalike to comparably report on the social impact of a business.
The planet, environmental bottom line, ornatural capitalbottom line refers to sustainable environmental practices. A TBL company endeavors to benefit the natural order as much as possible or at the least do no harm and minimize environmental impact. A TBL endeavour reduces itsecological footprintby, among other things, carefully managing its consumption of energy and non-renewables and reducing manufacturing waste as well as rendering waste lesstoxicbefore disposing of it in a safe and legal manner. "Cradle to grave" is uppermost in the thoughts of TBL manufacturing businesses, which typically conduct alife cycle assessmentof products to determine what the true environmental cost is from the growth and harvesting of raw materials to manufacture to distribution to eventual disposal by the end user.
Currently, the cost of disposing of non-degradable or toxic products is born financially and environmentally by future generations, the governments, and residents near the disposal site and elsewhere. In TBL thinking, an enterprise which produces and markets a product which will create a waste problem should not be given a free ride by society. It would be more equitable for the business which manufactures and sells a problematic product to bear part of the cost of its ultimate disposal.
Ecologically destructive practices, such as overfishing or other endangering depletions of resources are avoided by TBL companies. Oftenenvironmental sustainabilityis the more profitable course for a business in the long run. Arguments that it costs more to be environmentally sound are often specious when the course of the business is analyzed over a period of time. Generally, sustainability reporting metrics are better quantified and standardized for environmental issues than for social ones. A number of respected reporting institutes and registries exist including the Global Reporting Initiative, CERES, Institute for Sustainability and others.
The ecological bottom line is akin to the concept ofeco-capitalism.[12]
The profit or economic bottom line deals with the economic value created by the organization after deducting the cost of all inputs, including the cost of the capital tied up. It therefore differs from traditional accounting definitions of profit. In the original concept, within a sustainability framework, the "profit" aspect needs to be seen as the real economic benefit enjoyed by the host society. It is the real economic impact the organization has on its economic environment. This is often confused to be limited to the internal profit made by a company or organization (which nevertheless remains an essential starting point for the computation). Therefore, an original TBL approach cannot be interpreted as simply traditional corporate accounting profitplussocial and environmental impacts unless the "profits" of other entities are included as a social benefit.[citation needed]
Following the initial publication of the triple bottom line concept, students and practitioners have sought greater detail in how the pillars can be evaluated. Thepeopleconcept, for example, can be viewed into three dimensions – organisational needs, individual needs, and community issues.
Equally,profitis a function of both a healthy sales stream, which needs a high focus on customer service, coupled with the adoption of a strategy to develop new customers to replace those that die away, andplanetcan be divided into a multitude of subdivisions, althoughreduce, reuse and recycleis a succinct way of steering through this division.
The initial understanding is now supplanted by thinking beyond TBL: added to the TBL concept of economics, ethics and environment is the idea of thinking of the environment as a mantel that the other pillars hold up, and add to Economics and Ethics, the notions of Energy, and Health or the 4 E's.
The following business-based arguments support the concept of TBL:
Governmentfiscal policiesusually claim to be concerned with identifying social and natural deficits on a less formal basis. However, such choices may be guided more byideologythan byeconomics. The primary benefit of embedding one approach to measurement of these deficits would be first to directmonetary policyto reduce them, and eventually achieve a globalmonetary reformby which they could be systematically and globally reduced in some uniform way.
The argument is that theEarth'scarrying capacityis at risk, and that in order to avoid catastrophic breakdown ofclimateorecosystems, there is need for comprehensive reform ofglobal financial institutionssimilar in scale to what was undertaken at theBretton Woods Conferencein 1944.
With the emergence of an externally consistentgreen economicsand agreement on definitions of potentially contentious terms such asfull-cost accounting,natural capitalandsocial capital, the prospect of formal metrics for ecological and social loss or risk has grown less remote since the 1990s.[citation needed]
In theUnited Kingdomin particular, the London Health Observatory has undertaken a formal programme to address social deficits via a fuller understanding of what "social capital" is, how it functions in a realcommunity(that being theCity of London), and how losses of it tend to require bothfinancial capitaland significant political and social attention fromvolunteersand professionals to help resolve. The data they rely on is extensive, building on decades of statistics of theGreater London CouncilsinceWorld War II. Similar studies have been undertaken inNorth America.
Studies of thevalue of Earthhave tried to determine what might constitute an ecological or natural life deficit. TheKyoto Protocolrelies on some measures of this sort, and actually relies on somevalue of lifecalculations that, among other things, are explicit about the ratio of the price of a human life between developed and developing nations (about 15 to 1). While the motive of this number was to simply assign responsibility for a cleanup, such stark honesty opens not just an economic but political door to some kind of negotiation — presumably to reduce that ratio in time to something seen as more equitable. As it is, people in developed nations can be said to benefit 15 times more fromecological devastationthan in developing nations, in pure financial terms. According to theIPCC, they are thus obliged to pay 15 times more per life to avoid a loss of each such life toclimate change— theKyoto Protocolseeks to implement exactly this formula, and is therefore sometimes cited as a first step towards getting nations to accept formalliabilityfor damage inflicted on ecosystems shared globally.
Advocacy for triple bottom line reforms is common inGreen Parties. Some of the measures undertaken in theEuropean Uniontowards theEurocurrency integration standardize the reporting of ecological and social losses in such a way as to seem to endorse in principle the notion of unified accounts, orunit of account, for these deficits.
To address financial bottom line profitability concerns, some argue that focusing on the TBL will indeed increase profit for the shareholders in the long run. In practice,John Mackey, CEO ofWhole Foods, uses Whole Foods' Community Giving Days as an example. On days when Whole Foods donates 5% of their sales to charity, this action benefits the community, creates goodwill with customers, and energizes employees, which may lead to increased, sustainable profitability in the long-run.[16]
Furthermore, planning a sustainability strategy with the triple bottom line in mind could save companies a lot of money if a disaster were to strike. For example, whenBPspilled "two hundred million gallons of oil in theGulf of Mexico", it cost the company "billions". This company focused mostly on the financial and economic costs of this disaster, instead of the company’s environmental bottom line, furthering damage to the company and its reputation.[17]
Timothy Slater and Tanya Hall identifiedGeneral Electric(GE),Unilever,Procter and Gamble,3Mand a private company, Cascade Engineering, as examples of businesses using TBL.[1]GE referred to TBL benefits associated with their electron beam emitting technology investment in 2008.[18]Danish companyNovo Nordisk's consolidated financial statements for 2019 were supplemented by a "consolidated social statement" and a "consolidated environmental statement".[19]
While many people agree with the importance of good social conditions and preservation of the environment, there are also many who disagree with the triple bottom line as the way to enhance these conditions. The following are the reasons why:
In short, the criticisms can be summarised as:
In response to these limitations, the concept of the "Triple Depreciation Line" (also called "CARE - Comprehensive Accounting in Respect of Ecology - model") has been proposed.[25][26]
A focus on people, planet and profit has led to legislation changes around the world, often throughsocial enterpriseorsocial investmentor through the introduction of a new legal form, thecommunity interest company.[27]In the United States, theBCorpmovement has been part of a call for legislation change to allow and encourage a focus on social and environmental impact, with BCorp a legal form for a company focused on "stakeholders, not just shareholders".[28]
InWestern Australia, the triple bottom line was adopted as a part of the State Sustainability Strategy,[29]and accepted by theGovernment of Western Australiabut its status was increasingly marginalised by subsequentpremiersAlan CarpenterandColin Barnett.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_bottom_line
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TheWorld Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure(PIANC) is an international professional organisation founded in 1885.[1]PIANC’s mission today is to provide expert guidance and technical advice on technical, economic and environmental issues pertaining towaterborne transportinfrastructure, including the fields ofnavigablebodies of water(waterways), such ascanalsandrivers, as well asportsandmarinas.
It is headquartered in Brussels in offices provided by the Flemish government of Belgium. Its earlier names were theAssociation Internationale Permanente des Congres de Navigation(AIPCN) until 1921, then as the Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses (PIANC). It is additionally known as the International Navigation Association (French:Association Internationale de Navigation).[citation needed]
On 25 May 1885, the first Inland Navigation Congress was held in Brussels, providing a forum for an international debate on these questions. After some years, the Inland Navigation Congress merged with the Ocean Navigation Congress and the International Navigation Congress was born. During the Congress in Paris, 1900, a Permanent International Commission for the Navigation Congresses was set up. Two years later statutes were adopted and PIANC was a born. Congresses are held every four years and are spread all over the world.
In 1926 it was decided to release a Bulletin every half year to promote the contact between members. The Bulletin still exists, but now in the form of an electronic Magazine.
In 1979 it was decided to establish permanent Technical Commissions and that Working Groups will be established under the umbrella of the Technical Commissions to study specific topics. The first Working Group report was issued in 1983 and over 100 others followed suit ([2]).
PIANC changed considerably over the years, from an Association organising a Congress every four years, to an Association setting technical guidelines and publishing high ranking reports.
The association is composed of qualifying members,[5]subscribing members and Honorary Members, who can be both legal and natural persons. The qualifying members of the association, having the right to vote in the general assembly, are:
PIANC operates with a President, a General Secretary and Vice-Presidents representing the main areas of the world. The main decision-making body is the General Assembly.
Membership is managed by National Sections and the PIANC Headquarters.
PIANC organizes the World Congress every four years in different areas of the world.
Other periodic main events are:
- SMART Rivers, focused on inland navigation infrastructure,
- COPEDEC congresses, that are held in countries in transition,
- Mediterranean Days of Coastal and Port Engineering, focused on the Mediterranean area.
The core business of PIANC are the Working Group Reports. Working Groups are composed of international experts that are tasked to prepare technical reports and guidelines in the fields of the waterborne navigation infrastructure design, construction and management.[6]The Working Groups are created and managed by four technical commissions:
The other PIANC commissions are:
Overall supervision of all Commissions is provided by the Executive Committee (ExCom).
The Commissions and ExCom are also involved in the organization of congresses and events at an international level, the recognition of awards to the excellences in the fields of interest.
The Inland Navigation Commission (InCom) is in charge of the activities of PIANC in the field of inland waterways in co-operation with MarCom, ReCom and EnviCom. InCom will network with other international organisations/commissions to reach PIANC’s strategic goals.
Chairperson: (...-current) Mr Philippe Rigo (BE)
The Environmental Commission (EnviCom) is responsible for dealing with broad and very specific environmental issues of interest to PIANC and representing PIANC in the international organisations dealing with these issues such as the London Convention, OSPAR, WODA and the EU. It is further recognised that the site-specific environmental impacts of inland navigation or maritime activities are partnered and/or dealt with respectively by InCom and MarCom. Furthermore, EnviCom is responsible for broad and generic environmental issues that cross-cut all PIANC areas. EnviCom is networking with other navigation related interests and has communications with non-traditional groups dealing with environmental affairs and training needs. The Commission also initiates efforts to enhance PIANC membership with environmental specialists.
Chairperson: (2017–present) Mr Todd Bridges (US)
The Maritime Navigation Commission (MarCom) is responsible for dealing with maritime ports and seaways issues of interest to PIANC. MarCom co-operates with other Commissions when issues can be seen to have a broader perspective, for example when they also have an environmental or inland impact. MarCom also co-operates and communicates with other international organisations such as IMO, IAPH, WODA, etc.
Chairperson: (...-2019) Mr Francisco Esteban Lefler (ES)
The Recreational Navigation Commission (RecCom) has been established to deal with aspects directly related to sport and recreational navigation, to develop aids for this kind of navigation and facilitate its integration among the other types of navigation (commercial and fishing). RecCom works closely together with other organisations such as theInternational Council of Marine Industry Associations(ICOMIA).
RecCom is composed by experts coming from all the continents and manages working groups that develop the technical reports and guidelines. The Commission is responsible for the PIANC Marina Excellence Design "Jack Nichol" Award. The Commission started also the PIANC Marina Designer Training Program (MDTP), with the aim of organizing specific courses for marina design.
Chairperson: (2017–present) Mr Esteban L. Biondi (AR) - (2009-2017) Mr Elio Ciralli (IT) - (2005-2009) Mr Marcello Conti (IT) - (1994-2005) Mr Caes Van der Wildt (NL) - (1982-1994) Mr P. Hofmann Frisch (DE).
PIANC established and manage, through the Technical Commissions, the following international awards:
The different PIANC awards have specific rules and regulations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Association_for_Waterborne_Transport_Infrastructure
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Acontainer ship(also calledboxshipor spelledcontainership) is acargo shipthat carries all of its load in truck-sizeintermodal containers, in a technique calledcontainerization. Container ships are a common means of commercialintermodal freight transportand now carry most seagoing non-bulk cargo.
Container ship capacity is measured intwenty-foot equivalent units(TEU). Typical loads are a mix of 20-foot (1-TEU) and 40-foot (2-TEU)ISO-standard containers, with the latter predominant.
Today, about 90% of non-bulk cargoworldwide is transported by container ships, the largest of which, from 2023 onward, can carry over 24,000 TEU.
There are two main types of dry cargo:bulk cargoandbreak bulk cargo. Bulk cargoes, like grain or coal, are transported unpackaged in the hull of the ship, generally in large volume.[3]Break-bulk cargoes, in contrast, are transported in packages, and are generally manufactured goods.[4]
Before the advent of containerization in the 1950s, break-bulk items required manual loading, lashing, unlashing and unloading from the ship one piece at a time. Thisstevedoringprocess became more efficient by grouping cargo into containers, 1,000 to 3,000 cubic feet (28 to 85 m3) of cargo, or up to about 64,000 pounds (29,000 kg), is moved at once and each container is secured to the ship once in a standardized way.[5]Containerization has increased the efficiency of moving traditional break-bulk cargoes significantly, reducing shipping time by 84% and costs by 35%.[6]In 2001, more than 90% of world trade in non-bulk goods was transported in ISO containers.[7]In 2009, almost one quarter of the world's dry cargo was shipped by container, an estimated 125 million TEU or 1.19 billion tonnes worth of cargo.[8]
The first ships designed to carry standardized load units were used in the late 18th century in England. In 1766James Brindleydesigned the box boat "Starvationer" with 10 wooden containers, to transport coal fromWorsleyDelph to Manchester via theBridgewater Canal.[9]Before theSecond World War, the first container ships were used to carry the baggage of the luxury passenger train from London to Paris (Southern Railway'sGolden Arrow/La Flèche d'Or). These containers were loaded in London or Paris, and carried to ports of Dover or Calais on flat cars.[10]In February 1931, the first container ship in the world was launched; theAutocarrier, owned by the Southern Railway. It had 21 slots for containers of Southern Railway.[9][11]
The earliest container ships after the Second World War were converted oiltankers, built up from surplusT2 tankersafter World War II. In 1951, the first purpose-built container vessels began operating inDenmark, and betweenSeattleandAlaska. The first commercially successful container ship wasIdeal X,[12]a T2 tanker, owned byMalcom McLean, which carried 58 metal containers betweenNewark, New JerseyandHouston, Texas, on its first voyage.[13]In 1955, McLean built his company, McLean Trucking into one of the United States' biggest freighter fleets. In 1955, he purchased the small Pan Atlantic Steamship Company fromWaterman Steamshipand adapted its ships to carry cargo in large uniform metal containers.[14]On April 26, 1956, the first of these rebuilt container vessels,Ideal X, left thePort Newarkin New Jersey and a new revolution in modern shipping resulted.[15][16]
In the 1950s, a new standardized steelIntermodal containerbased on specifications from theUnited States Department of Defensebegan to revolutionize freight transportation.
TheWhite Pass & Yukon Routerailway acquired the world's first purpose built container ship, theClifford J. Rogers, built in 1955, and introduced containers to its railway in 1956.[17]
MVKooringawas the world's first fullycellular, purpose-built container ship.[18]and was built by Australian company Associated Steamships, a partnership formed by the 1964 merger of theAdelaide Steamship CompanywithMcIlwraith, McEacharn & Co, then commissioned in May 1964.[19]
Container ships were designed to accommodate intermodal transport of goods,[20]and eliminated requirements for the individual hatches, holds and other dividers of traditionalcargo ships. The hull of a typical container ship is similar to an airport hangar, or a huge warehouse, which is divided into individual holding cells, using vertical guide rails. The ship's cells are designed to hold cargo containers, which are typically constructed of steel, though sometimes of aluminum, fiberglass or plywood, and designed for intermodal transfers between ship andtrain,truckorsemi-trailer. Shipping containers are categorized by type, size and function.[21]
Today, about 90% of non-bulk cargoworldwide is transported by container by about 50,000 container ships.[22]Modern container ships can carry over 24,000 TEU. The largest container ships measure about 400 metres (1,300 ft) in length, and carry loads equal to the cargo-carrying capacity of sixteen to seventeen pre-World War II freighter ships.[23]
There are several key points in the design of modern container ships. The hull, similar to that of bulk carriers and general cargo ships, is built around a strongkeel.[24]Into this frame is set one or more below-deck cargoholds, numerous tanks, and theengine room. The holds are topped by hatch covers, onto which more containers can be stacked. Many container ships have cargo cranes installed on them, and some have specialized systems for securing containers on board.
The hull of a modern cargo ship is a complex arrangement of steel plates and strengthening beams. Resembling ribs, and fastened at right angles to the keel, are the ship's frames.[24]The ship's main deck, the metal platework that covers the top of the hull framework, is supported by beams that are attached to the tops of the frames and run the full breadth of the ship.[24]The beams not only support the deck, but along with the deck, frames, and transverse bulkheads, strengthen and reinforce the shell.[24]Another feature of recent hulls is a set of double-bottom tanks, which provide a second watertight shell that runs most of the length of a ship.[25]The double-bottoms generally hold liquids such as fuel oil, ballast water or fresh water.[25]
A ship's engine room houses its main engines and auxiliary machinery such as the fresh water and sewage systems, electrical generators, fire pumps, and air conditioners.[25]In most new ships, the engine room is located in the aft portion.[25]
Container ships are distinguished into 7 major size categories: small feeder, feeder, feedermax,Panamax,Post-Panamax,Neopanamaxand ultra-large.[27]As of December 2012, there were 161 container ships in the VLCS class (Very Large Container Ships, more than 10,000 TEU), and 51 ports in the world can accommodate them.[28]
The size of a Panamax vessel is limited by the originalPanama canal's lock chambers, which can accommodate ships with a beam of up to 32.31 m, a length overall of up to 294.13 m, and a draft of up to 12.04 m.[29]The Post-Panamax category has historically been used to describe ships with a moulded breadth over 32.31 m,[30]however thePanama Canal expansion projecthas caused some changes in terminology. The Neopanamax category is based on the maximum vessel size that is able to transit a new third set of locks, which opened in June 2016.[31][32]The third set of locks were built to accommodate a container ship with alength overallof 366 metres (1,201 ft), a maximum beam (width) of 49 metres (161 ft), and tropical fresh-water draft of 15.2 metres (50 ft).[32][33]Such a vessel, called Neopanamax class, is wide enough to carry 19 columns of containers, can have a total capacity of approximately 12,000 TEU and is comparable in size to acapesizebulk carrier or aSuezmaxtanker.[33]
Container ships under 3,000 TEU are generally calledfeeder shipsor feeders. They are small ships that typically operate between smaller container ports. Some feeders collect their cargo from small ports, drop it off at large ports for transshipment on larger ships, and distribute containers from the large port to smaller regional ports.[2]This size of vessel is the most likely to carry cargo cranes on board.[34]
A major characteristic of a container ship is whether it has cranes installed for handling its cargo. Those that have cargo cranes are calledgearedand those that do not are calledungearedorgearless. The earliest purpose-built container ships in the 1970s were all gearless.[34]Since then, the percentage of geared newbuilds has fluctuated widely, but has been decreasing overall, with only 7.5% of the container ship capacity in 2009 being equipped with cranes.[34]
While geared container ships are more flexible in that they can visit ports that are not equipped with piersidecontainer cranes, they suffer from several drawbacks.[34]To begin with, geared ships will cost more to purchase than a gearless ship.[34]Geared ships also incur greater recurring expenses, such as maintenance and fuel costs.[34]The United Nations Council on Trade and Development characterizes geared ships as a "niche market only appropriate for those ports where low cargo volumes do not justify investment in port cranes or where the public sector does not have the financial resources for such investment".[34]
Instead of the rotary cranes, some geared ships havegantry cranesinstalled.[38]These cranes, specialized for container work, are able to roll forward and aft on rails.[38]In addition to the additional capital expense and maintenance costs, these cranes generally load and discharge containers much more slowly than their shoreside counterparts.[38]
The introduction and improvement of shoresidecontainer craneshave been a key to the success of the container ship.[38]The first crane that was specifically designed for container work was built in California's Port of Alameda in 1959.[38]By the 1980s, shoreside gantry cranes were capable of moving containers on a 3-minute-cycle, or up to 400 tons per hour.[38]In March 2010, atPort Klangin Malaysia, a new world record was set when 734 container moves were made in a single hour.[39]The record was achieved using 9 cranes to simultaneously load and unloadMVCSCL Pusan, a ship with a capacity of 9,600 TEU.[39]
Vessels in the 1,500–2,499 TEU range are the most likely size class to have cranes, with more than 60% of this category being geared ships.[34]Slightly less than a third of the very smallest ships (from 100–499 TEU) are geared, and almost no ships with a capacity of over 4,000 TEU are geared.[34]
Efficiency has always been key in the design of container ships.[40]While containers may be carried on conventional break-bulk ships, cargo holds for dedicated container ships are specially constructed to speed loading and unloading, and to efficiently keep containers secure while at sea.[40]A key aspect of container ship specialization is the design of the hatches, the openings from the main deck to the cargo holds.[41]The hatch openings stretch the entire breadth of the cargo holds, and are surrounded by a raised steel structure known as thehatchcoaming.[40][41]On top of the hatch coamings are the hatch covers. Until the 1950s, hatches were typically secured with wooden boards and tarpaulins held down with battens.[42]Today, some hatch covers can be solid metal plates that are lifted on and off the ship by cranes, while others are articulated mechanisms that are opened and closed using powerful hydraulic rams.
Another key component of dedicated container-ship design is the use ofcell guides.[40]Cell guides are strong vertical structures constructed of metal installed into a ship's cargo holds.[40]These structures guide containers into well-defined rows during loading and provide some support for containers against the ship's rolling at sea.[40]So fundamental to container ship design are cell guides that organizations such as theUnited Nations Conference on Trade and Developmentuse their presence to distinguish dedicated container ships from general break-bulk cargo ships.[30]
A system of three dimensions is used incargo plansto describe the position of a container aboard the ship.[43]The first coordinate is thebay, which starts at the front of the ship and increases aft.[43]The second coordinate is therow.[43]Rows on the starboard side are given odd numbers and those on the port side are given even numbers.[43]The rows nearest the centerline are given low numbers, and the numbers increase for slots further from the centerline.[43]The third coordinate is thetier, with the first tier at the bottom of the cargo holds, the second tier on top of that, and so forth.[43]
Container ships typically take 20 foot and 40 foot containers. Some ships can take 45 footers above deck. A few ships (APL since 2007,[44]Carrier53 since 2022[45]) can carry 53 foot containers. 40 foot containers are the primary container size, making up about 90% of all container shipping and since container shipping moves 90% of the world's freight, over 80% of the world's freight moves via 40 foot containers.
Numerous systems are used to secure containers aboard ships, depending on factors such as the type of ship, the type of container, and the location of the container.[46][47]Stowage inside the holds of fully cellular (FC) ships is simplest, typically using simple metal forms called container guides, locating cones, and anti-rack spacers to lock the containers together.[48]Above-decks, without the extra support of the cell guides, more complicated equipment is used.[46]Three types of systems are currently in wide use: lashing systems, locking systems, and buttress systems.[46]Lashing systems secure containers to the ship using devices made from wire rope, rigid rods, or chains and devices to tension the lashings, such as turnbuckles.[46]The effectiveness of lashings is increased by securing containers to each other, either by simple metal forms (such as stacking cones) or more complicated devices such as twist-lock stackers.[46]A typicaltwist-lockis inserted into the casting hole of one container and rotated to hold it in place, then another container is lowered on top of it.[49]The two containers are locked together by twisting the device's handle.[49]A typicaltwist-lockis constructed of forged steel and ductile iron and has a shear strength of 48 tonnes.[50]
The buttress system, used on some large container ships, uses a system of large towers attached to the ship at both ends of each cargo hold.[51]As the ship is loaded, a rigid, removable stacking frame is added, structurally securing each tier of containers together.[51]
Container ships have typically had a single bridge and accommodation unit towards the rear, but to reconcile demand for larger container capacity withSOLASvisibility requirements, several new designs have been developed. As of 2015[update], some large container ships are being developed with the bridge further forward, separate from the exhaust stack. Some smaller container ships working in European ports and rivers have liftable wheelhouses, which can be lowered to pass under low bridges.
As of 2010[update], container ships made up 13.3% of the world's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage.[56]The world's total of container ship deadweight tonnage has increased from 11 millionDWTin 1980 to 169.0 millionDWTin 2010.[57]The combined deadweight tonnage of container ships and general cargo ships, which also often carry containers, represents 21.8% of the world's fleet.[58]
As of 2009[update], the average age of container ships worldwide was 10.6 years, making them the youngest general vessel type, followed bybulk carriersat 16.6 years,oil tankersat 17 years, general cargo ships at 24.6 years, and others at 25.3 years.[59]
Most of the world's carrying capacity in fully cellular container ships is in theliner service, where ships trade on scheduled routes.[34][60]As of January 2010, the top 20 liner companies controlled 67.5% of the world's fully cellular container capacity, with 2,673 vessels of an average capacity of 3,774 TEU.[1]The remaining 6,862 fully cellular ships have an average capacity of 709 TEU each.[1]
The vast majority of the capacity of fully cellular container ships used in the liner trade is owned by Germanshipowners, with approximately 75% owned by Hamburg brokers.[60]It is a common practice for the large container lines to supplement their own ships with chartered-in ships, for example in 2009, 48.9% of the tonnage of the top 20 liner companies was chartered-in in this manner.[60]
International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country, called itsflag state.[61]A ship's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. As of 2006[update], the United StatesBureau of Transportation Statisticscount 2,837 container ships of 10,000 long tonsdeadweight(DWT) or greater worldwide.[62]Panamawas the world's largestflag statefor container ships, with 541 of the vessels in its registry.[62]Seven other flag states had more than 100 registered container ships:Liberia(415),Germany(248),Singapore(177),Cyprus(139), theMarshall Islands(118) and theUnited Kingdom(104).[62]The Panamanian, Liberian, and Marshallese flags are open registries and considered by theInternational Transport Workers' Federationto beflags of convenience.[63]By way of comparison, traditional maritime nations such as the United States and Japan only had 75 and 11 registered container ships, respectively.[62]
In recent years, oversupply of container ship capacity has caused prices for new and used ships to fall. From 2008 to 2009, new container ship prices dropped by 19–33%, while prices for 10-year-old container ships dropped by 47–69%.[64]In March 2010, the average price for a geared 500-TEU container ship was $10 million, while gearless ships of 6,500 and 12,000 TEU averaged prices of $74 million and $105 million respectively.[65]At the same time, secondhand prices for 10-year-old geared container ships of 500-, 2,500-, and 3,500-TEU capacity averaged prices of $4 million, $15 million, and $18 million respectively.[66]
In 2009, 11,669,000 gross tons of newly built container ships were delivered.[67]Over 85% of this new capacity was built in the Republic of Korea, China, and Japan, with Korea accounting for over 57% of the world's total alone.[67]New container ships accounted for 15% of the total new tonnage that year, behind bulk carriers at 28.9% and oil tankers at 22.6%.[67]
Most ships are removed from the fleet through a process known asscrapping.[68]Scrapping is rare for ships under 18 years old and common for those over 40 years in age.[69]Ship-owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship's empty weight (called light ton displacement or LTD) and prices in the scrap metal market.[70]Scrapping rates are volatile, the price per light ton displacement has swung from a high of $650 per LTD in mid-2008 to $200 per LTD in early 2009, before building to $400 per LTD in March 2010.[71]As of 2009[update], over 96% of the world's scrapping activity takes place in China, India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.[72]
The global economic downturn of 2008–2009 resulted in more ships than usual being sold for scrap.[71]In 2009, 364,300 TEU worth of container ship capacity was scrapped, up from 99,900 TEU in 2008.[71]Container ships accounted for 22.6% of the total gross tonnage of ships scrapped that year.[73]Despite the surge, the capacity removed from the fleet only accounted for 3% of the world's container ship capacity.[71]The average age of container ships scrapped in 2009 was 27.0 years.[73]
Economies of scalehave dictated an upward trend in the size of container ships in order to reduce expenses. However, there are certain limitations to the size of container ships. Primarily, these are the availability of sufficiently large main engines and the availability of a sufficient number of ports and terminals prepared and equipped to handle ultra-large container ships. Furthermore, the permissible maximum ship dimensions in some of the world's main waterways could present an upper limit in terms of vessel growth. This primarily concerns theSuez Canaland theSingapore Strait.
In 2008 the South Korean shipbuilderSTXannounced plans to construct a container ship capable of carrying 22,000TEU,[90]and with a proposed length of 450 m (1,480 ft) and abeamof 60 m (200 ft).[91]If constructed, the container ship would become the largest seagoing vessel in the world.[92]
Since even very large container ships are vessels with relatively low draft compared to large tankers and bulk carriers, there is still considerable room for vessel growth. Compared to today's largest container ships, Maersk Line's 15,200TEUEmma Mærsk-type series, a 20,000TEUcontainer ship would only be moderately larger in terms of exterior dimensions. According to a 2011 estimate, an ultra-large container ship of 20,250TEUwould measure 440 m × 59 m (1,444 ft × 194 ft), compared to 397.71 m × 56.40 m (1,304.8 ft × 185.0 ft) for theEmma Mærskclass.[93][94]It would have an estimated deadweight of circa 220,000 tons. While such a vessel might be near the upper limit for a Suez Canal passage, the so-calledMalaccamaxconcept (forStraits of Malacca) does not apply for container ships, since the Malacca and Singapore Straits'draft limitof about 21 metres (69 ft) is still above that of any conceivable container ship design. In 2011, Maersk announced plans to build a new "Triple E" family of container ships with a capacity of 18,000 TEU, with an emphasis on lower fuel consumption.[95]
In the present market situation, main engines will not be as much of a limiting factor for vessel growth either. The steadily rising expense offuel oilin the early 2010s had prompted most container lines to adapt a slower, more economical voyage speed of about 21 knots, compared to earlier top speeds of 25 or more knots. Subsequently, newly built container ships can be fitted with a smaller main engine. Engine types fitted to today's ships of 14,000TEUare thus sufficiently large to propel future vessels of 20,000TEUor more. Maersk Line, the world's largest container shipping line, nevertheless opted for twin engines (two smaller engines working two separate propellers), when ordering a series of ten 18,000 TEU vessels from Daewoo Shipbuilding in February 2011.[96]The ships were delivered between 2013 and 2014. In 2016, some experts believed that the current largest container ships are at the optimum size, and could not economically be larger, as port facilities would be too expensive, port handling too time consuming, the number of suitable ports too low, and insurance cost too high.[97][98]
In March 2017 the first ship with an official capacity over 20,000 TEUs was christened atSamsung Heavy Industries.MOL Triumphhas a capacity of 20,150 TEUs. Samsung Heavy Industries was expected to deliver several ships of over 20,000 TEUs in 2017, and has orders for at least ten vessels in that size range for OOCL and MOL.[87]
The world's largest container ship,MSC Irina, was delivered March 9, 2023 by builder Yangzi Xinfu Shipbuilding to theMediterranean Shipping Company(MSC), with a capacity of 24,346 TEUs. Measuring 399.99 metres in length and 61.3 metres in beam, the ship is one of four ordered from the builder in 2020,[99]and exceeded MSC's 24,116 TEUMSC Tessa, which had been delivered that same day by theChina State Shipbuilding Corporation(CSSC).[77]In April,MSC Irinasister shipMSC Loreto, with an equal capacity of 24,346 TEU was received by MSC.[100]
On June 2, 2023Ocean Network Expresstook delivery of theONE Innovationwith a capacity of 24,136 TEUs.ONE Innovationis one of six new Megamax vessels ordered by Ocean Network Express in December 2020 to be built by a consortium ofImabari ShipbuildingandJapan Marine United.[76]
The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering. Outside specialbulk cargomarkets, ships are hired by three types ofcharteragreements: thevoyage charter, the time charter, and thebareboat charter.[101]In a voyage charter, the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the discharge port.[102]In a time charter, the vessel is hired for a set period of time, to perform voyages as the charterer directs.[102]In a bareboat charter, the charterer acts as the ship's operator and manager, taking on responsibilities such as providing the crew and maintaining the vessel.[103]The completed chartering contract is known as acharter party.[104]
TheUnited Nations Conference on Trade and Development[UNCTAD], tracks in its 2010Review of Maritime Tradetwo aspects of container shipping prices:[105]The first one is a chartering price, specifically the price to time-charter a 1 TEU slot for 14 tonnes of cargo on a container ship.[60]The other is thefreight rate; or comprehensive daily cost to deliver one-TEU worth of cargo on a given route.[60][106]As a result of thelate-2000s recession, both indicators showed sharp drops during 2008–2009, and have shown signs of stabilization since 2010.
UNCTAD uses theHamburg Shipbrokers' Association(formally theVereinigung Hamburger Schiffsmakler und Schiffsagentene. V.or VHSS for short) as its main industry source for container ship freight prices.[60]The VHSS maintains a few indices of container ship charter prices. The oldest, which dates back to 1998, is called theHamburg Index.[60]This index considers time-charters on fully cellular container ships controlled by Hamburg brokers.[60]It is limited to charters of 3 months or more, and presented as the average daily cost in U.S. dollars for a one-TEU slot with a weight of 14 tonnes.[60]The Hamburg Index data is divided into ten categories based primarily on vessel carrying capacity.[60]Two additional categories exist for small vessels of under 500 TEU that carry their own cargo cranes.[60]In 2007, VHSS started another index, theNew ConTexwhich tracks similar data obtained from an international group of shipbrokers.[60]
The Hamburg Index shows some clear trends in recent chartering markets. First, rates were generally increasing from 2000 to 2005. From 2005 to 2008, rates slowly decreased, and in mid-2008 began a "dramatic decline" of approximately 75%, which lasted until rates stabilized in April 2009.[60]Rates have ranged from $2.70 to $35.40 in this period, with prices generally lower on larger ships. The most resilient sized vessel in this time period were those from 200 to 300 TEU, a fact that the United Nations Council on Trade and Development attributes to lack of competition in this sector.[60]Overall, in 2010, these rates rebounded somewhat, but remained at approximately half of their 2008 values.[60]As of 2011, the index shows signs of recovery for container shipping, and combined with increases in global capacity, indicates a positive outlook for the sector in the near future.[60]
UNCTAD also tracks containerfreight rates. Freight rates are expressed as the total price in U.S. dollars for a shipper to transport one TEU worth of cargo along a given route.[60]Data is given for the three main container liner routes: U.S.-Asia, U.S.-Europe, and Europe-Asia.[60]Prices are typically different between the two legs of a voyage, for example the Asia-U.S. rates have been significantly higher than the return U.S.-Asia rates in recent years.[60]Generally, from the fourth quarter of 2008 through the third quarter of 2009, both the volume of container cargo and freight rates have dropped sharply.[60]In 2009, the freight rates on the U.S.–Europe route were sturdiest, while the Asia-U.S. route fell the most.[60]
Liner companies responded to their overcapacity in several ways. For example, in early 2009, some container lines dropped their freight rates to zero on the Asia-Europe route, charging shippers only a surcharge to cover operating costs.[60]They decreased their overcapacity by lowering the ships' speed (a strategy called "slow steaming") and by laying up ships.[60]Slow steaming increased the length of the Europe-Asia routes to a record high of over 40 days.[60]Another strategy used by some companies was to manipulate the market by publishing notices of rate increases in the press, and when "a notice had been issued by one carrier, other carriers followed suit".[109]
TheTrans-Siberian Railroad(TSR) has recently become a more viable alternative to container ships on the Asia-Europe route.[109]This railroad can typically deliver containers in 1/3 to 1/2 of the time of a sea voyage, and in late 2009 announced a 20% reduction in its container shipping rates.[109]With its 2009 rate schedule, the TSR will transport a forty-foot container to Poland from Yokohama for $2,820, or from Pusan for $2,154.[109]
In an effort to control costs and maximize capacity utilization on ever-larger ships, vessel sharing agreements, co-operative agreements, and slot-exchanges have become a growing feature of the maritime container shipping industry. As of March 2015, 16 of the world's largest container shipping lines had consolidated their routes and services accounting for 95 percent of container cargo volumes moving in the dominant east-west trade routes.[111]Carriers remain operationally independent, as they are forbidden by antitrust regulators in multiple jurisdictions from colluding on freight rates or capacity. Similarities can be drawn[according to whom?]withairline alliances.
In July 2016 theEuropean Commissionreported that it had raised concerns with 14 container shipping carriers regarding their practice of announcing General Rate Increases (GRIs) in a coordinated manner, which potentially conflicted with the EU andEEArules on concerted practices which could distort competition (Article 101 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union). The shipping companies announced a series of commitments aiming to address the Commission's concerns, which for its part the Commission accepted as "legally binding" for the period from 2016 to 2019.[112]General Rate Increases continue to be published in the industry either annually or sixth-monthly.[113]
Container traffic through a port is often tracked in terms oftwenty foot equivalent unitsor TEU of throughput.[114]As of 2019[update], thePort of Shanghaiwas the world's busiest container port, with 43,303,000 TEU handled.[115]
That year, seven of the busiest ten container ports were in thePeople's Republic of China, withShanghaiin 1st place,Ningbo3rd,Shenzhen4th,Guangzhou5th,Qingdao7th,Hong Kong8th andTianjin9th.[115]
Rounding out the top ten ports wereSingaporeat 2nd,Busanin South Korea at 6th andRotterdamin the Netherlands in the 10th position.[115]
In total, the busiest twenty container ports handled 220,905,805 TEU in 2009, almost half of the world's total estimated container traffic that year of 465,597,537 TEU.[114]
It has been estimated that container ships lose between 2,000[116]and 10,000containersat sea each year,[117]costing $370 million.[118]A survey for the six years 2008 through 2013 estimates average losses of individual containers overboard at 546 per year, and average total losses including catastrophic events such as vessel sinkings or groundings at 1,679 per year[119]More recently, a survey conducted by the WSC from 2008–2019, saw an average of 1,382 shipping containers lost at sea. However, in the 3-year period from 2017–2019, that number was nearly halved, down to an average of 779 containers lost annually. Most go overboard on the open sea during storms but there are some examples of whole ships being lost with their cargo.[120]One major shipping accident occurred in 2013 when the MOL Comfort sank with 4,293 containers onboard in the Indian Ocean.[121]When containers are dropped, they immediately become an environmental threat – termed "marine debris".[122]Once in the ocean, they fill with water and sink if the contents cannot hold air. Rough waters smash the container, sinking it quickly.[116]
As container ships get larger and stacking becomes higher, the threat of containers toppling into the sea during a storm increases. This results from a phenomenon called "parametric rolling," by which a ship can roll 30-40 degrees during rough seas creating a powerful torque on a 10-high stack of containers which can easily snap lashings and locks of the stack, resulting in losses into the sea.[123]
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Acontainer crane(alsocontainer handling gantry craneorship-to-shore crane) is a type of largedocksidegantry cranefound atcontainer terminalsfor loading and unloadingintermodal containersfromcontainer ships.
Container cranes consist of a supporting framework that can traverse the length of aquayor yard on a rail track. Instead of a hook, they are equipped with a specialized handling tool called aspreader. The spreader can be lowered on top of a container and locks onto the container's four locking points ("corner castings") using atwistlockmechanism. Cranes normally transport a single container at once, but some newer cranes have the capability to pick up two to four 20-foot containers at once.
Cranes were used in harbors starting in theMiddle Ages(seecrane: harbor usageandlist of historical harbour cranes). Modern inter-modalcontainerizationemerged in the mid-1950s from transport strategies developed in the Second World War and the Korean War, and the development of specialized cranes paralleled developments in containerization.
The first container crane was built byPACECO Corp.for Matson at the Encinal Terminal in Alameda, California in 1959.[1]
There are two common types of container handling gantry crane:high profile,where the boom is hinged at the waterside of the crane structure and lifted in the air to clear the ships for navigation, andlow profile,where the boom is shuttled toward and over the ship to allow the trolley to load and discharge containers. Low-profile cranes are used where they may be in the flight path of aircraft, such as where a container terminal is located close to an airport. The type of crane selected incontainer terminal design processis determined by the design vessel and local environment.
Container cranes are generally classified by their lifting capacity and the size of the container ships they can load and unload.
Smaller container cranes, such asstraddle carriers, are used atrailway sidingsto transfer containers fromflatcarsandwell carstosemi-trailersor vice versa. Both the rolling stock and the trailers may pass under the base. Smaller container cranes are also used atbreak-of-gaugetransloading facilities.
APanamaxcrane can fully load and unload containers from a panamax class container ship capable of passing through the Panama Canal.[2]
A "post-Panamax" crane can load and unload containers from a container ship too large (too wide) to pass through thePanama Canal.
The largest modern container cranes are classified as "super-post-Panamax". A modern container crane capable of lifting two 20-foot (6.1 m) long containers at once (end to end) under the telescopic spreader will generally have a rated lifting capacity of 65 tonnes. Some new cranes have a 120-tonne load capacity, enabling them to lift up to four 20-foot (6.1 m) or two 40-foot (12 m) containers. Cranes capable of lifting six 20-foot containers have also been designed. Post-Panamax cranes weigh approximately 800–900 tonnes, while the newer-generation super-post-Panamax cranes can weigh 1,600–2,000 tonnes. The largest Super-post-Panamax cranes have an outreach of 26 container rows.[3]
The crane is driven by an operator who sits in a cabin suspended from the trolley. The trolley runs along rails located on the top or sides of the boom and girder. The operator runs the trolley over the ship to lift the cargo, usually containers. Once the spreader locks onto the container, the container is lifted, moved over the dock, and placed on atruck chassis (trailer)to be taken to the storage yard. The crane also lifts containers from chassis on the dock to load them onto the ship.
Straddle carriers,sidelifts,reach stackers, or containerlorriesthen manoeuvre underneath the crane base and collect the containers, rapidly moving them away from the dock and to a storage yard.Flatcarsorwell carsmay also be loaded directly beneath the crane base.
A crane can be powered by two types ofpower supply: a diesel engine–driven generator located on top of the crane or electric power from the dock. The most common is by electric power from the dock (also known as shore power). The voltage required may range from 4,000 to 13,200volts.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_crane
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Port securityis part of a broader definition concerningmaritime security. It refers to the defense, law and treaty enforcement, andCounterterrorismactivities that fall within theportand maritime domain. It includes the protection of the seaports themselves and the protection and inspection of the cargo moving through the ports. Security risks related to ports often focus on either the physical security of the port, or security risks within the maritime supply chain.[1]
Internationally, port security is governed by rules issued by theInternational Maritime Organizationand its 2002International Ship and Port Facility Security Code.[2]Additionally, someUnited States–based programs have becomede factoglobal port security programs, including theContainer Security Initiativeand theCustoms Trade Partnership against Terrorism. However, some businesses argue that port security governance measures are ineffective and costly and that it negatively impacts maritime transport costs.[3][4]
Physical port security involves the risks to the perimeters of the port. Risks to port security involves natural risks such as hurricanes and flooding, man-made risks such as operator error, and weapon risks such as chemical, biological and nuclear material.[5]It also involves adequate security systems within the port, such as security guards, video surveillance and alarm systems.[5]
Physical port security also falls under the umbrella of maritime terrorism.[3]Ports are attractive targets for terrorists because ships and cargoes are fixed in time once they enter the port, which removes the uncertainty in relation to the location of the target.[3]
Apart from physical port security, the port is connected to a larger supply chain. There are various risks along this supply chain that can affect port security, such as explosives attached to the vessel or unwanted passengers on the vessel. Ports are "potential targets of illegal activity which may impact their ability to function as intended, and ports as conduits into and out of national borders and supply chains, which can be exploited in order to introduce or move illegal materials, persons, or activities".[3]That involves increasing the number of vulnerabilities to port security to the supply chain.[citation needed]
Security risk management practices of ports reflect the goal of preparing for the inevitable nature of risk before an event occurs.[6]
Examples of security risk management practices at ports are: employment of a security director, crisis leadership, contingency planning and the use of intelligence.[7]Other measures include physical security barriers, such as CCTV cameras and adequate light at the port in order to ensure that cargo theft does not take place.[8]
Examples of risk management practices within the maritime supply chain include ISPC (International Ship and Port Facility Security Code), CSI (Container Security Initiative) and whole-of-supply chain outcomes, CTPT (Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism).[9]These efforts have been criticised as the use of quantitative and statistical approach to security in the maritime supply chain is argued to overlook low probability, high impact events.[3]
Examples of cyberspace security risk management practices of ports are: investment in cyber defense mechanisms for port infrastructure, cybersecurity awareness and training programs.[10][11]These programs educate employees about cyber risks, to help prevent and to mitigate potential cyber threats.[10][11]
Other measures include collaboration and information sharing. Collaboration with other relevant actors in the maritime sector can help ports stay well informed about global cyber threats, which in turn can help preemptively to address emerging cyber threats.[10][11]
Port security is often in the literature depicted as a responsibility of the state, as it concerns national security. Yet, the emergence of private security actors has also influenced aspects of port security governance. In the case of a port in Indonesian, the involvement of so many different types of state and non- state agencies actually lessened security.[12]
Maritime security is undergoing rapid digitalization and technological advancements, leading to an increased reliance on onshore infrastructure to support critical maritime operations. The increased connectivity and digitization of services in the maritime industry has impacted the risk of cyber attacks and threats in several ways. It has expanded the attack surface, created new threats, created a hostile threat environment, and increased vulnerabilities onshore.[10][13]
Maritime cyber risks include attacks on ports and port systems. Attacks such as malware insertion, including cyber and ransomware attacks. In these attacks, cyber criminals encrypt computers and networks within the onshore infrastructure, demanding a ransom in exchange for decryption.[10][11][13]
Other cyber risks include Business Email Compromise Fraud. In this instance, cyber criminals trick employees into wiring them money to a foreign account. In reality, the account belongs to the cyber criminals, which they will gain monetary benefits from.[13]
Foreign state espionage in the maritime sector is another cyber risk, threatening port security. It involves hackers employed by states to conduct cyber espionage. What the state hackers will gain from espionage is an insight into onshore facilities, like ports. Their intentions are strategic, aiming to acquire foreign technology, possibly to develop the cyber criminals’ destructive cyber attack capacity.[10][11][13]
Another cyber risk ports are faced with is hackers that are compromising IT systems on board of ships, allowing the cyber criminals to gain an insight into, for an example, the ship’s location and cargo.[13]Ports use a variety of sensors, such as Wi- Fi and satellite-based Internet systems which are increasingly automated. Such systems are vulnerable to penetration and manipulation and risk being misused forhacktivismand by terrorists.[14]Not only can this affect port security in terms of the parameters of the surface of the port, but a possible hacking of data can be used to trace ships and mislead them for hijacking purposes.[14]
Technological developments coupled with the U.S. Shale Revolution has allowed for increasing exports ofliquefied natural gas(LNG). The commodity, consisting of 70-90 percent methane and 0-20 percent ofbutane,propaneandethaneis similar tocrude oilas it forms through pressurising and heating.[15]
LNG derives at onshore or offshore ports, where the infrastructure at the port contains terminals that bring the LNG further. It can either be attached to a gas liqufication or storage plant, aregasificationand storage plant or just a storage and distribution plant.[15]The infrastructure at LNG terminals are therefore concerned with highly flammable content that is of security risk to personnel. Onshore LNG ports that are located close to cities or dense populations are also a security risk to the area surrounding the port.[16]Risks to port security will vary considerably and depend on the waiting position of atanker, location of the port, and security risk management practices of each specific port.[17]
LNG is naturally linked to maritime terrorism, as disputed areas and chokepoints -such as theStrait of MalaccaandSingapore Strait- has the potential to result in hijacking and bombs as the area becomes more active.[16]As the new demand centres for LNG is most notably in Asian countries such as China, India, Japan and South Korea, new geopolitical tensions might increase in the region between LNG- exporting countries such as the U.S., Russia and Qatar.[15]This also relates toenergy security, as import dependent countries are vulnerable to a sudden stop in supply of LNG.[16]
Following theSeptember 11 Attacks, the U.S. Government acknowledged the threat of unsecured ports andshipping containers.[18]By 2001, the U.S. economy was already heavily reliant on maritime shipping, and that reliance was set to double by 2020.[19]FormerU.S. Coast Guardofficer Stephen Flynn has stated that interest in shipping container security has seen a definitive shift pre and post-9/11. Shipping container and port security pre-9/11 was focused primarily on promoting the advancement ofglobalization. These interests were prioritised over sea and border defence.[20]Additionally, prior to 9/11, theU.S. Customs and Border Protectionwas more focused on combating drug smuggling.[citation needed]
The maritime suicide bombing carried out against theUSS Colein October 2000 byAl-Qaedaillustrated the probability of future maritime based terrorist attacks against the U.S.[21]In response, terrorist groups such asAl-Qaedawere flagged as the largest threat to maritime supply chains; as their maritime skills were rapidly improving and U.S. maritime security regimes remained weak.[21]However, post-9/11, the U.S. government realized the risks and threats associated with unsecured maritime transport - particularly the containerised transport of nuclear material into U.S. ports.[22]Additionally, the U.S. government showed an interest in funding and developinghomeland security, which has been critiqued by maritime experts as merely ‘constructing barricades to fend off terrorists’.[23]In the years since, academics have called for the creation of an international security regime that allows the U.S. ‘to remain an open, prosperous, free and globally engaged society’ as more than 6000 international vessels and 100,000 seafarers visit U.S. ports every year.[23]
Every year, theUnited States Marine Transportation Systemmoves more than 2 billion tons of domestic and international goods.[19]It imports 3.3 billion tons of domesticoil, transports 134 million passengers by ferry, serves the 78 million Americans engaged inrecreational boatingand hosts more than 5 millioncruise shippassengers a year.[19]
Although shipping containers have been widely used sinceWorld War II, in 2002 it was estimated that less than 3% of the 20 million containers that entered U.S. ports were scanned or inspected.[22]
This statistic is made clearer when understood in the context of theU.S. Customs and Border Protection’s protocol. AtPort Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal, 82% of the product passing through is "trusted" by the Customs agents as routine activity.[22]Only 18% of the shipments are an "anomaly" to the known shipments. This, in addition to the requirements for shippers to provide cargo lists, explains the reasoning behind such low search figures.[22]
In 2001, the Port and Maritime Security Act of 2001 was submitted to theHouse of Representatives, and subsequently referred to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation.[19]Some changes were made to the bill, however it was passed into law in 2002 as theMaritime Transportation Security Act of 2002. Many of the provisions within theMaritime Transportation Security Act of 2002call for additional attention to be paid to seaports as potential targets of terrorist attacks, and the coordination of theU.S. Coast Guardand government agencies to update their maritime counter terrorism plans.[24]Some of the points include directives to develop anti-terrorism cargo identification tracking, improved screening systems to be used on containers being shipped to the U.S. from foreign ports and enhanced physical security of shipping containers including updates standards on seals and locks.[24]Additionally, federal security standardizations were set for the first time regarding restrictions to specific areas, surveillance measures and developing security plans.[24]
In the 2005 109th Session of Congress, the most maritime security related bills were introduced since 9/11, showing a significant increase in interest in these issues among federal officials.
All 7bills, however, died in either theHouse of Representativesor theSenate.
The period following 9/11 demonstrates a broadening of security initiatives and focus on terrorist capabilities. FormerU.S. Coast Guardofficer John Harrald states that while there has been significant growth in container surveillance interest and initiatives from 2001 to 2005, in comparison to the growth of conventional national security and aviation security it is ‘dwarfed’.[23]
In 2001, theCustoms-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism(CTPAT) was created in an attempt to bolster the Bush Administration's post-9/11 multi-layered cargo enforcement strategy. The initiative is a voluntary partnership between principalstakeholdersin the public and private sector (importers, shipping container carriers, customs brokers and manufacturers).
A year later, in 2002, theContainer Security Initiative(CSI) was launched by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection. Specifically focusing on containerised cargo entering U.S. ports, the bilateral information sharing initiative was intended to ‘extend the zone of security outward so that American borders are the last line of defence, not the first’. The reciprocal system between U.S. and foreign ports, makes it possible for U.S. bound shipping containers to be inspected at their host port, instead of upon arrival in the U.S.[33]
The 2002 RAND SeaCurity conference revealed that theEuropean Commission‘strongly opposes’ theContainer Security Initiative(CSI) and particularly theCustoms-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism(CTPAT). One reason given was that the shipping container's safety seal is only required to be placed on its doors at the port of departure, not the port of origin. Therefore, the container is unsealed and exposed through most of its journey through international ports.[34]
TheUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime(UNODC) was established in 1997, however expanded after 9/11 to include maritime crime andpiracy. In 2015, the UNODC released the first annual report on their Global Maritime Crime Programme. The programme assists 18 countries in combating ‘the smuggling of migrants and people trafficking, wildlife and forestry crime, piracy and armed robbery, Somali charcoal smuggling,fisheries crimeand the growing threat of narcotics trafficking on the high seas of the Indian Ocean’.[35]However, neither the UNODC's annual reports, nor their Maritime Crime Manual for Criminal Justice Practitioners, make any mention of shipping container surveillance.
TheInternational Ship and Port Facility Security Code(ISPS) is an amendment of theSafety of Life at Sea Convention(SOLAS), which entered into force in July 2004. The code provides a security regime for international shipping and port security. Compliance is mandatory for the 148 contracting parties to SOLAS, however there are no consequences for non-compliance. ISPS is therefore a security framework for states, whereby 'each ship and each port facility will have to determine the measures needed to intensify its security measures to appropriately offset the threat by reducing its vulnerability.[36]
Maritime security expert Peter Chalk acknowledges that government initiatives up until 2008 have ‘conferred a degree of transparency' by laying the parameters - the 'rules, principles, and attendant responsibilities for international cooperation', providing a ‘common framework in which to further develop’.[37]Chalk, however, is quick to point out that even by 2008, government initiatives were still limited in scope. Criticising theInternational Ship and Port Facility Security Codeas a failure, since it includes countries who lack resources to properly comply and audit. Leaving many ports conducting "tick in the box" security verification procedures on container shipments which will eventually arrive in U.S. ports. Stating the U.S. must begin by working with like minded allies internationally.[37]
The U.S. government has taken a segmented approach to problem solving container surveillance weaknesses in an attempt to protect maritime commerce - ‘by necessity, domestic and international maritime security programs have been implemented in parallel to the creation of a coherent strategy and before the development of any measures of effectiveness. The result has been the collection of programs which overlap, interact and leave significant gaps. The overall effectiveness of national and international efforts is impossible to assess’.[23]
Immediate federal responses to 9/11 included the establishment of theDepartment of Homeland Securityin 2002; reorganising the leading federal port security agenciesU.S. Coast Guard,U.S. Customs Serviceand theTransportation Security Administrationinto 5 new separate offices.[39]The Department of Homeland Security regards the U.S. Coast Guard as the ‘lead federal agency for maritime homeland security’.[40]As the nation's principal maritime law enforcement authority, the U.S. Coast Guard is responsible for ‘evaluating, boarding, and inspecting commercial ships as they approach U.S. waters, for countering terrorist threats in U.S. ports, and for helping protect U.S. Navy ships in U.S. ports’.[41]The U.S. Customs Service is responsible for inspecting commercial cargoes and cargo containers.
Experts, however, have expressed discontent over the lack of clear roles and responsibilities of federal agencies - particularly their overlap and duplication.[41]Flynn, particularly criticises the trend of ‘tweaking the roles and capabilities of agencies whose writ runs only to the nation's shores’.[20]
Collaborative efforts between theU.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service(INS), the U.S. Coast Guard, the U.S.Bureau of Consular Affairsand theU.S. Department of Statehave been attempted through aMemorandum of Agreement. However, in 2004, their intelligence was still only limited to ‘detecting a containserized WMD at its port of entry’.[42]In a 2003 report made for Members of Congress, theCongressional Research Servicestated that the U.S. Coast Guard and U.S. Customs and Border Protection's programs ‘represent only a framework for building a maritime security regime, and that significant gaps in security still remain’.[31]The report concluded that there is administrative hesitancy within security agencies, specifically ’implementation issues’ regarding the "24 Hour Rule". Under Customs Regulations, U.S. Customs and Border Protection agents are required to ‘receive, by way of a CBP-approved electronic data interchange system, information pertaining to cargo before the cargo is either brought into or sent from the United States by any mode of commercial transportation (sea, air, rail or truck)’.[43]However, U.S. Customs and Border Protection agents have noted this 'will greatly impact the balance between a prosperous economy and sea and land border defense’.[31]In a 2007 report made for Members of Congress, theCongressional Research Servicequoted formerDepartment of Homeland SecurityInspector General Richard Skinner, who stated that ‘overall resource hours devoted to USCG’s homeland security missions grew steadily from FY 2001 through FY 2005’. However the U.S. Coast Guard only achieved 5 out of 19 (26%) homeland security goals.[40]Evaluated with reference to the expectations set out in thePorts and Waterways Safety Act of 1972and theMaritime Transportation Security Act of 2002, the U.S. Coast Guard's homeland security operations fell short in 9 key areas: funding, assets and personnel levels for performing homeland and non-homeland security missions; division of budget between homeland and non-homeland security missions; coordination with other Department of Homeland Security offices, federal, state and local authorities involved in maritime security - including coordination of operations and intelligence; monitoring compliance with facility and vessel security plans; completing foreign port security assessments; implementing long-range vessel-tracking system required by MTSA; implementing Automatic Identification System (AIS); inland waterway security; and response plans for maritime security incidents.[40]
The adoption ofMaritime Domain Awareness(MDA) has been suggested by experts as a replacement for the Bush Administration's initial homeland security approach ‘Since FY 2001, moreCoast Guardresource hours have been dedicated to homeland security missions than for non-homeland security missions.’[40]Loy and Ross insist that MDA collaboration between ‘military power, diplomatic influence, economic power... and the private sector’ is the only way to deal with potential security threats.’.[44]Stating that current customs procedures were only ‘developed for economic protection’ by promoting ‘just-in-time delivery’. Whereby ‘final papers are not required to be submitted for a container shipped under customs bond until after the container arrives at its official port of entry, which can be as many as 30 days after it enters the country.’.[42]Highlighting that the DHS’ security training programs and their creation of security plans have very little to no effect on reforming administrative procedures.
Ronald O’Rourke, a specialist in U.S. naval affairs, who details the Coast Guard's self assessment for the fiscal year of 2006 and their subsequent trialing of Marine Domain Awareness (MDA) and Automated Identification Systems (AIS) nationwide. Known as Project Hawkeye, the trial was aimed at bringing maritime cargo transport security to the level of air cargo (O’Rourke 2–3). However the radars confused waves with boats and the long range surveillance cameras were only able to capture ‘a sliver of the harbor and coasts’. Due to their ineffectiveness ‘Coast Guard staff personnel have been told not to waste much time looking at it’. Additionally, the Automated Identification System can be turned off, or used to enter an incorrect vessel location and identity.[40]
Admiral James Loy and Captain Robert Ross suggest a multilateral approach with U.S. trading partners (public and private) be pursued.[42]
Former U.S. Coast Guard Commander Stephen Flynn also suggests extending current initiatives to include bilateral and multilateral international inspection zones.[20]
European stakeholders take a similar position to Loy, Ross and Flynn, encouraging the inclusion of theprivate sectorin any counter-measure actions taken by the government, so as to avoid ‘affect container throughput – affecting the commercial imperative’.[34]
The importance of the container shipping industry is equally matched by its vulnerabilities to terrorist attack. The U.S. maritime system consists of over 300 sea and river ports with more than 3,700 cargo and passenger terminals. The United States and global economies depend on commercial shipping as the most reliable, cost efficient method of transporting goods, with U.S. ports handling approximately 20% of the maritime trade worldwide.[45]The volume of trade throughout the U.S. and the world creates a desirable target for terrorist attack. An attack on any aspect of the maritime system, mainly major ports, can severely hamper trade and potentially affect the global economy by billions of dollars.
The security of ports and their deficiencies are numerous and leave U.S. ports vulnerable to terrorist attack. The vulnerabilities of our ports are many, leading to potential security breaches in almost all aspects of the container shipping industry. With the sheer volume of maritime traffic, there is serious concern of cargo/passenger ship hijackings and pirate attack, as well as accountability of the millions of shipping containers transported worldwide. Given the overwhelming number of ships and containers, there are many areas of concern regarding the security of U.S. ports.
Terrorists can, and eventually may, exploit the shipping industry's deficiencies in port security. Potential threats include the smuggling of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), a radiological "dirty" bomb, a conventional explosive device, and transportation of terrorist operatives, as well. Studies have claimed a Hiroshima sized nuclear detonation at a major seaport would kill fifty thousand to one million people.[46]It is common knowledge within the industry that security measures of major ports cannot have a significant effect on the movement of goods, thereby allowing exploitation of the system for terrorist use.[45]
The geographical/physical layout of the ports themselves is of concern. The protection and security of the landside perimeter of a port is difficult due to their large size. Ports located in highly urbanized areas allow terrorists a densely populated area in which to hide while infiltrating or escaping the port area at their perimeter. The high volume of trucks entering and exiting port facilities pose a threat to the port, as well as surrounding geographical areas. Exiting trucks may contain WMD or terrorist operatives that are to infiltrate a surrounding metropolitan area, i.e., transporting a chemical explosive device (from thePort of Los Angeles) to a more densely populated area (downtown Los Angeles). Container ships anchored at port facilities are particularly vulnerable to both highjacking and explosive devices as they are stationary targets. Most crews of cargo ships are unarmed, and would be defenseless to an armed attack. The disabling of a ship at port is enough to halt all activity at that port for an extended period of time, especially if the disabled ship is blocking a throughway for other vessels.
The economic impact of such an attack would be disastrous on a global scale. An example of such an economic impact can be drawn from a labor-management dispute that closed ports along the west coast of the United States. These port closures cost the U.S. economy approximately $1 billion per day for the first 5 days, and rose exponentially thereafter.[47]When the International Longshore and Warehouse Union strike closed 29 West Coast ports for 10 days, one study estimated that it cost the United States economy $19.4 billion.[48]Many manufacturing companies of the world employ ajust-in-timedistribution model, allowing for lower inventory carrying costs and savings from warehouse space. The shipping industry is essential to this method, as its speed and reliability allow new inventory to be shipped and received precisely when it is needed. The adopting of the just-in-time method has dropped business logistics cost from 16.1% of U.S. GDP to 10.1% between 1980 and 2000.[47]Although this method has dropped costs significantly, it has put a stranglehold on security options, as the shipping times of these shipments are exact and cannot afford delays from inspection. Other aspects of economic impact include costs of altering shipping routes away from a disabled port, as well as delays from ports operating over capacity that receive the rerouted ships. Most ports operate at near capacity and can ill afford an attack of this nature.
Although there are many government sponsored agencies involved with port security, the responsibility of providing that security is of state and local governments. Allen (2007) states that 'under the protective principle, a state has jurisdiction to prescribe and enforce laws against acts that threaten vital state interests'. The protective principle 'recognizes that a state may apply its laws to protect vital state interests, such as the state's national security or governmental functions'.[49]Some ports may enact their own police forces in addition to city law enforcement.
There have been proposals to consolidate federal agencies responsible for border security. The consolidation may offer some long-term benefits, but three challenges may hinder a successful implementation of security enhancing initiatives at the nations ports: standards, funding, and collaboration.[50]
The first challenge involves implementing a set of standards that defines what safeguards a port should have in place. Under the Coast Guard's direction, a set of standards is being developed for all U.S. ports to use in conducting port vulnerability assessments. However, many questions remain about whether the thousands of people who have grown accustomed to working in certain ways at the nation's ports will agree to, and implement, the kinds of changes that a substantially changed environment will require.
The second challenge involves determining the amounts needed and sources of funding for the kinds of security improvements that are likely to be required to meet the standards. Florida's experience indicates that security measures are likely to be more expensive than many anticipate, and determining how to pay these costs and how the federal government should participate will present a challenge.
The third challenge is ensuring that there is sufficient cooperation and coordination among the many stakeholders to make the security measures work. Experience to date indicates that this coordination is more difficult than many stakeholders anticipate, and that continued practice and testing will be key in making it work.
Whilst the threat of terrorism cannot be totally be dismissed the day-to-day operations of port and harbour police more often deals with more mundane issues, such as theft (including pilferage by dock workers), smuggling, illegal immigration; health and safety with regards to hazardous cargoes, safe docking of vessels, and safe operation of vehicles and plant; environmental protection e.g. spillages and contaminated bilge water.
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Amode of transportis a method or way of travelling, or of transporting people or cargo.[1]The different modes of transport includeair,water, andland transport, which includesrails or railways,roadandoff-road transport. Other modes of transport also exist, includingpipelines,cable transport, andspace transport.Human-powered transportandanimal-powered transportare sometimes regarded as distinct modes, but they may lie in other categories such as land or water transport.
In general,transportationrefers to the moving of people, animals, and other goods from one place to another, andmeans of transportrefers to the transport facilities used to carry people or cargo according to the chosen mode. Examples of the means of transport include automobile, airplane, ship, truck, and train. Each mode of transport has a fundamentally different set of technological solutions. Each mode has its owninfrastructure,vehicles, transport operators and operations.
Animal-powered transport is the use ofworking animalsfor the transport of people and/or goods. Humans may use some of the animals directly, use them aspack animalsfor carrying goods, or harness them, alone or inteams, to pull watercraft,sleds, or wheeledvehicles.
Afixed-wing aircraft, typicallyairplane, is a heavier-than-air flying vehicle, in which the special geometry of the wings generates lift and then lifts the whole vehicle. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to largeairlinersand militarycargo aircraft. For short distances or in places without runways,helicopterscan be operable.[2](Other types of aircraft, likeautogyrosandairships, are not a significant portion of air transport.)
Air transport is one of the fastest method of transport, Commercial jets reach speeds of up to 955 kilometres per hour (593 mph) and a considerably higher ground speed if there is ajet streamtailwind, while piston-powered general aviation aircraft may reach up to 555 kilometres per hour (345 mph) or more. This celerity comes with higher cost and energy use,[3]andaviation's impacts to the environmentand particularly the global climate require consideration when comparing modes of transportation.[4]TheIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) estimates a commercial jet's flight to have some 2-4 times the effect on the climate than if the same CO2emissions were made at ground level, because of different atmospheric chemistry andradiative forcingeffects at the higher altitude.[5]U.S. airlines alone burned about 16.2 billion gallons of fuel during the twelve months between October 2013 and September 2014.[6]WHO estimates that globally as many as 500,000 people at a time are on planes.[3]The global trend has been for increasing numbers of people to travel by air, and individually to do so with increasing frequency and over longer distances, a dilemma that has the attention of climate scientists and other researchers,[7][8][9]along with the press.[10][11]The issue of impacts from frequent travel, particularly by air because of the long distances that are easily covered in one or a few days, is calledhypermobilityand has been a topic of research and governmental concern for many years.
Human powered transport, a form ofsustainable transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods usinghumanmuscle-power, in the form ofwalking,runningandswimming. Moderntechnologyhas allowedmachinesto enhance human power. Human-powered transport remains popular for reasons of cost-saving,leisure,physical exercise, andenvironmentalism; it is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions.
Although humans are able to walk without infrastructure, the transport can be enhanced through the use of roads, especially when using the human power with vehicles, such asbicyclesandinline skates. Human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, bywatercraft rowingandskiing; even the air can be entered withhuman-powered aircraft.
Land transport covers all land-based transportation systems that provide for the movement of people, goods and services. Land transport plays a vital role in linking communities to each other. Land transport is a key factor inurban planning. It consists of 2 kinds, rail and road.
Rail transportis a means of conveyance of passengers and goods by way of wheeled vehicles running onrail track, known as a railway or railroad. The rails are anchored perpendicular to railroad trainconsistsof one or more connected vehicles that run on the rails. Propulsion is commonly provided by alocomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or freight. The locomotive can be powered bysteam,dieselor byelectricitysupplied bytrackside systems. Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as amultiple unit. Also, a train can be powered byhorses,cables, gravity,pneumaticsandgas turbines. Railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains moreenergy efficient, though not as efficient as ships.
Intercity trainsare long-haul services connecting cities;[12]modernhigh-speed railis capable of speeds up to 430 km/h (270 mph), but this requires a specially built track.Regionalandcommutertrains feed cities from suburbs and surrounding areas, while intra-urban transport is performed by high-capacitytramwaysandrapid transits, often making up the backbone of a city'spublic transport. Freight trains traditionally usedbox cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of thecargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, while large quantities of bulk are transported by dedicated trains.
A road is an identifiable route of travel, usually surfaced with gravel, asphalt or concrete, and supporting land passage by foot or by a number of vehicles.
The most common road vehicle in the developed world is theautomobile, a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its ownmotor. As of 2002, there were 591 million automobiles worldwide.[citation needed]Other users of roads includemotorcycles,buses,trucks,bicyclesandpedestrians, and special provisions are sometimes made for each of these. For example,bus lanesgive priority for public transport, andcycle lanesprovide special areas of road for bicycles to use.
Automobiles offer high flexibility, but are deemed with high energy and area use, and the main source ofnoiseandair pollutionin cities; buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility.[13]Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight transport.
Water transport is the process of transport that awatercraft, such as a bart, ship or sailboat, makes over a body of water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, canal, or river. If a boat or other vessel can successfully pass through a waterway it is known as a navigable waterway. The need for buoyancy unites watercraft, and makes thehulla dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance and appearance. When a boat is floating on the water the hull of the boat is pushing aside water where the hull now is, this is known as displacement.
In the 1800s, the firststeamboatswere developed, using asteam engineto drive apaddle wheelor propeller to move the ship. The steam was produced using wood or coal. Now, most ships have an engine using a slightly refined type of petroleum calledbunker fuel. Some ships, such assubmarines, use nuclear power to produce the steam. Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft useinternal combustion enginesto drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow draft areas,hovercraftare propelled by large pusher-prop fans.
Although slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large quantities of non-perishable goods. Commercial vessels, nearly 35,000 in number, carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2007.[14]Transport by water is significantly less costly than air transport for transcontinentalshipping;[15]short sea shippingand ferries remain viable in coastal areas.[16][17]
Micromobilityis the collective name for small electric powered vehicles.
Pipeline transportsends goods through a pipe, most commonly liquid and gases are sent, butpneumatic tubescan also send solid capsules using compressed air. For example, liquids/gases, any chemically stable liquid or gas can be sent through a pipeline. Short-distance systems exist for sewage, slurry water and beer, while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural gas.
Cable transportis a broad mode where vehicles are pulled by cables instead of an internal power source. It is most commonly used at steep gradient. Typical solutions includeaerial tramway,elevators,escalatorandski lifts; some of these are also categorized asconveyortransport.
Space transportis transport out of Earth's atmosphere into outer space by means of aspacecraft. While large amounts of research have gone into technology, it is rarely used except to put satellites into orbit, and conduct scientific experiments. However, people have landed on the moon, and probes have been sent to all the planets of the Solar System.
Unmanned aerial vehicletransport (drone transport) is being used for medicine transportation in least developed countries with inadequate infrastructure by an American-based start-up Zipline.[18]Amazon.comand other transportation companies are currently testing the use of unmanned aerial vehicles in parcel delivery. This method will allow short-range small-parcel delivery in a short time frame.
A transport mode is a combination of the following:
Worldwide, the most widely used modes for passenger transport are the Automobile (16,000 bn passenger km), followed by Buses (7,000), Air (2,800), Railways (1,900), and Urban Rail (250).[19]
The most widely used modes for freight transport are Sea (40,000 bn ton km), followed by Road (7,000), Railways (6,500), Oil pipelines (2,000) and Inland Navigation (1,500).[19]
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Fundingis the act of providingresourcesto finance a need, program, or project. While this is usually in the form ofmoney, it can also take the form of effort or time from an organization or company. Generally, this word is used when a firm uses its internal reserves to satisfy its necessity for cash, while the termfinancingis used when the firm acquires capital from external sources.[citation needed]
Sources of funding includecredit,venture capital,donations,grants,savings,subsidies, andtaxes. Funding methods such as donations, subsidies, and grants that have no direct requirement forreturn of investmentare described as "soft funding" or "crowdfunding". Funding that facilitates the exchange of equity ownership in a company for capital investment via an online funding portal per theJumpstart Our Business Startups Act(alternately, the "JOBS Act of 2012") (U.S.) is known asequity crowdfunding.
Funds can beallocatedfor either short-term or long-term purposes.
In economics funds are injected into the market as capital by lenders and taken asloansby borrowers. There are two ways in which the capital can end up at the borrower. The lender can lend the capital to afinancial intermediaryagainst interest. These financial intermediaries then reinvest the money against a higher rate. The use of financial intermediaries to finance operations is calledindirect finance. A lender can also go to thefinancial marketsto directly lend to a borrower. This method is calleddirect finance.[2]
Research funding is funding used forresearch-relatedpurposes. It is most often used to describe funding in the fields of technology or social science. The allocation of funds are usually granted based on a per project, department, or institute basis stemming from scope of the research or project.Research fundingcan be split into commercial and non-commercial allocations. Research and development departments of a corporation normally provide commercial research funding. Whereas, non-commercial research funding is obtained from charities, research councils, orgovernment agencies.[3]Organizations that require such funding normally have to go through competitive selections. Only those that have the most potential would be chosen. Funding is vital in ensuring the sustainability of certain projects.
Entrepreneurswith a business concept would want to accumulate all the necessary resources including capital to venture into a market. Funding is part of the process, as some businesses would require large start-up sums that individuals would not have.[4]These start-up funds are essential to kick-start a business idea, without it, entrepreneurs would not have the ability to carry out their concepts in the business world.
Fund management companies gather pools of money from many investors and use them to purchasesecurities. These funds are managed by professional investment managers, which may generate higher returns with reduced risks by assetdiversification.[5]The size of these funds could be as little as a few millions or as much as multi billions. The purpose of these funding activities is mainly aiming to pursue individual or organization profits.
Personal funding involves using personal finances to fund an initiative. This could include savings, personal loans, or funds from friends and family. It is common in the early stages of a business or project when other sources of funding may not be accessible.
Corporate funding involves funds provided by corporations, often in the form of investments or loans. Corporations might provide funding for other businesses, especially in industries where there is a strategic benefit.
Government fundingis provided by local, state, or federal governments to support specific projects or activities. This type of funding can come in the form of grants, subsidies, or loans. Government funding is often aimed at promoting public policies or supporting economic growth and development.
Angel investorsare affluent individuals who provide capital for a business start-up and small business, usually in exchange for convertible debt or ownership equity. They are often among an entrepreneur's family and friends. The funds they provide can be a one-time investment to help the business get off the ground or an ongoing injection to support and carry the company through its difficult early stages.
Venture capitalis a type of private equity and a form of financing that is provided by firms or funds to small, early-stage, emerging firms that are deemed to have high growth potential or which have demonstrated high growth. Venture capital investments are generally made in exchange for equity in the company.
Grantsare funds provided by one party, often a government department, corporation, foundation, or trust, to a recipient, typically a nonprofit entity, educational institution, business, or individual. Unlike loans, grants[6]do not need to be repaid.
Loansare borrowed sums of money that are expected to be paid back with interest. They can be provided by banks, credit unions, or other financial institutions. Loans are a common form of funding for businesses, individuals, and governments.
Equity financinginvolves raising capital through the sale of shares in an enterprise. Equity financing is essentially the sale of an ownership interest to raise funds for business purposes. This type of financing is typically used by startups and growing businesses to raise capital.
Debt financinginvolves borrowing money to be repaid, plus interest, at a later date. Common types of debt financing include traditional bank loans, personal loans, bonds, and lines of credit. This form of financing is advantageous because it does not require giving up ownership of the business.
One form ofguaranteecreates a conditional liability to make a payment, whereby the guarantor will pay the principal debt holder fails to do so.[7]Effectively when the liability to make a payment is trigged the guarantor becomes a funder.
Government could allocate funds itself or throughgovernment agenciesto projects that benefit the public through a selection process to students orresearchersand even organizations. At least two external peer-reviewers and an internal research award committee review each application. The research awards committee would meet some time to discuss shortlisted applications. A further shortlist and ranking is made. Projects are funded and applicants are informed.[8]Econometric evidence shows public grants for firms can create additionality in jobs, sales, value added, innovation and capital. For example, this was shown to be the case for large R&D grants,[9]as well as smaller public grants for the tourism firms[10]or small and medium sized firms in general.[11]
Government grants are offered by various levels of government to support projects that benefit the public. Supported projects may include funding for scientific research, infrastructure development, public health initiatives, and education programs. Examples include the Pell Grant in the United States, which helps low-income students pay for college, and the Horizon Europe program, which funds research and innovation projects across Europe.
For businesses, government grants are financial contributions provided by governmental organizations to help businesses achieve specific goals, such as innovation, expansion, job creation, and export development. For example, in Canada, the CanExport program helps businesses expand into international markets by covering expenses related to travel, marketing, and trade shows. Unlike interest-free loans, grants do not need to be repaid, making them an attractive funding option for businesses looking to reduce financial risk.[12]
Crowdfundingexists in mainly two types, reward-based crowdfunding and equity-based crowdfunding. In the former, small firms could pre-sell a product or service to start a business whereas in the latter, backers buy a certain amount of shares of a firm in exchange of money.[13]As for reward-based crowdfunding, project creators would set a funding target and deadline. Anyone who is interested can pledge on the projects. Projects must reach its targeted amount in order for it to be carried out. Once the projects ended with enough funds, projects creators would have to make sure that they fulfill their promises by the intended timeline and delivery their products or services.[14]
To raisecapital, you require funds from investors who are interested in theinvestments. You have to present those investors with high-return projects. By displaying high-level potentials of the projects, investors would be more attracted to put their money into those projects. After a certain amount of time, usually in a year's time, rewards of the investment will be shared with investors. This makes investors happy and they may continue to invest further.[15]If returns do not meet the intended level, this could reduce the willingness of investors to invest their money into the funds. Hence, the amounts of financial incentives are highly weighted determinants to ensure the funding remains at a desirable level. Venture Capital (VC) is a subdivision of Private Equity wherein external investors fund small-scale startups that have high growth potential in the long run. Investors receive a portion of the company’s equity in return for the money invested by them. The amount of money that a Venture capital firm can raise is predominantly built on the Principal-agent relationship between the Limited Partners and the Venture Capital Firm.[16]
Self-organized funding allocation (SOFA) is a method of distributingfundingfor scientificresearch. In this system, each researcher is allocated an equal amount of funding, and is required to anonymously allocate a fraction of their funds to the research of others. Proponents of SOFA argue that it would result in similar distribution of funding as the present grant system, but with less overhead.[17]In 2016, a test pilot of SOFA began in the Netherlands.[18]
A company or an individual may secure aloanto get access to capital. Often borrowers must use asecured loanwhere assets are pledged as collateral. If the borrower defaults, ownership of thecollateralreverts to the lender. Both tangible andintangible assetscan be used to secure loans.[19]The use of IP as collateral in IP-backed finance transactions is the subject of a report series at theWorld Intellectual Property Organization.[20]
Withdrawal of funding, or defunding, occurs when funding previously given to an organisation ceases, especially in relation to Governmental funding.[21]Defunding could be as a result of a disagreement or failure to meet setobjectives. An example that explains the withdrawal of funding in this case is that ofPresident Trump's decision to stop funding theWorld Health Organization(WHO) over alleged Coronavirus mismanagement.[22]
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Trailer on flatcar, also known asTOFCorpiggyback, is the practice of carryingsemi-trailerson railroadflatcars. TOFC allows for shippers to move truckloads long distances more cheaply than can be done by having each trailer towed by a truck, since one train can carry more than 100 trailers at once.[1]The trailers will be moved by truck from their origin to anintermodalfacility, where they will then be loaded onto a train, typically by arubber tired gantry crane, for the bulk of their journey. Alternatively, trailers may be driven onto the flatcars via ramps by aterminal tractor. Near the destination, the trailers are unloaded at another facility and brought to their final destination by atractor unit.[2]
Modern TOFC service was first introduced in North America in the 1950s, although the practice of carrying another mode of transport on flatcars was first recorded in 1843 when canal boats were moved by aportage railwaybetween several cities inPennsylvania.[1][2]
TOFC is distinct fromcontainerization. While both are examples ofintermodal transport, trailer on flatcar is the loading of entire trailers onto railroad cars, while in containerization, the container is detached from the trailer chassis for railroad transport.
Besides the need for facilities to handle loading and unloading with road (preferably highway) access, trailer on flatcar operations impose certainheight clearancerequirements. In North America, including Mexico, this is mostly a non-issue asdouble-stack rail transportimposes much more demanding clearance requirements,[3]but regions with more constrainedloading gaugesmay impose limits on this type of transport or make it impossible altogether. However, height clearance requirements tend to be slightly lower than forrolling highwaytransportation where entire trucks are loaded onto rail vehicles. The trailers themselves also need to meet certain minimum requirements to be able to be moved via crane, which is the most cost- and time-efficient way of loading and unloading them onto the train.[4][5]To allow trailer on flatcar transport involving maximum height trailers, Switzerland is upgrading existing lines feeding into the "Gotthard Axis" of theNew Railway Link through the Alpsto a so-called "4-m corridor" named for the 4 meters (13 ft) maximum height of the trailers as specified in road transport regulations.[6]As upgrading the loading gauge of an existing railway can be very expensive, especially when tunnels and bridges follow in close succession like on theright Pegnitz Valley line,[7][8]increasingly newly built lines are built to the most generous standards deemed feasible, even if the need for such generous clearances seems remote at the time of construction. For example, theBetuweroutein the Netherlands an important freight link from the Dutch seaports to theBlue Bananahad all bridges and tunnels built to standards allowingdouble stack rail transportin the future by simply raising theoverhead wire.[9][10]
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Abilevel car(American English) ordouble-decker coach(British EnglishandCanadian English) is a type ofrail carthat has two levels of passenger accommodation as opposed to one, increasing passenger capacity (up to 57% per car in extreme cases).[1]
The use of double-decker carriages, where feasible, can resolve capacity problems on a railroad, avoiding other options which have an associated infrastructure cost such as longer trains (which require longer station platforms), more trains per hour (which the signalling or safety requirements may not allow) or adding extra tracks besides the existing line.
Double deck trains are claimed to be more energy efficient,[2]and may have a lower operating cost per passenger.[3]A bi-level car may carry up to about twice as many as a normal car, ifstructureandloading gaugespermit, without requiring double the weight to pull or material to build. However, a bi-level train may take longer to exchange passengers at each station, since more people will enter and exit from each car. The increaseddwell timemakes them most popular on long-distance routes which make fewer stops (and may be popular with passengers for offering a better view).[1]
Double deck cars may not be usable in countries or on older railroad systems with lowloading gauge, most notably the majority of the British railway network. In some countries such as the UK new lines are built to a higher than the existingstructure gaugeto allow the use of double-deck trains in future.[4]
Double deck carriages date to at least as early as the second half of the 19th century. In France several hundredvoitures à impérialewith seats on the roof were in use by theChemins de fer de l'Ouest,Chemins de fer de l'EstandChemins de fer du Nordby 1870, having been in use for over 2 decades; the upper deck was open at the sides with a light roof or awning covering the seats. In the 1860s, M.J.B. Vidard introduced two-storied carriages on the Chemins de fer de l'Est, with a full body, windows, and doors; the same design lowered the floor of the lower storey to keep the center of gravity low. Vidard's carriages had a total height of 13 feet 8 inches (4.17 m) with the head height in the lower part of the carriage only 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 m); the carriages had a capacity of 80 persons (third class) in a 2 axle vehicle of 13 tons[which?]fully loaded.[5]The first all-steelChemins de fer de l'État bilevelsare an early example of split-level cars.
TheChicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroadplaced bilevelGallery carsincommuter servicein the Chicago area in 1950. These were successful, and led to theAtchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railwayintroducing long-distanceHi-Levelcars on Chicago–Los AngelesEl Capitanstreamliner in 1954.[6][7]
In 1968, the four experimental double-deck power cars entered service inSydney,Australia,[8]enabling the first fully double-deckElectric Multiple Unitpassenger train in the world.
The double-deck design usually includes lowering the bottom floor to below the top level of the wheels, closer to the rails, and then adding an upper floor above. Such a design will fit under morebridges,tunnelsandpower wires(structure gauge). For cost and safety, this design also minimizes car height (loading gauge) and lowers the centre of gravity.
Depending on train station platform heights, three designs can be used for entry – high platforms require use of a "split level" car design, where the doors are located on a middle level, with access into the upper or lower level branching off – with stairs or ramps going both up and down (sometimes this configuration includes a section of seating at the middle level in the entry section, with double levels only in part of the lengths of the car).[1]For low train station platforms, a "two-floor" design with level entry onto the lower floor is used. Occasionally a third, very tall "two floors over-wheel" design is used. This is a traditional single floor car "with a second story" design which, when using a low platform, requires steps up to a traditional floor height and then internal stairs up to the upper floor.
There are four important height measurements above the railhead:platform height, traditionalfloor height, downstairs floor height and upstairs floor height. Platform height determines the level entry height for wheeled objects, such as luggage, strollers, wheelchairs and bicycles. Platform height is ideally standardized across all stations the train serves. Traditional rail car floor height matters for end doors connecting to existing single floor rail cars. Downstairs or lowest floor height is primarily determined by the thickness of the beams connecting the span between the wheels and bogies (trucks) of a rail car. The upstairs floor or highest floor height is above the lowest floor and must fit under bridges and tunnels. Level entry floor height must match the platform height. Hopefully either the traditional or downstairs floor height already matches the platform height. Despite the name "bilevel" or "double-decker", for maximum compatibility the rail car will have up to four different floor heights. High platform design (Using outside steps to avoid having a level entry from the platform) is troublesome.
Mostlow-platformdouble-decker trains have level entry onto the lower level of the car, allowing wheelchair access. There are two-floor heights (upstairs and downstairs) in these "bilevel" cars. There is a staircase between floors inside the car.Connecting doorsbetween cars are either at the (higher) upper floor or at an intermediate level over the bogies. In the former case, connecting directly to a single level car causes drag and connecting door problems.
In the western USA, cars are of the upper-level-connection type. They use low-platform stations, because the traditional single floor trains all had exterior entry steps to maximize flexibility (emergency and temporary stops) and minimize infrastructure costs. There are no examples of two-floor platforms, so there are no platform doors on the upper floor. Car roof lines lengthwise are flat for connecting doors to the upstairs of bi-level cars. A Pullman-Standard / Bombardier AmtrakSuperlinercar is 16 feet 2 inches (4,928 mm) tall.
There are several very tall bilevel cars (e.g. theColorado Railcar DMUis19 feet9+1⁄2inches (6.033 m) tall). They typically are described as a traditional rail car with a second story. Most of these cars serve low platforms so they have exterior steps up to the traditional "over-wheel" floor height e.g. US 51 in (1,295 mm).End doorsconnect at the traditional height of existing rolling stock. Some cars have upstairs end doors as well. Many of these cars also include outside balconies on either the upper or lower level. Upstairs and downstairs connect by interior stairs. These cars can fit most able people, but lack level entry. On almost all these cars the upper level consists of a full-length glass dome. Some cars are self-propelledmultiple unitsso using traditional floor heights appears fixed. In towed cars, it is possible to lower the downstairs floor between the wheels/bogies so that level entry is possible with more than500 mm (19+5⁄8in) of added headroom and interior steps from that floor to the traditional floor.
In 2005,Emprendimientos Ferroviarios(Emfer),Trenes de Buenos Aires(TBA (Trains of Buenos Aires)),National Institute of Industrial Technologyand the Argentine National Government subscribed to a framework agreement to start the national designing and construction of bi-level electric trains. This was decided due to the overwhelming and increasing number of passengers using the1,676 mm(5 ft 6 in) gauge urbanSarmiento Line, serving the centre and east ofGreater Buenos Aires. The first prototype was released in 2005, but mass-production only started in mid 2008. In 2013, these coaches were retired from the line and replaced with newCSR Electric Multiple Units, though it remains unclear if the Emfer trains will be moved elsewhere in the country.[9]
In 2010, Emprendimientos Ferroviarios and Trenes de Buenos Aires presented non-engined double-decker coaches for a 100 km (62 mi) diesel interurban link betweenBuenos AiresandMercedescity. Attending to different technical needs, the new coaches have only two simple non-automatic doors in the ends (instead of the two electric double doors in the middle) and were designed for low platforms.
For 2020, a public tender was launched by Trenes Argentinos to recover these double-decker coaches, for inter-urban and long-distance services, equipping them with reclining seats, USB inputs and other amenities.[10]
In 1964,Tulloch Limitedbuilt thefirst double-decker trailer carsfor use inSydney. They ran withsingle deck electric motor cars. After the success of the trailers, Tulloch built four experimentdouble decker power carsin 1968.
From 1972, more double decker multiple units were constructed byComengandGoninan. These are now known as theS sets. All electric suburban and interurban trains inGreater Sydneyare now double deck, though theSydney Metrouses single deck carriages. All double deck carriages have two doors per side per carriage, with avestibuleat each end at platform height. The Sydney double deck commuter trains are14 ft4+1⁄2in (4,382 mm) high.
ThePublic Transport CorporationinMelbourneordered a prototypeDouble Deck Development and Demonstrationtrain in 1991, a modification of theTangaradesign used in Sydney. It suffered frequent breakdowns and spent long periods out of use. It was withdrawn in 2002 and scrapped in 2006.
Historically, bilevel cars were implemented in 1873 and were in use untilWorld War I. In 1993, the railway companyGraz-Köflacher Bahnstarted to use 15 cars for suburban transport around the city ofGraz. In 1997, the national railway companyÖBBordered 120 bilevel cars for the use in EasternAustriaandVienna metropolitan area.
Canada's national passenger railway company,Via Rail, does not currently operate any bilevel coaches in its fleet, apart from thedome carsused on some long-distance services. These coaches include two levels over part of the length of the vehicle.
TheOntario Northland Railwayoperates a bilevel dome car on itsPolar Bear Expressservice with two levels along the entire length of the vehicle.
TheBombardier BiLevel Coachwas originally designed byHawker-Siddeley Canadafor theGO Transit commuter rail networkin southernOntario. It is now used by 14 different railway operators across North America, including all three of Canada's commuter rail systems. All train services operated byGO TransitandWest Coast ExpressuseBombardier BiLevel coaches, while Montreal'sExo trainsuse a mix of Bombardier Bilevel,Bombardier MultiLeveland various single-level coaches.
The private rail tour companyRocky Mountaineeruses bilevel full-length dome cars built by Colorado Railcar.
The first bilevel train forChina Railwayswas built bySifangin 1958 as Dongfeng diesel multiple unit, consisting of two locomotives and four bilevel coaches. After withdrawing Dongfeng DMU from use in 1982, China Railways redeveloped double-decker trains, the first of which rolled out fromNanjing Puzhen Rolling Stock Worksin 1987 as SYZ25 and SRZ25.
The carriage designations of bilevel cars in China start with "S", abbreviating "double-decker" (双层;shuāngcéng) in Chinese. Current models of double decker trains include the25B series[zh],25Z series[zh]and25K series[zh]. Most bilevel cars in China were built byNanjing Puzhen Rolling Stock Works, while some bilevel coaches were built byChangchun Railway Vehicles. The types of bilevel cars including bilevelhard seat(SYZ), bilevel soft seat (SRZ), bilevelhard sleeper(SYW), bilevelsoft sleeper(SRW), Bileveldining car(SCA) and bilevel soft seat-baggagecombine car(SRZXL).
Bilevel coaches are mainly used for regional services in China, likeKunming–Dali–Lijiangintercity trains inYunnanandShijiazhuang–Qinhuangdaoexpress train inHebei. Additionally, a cross-railway bureau double-deck train service is provided betweenTianjinandBaoji(viaBeijing West railway station).
České dráhyoperates 83electric multiple unitsofClass 471manufactured by Škoda Vagonka, which was a subsidiary ofŠkoda Transportationand locomotive-hauled trains which was also used on thenon-electrified routesaroundPrague.[11]
InDenmark,DSBbegan runningBombardier Double-deck Coachesin 2002. The coaches are used on Regional services onZealand.
InFinland,VRbegan operating double-deck day cars in 1998. They are Finnish-designed and manufactured byTranstechinKajaani. Each car has two entrances on the lower level of the middle section, allowing level entry from station platforms at the modern Finnish standard height of 550 mm (21.7 in).[12]The end sections of each car – and the inter-car connections – are at mid-level.
VR introduced its first double-decksleeping carson 1 February 2006. The two-bed cabins on the upper deck have toilets and showers while cabins on the lower deck use shared ones. Double-deckdriving-trailerswere introduced during late 2013 andrestaurant carsin early 2014.
The double-deck cars are designed for running at higher speeds than ordinary passenger cars – up to 200 km/h (124 mph), although the upper limit was later reduced for trains entering tunnels. The cars are frequently operated in all-double-deckInterCitytrains (known as IC2) with at-seatpower supplyforlaptopsand wireless LAN internet connection.
TheChemins de fer de l'Étatin France ranvoitures à 2 étagessplit level double-deck suburban coaches from 1933. Its successor, theSNCF, has been running VB2N double-decker coaches since 1975; VB2N were introduced from 1975 as a replacement of the État cars.
SNCF began running double-deckRERtrains in 1982, followed byRATPin 1995. And since 1996,SNCFrunsdouble-deck TGVcars on heavily usedhigh-speedservices, such as on the Paris-Lyon-Marseille line. Manysuburban rail,regional railand high-speed services are operated by double-deckDMUs,EMUs,coachesand TGV.[clarification needed]TheTGV Duplexare the fastest double-decker trains in the world with a commercial top speed of 320 km/h. Specially tuned trainset 4402 also holds theworld speed record for conventional trains, reaching 574.8 km/h in 2007. The Frenchloading gaugedictates that the double-deck cars have a maximum height of4.32 m (14 ft2+1⁄8in).
TheEast Germanrailway companyDeutsche Reichsbahn (DR)implemented the first bilevel cars in 1974 for interurban lines. After therevolutionsin Eastern Europe, theGerman reunificationthe new founded national railway companyDeutsche Bahntook over the DR bilevel cars and started to order high numbers of bilevel cars for regional and interurban traffic.
MTRCLand formerlyKCRCoperate double-decker carriages with theKTTtrain sets onits cross-boundary routebetweenKowloonandGuangzhou. These cars were manufactured in Japan byKinki Sharyo. The "Ktt" cars were used to serve between theHung HomandLo Wustations from January to May 1998, before the electrification ofGuangzhou–Shenzhen railway. The "Ktt" cars have lower bottom floor than the ordinary single-deck cars serving on the same pair of tracks.
InIndia, theSinhagad Expresswas the first train to operate with double-decker carriages, followed by other trains on theMumbai-Puneroute like theDeccan Queenand theDeccan Express, although double-decker service on these routes was later discontinued. In 1979, theFlying Ranee, a passenger train betweenSuratandMumbai Centralon theWestern Railwaybecame the first superfast train to use double-deck cars. The first air-conditioned double-decker service was introduced in 2011 on theHowrah–Dhanbad Double Decker ExpressbetweenHowrah stationinWest BengalandDhanbad JunctioninJharkhand[13]which was subsequently followed by Delhi Sarai Rohilla – Jaipur,Ahmedabad–Mumbai Central, Chennai Central – Bangalore, Anand Vihar (New Delhi) – Lucknow, Visakhapatnam–Vijayawada, Visakhapatnam–Tirupati[14]and Mumbai Lokmanya Tilak Terminus – Madgaon double decker expresses.
Israel Railwaysbegan runningBombardier Double-deck Coachesin 2001. The coaches were manufactured inGörlitz, Germany, and form the vast majority of its passenger fleet as of 2021.
Later, aDesiro HCby Siemens has been introduced to Israel Railways. Desiro HC has 2-floor coaches in the middle of the train, while the first and the last coaches are single-floor. The train operates mainly on the Herzlia–Jerusalem electrified line (via Tel Aviv) as of 2022.
In the 1970s, with the rise of mass commuting to the big cities theFerrovie dello Statohave found themselves having to quickly increase the capacity of their services withCarrozze Due Piani Tipo 1979based on French VB2N (seeit:Carrozza Due Piani). Today, double-decker coaches are also in use by private railway companiesFerrovie Nord MilanoandFerrovie del Sud Est. The types of double-decker train is circulating today in Italy are:Rock(Caravaggio), Vivalto,TAF,TSR.
In Japan, double-decker trains are used either to show better scenery, or to increase seat capacity. InTokyoarea commuter trains, double-decker cars are generally used asGreen Cars, the cars with better accommodations than the regular commuter cars.
The first Japanese double-decker train appeared in 1904. It was Type 5 train of Osaka City Tram. TheKintetsu Railway20100 Series EMUs were built in 1962 and designed for school excursion.[15]Sightseeing trains that feature double-decker carriages include theJR Shikoku 5000 series,Keihan 8000 series, JR Central371 series, andOdakyu 20000 series RSE. The first JNR/JR double-decker trains were 200 series Shinkansen and 100 series Shinkansen, for Shinkansen lines.
JR East introduced the215 seriesdouble-deck EMUs forHome Linerservices in 1992. JR East also introducedE1 Series ShinkansenandE4 Series Shinkansenfor its Shinkansen Lines; the trains are doubled decked to increase their capacities. This includes JR West285 seriesEMUs forSunrise Izumo/Sunrise Setoand JR East E26 series cars forCassiopeiaservices.
In 2012, a prototype double-decker rail carriage was made at theTVZTver Carriage Building Factory for the RZDRussian Railwayscompany. This prototype carriage is asleeping carwith four-berth compartments and a total capacity of 64 passengers.Russian Railwaysordered double-decker sleeper carriages fromTransmashholdingfor the Adler-Moscow train service. As of August 2012[update]they were expected to be delivered in time for the 2014 winter Olympics inSochi.[16]RZD offers low platforms for Moscow-Adler route.
On 27 October 2017,Aeroexpressbegan operatingESH2motor-car (locomotive-less) high-speed double-decker trains developed by the Swiss company Stadler on the routes Moscow – Domodedovo Airport and Moscow – Vnukovo Airport. From November 2019, the trains were transferred to the Odintsovo – Sheremetyevo Airport route (Odintsovo – Belorussky railway Station in the MDC mode).
ZSSKoperates 19electric multiple unitsof Class 671[17]and 10push-pullunits of Class 951 manufactured byŠkoda Transportation.[18]
These trains mostly operate services betweenŽilinaandKošice(Žilina – Trenčín, Žilina – Košice, Košice –Prešovand some others) and aroundBratislava(betweenKútyandTrnava).
As of 2016 some of units 951, usually with locomotive of class 350 (Škoda 55E), are used at international train service onBratislava(SK) –Břeclav(CZ) main line.
Since 2021 the Bi-Level SNCF High Speed Trains “Ouigo España” operates. There are also some double-decker commuter trains (Class 450) nicknamed Vessels.
SJ ABoperates 43 double-decker EMUs built byAlstomand designated classX40. The EMU comes in a two-coach version and a three-coach version. The trains are mainly used in regional trains in the areas around lakeMälarenand in the trains betweenGävleandLinköping. It has a maximum speed of 200 km/h (125 mph) and is equipped withwireless internet.
From 2019 onwards, the bilevelStadler KISS(known as DOSTO in Sweden) has also been used in theMälardalenandUppsalaregions of Sweden, and since 2023,Tåg i Bergslagen[sv]has operated the same train sets in theBergslagenregion.
Between 1966 and 1990, SJ used DMUs of classY3with double-decker end cars and normal cars in between. Due to the distinct humps on the endcars, it was nicknamed "the camel".
Double-decker commuter trains are used by theZürich S-Bahn. Three types of trains are used, an older type consisting of an electric locomotive with double-decker cars, andElectric Multiple Unitswhere the motors are on board the car. From 2010 onwards, a third type – theStadler KISS– has entered service.
TheSwiss Federal Railwaysalso operate theIC 2000double-decker passenger coaches in most of Switzerland for high speedInterCityandInterRegioservices. After massive delays, they are introducing theBombardier TWINDEXXfrom 2019 on.
Both these high speed trains feature passages on the upper level only, which makes them incompatible with single level coaches, IC2000 are however still used in combination with single level coaches during rush hours.
In 2012, as part of preparation forUEFA Euro 2012,Ukrainian Railwaysbought twoEJ675EMUsmanufactured byŠkoda Transportation. These trains are used on inter-regional services. They were discontinued for modernization and redesigning in 2019. The two units were brought back to service in 2022 and currently run on the Kyiv–Lutsk line.[19]
In theUnited Kingdom, due to the smallloading gauge, the railway system cannot easily accommodate double-deck trains. A modest attempt at double decking was made in 1948 on theSouthern Railwaywith the two trains of theBulleid 4DDclass. Although innovative, with stepped compartments where the bottoms of the upper seats are above the heads of the people on the lower level but the feet of the people above are not,[20]the loading gauge severely restricted their use and they were removed from service in 1971. Research byDCAconcluded that double-decker trains were practical within the UK loading gauge and proposed a design for Crossrail in 2006, however the design was not taken forwards.[21][22]
Double-decker trams, taller than the railway loading gauge, were common in British cities. When trams were replaced between the 1930s–1960s, their replacement would be double-decker buses.
Bilevel passenger rail cars used in the United States are manufactured byBombardier(nowAlstom),Kawasaki,Colorado Railcar(todayUS Railcar), and several others, with the former two having produced the majority of the high platform "split level" commuter rail cars in use in thenortheastern states.
Colorado Railcarproduced bilevel DMUs andUltra Domepassenger cars. Colorado Railcar cars measure19 ft9+1⁄2in (6,033 mm) in height and have steps that enter to a lower deck that is 51 in (1,295 mm) above the rail.
Other designs, includingrolling stockmade byColorado Railcar,Budd,Pullman-Standard,Bombardierand others have an entrance on the lower deck rather than an intermediate level.AmtrakSuperlinersare double-decker cars of this variety, with the entrance a step or so up from the loweststation platformlevel, or at the level of slightly higher platforms, and allow passage from car to car on the upper level.
Some operators in the United States use a specific design of bi-level car known as a "gallery car" (seebelow).
Most ofAmtrak's intercity passenger trains operating to points west of Chicago useSuperliners, as do select trains east of Chicago, like theCapitol LimitedandAuto Train. In addition,Alaska Railroadoperates passenger trains with a mix of traditional passenger equipment and large fleets ofColorado RailcarUltra Domes (sometimes as many as 15 in one train) owned by several major cruise ship lines.
Most passenger rail lines in the Northeast have aloading gaugethat can only accommodate cars 14 ft 6 in (4,420 mm) or less in height. This is due tostructure gaugerestrictions such asbridgesandtunnelsthat are too low, and may also haveelectrified linesoverhead.
Nevertheless, commuter railroads such as theLong Island Rail Road,New Jersey Transit,MARC, andMBTAall use bilevel railcars built to unique designs to clear specificstructure gaugeproblems on those systems.[23][24]The bilevels used on LIRR, MARC, and MBTA were built byKawasaki Rail Car, Inc., while the bilevel cars used by NJ Transit were built byBombardier.[25][26]RecentlyHyundai Rotemhas built additional new cars of a similar design for MBTA.
In each of these agencies' bilevel cars, two levels are present between the trucks of the car. At each end, stairs lead from both levels to a common floor which is located at standard height over the trucks. AllLIRR bilevel passenger rail carshave two wide quarter-point doors on each side, for high level platforms only. The bilevel cars used by NJ Transit and Exo have four doors on each side, two quarter-point doors at high level platform height and one at each end vestibule, with traps used to reach low level platforms. The bilevel cars used by MBTA have side doors with traps at each end vestibule. MARC operates both of the latter two types of cars.
The Superliners used for many Amtrak intercity services do not fit in these systems. Single-deckViewlinersandAmfleet IIsare used instead.
Due to the typically-generous clearances on California railroads due to freight railroads expanding clearances to accommodate double-stacked containers, bilevel cars are common in the state. TheCalifornia Department of Transportationowns 88California Cars, which are based on theSuperlinerbody shell, but with high-density interiors suitable for corridor trains. These cars, along with 39 owned directly by Amtrak, are dedicated to state-subsidizedAmtrak Californiaroutes including theSan Joaquin,Capitol CorridorandPacific Surflinerroutes.[27]TheSurflineralso serves Amtrak's California lines.
Metrolink, which serves Southern California, has 137 activeBombardier BiLevel Coaches(Sentinel Fleet) and 137Hyundai Rotembi-level cars (Guardian Fleet).[28]
Caltrainin theBay Areauses both Bombardier BiLevels andNippon Sharyogallery cars.[29]From 2024, bilevelStadler KISSelectric multiple unitswill run on the newly electrified network.
Southeast Florida'sTri-Railcommuter service between Miami and West Palm Beach uses theBombardier BiLevel CoachandRotem Commuter Cars.SunRail, which serves the Greater Orlando area, also uses Bombardier BiLevel coaches.
Metrahas a large fleet of gallery cars, andHighliner IIgalleryelectric multiple units(EMUs).[30]TheNICTD South Shore Linefleet also includes very similar gallery EMUs. Chicago does not have the loading gauge problems that affect passenger rail lines in most northeastern states because it has very few railroad tunnels for the lines of these passenger trains except for a brief distance in the city.
In January 2021, the Metra board approved the purchase of 200 of a new design of multilevel car fromAlstom, with options for up to 300 more.[31]
Former Metra coaches were operated by a number of other agencies in the first two decades of the twenty-first century; as of 2021, they are still used forNashville'sWeGo Star(formerly branded as the Music City Star).
TheMBTAis the public agency responsible for operating mostpublic transportservices inGreater Boston. ItsMBTA Commuter Railsystem currently uses 277 bilevel passenger cars made byKawasakiandHyundai Rotem.[citation needed]
TheNew Mexico Rail Runner Expressutilizes Bombardier BiLevel cars on its route fromSanta Fe, New MexicotoBelen, New Mexico.[32]
Virginia Railway Expressoperated 13Kawasakibi-level cars between 1999 and 2008, after which they were sold toMARC(these cars were originally procured as an option on MARC's larger order).[33][34][35]From 2001, VRE also operated a number of ex-MetraPullman-Standardgallery cars.[36]These were all gradually replaced by newSumitomo/Nippon Sharyogallery cars between 2006 and 2018.[37][38][39]
FrontRunnercommuter rail, operated by theUtah Transit Authorityto connect multiple cities along theWasatch Front, utilizesBombardier BiLevel Coaches.
InIran, theTehran-Hashtgerdsuburban commuter line is served with electric push-pull hauled trainsets with double-decker carriages manufactured byWagon Parsin Iran.
In thePhilippines, bileveltramsran on theTranviasofManila. These were push–pull trains carried by lightweight steam locomotives. There were also double-deck sleeping cars used on theBicol Expressuntil 2014.
InSouth Korea, ITX-Cheongchun, the express train ofKorailuses double-decker cars along with single-decker ones.
InVietnam, the train operated byVietnam Railwaysbetween Saigon and Phan Thiet occasionally carries double deck carriages to fulfil extra demand.
InGermany,Bombardier's double-deck rail carsare also used extensively on suburban trains by theDB. The same rail cars serve some of the routes on theIsrael Railwaysnetwork, hauled by diesel locomotives and include electric generators housed in the control car. Belgian latest models (M6 andM7 cars) also belong to the Bombardier double deck family while the older M5 are based on the French VB2N.
In theNetherlands, there are two types of double-deck trains in use, theVIRMand theDDZ. The VIRM, is an example from the Netherlands, of High platform (split level) double-decker multiple units. It is one step up from the station platform to the entrance, and from there seven steps upstairs or four steps downstairs. There are two retired types of double-deck trains, theDDM-1and theDD-ARwho were retired from regular service on 15 December 2019. DDZ trainsets are made of refurbished DD-AR coaches with a six-axle MDDM power car.
InPortugal,CP Urban ServicesandFertagususe double-deck trains aroundLisbonin commuter rail services.
InSpain, several lines ofCercanías(Renfe's commuter rail service) use double-deck trainsets.
InRomania, some regional trains use bilevel cars.[40][41]Over 200 bi-level cars were imported fromWaggonbau Görlitzstarting with the early 1980s.[42]
Because the two levels are separate on most bi-level cars, there is a physical limitation on a singleconductor, as it can be difficult for them to check and sell tickets to passengers on the two levels. Gallery cars feature upper levels, which are "mezzanines" or "balconies" running along both sides of the car, with an open area between them.[43]The split balcony enables conductors walking along on the lower level to easily reach up and punch or validate tickets of the passengers seated on the mezzanine level. Passengers can place their tickets in clips along a lengthwise panel, located slightly above the conductor's head and within easy reach. The conductor can then check all tickets and move to the next car.
Most gallery cars have four separate galleries with four separate stairwells to the main level (one gallery on each side, split in the middle by the central vestibule). These stairwells are adjacent to the central vestibule where the exterior doors are situated.[44]There is typically a low first step at the vestibule entrance to the car, which is14+5⁄8inches (371 mm) above the head of the rail. However,Metra Electric Highliner(now retired[45]) andHighliner IIhave high-level entrances for the high-level platforms on that line.NICTD South Shore Line Bi-Levelsare similar to the Metra Highliner IIs but have entrances at the end of the rail car opposite the cab with a stairwell and trap doors for low-level platforms.
TheChicago, Burlington and Quincywas the first railroad to receive gallery cars, built by theBudd Companyin 1950.[46][47]In total, 141 cars of this design were delivered to the CB&Q (and its successors) between 1950 and 1978. TheMilwaukee Roadordered a revised design of gallery car from Budd in 1961, and production ran until 1980. Over 250 of this design were produced, including a small batch for theRock Island Line. Most of these Budd gallery cars are still in service withMetra.[30]The design was also licensed toCanadian Vickers, who built 9 cars forCanadian Pacificin 1970 for commuter service inMontreal.[48]
In 1955, theChicago and North Westernordered 16 gallery cars from theSt. Louis Car Company.[49]Unlike the stainless steel Budd cars, these cars have smooth, painted steel bodyshells. Further orders were built byPullman-Standardbetween 1956 and 1970, with minor revisions to the design, including acab carvariant from 1960 onwards.[50][51]Over 250 were built for the C&NW, Rock Island Line and their successors, a small number of which remain in service.[30]After initial retirement from Metra in the late 1990s, many of these cars were acquired by other commuter rail agencies across the United States, including (among others)UTA FrontRunner,MARC,WeGo StarandVirginia Railway Express.[52][53][36]Southern Pacificalso acquired 46 Pullman-Standard gallery cars for thePeninsula Commuteservice inSan Franciscoin three orders: 1955, 1957 (built byAmerican Car and Foundryto Pullman-Standard designs) and 1968.[54]
To replace the Southern Pacific gallery cars,Caltrainacquired new gallery cars fromNippon Sharyoin 1985. A second batch followed in 1999-2000.[29][38]Further orders for this design were placed byMetraandVirginia Railway Expressbetween 2002 and 2008.[30][55][56][37]Follow-on contracts included options for additional cars, the last of which were delivered in 2020.[57][58]Morrison-Knudsen/Amerailhad also built similar gallery cars for Metra between 1992 and 1998, using bodyshells provided by Nippon Sharyo.[59][60]
The Highliner and Highliner II, along with similar vehicles in theNICTD South Shore Linefleet, are electric multiple units formed of gallery cars. The Highliner I was built by theSt. Louis Car Companyin 1971 for theIllinois Central, with additional cars built byBombardierin 1978-1979. These were replaced by Highliner II EMUs built byNippon Sharyoin 2005.[citation needed]
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Ivan Kirillovich Elmanov(Russian:Иван Кириллович Эльманов) was a Russianinventor. During 1820, inMyachkovo, nearMoscow, he built a type ofmonoraildescribed as a road on pillars.[1]The single rail was made of timber balks resting above the pillars. The wheels were set on this wooden rail, while the horse-drawn carriage had a sled on its top.[1]This construction is considered to be the first known monorail in the world.[2]
This article about a Russian engineer, inventor or industrial designer is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Elmanov
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The BoxorBBC Box(BIC code:NYKU8210506) was a single ISOintermodal containerwhich was tracked byBBC Newsbetween September 2008 and April 2009, as part of a project to studyinternational tradeandglobalisation.[1]The Box was fitted with tracking equipment, and painted in a special one-off BBClivery.[2]
The Box was named after the bookThe Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, which covers the effects ofcontainerisation.[1]The project was assisted by theContainer Shipping Information Service.
The tracking project was launched on 8 September 2008.[1]The BBC project tracked a standard 40-foot-long (12.19 m) shipping container as it was transported by its owner,Nippon Yusen Kaisha(NYK) shipping line usingintermodal freight transportwith various cargoes. An on-boardGPSunit tracked the Box's location, and this was used to update a map showing the current location and its previous route. If the container's GPS or communications signal was obstructed (such as having been stacked too far inside the ship'shold), the ship's own GPS location was used to manually update a map.[3]The tracking unit suffered technical problems during December 2008.[4]
Following the end of the project in 2009, the shipping container was donated by its owner,Nippon Yusen Kaisha(NYK) to a charity to be turned into asoup kitchen.[5]
The Box arrived empty, already in its BBC branding. It travelled to its first destination to take on its first cargo; a consignment of whisky from aGlasgow-based bottling plant toShanghai, China. On arrival in Shanghai, the Box was met and reported on by British school pupils on a trip to China.[6]
Later arrived in Southampton on 22 October at around 3am, unloaded with crane L, being driven by Lee Harfield, the same driver who had loaded it when it left Southampton.
GPS tracking stopped on 4 April 2009, shortly after passingMauritius.
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Boxparkis a food and retail park made out of refittedshipping containersin Britain.[1]It was founded by Roger Wade, who described it as the "world's firstpop-upmall".[1]The first Boxpark was launched inShoreditchin 2011, another was built inCroydonnext toEast Croydon stationin 2016, and a third opened inWembleyin late 2018.[2]
According to its founder Roger Wade, who started out with the street fashion shop and labelBoxfresh,[3]the idea for a shopping centre made out of shipping containers has its origin in 1999, while he was attending German trade shows with Boxfresh. For each show, he would need to build a mini shop that would then be demolished, and he wondered if he could build a trade show stand in a container that could be reused. He said: "That was the beginning of my fascination, in 1999. Years later a friend was running retail developments, so some time in 2008-09 I wondered 'why not build a whole retail development out of containers?"[1]
The first Boxpark was built in 2011 and was described "the world's first pop up mall".[4]However, by then shipping containers had already been used as pop-up shops, office and retail spaces around the world, for example the portablePumaCity shop in US cities,[5][6]and theDordoy BazaarinBishkek,Kyrgyzstan.[7]The company has plans to expand to other countries; however, a retail park also called Boxpark that opened inDubaiis not part of this company.[8]
The first temporary shopping centre, backed by Charles Dunstone ofCarphone Warehouse, was built at Bethnal Green Road on part of the formerBishopsgate goods yardinShoreditch.[9]Boxpark opened in December 2011,[10]initially made out of 60 recycled shipping containers over two floors, with 40 in the lower floor, 20 in the upper floor.[4][11]Originally intended to open for five years, the centre is still operating. Boxpark Shoreditch has 19 restaurants and bars and 27 shops.[1]
The Boxpark at Shoreditch was redeveloped in 2017, with the upper deck becoming the focus for street food at the venue.[2]In July 2024, it was announced that it would close down by the end of summer to make way forThe Goodsyarddevelopment.[12]In response to the announcement, The Night Time Industries Association started a campaign to save the site from closure, arguing that it has launched hundreds of new independent businesses and annually contributes more than £80 million to the local economy.[13]
On 20 March 2015, it was announced that a second Boxpark would be built in Croydon to coincide with the regeneration projectCroydon Vision 2020.[14]The centre was built with a £3 million loan from theCroydon Counciland intended to be a temporary structure that would last for five years, until homes and offices could be developed on the site.[15][16]The scheme was designed by BDP, and the two-storey structure is constructed out of 96 shipping containers.[17]It is in the form of a semi-enclosed market hall with units arranged around it, and provides 24,000 sq ft of retail and restaurant space, double that of Shoreditch.[14]The Boxpark in Croydon has a covered seating area, as it was found that trade dropped off during the winter months in Shoreditch when it was exposed to the elements.[16]Boxpark Croydon has 36 shop units and is focused on dining and drink outlets.[18]It opened in October 2016.[19]It also hosts events such as music performances, kickboxing and screenings of films and football matches.[20][21][22]The residentDJof the Croydon is DJ Jay Knox.[23]
A third Boxpark opened nearWembley Stadiumin December 2018.[24][25]Boxpark Wembley is the largest one yet, covering a floor area of 50,000 sq ft, with a 2,000-person capacity events space.[26]Boxpark Wembley has 30 units, and 24 food and drink retail outlets have opened at the venue. As with Boxpark Croydon, the open hall/events space may be used for events such as music performances and screenings.[27][28]It is regularly used as a fan zone for those attending football matches, concerts and other events held at Wembley.[29][30][31]
The first Boxpark outside London opened in theBaltic Trianglearea ofLiverpoolon 19 April 2024.[32]
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Acontainer chassis, also calledintermodal chassisorskeletal trailer, is a type of semi-trailer designed to securely carry anintermodal container. Chassis are used bytruckersto deliver containers betweenports, railyards, container depots, and shipper facilities,[1]:2–3and are thus a key part of theintermodal supply chain.
The use of chassis to haul containers over-the-road is known asdrayage trucking, and is a section of intermodal, which also includes rail transport of containers using well or flat cars and overseas transport in ships or barges. Like other intermodal equipment, chassis are equipped withtwistlocksat each corner which allows a container (hoisted onto or off the chassis by acrane), to be locked on for secure transport or unlocked to be lifted off.[2]The length of a chassis corresponds to which container size will fit (i.e., a 40-foot-long chassis fits a 40-foot-long container), but some models are adjustable length.[3]
Semi-tractor truckshook up to chassis via thekingpin. When disconnected from a tractor, the chassis' landing gear can be cranked down to park it.[4]
Portablegenerators, also called gensets, can be mounted (underslung) onto chassis. These gensets are used to power arefrigerated container.[5]
The axle group on some chassis (especially 20-foot and 53-foot units) can be slid backwards or forwards to change the weight distribution of heavy containers, allowing safe operation and compliance withweight restrictions.
An identification number is often stenciled on chassis to track each unit in a fleet. According toISO 6346, a chassis should have the letter "Z" at the end of itsreporting mark.
A variation is the tank container chassis, which are used forISO tank containers. They are characteristically longer and have lower deck height then standard chassis, ideal for transporting constantly shifting payloads. These chassis can also be fitted with additional accessories including: lift kits to facilitate product discharge, hose tubes, and hi/lo kits to carry two empty tanks. They come in tandem axle, spread axle, tri-axle, and hi/lo combo configurations.
Unlike other countries where chassis are mostly owned or long-term leased by trucking companies, in the United States most chassis are currently owned by a few leasing companies (pools) which rent out the equipment to truckers.[1]:1[6]When a trucker leaves or enters a facility with a pool chassis, anelectronic data interchange(EDI) record is generated at the facility gate which identifies the trucking company and the chassis pool, and this allows the pool to invoice the appropriate trucking company for chassis usage. The system is influenced by the steamship lines and by the operation of container terminals. Firstly, containers are commonly stored on chassis as a single mounted unit at rail yards and depots—such terminals are known as "wheeled" facilities. Secondly, steamship lines offer a service called ″carrier haulage″ or ″store door delivery″, whereby they arrange the drayage of a customer’s container. The steamship line hires a local trucking company and pays the pool for the chassis usage.
As a result, steamship lines formed contractual agreements with the pools which entail that when a container is on-terminal it must be on a pool specified by the steamship line.[7]:26[8][9]This means that at wheeled facilities, containers are mounted onto chassis selected by the steamship line before the trucker arrives to pickup.[10]Some disadvantages of this system are that it can restrict truckers' choice of which chassis to use[11]and it can cause "chassis splits", which are when a container and its required chassis pool are in different locations.
In the United States, container chassis shortages are a chronic problem, especially during peaks in container volume.[12]There are several causes of chassis shortages, but a common problem is excessive off-terminal dwell time. Off-terminal dwell time is the length of time a shipper keeps a chassis/container at their premises. Long dwell times mean less free chassis on-site at ports and rail ramps.[13][14]
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Containerizationis a system ofintermodal freight transportusingintermodal containers(also calledshipping containers, orISOcontainers).[1]Containerization, also referred ascontainer stuffingorcontainer loading, is the process of unitization of cargoes in exports. Containerization is the predominant form of unitization of export cargoes today, as opposed to other systems such as the barge system or palletization.[2]The containers havestandardizeddimensions. They can be loaded and unloaded, stacked, transported efficiently over long distances, and transferred from onemode of transportto another—container ships,rail transportflatcars, andsemi-trailer trucks—without being opened. The handling system is mechanized so that all handling is done with cranes[3]and specialforklifttrucks. All containers are numbered and tracked using computerized systems.
Containerization originated several centuries ago but was not well developed or widely applied until afterWorld War II, when it dramatically reduced the costs of transport, supported the post-war boom ininternational trade, and was a major element inglobalization. Containerization eliminated manual sorting of most shipments and the need for dock front warehouses, while displacing many thousands of dock workers who formerly simply handledbreak bulk cargo. Containerization reduced congestion in ports, significantly shortened shipping time, and reduced losses from damage and theft.[4]
Containers can be made from a wide range of materials such as steel, fibre-reinforced polymer, aluminum or a combination. Containers made fromweathering steelare used to minimizemaintenance needs.
Before containerization, goods were usually handled manually asbreak bulk cargo. Typically, goods would be loaded onto a vehicle from the factory and taken to a port warehouse where they would be offloaded and stored awaiting the next vessel. When the vessel arrived, they would be moved to the side of the ship along with other cargo to be lowered or carried into the hold and packed by dock workers. The ship might call at several other ports before off-loading a given consignment of cargo. Each port visit would delay the delivery of other cargo. Delivered cargo might then have been offloaded into another warehouse before being picked up and delivered to its destination. Multiple handling and delays made transport costly, time-consuming and unreliable.[4]
Containerization has its origins in earlycoal mining regions in Englandbeginning in the late 18th century. In 1766James Brindleydesigned the "starvationer" box boat with ten wooden containers, to transport coal fromWorsleyDelph (quarry) to Manchester byBridgewater Canal. In 1795,Benjamin Outramopened theLittle Eaton Gangway, upon which coal was carried inwagonsbuilt at his Butterley Ironwork. The horse-drawn wheeled wagons on the gangway took the form of containers, which, loaded with coal, could be transshipped from canalbargeson theDerby Canal, which Outram had also promoted.[5]
By the 1830s, railroads were carrying containers that could be transferred to other modes of transport. TheLiverpool and Manchester Railwayin the UK was one of these, making use of "simple rectangular timber boxes" to convey coal from Lancashire collieries to Liverpool, where a crane transferred them to horse-drawn carriages.[6]Originally used for moving coal on and off barges, "loose boxes" were used to containerize coal from the late 1780s, at places like theBridgewater Canal. By the 1840s, iron boxes were in use as well as wooden ones. The early 1900s saw the adoption of closed container boxes designed for movement between road and rail.
On 17 May 1917,Louisville, Kentucky, native[7]Benjamin Franklin "B. F." Fitch (1877–1956)[8]launched commercial use of "demountable bodies" inCincinnati, Ohio, which he had designed as transferable containers. In 1919, his system was extended to over 200 containers serving 21 railway stations with 14 freight trucks.[9]
In 1919,engineerStanisław Rodowicz developed the first draft of the container system inPoland. In 1920, he built a prototype of the biaxial wagon. ThePolish-Bolshevik Warstopped development of the container system in Poland.[10]
The U.S. Post Office contracted with theNew York Central Railroadto move mail via containers in May 1921. In 1930, theChicago & Northwestern Railroadbegan shipping containers between Chicago and Milwaukee. Their efforts ended in the spring of 1931 when theInterstate Commerce Commissiondisallowed the use of a flat rate for the containers.[11]
In 1926, a regular connection of the luxury passenger train from London to Paris,Golden Arrow/Fleche d'Or, bySouthern RailwayandFrench Northern Railway, began. For transport of passengers' baggage four containers were used. These containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to ports, Dover or Calais, on flat cars in the UK and "CIWL Pullman Golden Arrow Fourgon of CIWL" in France. At the Second World Motor Transport Congress in Rome, September 1928, Italian senatorSilvio Crespiproposed the use of containers for road and railway transport systems, using collaboration rather than competition. This would be done under the auspices of an international organ similar to the Sleeping Car Company, which provided international carriage of passengers in sleeping wagons. In 1928Pennsylvania Railroad(PRR) started regular container service in the northeast U.S. After theWall Street crash of 1929inNew Yorkand the subsequent Great Depression, many countries were without any means to transport cargo. The railroads were sought as a possibility to transport cargo, and there was an opportunity to bring containers into broader use. In February 1931 the first container ship was launched. It was called the Autocarrier, owned by Southern Railway UK. It had 21 slots for containers of Southern Railway.[12][13]Under auspices of the International Chamber of Commerce in Paris inVeniceon September 30, 1931, on one of the platforms of the Maritime Station (Mole di Ponente), practical tests assessed the best construction for European containers as part of an international competition.[14]
In 1931, in the U.S., B. F. Fitch designed the two largest and heaviest containers in existence. One measured 17 ft 6 in (5.33 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m) with a capacity of 30,000 pounds (14,000 kg) in 890 cubic feet (25 m3), and a second measured 20 ft 0 in (6.10 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m) by 8 ft 0 in (2.44 m), with a capacity of 50,000 pounds (23,000 kg) in 1,000 cubic feet (28 m3).[15]
In November 1932, inEnola, Pennsylvania, the firstcontainer terminalin the world was opened by thePennsylvania Railroad.[14]The Fitch hooking system was used for reloading of the containers.[15]
The development of containerization was created in Europe and the U.S. as a way to revitalize rail companies after theWall Street crash of 1929, which had caused economic collapse and reduction in use of all modes of transport.[14]
In 1933 in Europe, under the auspices of the International Chamber of Commerce, theInternational Container Bureau(French:Bureau International des Conteneurs, B.I.C.) was established. In June 1933, the B.I.C. decided on obligatory parameters for containers used in international traffic. Containers handled by means of lifting gear, such as cranes, overhead conveyors, etc. for traveling elevators (group I containers), constructed after July 1, 1933. Obligatory Regulations:
In April 1935 BIC established a second standard for European containers:[14]
From 1926 to 1947 in the U.S., theChicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railwaycarried motor carrier vehicles and shippers' vehicles loaded onflatcarsbetween Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Chicago, Illinois. Beginning in 1929,Seatrain Linescarried railroad boxcars on its sea vessels to transport goods between New York and Cuba.[16]
In the mid-1930s, theChicago Great Western Railwayand then theNew Haven Railroadbegan "piggyback" service (transporting highway freight trailers on flatcars) limited to their own railroads. The Chicago Great Western Railway filed a U.S. patent in 1938 on their method of securing trailers to a flatcars using chains and turnbuckles. Other components included wheel chocks and ramps for loading and unloading the trailers from the flatcars.[17]By 1953, theChicago, Burlington and Quincy, theChicago and Eastern Illinois, and theSouthern Pacificrailroads had joined the innovation. Most of the rail cars used were surplus flatcars equipped with new decks. By 1955, an additional 25 railroads had begun some form of piggyback trailer service.
During World War II, theAustralian Armyused containers to more easily deal with variousbreaks of gaugein the railroads. These non-stackable containers were about the size of the later20-foot ISO containerand perhaps made mainly of wood.[18][need quotation to verify]
During the same time, theUnited States Armystarted to combine items of uniform size, lashing them onto a pallet,unitizingcargo to speed the loading and unloading of transport ships. In 1947 theTransportation Corpsdeveloped theTransporter, a rigid, corrugated steel container with a 9,000 lb (4,100 kg) carrying capacity, for shipping household goods of officers in the field. It was 8 ft 6 in (2.59 m) long, 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m), and 6 ft 10 in (2.08 m) high, with double doors on one end, mounted on skids, and had lifting rings on the top four corners.[19][20]During theKorean Warthe Transporter was evaluated for handling sensitive military equipment and, proving effective, was approved for broader use. Theft of material and damage towoodencrates convinced the army that steel containers were needed.
In April 1951, atZürich Tiefenbrunnen railway station, the Swiss Museum of Transport andBureau International des Containers(BIC) held demonstrations of container systems, with the aim of selecting the best solution for Western Europe. Present were representatives from France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Great Britain, Italy and the United States. The system chosen for Western Europe was based on the Netherlands' system for consumer goods and waste transportation calledLaadkisten(literally, "loading bins"), in use since 1934. This system usedroller containersthat were moved by rail, truck and ship, in various configurations up to a capacity of 5,500 kg (12,100 lb), and up to3.1 by 2.3 by 2 metres (10 ft 2 in × 7 ft6+1⁄2in × 6 ft6+3⁄4in) size.[21][22]This became the first post World War II European railway standardUIC590, known as "pa-Behälter." It was implemented in the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, West Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and Denmark.[23]With the popularization of the larger ISO containers, support for pa containers was phased out by the railways. In the 1970s they began to be widely used for transporting waste.[23]
In 1952 the U.S. Army developed the Transporter into the CONtainer EXpress orCONEX boxsystem. The size and capacity of the CONEXes were about the same as the Transporter,[nb 1]but the system was mademodular, by the addition of a smaller, half-size unit of 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m) long, 4 ft 3 in (1.30 m) wide and6 ft10+1⁄2in (2.10 m) high.[26][27][nb 2]CONEXes could be stacked three high, and protected their contents from the elements.[24]
The first major shipment of CONEXes, containing engineering supplies and spare parts, was made by rail from the Columbus General Depot in Georgia to thePort of San Francisco, then by ship to Yokohama, Japan, and then to Korea, in late 1952. Transit times were almost halved. By the time of theVietnam Warthe majority of supplies and materials were shipped by CONEX. By 1965 the U.S. military used some 100,000 CONEX boxes, and more than 200,000 in 1967.[27][31]making this the first worldwide application of intermodal containers.[24]After theUS Department of Defensestandardized an 8-by-8-foot (2.44 by 2.44 m) cross section container in multiples of 10-foot (3.05 m) lengths for military use, it was rapidly adopted for shipping purposes.[citation needed]
In 1955, former trucking company ownerMalcom McLeanworked with engineerKeith Tantlingerto develop the modernintermodal container.[32]All the containerization pioneers who came before McLean had thought in terms of optimizing particular modes of transport. McLean's "fundamental insight" which made the intermodal container possible was that the core business of the shipping industry "was moving cargo, not sailing ships".[33]He visualized and helped to bring about a world reoriented around that insight, which required not just standardization of the metal containers themselves, but drastic changes toeveryaspect of cargo handling.[33]
In 1955, McLean and Tantlinger's immediate challenge was to design ashipping containerthat could efficiently be loaded onto ships and would hold securely on sea voyages. The result was an 8 feet (2.44 m) tall by 8 ft (2.44 m) wide box in 10 ft (3.05 m)-long units constructed from2.5 mm (13⁄128in) thick corrugated steel. The design incorporated atwistlockmechanism atop each of the four corners, allowing the container to beeasily secured and liftedusing cranes. Several years later, as aFruehaufexecutive, Tantlinger went back to McLean and convinced him to relinquish control of their design to help stimulate the container revolution. On January 29, 1963, McLean's companySeaLandreleased its patent rights, so that Tantlinger's inventions could become "the basis for a standard corner fitting and twist lock".[34]Tantlinger was deeply involved in the debates and negotiations which in back-to-back votes in September 1965 (on September 16 and 24, respectively) led to the adoption of a modified version of the Sea-Land design as the American and then the international standard for corner fittings for shipping containers.[35]This began international standardization of shipping containers.[36]
The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers had begun operation in 1926 for the regular connection of the luxury passenger train between London and Paris, theGolden Arrow/Fleche d'Or. Four containers were used for the conveyance of passengers' baggage. These containers were loaded in London or Paris and carried to the ports of Dover or Calais.[14]In February 1931 the first container ship in the world was launched. It was called the Autocarrier, owned by the UK's Southern Railway. It had 21 slots for containers of Southern Railway.[12][13]
The next step was in Europe after World War II. Vessels purpose-built to carry containers were used between UK and Netherlands[23]and also in Denmark in 1951.[37]In the United States, ships began carrying containers in 1951, betweenSeattle, Washington, and Alaska.[38]None of these services was particularly successful. First, the containers were rather small, with 52% of them having a volume of less than 3 cubic metres (106 cu ft). Almost all European containers were made of wood and used canvas lids, and they required additional equipment for loading into rail or truck bodies.[39]
The world's first purpose-built container vessel wasClifford J. Rodgers,[40]built in Montreal in 1955 and owned by theWhite Pass and Yukon Corporation.[41]Her first trip carried 600 containers between North Vancouver, British Columbia, and Skagway, Alaska, on November 26, 1955. In Skagway, the containers were unloaded to purpose-builtrailroad carsfor transport north to Yukon, in the firstintermodalservice using trucks, ships, and railroad cars.[42]Southbound containers were loaded by shippers in Yukon and moved by rail, ship, and truck to their consignees without opening. This first intermodal system operated from November 1955 until 1982.[43]
The first truly successful container shipping company dates to April 26, 1956, when American trucking entrepreneur McLean put 58trailer vans[44]later called containers, aboard a refitted tanker ship, theSSIdeal X, and sailed them fromNewark, New Jersey, toHouston, Texas.[45]Independently of the events in Canada, McLean had the idea of using large containers that never opened in transit and that were transferable on an intermodal basis, among trucks, ships, and railroad cars. McLean had initially favored the construction of "trailerships"—taking trailers from large trucks and stowing them in a ship'scargohold. This method of stowage, referred to asroll-on/roll-off, was not adopted because of the large waste in potential cargo space on board the vessel, known as brokenstowage. Instead, McLean modified his original concept into loading just the containers, not the chassis, onto the ship; hence the designation "container ship" or "box" ship.[46][4](See alsopantechnicon vanandtrolley and lift van.)
During the first 20 years of containerization, many container sizes and corner fittings were used. There were dozens of incompatible container systems in the US alone. Among the biggest operators, theMatson Navigation Companyhad a fleet of 24-foot (7.32 m) containers, whileSea-Land Service, Incused 35-foot (10.67 m) containers. The standard sizes and fitting and reinforcement norms that now exist evolved out of a lengthy and complex series of compromises among international shipping companies, European railroads, US railroads, and US trucking companies. Everyone had to sacrifice something. For example, to McLean's frustration, Sea-Land's 35-foot container was not adopted as one of the standard container sizes.[34]In the end, four important ISO (International Organization for Standardization) recommendations standardized containerization globally:[47]
Based on these standards, the firstTEUcontainer ship was the JapaneseHakone Maru[de;jp]from shipowner NYK, which started sailing in 1968 and could carry 752 TEU containers.
In the US, containerization and other advances in shipping were impeded by theInterstate Commerce Commission(ICC), which was created in 1887 to keep railroads from using monopolist pricing and rate discrimination, but fell victim toregulatory capture. By the 1960s, ICC approval was required before any shipper could carry different items in the same vehicle or change rates. The fully integrated systems in the US today became possible only after the ICC's regulatory oversight was cut back (and abolished in 1995). Trucking and rail were deregulated in the 1970s and maritime rates were deregulated in 1984.[48]
Double-stacked rail transport, where containers are stacked two high on railway cars, was introduced in the US. The concept was developed by Sea-Land and the Southern Pacific railroad. The first standalone double-stack container car (or single-unit 40-foot (12.2 m) COFC well car) was delivered in July 1977. The five-unit well car, the industry standard, appeared in 1981. Initially, these double-stack railway cars were deployed in regular train service. Ever since American President Lines initiated in 1984 a dedicated double-stack container train service between Los Angeles and Chicago, transport volumes increased rapidly.[49]
Containerization greatly reduced the expense ofinternational tradeand increased its speed, especially of consumer goods and commodities. It also dramatically changed the character of port cities worldwide. Prior to highly mechanized container transfers, crews of 20 to 22longshoremenwould pack individual cargoes into the hold of a ship. After containerization, large crews of longshoremen were not necessary at port facilities, and the profession changed drastically.
Meanwhile, the port facilities needed to support containerization changed. One effect was the decline of some ports and the rise of others. At thePort of San Francisco, the former piers used for loading and unloading were no longer required, but there was little room to build the vast holding lots needed for storing and sorting containers in transit between different transport modes. As a result, the Port of San Francisco essentially ceased to function as a major commercial port, but the neighboringPort of Oaklandemerged as the second largest on the US West Coast. A similar fate occurred with the relationship between theports of Manhattan and New Jersey. In the UK, thePort of LondonandPort of Liverpooldeclined in importance. Meanwhile, Britain'sPort of FelixstoweandPort of Rotterdamin the Netherlands emerged as major ports.
In general, containerization causedinland portson waterways incapable of receiving deep-draftship traffic to decline in favor ofseaports, which then built vast container terminals next to deep oceanfront harbors in lieu of the dockfront warehouses and finger piers that had formerly handled break bulk cargo. With intermodal containers, the jobs of packing, unpacking, and sorting cargoes could be performed far from the point of embarkation. Such work shifted to so-called "dry ports" and gigantic warehouses in rural inland towns, where land and labor were much cheaper than in oceanfront cities. This fundamental transformation of where warehouse work was performed freed up valuable waterfront real estate near thecentral business districtsof port cities around the world forredevelopmentand led to a plethora of waterfront revitalization projects (such aswarehouse districts).[50]
The effects of containerization rapidly spread beyond the shipping industry. Containers were quickly adopted by trucking and rail transport industries for cargo transport not involving sea transport. Manufacturing also evolved to adapt to take advantage of containers. Companies that once sent small consignments began grouping them into containers. Many cargoes are now designed to precisely fit containers. The reliability of containers madejust in time manufacturingpossible as component suppliers could deliver specific components on regular fixed schedules.
In 2004, global container traffic was 354 millionTEUs, of which 82 percent were handled by the world's top 100 container ports.[51]
As of 2009[update], approximately 90% of non-bulk cargoworldwide is moved by containers stacked on transport ships;[52]26% of all containertransshipmentis carried out in China.[53]For example, in 2009 there were 105,976,701 transshipments in China (both international and coastal, excluding Hong Kong), 21,040,096 in Hong Kong (which is listed separately), and only 34,299,572 in the United States. In 2005, some 18 million containers made over 200 million trips per year. Some ships can carry over 14,500twenty-foot equivalent units(TEU), such as theEmma Mærsk, 396 m (1,299 ft) long, launched in August 2006. It has been predicted that, at some point, container ships will be constrained in size only by the depth of theStraits of Malacca, one of the world's busiest shipping lanes, linking the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. This so-calledMalaccamaxsize constrains a ship to dimensions of 470 m (1,542 ft) in length and 60 m (197 ft) wide.[4]
Few foresaw the extent of the influence of containerization on theshipping industry. In the 1950s, Harvard University economistBenjamin Chinitzpredicted that containerization would benefit New York by allowing it to ship its industrial goods more cheaply to the Southern US than other areas, but he did not anticipate that containerization might make it cheaper to import such goods from abroad. Most economic studies of containerization merely assumed that shipping companies would begin to replace older forms of transportation with containerization, but did not predict that the process of containerization itself would have a more direct influence on the choice of producers and increase the total volume of trade.[4]
The widespread use of ISO standard containers has driven modifications in other freight-moving standards, gradually forcing removable truck bodies orswap bodiesinto standard sizes and shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), and changing completely the worldwide use of freightpalletsthat fit into ISO containers or into commercial vehicles.
Improved cargo security is an important benefit of containerization. Once the cargo is loaded into a container, it is not touched again until it reaches its destination.[54]The cargo is not visible to casual viewers, and thus is less likely to be stolen. Container doors are usually sealed so that tampering is more evident. Some containers are fitted with electronic monitoring devices and can be remotely monitored for changes in air pressure, which happens when the doors are opened. This reduced thefts that had long plagued the shipping industry. Recent developments have focused on the use of intelligent logistics optimization to further enhance security.
The use of the same basic sizes of containers across the globe has lessened the problems caused by incompatiblerail gaugesizes. The majority of the rail networks in the world operate on a1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in) gauge track known asstandard gauge, but some countries (such as Russia, India, Finland, and Lithuania) usebroader gauges, while others in Africa and South America usenarrower gauges. The use of container trains in all these countries makes transshipment between trains of different gauges easier.
Containers have become a popular way toship private cars and other vehiclesoverseas using 20- or 40-foot containers. Unlikeroll-on/roll-offvehicle shipping, personal effects can be loaded into the container with the vehicle, allowing easy international relocation.[citation needed]
In July, 2020, The Digital Container Shipping Association (DCSA), a non-profit group established to further digitalisation of container shipping technology standards, published standards for the digital exchange of operational vessel schedules (OVS).[55]
Contrary to ocean shipping containers owned by the shippers, a persisting trend in the industry is for (new) units to be purchased by leasing companies. Leasing business accounted for 55% of new container purchases in 2017, with their box fleet growing at 6.7%, compared to units of transport operators growing by just 2.4% more TEU, said global shipping consultancy Drewry in their 'Container Census & Leasing and Equipment Insight', leading to a leased share of the global ocean container fleet reaching 54% by 2020.[56]
In 2021, the average time to unload a container in Asia was 27 seconds, the average time in Northern Europe was 46 seconds, and the average time in North America was 76 seconds.[57]
There are five common standard lengths:
US domestic standard containers are generally 48 ft (14.63 m) and 53 ft (16.15 m) (rail and truck). Container capacity is often expressed intwenty-foot equivalent units(TEU, or sometimesteu). An equivalent unit is a measure of containerized cargo capacity equal to one standard 20 ft (6.10 m) (length) × 8 ft (2.44 m) (width) container. As this is an approximate measure, the height of the box is not considered. For instance, the 9 ft 6 in (2.90 m)high cubeand the 4 ft 3 in (1.30 m)half height20 ft (6.10 m) containers are also called one TEU. 48' containers have been phased out over the last ten years[when?]in favor of 53' containers.
The maximum gross mass for a 20 ft (6.10 m) dry cargo container was initially set at 24,000 kg (53,000 lb), and 30,480 kg (67,200 lb)for a 40 ft (12.19 m) container (including the 9 ft 6 in or 2.90 m high cube) . Allowing for thetare massof the container, the maximum payload mass is therefore reduced to approximately 22,000 kg (49,000 lb) for 20 ft (6.10 m), and 27,000 kg (60,000 lb) for 40 ft (12.19 m) containers.[58]
It was increased to 30,480 kg for the 20' in 2005, then further increased to a max of 36,000 kg for all sizes by the amendment 2 (2016) of the ISO standard 668 (2013).
The original choice of 8-foot (2.44 m) height for ISO containers was made in part to suit a large proportion of railway tunnels, though some had to be modified. The current standard is eight feet six inches (2.59 m) high. With the arrival of even taller hi-cube containers at nine feet six inches (2.90 m) anddouble stackingrail cars, further enlargement of the railloading gaugeis proving necessary.[59]
While major airlines use containers that are custom designed for their aircraft and associated ground handling equipment theIATAhas created a set of standard aluminium container sizes of up to 11.52 m3(407 cu ft) in volume.
Some other container systems (in date order) are:
A full container load (FCL)[77]is anISO standardcontainer that is loaded and unloaded under the risk and account of one shipper and one consignee. In practice, it means that the whole container is intended for one consignee. FCL container shipment tends to have lowerfreight ratesthan an equivalent weight ofcargoin bulk. FCL is intended to designate a container loaded to its allowable maximum weight or volume, but FCL in practice onocean freightdoes not always mean a full payload or capacity – many companies will prefer to keep a 'mostly' full container as a single container load to simplify logistics and increase security compared to sharing a container with other goods.
Less-than-container load (LCL) is ashipmentthat is not large enough to fill a standardcargo container. The abbreviation LCL formerly applied to "less than (railway) car load" for quantities of material from different shippers or for delivery to different destinations carried in a singlerailway carfor efficiency. LCL freight was often sorted and redistributed into different railway cars at intermediaterailway terminalsen route to the final destination.[78]
Groupageis the process of filling a container with multiple shipments for efficiency.[79]
LCL is "a quantity ofcargoless than that required for the application of a carload rate. A quantity of cargo less than that which fills the visible or rated capacity of an inter-modal container."[citation needed]It can also be defined as "a consignment of cargo which is inefficient to fill a shipping container. It is grouped with other consignments for the same destination in a container at a containerfreight station".[80]
Containers are actively used for smuggling and trafficking illicit goods and people. Drugs, antiques, weapons, undeclared merchandise, jewellery, human beings, wildlife, counterfeit products, as well as chemical, radioactive and biological materials, are illegally transported via containers.[81][82][83][84][85][86]Additionally, there are concerns about terrorists using containers to transport weapons of mass destruction (WMD).[87]However, these concerns remain hypothetical.[88]
There are several ways in which illicit goods are smuggled. One method involves forging documents to make a container appear as legal cargo.[81][89]Another method is inserting illegal goods into a legitimate shipment, mixing legal and illegal items together.[90][81]For example, in 2024, several shipments of drugs, either disguised as banana cargo or mixed with legal banana shipments, were discovered in Germany, Greece, Spain and Great Britain.[91][92][93][94]Criminal groups use legitimate fruit businesses as fronts for their narcotics operations, making fruit cargo a common method for concealing drugs.[95]Trafficking in wildlife parts, such as ivory, frequently involves altering the appearance of the goods. For instance, ivory has been known to be cut into the shape of chocolate bars or painted the colour of wood to avoid detection during X-ray inspections.[96]Additionally, containers can be physically modified to hide illegal parcels, such as through the use of fake walls, secret compartments, hollowed-out rails, support beams and doors.[90]
The lack of capacity at ports to inspect containers increases the likelihood of smuggled goods going undetected. In African ports, especially West Africa, where most drug routes converge, only about 2% of all containers are inspected.[81][97]Similarly, European ports check just 2–10% of incoming containers, leaving the majority unscreened and creating opportunities for trafficking.[81][98]
Nevertheless, there are a number of security measures in place, notably theContainer Security Initiative(CSI), a post-9/11 US-led programme. This initiative aims to pre-screen high-risk cargo before it reaches US territory. One of its primary goals is to prevent the smuggling of weapons of mass destruction (WMD).[99][100]
Although the programme was initiated by the United States, by 2007, some 20 countries had signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the US, leading to the implementation of CSI measures at 58 ports around the world. The CSI system includes non-intrusive pre-screening methods, such as X-ray and radiation screening, for high-risk cargo destined for the United States. As a result, more than 80% of containerised cargo bound for the United States is pre-screened.[99][100]
Containers are intended to be used constantly, being loaded with new cargo for a new destination soon after emptied of previous cargo. This is not always possible, and in some cases, the cost of transporting an empty container to a place where it can be used is considered to be higher than the worth of the used container.Shipping linesand container leasing companies have become expert at repositioning empty containers from areas of low or no demand, such as the US West Coast, to areas of high demand, such as China. Repositioning within the port hinterland has also been the focus of recent logistics optimization work. Damaged or retired containers may be recycled in the form ofshipping container architecture, or the steel content salvaged. In the summer of 2010, a worldwide shortage of containers developed as shipping increased after the recession, while new container production had largely ceased.[101]
Containers occasionally fall from ships, usually during storms. According to media sources, between 2,000[102]and 10,000 containers are lost at sea each year.[103]TheWorld Shipping Councilstates in a survey among freight companies that this claim is grossly excessive and calculated an average of 350 containers to be lost at sea each year, or 675 if including catastrophic events.[104]For instance, on November 30, 2006, a container washed ashore[105]on the Outer Banks ofNorth Carolina, along with thousands of bags of its cargo ofDoritos Chips. Containers lost in rough waters are smashed by cargo and waves, and often sink quickly.[102]Although not all containers sink, they seldom float very high out of the water, making them a shipping hazard that is difficult to detect. Freight from lost containers has providedoceanographerswith unexpected opportunities to track globalocean currents, notably a cargo ofFriendly Floatees.[106]
In 2007 theInternational Chamber of Shippingand theWorld Shipping Councilbegan work on a code of practice for container storage, including crew training onparametric rolling, safer stacking, the marking of containers, and security for above-deck cargo in heavy swell.[107][108]
In 2011, theMV Renaran aground off the coast of New Zealand. As the ship listed, some containers were lost, while others were held on board at a precarious angle.
Some of the biggest battles in the container revolution were waged in Washington, D.C.. Intermodal shipping got a huge boost in the early 1970s, when carriers won permission to quote combined rail-ocean rates. Later, non-vessel-operatingcommon carrierswon a long court battle with a US Supreme Court decision against contracts that attempted to require that union labor be used for stuffing and stripping containers at off-pier locations.[109]
Containers are ofteninfestedwithpests.[110][111]Pestintroductionsare significantly clustered around ports, and containers are a common source of such successful pest transfers.[110][111]The IPPCSea Container Task Force(SCTF) promulgates theCargo Transport Units Code(CTU), prescribedpesticidesand other standards (see§ Other container system standards) and recommendations for use in container decontamination, inspection and quarantine.[76]The SCTF also provides the English translation of the National Standard of China (GB/T 39919-2021).[76]
Shipping container architectureis the use of containers as the basis for housing and other functional buildings for people, either as temporary or a permanent housing, and either as a main building or as a cabin or as a workshop. Containers can also be used as sheds or storage areas in industry and commerce.
Tempo Housing in Amsterdam stacks containers for individual housing units.
Containers are also beginning to be used to house computer data centers, although these are normally specialized containers.
There is now a high demand for containers to be converted in the domestic market to serve specific purposes.[112]As a result, a number of container-specific accessories have become available for a variety of applications, such as racking for archiving, lining, heating, lighting, powerpoints to create purpose-built secure offices, canteens and drying rooms, condensation control for furniture storage, and ramps for storage of heavier objects. Containers are also converted to provide equipment enclosures, pop-up cafes, exhibition stands, security huts and more.
Public containerised transport[113]is the concept, not yet implemented, of modifying motor vehicles to serve as personal containers in non-road passenger transport.
The ACTS roller container standards have become the basis ofcontainerized firefighting equipmentthroughout Europe.
Containers have also been used for weapon systems, such as the RussianClub-K, which allow the conversion of an ordinary container system into a missile boat, capable of attacking surface and ground targets, and the CWS (Containerized Weapon System)[114]developed for the US Army that allow for the rapid deployment of a remote controlled machine gun post from a container.
On September 5, 2008, the BBC embarked on a year-long project to study international trade andglobalizationby tracking a shipping container on its journey around the world.[115][116]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization#Other_container_system_standards
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Container port design processis a set of correlated practices considered duringcontainer portdesign, aiming to transfer general business mission into detailed design documents for future construction and operation.[1]
The design process involves both conceptual design and detailed design.
The source of funding determines the mission and scope of the project. Choices include federal funding (subsidies),[2]state or local funding, and private funding.
American ports require subsidies from the federal government in order to keep up with advances in maritime transportation as well as the capabilities of the inland freight movement. Often, roughly 50% of the costs every year come from federal sources. TheAmerican Association of Port Authorities(AAPA) is an association that aims at ensuring and increasing federal funds to American ports.
A few federal bills which provide funding for ports are
Most often, the State's Department of Transportation (DOT) is the largest state/local financier of public money investments. The DOTs see the ports as key elements in the systems of movement they are responsible for, such as railways and highways.
Investment from private entities is critical to the creation and execution of port activities. American ports are often run by private entities in the sense that day-to-day functions are financed and managed with the primary goal of creating revenue. The municipalities of the terminals are kept up by the Port Authority, but the equipment and infrastructure required for operations are under the private entities' power.
With the creation of new ports, oftenPublic-Private Partnerships, otherwise known as 3P, are formed to bring in the upfront capital necessary for someone to take on the financial risk of operating a terminal. Container terminals are no different in this sense from other types of terminals.
Cargo determines the main function, transportation mode, and related characters required for the container port. In container port design, the object cargo is anintermodal container. Containers are usually classified as 20-foot and 40-foot. 53-foot containers were introduced and used both in the US and Canada, mainly for domestic road and rail transport.[4]
The type of vessel, its dimension, and capacity determine the required capacity for a port's input capacity, which involves berth design, water-borne handling equipment selection, and requirements for both storage and land-mode capacity.
The characteristics of vessels and the port characteristics:
The selection of designed vessel shall also consider the development of the container ship. Underestimating the trend of size development of container ship will result in incapability and low sustainability.
It should start with data collection and get finished by receiving government permits. The choice of location is considered with the philosophy oftriple-bottom lineand with considerations of waterside access, natural conditions, inter-modal connections, and stakeholders.
For ports[5]
For container terminals[5]
Waterside access is the condition of waterways in the location, which determines the expected depth, berth quantities, vessel accessibility, and effort required for the development. The access channel is a waterway that linking the basins of a port to the open sea.[6]The importance of the location of access channels is that it determines theoceanographicfactors such as wave,tidal cycle, current, wind met by the ships in the channel. Also, it needs to keep the depth of thechanneland be able to accommodate the world's largest cargo vessels. For example, in order to meet the need, thePort Authority of New York and New Jerseyruns the Main Navigation Channel Deepening Program, dredged 38 miles of federal channels to as deep as 50 feet by 30 years. There are several aspects, based on PIANC (1997), a designer needs to consider:[5]
Natural conditions are classified as to whether the area selected is developed or natural. Natural condition determines whether there will be existing utilities and constraint for future terminal development.
An intermodal connection is a place whererail,truck,barge, and other transport methods converge. Intermodal connection for container terminal mainly consists of road and rail. The capacity ofintermodal connection---docking and the handling, storage, and transfer of cargo---determines the capability of terminal cargo transportation to/from the land.
Stakeholders as any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization's objectives. (R. Edward Freeman 1984.)[7]Stakeholder analysis is a process of systematically gathering and analyzing qualitative information to determine whose interests should be taken into account when developing and or implementing a policy or program. The purpose of a stakeholder analysis is to assess the attitudes of the stakeholders regarding the realization of a new container terminal.[citation needed]
Stakeholders in location selection mainly consist of trade organizations, maritime groups, regional government, neighborhood societies, environment groups, and other people with direct/indirect interest related to the terminal. Selection shall involve their participation so as to avoid strong conflicts in future development and to keep terminal development adapt to the changing demand from these stakeholders.[citation needed]
Agencies and societies involved in this process are:
Permits are crucial in the designing process. Large scale development projects that have the potential for causing significant adverse environmental impacts need permits to start operation.[8]Projects without permits will be identified as an offense. Port needs port permits to open. Environmental permits will be issued by Local Environmental Protection Agencies. Usually include three-part: water side, land side, and air emissions. Permits for ports should include a clean air permit, construction permit, discharge permit, dredge permits, and water discharge permit.[9]
The consideration of infrastructure includes plans for deployment and construction of infrastructures to implement the functions of the terminal. Thewharfat a terminal is the structure that forms the edge of the landside facility. It is made up of both the topside and the face. The face of the wharf is where equipment is mounted to allow vessels to berth. It is also designed to be within the high water levels, thus making its structures susceptible to corrosion. Water-tightness and corrosion protection are a must for any structural elements that make up the face. The topside of the wharf is what is broken down into berths. Pre-designated lengths of the wharf are separated into identified berths based on the design vessels characteristics.Container cranesoperate along the wharf when vessels have berthed.[citation needed]
Warehousesare created at container terminals to hold specific goods that are transported to the port but are not being shipped out in the same container. This style of transport is not common. However, this can be a service supplied by the terminal owners to increase imports. Those goods, when warehoused, incur additional handling and storage costs, increasing revenue as well.
Maintenanceis the conception that uses engineering theories and practices, risk management, and maintenance strategy to plan and implement routine maintenance of facilities and operation systems. The overall maintenance policy for port or terminal should be to maintain all of the facility assets to the extent that the level of expenditure is justified in order that the assets remain serviceable during their design life or longer and for reasons of safety and security.[1]A typical maintenance team involves experienced personnel under the control of a qualified engineering maintenance manager and supervisory staff, and engineering inspection staff. It should meet the requirements listed in ISM (International Safety Management Code). The maintenance facilities required will include a workshop with sufficient space to work on approximately 10% of the mobile equipment and spreaders at any one time. The maintenance facilities should be located outside but close to the container yard. It is necessary to provide a Stores section within the maintenance facility that will hold necessary spare components and materials. Following are the specific requirements for maintenance.[5]
Planned preventive maintenance and statutory inspections of equipment are normally carried out during the day shift when all specialist trades are available. Outside of the day shift, minimal manning levels are normally retained to cover breakdowns and emergency repairs only. For other specialist areas such as IT and electronics, it is usual to retain specialized personnel due to the specific needs of such systems and equipment. Mechanical and electrical engineering and IT personnel will be responsible for the daily maintenance of cargo handling equipment and other aspects of the facility that require these skills and for specific IT operating systems such as the TOS. High voltage electrical cables and switchgear should be maintained by specialist contractors whilst maintenance of low and medium cables and domestic electrics can be undertaken by electrical tradesmen.[citation needed]
A lay-down area is the space where container handling equipment places full or empty containers prior to loading onto the containers' next step in its journey to its destination. The lay-down area is composed of multiple structural layers to support the loads brought on by the equipment and cargo. The first layer, the foundation, consists of either the existing or improvedsubgradeof the location. To add extra strength to the foundation, the existing soils are compacted; further, Soil Improvements such as stone columns are installed, or the unsatisfactory soils are removed and a new fill soil is brought in, graded, and compacted to meet requirements.[citation needed]
The second layer is asphalt paving. This pavement differs from the typical highway and road pavement as the loads are generally more stationary as well as much smaller in magnitude. This type of pavement contains Hydraulically Bound Materials (HBM), an ingredient used to provide higher compressive strength to the asphalt. The mixture is the first part of designing the asphalt, with the second being the thickness. Both the materials and the thickness can be calculated by following existing design guides published by engineering societies. TheWorld Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure's (PIANC) Report 165-2015 can provide further guidance on container terminal pavements.[10]
The lay-down area surface is also designed for multiple functions. The pavement must drain towards a drainage system as well as have a sufficient grip to prevent skidding. Finally, the pavement is painted to show lanes for travel as well as rows to placeIntermodal containercontainers when not in transit.
Intermodal yards mainly consist of two parts, rail yards, and container storage yards. Rail yards should have access to rails, and container storage yards should have access to trucks. Container storage yards include yards for inbound containers with cargo and internal movements, yards for outbound containers with cargo, yards for trans-shipment containers, and yards for empties. The area requirements are measured in TEU ground slots (the area required for one 20-ft container) plus operating space for equipment that transfers containers to and from the yards and stack and deliver containers.
Port securityconsists of cargo security, port facility security, staff security, and maritime domain security. Port security should be worked jointly by the coast guards and custom and border protection together. Internationally, port security is governed by rules issued by theInternational Maritime Organizationand its 2002International Ship and Port Facility Security Code.
During the design process, ports need to come up with a port security plan and implement it. The port security plan should include security survey and risk assessment, physical security and access control, information security, personnel security, maritime terrorism, drug smuggling, stowaways and alien smuggling, roles/ responsibilities/ legal authorities of port agencies, sea robbery, cargo security, and hazardous materials and intelligence.[11]
Customs should have both base offices at the warehouse and around the gates. The office at the warehouse is mainly for detecting harmful agriculture and smuggling (drugs, dirty money). Office at gates is mainly for the reason of detecting mis-picked cargo or radiation containers. At gates, there should be radiation-detection equipment aim at detecting dangerous weapons and radiation stuff that can be used to make dirty bombs.Radiation Portal Monitors(RPMs) are passive radiation detection devices used for the screening of individuals, vehicles, cargo, or other vectors for the detection of illicit sources such as at borders or secure facilities. Portal VACIS imaging system helps trained operators see the contents of closed containers, assisting them in intercepting weapons, contraband, and other items of interest and verifying shipping manifests. Patented drive-through technology lets trucks drive through the system without stopping, providing an effective solution for high-traffic situations where lengthy manual inspection processes are impractical or undesirable.[12]
Mooring (watercraft)infrastructure at a port describes those structures that mooring lines from vessels can tie off to in order to prevent drifting along or away from the wharf face. The mooring structures are calledcleat (nautical)orbollards, depending on their size and shape. Bollards are designed to handle much larger loads, and in turn, much larger vessels. Manufacturers of these items typically design the items and supply the finished design to the consultant to include in the bid documents.
Cleats and bollards can be found on all different forms of structures. The common one is the wharf face of a terminal. Other locations can include dolphins, which are stand-alone structures that are off the face of the landside infrastructure. Another source can be other barges or sea vessels allowing vessels to tie off to each other.
Bollards and cleats can have multiple types of mooring lines tied off to them. Bow and stern lines, found at the front and the back of the vessel, are lines designed to prevent vessels from drifting perpendicular to the berth location. Breast lines come from closer to the centerline of the vessel and span along the vessel to the mooring location to keep the vessel from drifting parallel to the berth. PIANC Report _______ can provide further details on the design of mooring structures. Bollard and cleat manufacturers can provide more details on dimensions, weights, and capacities of mooring structures[13]
Berthing of the vessels is analyzed using the design vessel's characteristics of weight, draught, and other specifications in addition to the requirements set by the terminal location such as wind speeds, direction, currents, and safe berthing velocities of the approach channel and berth. All these factors come together to determine the maximum amounts of energy that must be resisted by the terminal foundation and wharf. Multiple styles of berthing equipment have been designed in response to this requirement.
Container terminals are, for the most part, directly on land, eliminating the need for berthing dolphins similar to those described in the Mooring section. Fender systems installed on the wharf face are the main facility for reducing the amount of energy the wharf structure must absorb during berthing. A fender system consists of thefender (boating)itself, the panel, and the various hardware required to anchor and stabilize the unit.
Fenders are made of a grade of rubber chosen for their flexibility. The more compressible, the more energy the fender can resist. They come in multiple sizes and shapes, aimed at handling different situations. Fenders do not need to be mounted in the same location at all times. Some fenders are designed to rise and fall with water levels.
Panels are large faces that connect to the fender giving more contact space for the vessel. The size also helps reduce the reaction on the vessel's hull, which is designed for a certain maximum pressure. They are often covered with a friction-reducing surface to prevent lateral forces trying to shear the fender apart. One final element of panel design is associated not just with its dimensions but with its location relative to another fender. The spacing of the fenders relative to the size of the panel must be set so that the design vessel cannot compress the fender in an angled situation and contact the wharf. Either a second fender panel must be contacted, or the fender cannot compress too much in an unsymmetrical fashion.
The structural elements of a fender system must be analyzed to ensure the equilibrium and stability of each unit at all times. Chains are installed to keep the panel from putting unnecessary shear due to vessel action or weight of the panel. Also, anchors are installed into the wharf to anchor the fender to the wharf face. At these locations, the foundation of the terminal is strengthened more so than at areas of non-contact due to the larger forces imparted on the structure.
Container quay crane rails
Container storage yards
Cargo berths
Pavements
Communication is very important in ports because ports are areas with high risks; by good communication, people can avoid risks. In the design process, people should consider adding more base stations to ensure good quality of radio contact and video contact. The customs officers should have both radio contact and video contact with truck drivers driving through the gate to make sure they have picked up the right container. Pilots in the port should have good radio communications to guide them sailing. Port laborers should have good communication through radio with each other to avoid conflicts and risks.
The consideration of equipment includes plans for procurement and construction of terminal facilities to implement the function of the terminal. Equipment involved in the detailed design includescontainer craneswhich can be identified by mode: Rail Mounted Quay Crane (RMQC) or Ship to Shore (STS) Crane; andinter-modal containertransport facilitiesused for storage areas such asReach Stackers, Tractor-Trailer Units (TTUs) and Vehicles.[1]Parameters for cranes and inter-modal cargo transport facilities considered in detailed design are quantities, size limit, power requirement, handling capacity, handling speed, cost, load to land limit, and other working environment constraints.
The deployment of equipment shall be designed with a key mission to create enough cargo transportation to balance the cargo flow.Queueing theoryshall be introduced to the quantity and quality of equipment required.
Some staff, such as coast guards or customs, need personal security clearances to obtain a job at ports because they need to have access to classified information. There are three levels of security clearance, confidential, secret, and top secret. A critical investigation in it is a background investigation of a face-to-face interview with officers. Sometimes staff just need to get an interim security clearance. There will also be a periodic reinvestigation every 5 years to obtain a new security clearance. The investigation will again cover key aspects of the individual's life but will start from one's previous background investigation.[14]
In the ports, operating systems and personnel development are based on skills acquired through experience, which is easily undertaken in advanced industrial environments.
Several agreements we should take into account:
Safety is the condition of a "steady state" of an organization or place.Security is the process or means, physical or human, of delaying, preventing, and otherwise protecting against external or internal defects, dangers, loss, criminals, and other individuals or actions. The main documents related to terminal operations are theILO convention152 (1979) and the ILO code of practice (2003) which cope with the health and safety of port labor.
Logistics is the generalsupply chainof how resources are acquired, stored and transported to their final destination. It involves identifying prospective distributors andsuppliersand determining their effectiveness and accessibility.
Customs and Border Protection exists to a safeguard country's borders, thereby protecting the public from dangerous people and materials while enhancing the nation's global economic competitiveness by enabling legitimate trade and travel.[17]Customs at ports of entry have two main tasks: cargo security and protecting agriculture.[18]Every port should have its own nation's customs. They should have base offices both at the administration building and the warehouse (check agriculture) and outside offices at both the entry gates, leaving gates. Groups of customs at the port should be consisted of Marine Interdiction Agents, Border Patrol Agents, Agriculture Specialists, Custom and Border Protection Officers, and Import Specialists.[19]
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TheCustoms Convention on Containersis a United Nations andInternational Maritime Organizationtreatywhereby states agree to allowintermodal containersto be temporarily brought into their statesduty-and tax-free.
The original Convention was concluded inGenevaon 18 May 1956 and entered into force on 4 August 1959. On 2 December 1972, a new Convention was concluded with the provision that when it entered into force, it would replace the 1956 Convention for the parties that ratify it. The 1972 Convention entered into force on 6 December 1975. The 1956 Convention was ratified by 44 states; as of 2016, the 1972 Convention has been ratified by 40 states. TheInternational Container Bureauwas instrumental in the creation of the revised 1972 Convention.
The Convention allows forshipping containersto be brought from a ratifying state into a ratifying state duty- and tax-free for a period of three months.
The Convention was concluded at the same conference that concluded theCustoms Convention on the Temporary Importation of Commercial Road Vehicles, theCustoms Convention on the Temporary Importation for Private Use of Aircraft and Pleasure Boats, and theCMR Convention.
The Convention was somewhat superseded in 1990 by theIstanbul Convention, which combines in one single instrument the various conventions on the temporary admission of specific goods.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customs_Convention_on_Containers
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Between WWI and WWII, theGreat Western Railwaydeveloped the use ofcontainersthat could be packed and locked at a client's premises, taken by lorry to a station, then carried by train and again by lorry to the final destination. Using these containers, they offered a door-to-door removals service, providing a team to pack the furniture, and a discount on fares to the destination.[1]Some containers could carry up to 72 bicycles.[2]Insulated containers, cooled by boxes of ice, were used to transport flower bulbs and other perishable items.[3]
Originally such containers were carried on general-purpose flat trucks and wagons, but from 1931 the GWR built or converted a number of special purpose flat-bedded wagons, provided with chains for securing the load. They were called by the telegraphic codeConflat, and most of them were fitted with vacuum brakes.[4][5]
In 1930 the railway introduced 100 containers primarily for building materials.[6]
This United Kingdom rail transport related article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GWR_Container
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Intermediate bulk containers(also known asIBCs,IBC totes, orpallet tanks) are industrial-gradecontainersengineered for the mass handling, transport, and storage of liquids, partial solids, pastes, granular solids[1]or other fluids. There are several types of IBCs with the two main categories beingflexible IBCsand rigid IBCs.[2]Many IBCs arereusedwith proper cleaning and reconditioning[3]orrepurposed.
IBCs are roughly pallet-sized and either attach to a pallet or have integral pallet handling features. This type of packaging is frequently certified for transportingdangerous goodsor hazardous materials. Proper shipment requires the IBC to comply with all applicable regulations.[4]
Rigid intermediate bulk containers are a type ofbulk box. They can be reusable, versatile containers with an integratedpalletbase mount that providesforkliftandpallet jackmaneuverability. These containers can be made from metal, plastic, or a composite construction of the two materials. Rigid IBC design types are manufactured across a volume range that is in between those of standard shippingdrumsandintermodal tank containers, hence the title "intermediate" bulk container. IBC totes are authorized per Title 49 CFR codes[5]to be fabricated of a volume up to 3 cubic metres (793 US gal) while maintaining the IBC name and their federal shipping and handling permits. Many rigid IBCs are designed to be stackable.
Containers for hazardous and dangerous fluids must carryUN-recognized markings that enable the operator and those handling the container to ensure suitability with the contained cargo and associated handling requirements.
IBC tank capacities generally used are often 1,040 and 1,250 litres (275 and 330 US gal).[6]Intermediate bulk containers are standardized shipping containers often UN/DOT certified for the transport handling of hazardous and non-hazardous, packing group II and packing group III commodities. Many IBC totes are manufactured according to federal andNSF/ANSIregulations and mandates and are oftenIMDGapproved as well for domestic and maritime transport. Metal alloy IBC tanks are also manufactured according toNFPAand UL142 certification standards for extensive storage of materials labelled as flammable and/or combustible.
Intermediate bulk containers can be manufactured from various materials based on the requirements of the application or service the IBC will be used for. Traditional materials include:
Collapsible IBC tanks are designed so that they can be folded when needed to save space when empty or used for return transport. They can also be stacked to save storage space. The replaceable plastic bags with a typical volume of 500 or 1000 litres make the container easy to clean and reuse, which is needed for use with food, as strict hygiene regulations must be observed. The space-saving intermediate bulk containers are used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics and food industries. Several designed have been developed.[11][12][13]
Caged IBCs are composite structures and are in very common usage. Caged IBCs are often utilized as one-use containers, especially when it comes to hazardous materials, but are also suitable for cleaning and reuse under many conditions.[14]This IBC type often features an interior liner, blow-mold manufactured frompolyethylene, that is structurally supported by a protective cage frame, often ofgalvanized steelcomposition. Caged IBCs are engineered for the bulk handling of liquids, semi-solids, as well as solid materials. All materials can present certain safety and compatibility concerns, especially hazardous liquids,[15]and proper guidance is always recommended whenever using caged IBC totes for harsh chemicals.
Caged IBC totes arethermoplasticblow-moldengineered, often, from virgin high-density polyethylene (HDPE), aBPAfree, strong plastic. Caged tote engineering is a top port inlet with cap for filling of cargo (commonly 15.3mm) with a bottom discharge outlet port--common is 50mmball valves--and an integrated pallet base skid for maneuvering the IBC. The pallet base of composite IBCs often features four-way access channels for universal handling by moving equipment such as forklifts andpallet jacks.
Caged IBC engineering has been to produce a multi-industry use container that is mobile, convenient, consistent, durable, as well as compatible. The high-density polyethylene used in the construction of rigid, poly caged IBC totes is a durable thermoplastic chosen for its compatibility with many chemicals and materials often employed throughout industries, commercial applications, agriculture as well as consumer-based uses, as caged IBCs are often repurposed foraquaponicgardening.
Caged intermediate bulk containers are standardized for manufacture to near a commonly-accepted pallet size. Caged IBCs are often 1,200 x 1,000 x 1,150 (45" x 40" x 46") for 1,000 L and 1,200 x 1,000 x 1,350 mm (48" x 40" x 53") for 1,250 L, where both volume types are available in either new, rebottled, or reconditioned model types, where: rebottled means a brand new HDPE liner in a previously-used but certified steel cage, and; reconditioned means a previously-used but cleaned and certified HDPE liner and cage[16]
A standard flexible intermediate bulk container can hold 500 to 1,000 kg (1,100 to 2,200 lb) and manufacturers offer bags with a volume of 285–2,830 litres (10–100 cu ft).[2]
Flexible intermediate bulk containers are made ofwovenpolyethyleneorpolypropyleneor other heavy polymers.Bagsare designed for storing or transporting dry, flowable products, such assand,fertilizer, andplasticgranules. They typically have lifting straps but are frequently handled on a pallet.
Most IBCs are cube-shaped and this cube-shaped engineering contributes to the packaging, stacking, storing, shipping, and overall space efficiency of intermediate bulk containers. Rigid IBC totes feature integrated pallet bases with dimensions that are generally near the commonpalletstandard dimension of 1,200 mm × 1,000 mm or 48 in × 42 in (1,219 mm × 1,067 mm). IBC container’s pallet base is designed for universal maneuverability viaforklift/pallet jackchannels. Almost all rigid IBCs are designed so they can be stacked vertically one atop the other using aforklift. Most have a built-in tap (valve,spigot, orfaucet) at the base of the container to whichhosescan be attached, or through which the contents can be poured into smaller containers.
The most common IBC size 1000L fits on a single pallet of similar dimensions to pallets which hold 4drums(200L), providing an extra 120L of product in the IBC over drum storage, a 12% increase for the same storage footprint. Additionally, IBCs can be manufactured to a customer's exact requirements in terms of capacity, dimensions, and material.
There are many advantages to the engineering and design of the IBC model:
IBCs are often used to ship, handle, and/or store:
Intermediate bulk containers may be purchased or leased.Bar codeandRFIDtracking systems are available with associated software.
An IBC can be purchased as a new unit (bottle and cage), a rebottled unit (new bottle and washed cage) or a washed unit (both bottles and cages have been washed). A washed unit is typically less expensive, with the new unit being the most expensive, and the rebottled unit near the mid-point. In many cases, a customer may purchase a mix (“blend”) of these types of units under a single price, to simplify the accounting.
The customer's choice of unit primarily depends on either actual or perceived sensitivity of their product to contamination, and the overall ability to clean their specific product type from the bottle. Those with a lower contamination risk are prime candidates for the washed units. With the exception of products produced in "clean rooms" (GMP - good manufacturing practices), the decision of a washed over a new is usually a matter of availability or appearance.
An IBC can be leased in a closed-loop (using only the IBCs which were used by a given customer and washed or rebottled) or the most common open-loop system (where the origin of the rebottled or wash unit is flexible). For plastic composite units, the trip lease[further explanation needed]has largely been replaced by a blended purchase.
Single use flexible IBC's such as those used for aggregate transportation in the construction industry are a major source ofplastic pollution. Most aggregate suppliers do not offer a scheme to refund a deposit upon return of empty IBC's and in the UK they are frequentlyfly tippedand seen abandoned roadside.
When exposed to fire as in a warehouse event, plastic IBCs containing combustible or flammable liquids can melt or burn fairly rapidly, releasing their entire contents and increasing the fire hazard by the sudden addition of combustible fuel. Rigid plastic (as high-density polyethylene) IBCs that transport and house flammable/combustible materials are recommended to have clear labelling and be stored within properly secured structures and according to government regulations, (such as NFPA and OSHA, in the U.S.)[17]Metal IBCs (as carbon steel and stainless steel) are often approved per UL 142 requirements for housing these materials long term. Accordingly, metal IBC tanks can be used for Class I materials, while rigid plastic IBCs can be used for Class II/III materials.
Concerning the mechanical stability and sloshing of intermediate bulk containers during transport, some research has been performed through the U.S.A. Department of Transportation which seems to indicate that IBC containers perform overall very well during transit in terms of sloshing and mechanical stability.[18]
For metal IBCs, test reports by the GermanBundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung(BAM) show that a metal IBC can withstand fire for at least 30 minutes, if it is equipped with a pressure venting device.[19]
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TheLogistics Vehicle System(LVS), nicknamed by U.S. Marines as "Dragon Wagon" which is a reference to the famousM25 tank transporterwhich had the nickname of the Dragon wagon. The LVS is a modular assortment ofeight-wheel driveall-terrain vehicleunit combinations used by theUnited States Marine Corps.
The LVS was fielded in 1985 as the Marine Corps heavy tactical vehicle system.[1]It was designed and manufactured by theOshkosh Corporation. TheUnited States Armydoes not use the LVS, it uses theHeavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck (HEMTT). The key differences between the two is the LVS's ability to interchange Front Power Units with Rear Body Units. The LVS also steers through both standard wheel pivoting (as on a typical automobile) andhydraulicyaw steering (by articulating the Front Power Unit against the Rear Body Unit). This enabled the LVS to meet the turning radius requirements of the U.S. Marines. LVS is rated to haul up to 22.5 tonnes (50,000 lb) on highways.[1]
TheOshkosh Logistic Vehicle System Replacement (LVSR)is the replacement for the LVS and was first fielded in 2009.[1]
The LVS is composed of a Front Power Unit (FPU) coupled to a Rear Body Unit (RBU). The FPU can be driven on its own. When describing a truck it is remarked by the combination of both units, for example, an MK48 FPU attached to an MK18 RBU is called a "48/18". For MK16's, which towM870 semi-trailers, the type of trailer is added as well, i.e. "48/16/870A2".
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MIL-STD-129standard is used for maintaining uniformity while markingmilitary equipmentand supplies that are transported through ships. This standard has been approved to be used by theUnited States Department of Defenseand all other government agencies. Items must be marked for easy identification before they are transported. The marking helps the military personnel to fill the necessary requisition, when a particular stock goes short of the balance level.
Shipping containers carrying military items can be categorized into 3 types namely Unit Containers, Intermediate Containers and Exterior Containers as per the requirement standard of MIL-STD-129. However, for all type of containers the basic format such as National Stock Number (NSN), item description and part number are mandatory. For Exterior containers certain additional labels like Military Shipment Label(MSL), serial number barcode and Direct-Vendor Delivery label(DVD) are required.
Major changes to Mil-Std-129 came with Revision P's Change Notice 4, known as MIL-STD-129P(4), released on 19 September 2007. There is amendment for exterior containers in this new MIL-STD-129P (4) standard. Now onwards along with the earlier NSN, Contract and CAGE, two new bar codes namely The Contract Line Item (CLIN) and Shipment Numbers (SN) are mandatory for exterior containers. Two-dimensionalPDF417bar code symbols were introduced to identify UID-marked contents.
Revision R to Mil-Std-129 went into effect February 18, 2014. A primary focus of the revision was the use of two-dimensional PDF417 bar code symbols to replace linear bar codes on all container identification labels.[2]The use of PDF417 symbols on container labels was introduced in Change Notice 4 to facilitate the demands of Unique Identification (UID) markings, which at up to fifty characters in length are too long to be represented with traditional Code39 linear bar codes.
Prior to Revision R, a container label would require up to ten linear bar codes for NSN, Contract, CLIN, CAGE, shipment number and up to five serial numbers.[3]The PDF417 is a very dense machine-readable symbol that may easily contain the data of those barcodes, plus five full-length IUIDs (Item Unique Identifiers).[2]
While this change has reduced the number of labels required, there are other benefits to both vendors and the DOD. For the DOD, the use of the PDF417 allows the depots to read the labels with automated data collection systems, which is virtually impossible with the linear barcodes due to the lack of data identifiers.[4]Defense contractors can benefit from this same capability in their own warehouse systems.
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Railways of Australia Container ExpressorRACEwas a slightly wider version of the standardISOshippingcontainerable to take 2Australia Standard Palletsside by side. More than 1,000 units were operated by theRailways of Australia, an association of the government-owned railways which comprisedAustralian National, theState Rail AuthorityofNew South Wales,Queensland Railways, theVictorianState Transport AuthorityandWestrail. These entities operated in Australia prior to privatisation of freight services.[1]
The RACE containers were developed in 1974 in New South Wales by thePublic Transport Commission, and built by Freighter Industries Ltd. The RACE general container was designed to accommodate 20 standard 1,168 mm × 1,168 mm (46 in × 46 in) pallets stacked in two levels. Carrying capacity was 17 tonnes (16.7 long tons; 18.7 short tons) and it had rear and side doors for ease of loading and unloading.[2]There were also ISO RACE containers for non-palletised freight, as well as ventilated, refrigerated and side-loading containers.[3]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RACE_(container)
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Ashipping containeris acontainerwith strength suitable to withstand shipment, storage, and handling. Shipping containers range from large reusable steel boxes used for intermodal shipments to the ubiquitouscorrugated boxes. In the context of international shipping trade, "container" or "shipping container" is virtually synonymous with "intermodal freight container" (sometimes informally called a "sea can"), a container designed to be moved from one mode of transport to another without unloading and reloading.[1]
Freight containers are areusabletransport and storage unit for moving products and raw materials between locations or countries. There are about seventeen million intermodal containers in the world, and a large proportion of the world's long-distance freight generated byinternational tradeis transported in shipping containers. In addition, it is estimated that several million of these containers have now been discarded due to the shipping cost of sending them back to their port of origin. Their invention made a major contribution to theglobalizationof commerce in the second half of the 20th century, dramatically reducing the cost of transporting goods and hence of long-distance trade.[2][3]
Specialized shipping containers include: high cube containers (providing an extra 1 ft (305 mm) in height to standard shipping containers), pallet wides, open tops, side loaders, double door or tunnel-tainers, and temperature controlled containers. Another specialized container, known as Transtainer, is a portable fuel and oil freight container. The hybrid bulk fuel tank is originally intended for the construction, mining, logging and farming sectors. The tank can be used to transport and store bulk fuels as well as dangerous liquids, by road, rail and sea.[4]Sea containers are crucial for modern logistics, offering a cost-effective storage and shipping solution. These durable containers, designed for international transportation, provide secure storage for goods with robust steel construction. Beyond shipping, they find applications in on-site storage and modular living or workspaces. Sea containers for sale provide an accessible and convenient solution, meeting diverse needs and promoting sustainability through their reuse.
Reusable steel boxes for use as truck-sized shipping containers first came into use around 1956. It took some time for businesses to devise a structured process to utilize and to get optimal benefits from the role and use of shipping containers. Over time, the invention of the modern telecommunications of the late 20th-century made it highly beneficial to have standardized shipping containers, and made these shipping processes more standardized, modular, easier to schedule and easier to manage.[5]
Corrugated boxesare commonly used as shipping containers[6](more than 90% of all shipping containers are of this type).[6][7]They are made ofcorrugated fiberboardwhich is lightweight, recyclable, and strong enough to ship a variety of products.
Wooden boxes are often used for shipping heavy and dense products. They are sometimes specified for shipments of government or military shipments.
A crate is a large container, often made of wood, used to transport large, heavy or awkward items. A crate has a self-supporting structure, with or without sheathing.
Reusable plastic versions include:
An intermediate bulk container (IBC, IBC Tote, IBC Tank) is a multi-use container employed for the general transport, storage, and handling of bulk fluids and materials. IBC tanks are compatible with, and resistant to, an extensive list of chemicals, acids, caustics, as well as inert materials and food grade consumables. IBCs are commonly manufactured from the following materials:
Some IBC engineering models are foldable (collapsible) for space-saving breakdown following use.
A flexible intermediate bulk container,FIBC,big bag,bulk bag, orsuper sackis a standardized container in large dimensions for storing and transporting granular products. It is often made of a woven synthetic material.
A bulk box, bulk bin, skid box, or tote box is apalletsize box used for storage and shipping of bulk quantities.
Drums are cylindrical shipping containers made of steel, plastic or fiber. They are often used for liquids and granular materials.
Insulated shipping containers are a type of packaging used to ship temperature sensitive products such as foods, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals. They are used as part of acold chainto help maintain product freshness and efficacy.
Some pails are used as shipping containers.[8]
A Unit Load Device (ULD), is a container used to transport cargo on commercial aircraft. It can be a pallet or container used to load luggage, freight, and mail on wide-body aircraft and specific narrow-body aircraft. It allows a large quantity of cargo to be bundled into a single unit. Since this leads to fewer units to load, it saves ground crews time and effort and helps prevent delayed flights. Each ULD has its own packing list, manifest, or tracking identification to improve control and tracking of contents
Custom containers are used for shipments of products such as scientific instruments, weapons and aviation components.[9]Customizedcushioning, blocking and bracing, carrying handles, lift rings, locks, etc. are common to facilitate handling and to protect the contents. Often, these shipping containers are reusable.
The reusableifco tray("international fruit container") is used in Europe for transportation of fruit, vegetables, and fish.
Flight cases and transit cases are usually custom designed for shipping and carrying fragile equipment: audio visual, camera, instruments, etc. Although generally light in construction, they tend to have reinforced edges and corners.
Road cases are often used for shipping musical instruments and theater props.
Many types of shipping containers are reusable. Steel drums are frequently reconditioned and reused. Gas cylinders, transit cases and sometimes even corrugated boxes are reused.
The widespread availability and relative cheapness of used intermodal shipping containers meant that architects began to consider them as an alternative to traditional building materials.[10]Used shipping containers have been converted for use in housing, and as retail and office spaces.[11][12]Examples of its use include the Cité A Docks student housing project inLe Havre, France;[13]the Wenckehof container village in Amsterdam;[14]the portablePumaCity store in US cities;[15][16]the food and retailBoxparkin London;[17]theDordoy BazaarinBishkek, Kyrgyzstan;[18]the temporary mallRe:STARTinChristchurch, New Zealand built after the2011 Christchurch earthquake,[19]and asintensive-careunits in temporary hospitals during theCOVID-19 pandemic.[20]The Smoky Park Supper Club inAsheville, North Carolina, opened in 2015, was constructed from 19 containers and is considered " "America's largest recycled shipping container restaurant."[21]
It has however been pointed out there are problems with recycling shipping containers, that it may not be as ecologically friendly or cheap an option as it might appear. The containers may be coated with harmful chemicals such as chromate, phosphorus, and lead-based paints, while its wooden floors may be treated with toxic insecticides, and some cost and effort are involved in modifying containers to make them habitable.[10]Others have noted various issues such as space constraint, insulation, and structural weakness if too much steel is cut out of the containers.[22][23]
Shipping containers are used in the film and television industry for building temporary sets. Shipping containers can be stacked on top of each other and used as reinforced scaffold that large-scale film sets can be built against. An example can be seen atLeavesden Studios, England; an area of the studio backlot is allocated to spare containers when not in use.[citation needed]
Reefer containers orrefrigerated containersare containers built to haul refrigerated or frozen products. These containers can be repurposed for container housing or prefabricated for housing purposes. The advantage is theinsulationin the walls, ceiling, and floor compared tocorrugated metalin standard shipping containers that can get very hot or cold from the weather outside.Prefabricatedreefer containers with the wiring ran through the walls and the plumbing ran through the ceiling and floor before the insulation, interior walls, and floors are installed would be more practical than trying to do that with a repurposed used reefer container.[24]
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Aroller containeris acontainertype that can be carried by trucks to be pushed to ground level by help of a hook and level arm with the container possibly sliding on steel roller wheels.
Its original usage was in the collection of bulk waste resulting in the creation of theDIN standardsto be initiated by city cleaning companies. An additional part defines a transport frame mounted on specialized rail cars that allows easyintermodal transportfor these container types.
Another important area is in thecontainerizationoffirefighting equipmentused asswap bodycontainers offire trucks.
The term "roller container" has been introduced in the English summary of the DIN standards that refer to the prominent feature of steel wheels - such wide wheels are commonly known in English as rollers. It does also refer to the verb "to roll" which has the same meaning in German - the particle "ab-" in German "abroll container" designates downward/pushback operations so that the GermanAbrollcontaineris sometimes translated to English as "roll-off container".
The DIN standard uses the German termAbrollbehälterwhere the generic Germanic "behälter" has replaced the Romanic "container" - the latter is more associated with transport containers in the German language so that the ACTS designation has picked upAbrollcontainerinstead of the synonymousAbrollbehälter. WithAbrollcontainerassociated to transport systems the variousAbrollbehältertypes are usually denoting firefighting equipment. In British English the firefighting containers are generically called "demountable pod" or just "pod" for example "foam pod" and while being a generic term these are universally roller containers as well.
There is an additional term "hooklift container" that is related to the common designation of the hoist gear on trucks used for roller containers to be called "hook lift". This has influenced languages like Dutch where the truck is calledhaakarmvoertuig(hook arm vehicle) and the container being ahaakarmbak(hook arm pod). These terms refer to the level arm that matches with the grip hook on the container to lift it from the ground. The term hooklift container may refer to any container type with an additional hook bar whichdoes notnecessarily include roller wheels - this includes the NATO standard STANAG 2413 variations of 20' ISO containers having an additional hook bar.[1]
Solutions for intermodal transport containers in road and rail transport already appeared in the 1930s. One of the systems was used since 1934 in the Netherlands to carry waste transportation and consumer goods. These "Laadkisten" had a permissible gross mass of 3,000 kg (6,600 lb) and dimensions of2.5 m × 2 m × 2 m (8 ft2+3⁄8in × 6 ft6+3⁄4in × 6 ft6+3⁄4in). Reloading held by dragging rope winch tow car.[3]
After World War II that system was used for transports between Switzerland and the Netherlands. On 14–23 April 1951 in Zurich Tiefenbrunnen under the auspices of the Club «Museum of Transport, Switzerland, Swiss Transportation" and Bureau International des Containers "(BIC) held demonstrations container systems aim to select the best solution for Western Europe. There were representatives Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Great Britain, Italy and the USA. The result of this meeting had been the first after World War II European standard UIC 590, also known as "Pa-Behälter" (porteur-aménagé-Behälter). This system has been implemented in Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany, Switzerland and Sweden.[3]In Germany it was widely marketed as the "haus zu haus" (house to house) transport system which did include a variety of pod types.[4]
Along with the gradual popularization of large container type ISO (first seen in Europe in 1966), the "Pa-Behälter" system fell out of use and it was subsequently withdrawn by the railways (no new containers produced after 1975, scrapped in the 2000s). The transport of waste containers was moved completely to road transportation in the 1970s. Previously the open-top middle-sized container Eoskrt of the "haus zu haus" series was widely used for waste transport by rail. It could be moved on four small wheels on to the flat car fitting into comparably narrow guide rails that were mounted on them. These early roll containers types had standard steel wheels of 75 mm in width with a diameter size of 200 mm. The axle track was 1400 mm across and the wheel base 1950 mm at length. Lashing eyelets are attached to every wheel case allowing to move and lock the container in place.[5]
Roller containers have been standardized in DIN 30722 by theMunicipal Services Standards Committee(GermanNormenausschuss Kommunale Technik/ NKT). The first parts are subdivisions of different weight classes (part 1 up to 26 tonnes [28.7 short tons; 25.6 long tons], part 2 up to 32 tonnes [35.3 short tons; 31.5 long tons], part 3 up to 16 tonnes [17.6 short tons; 15.7 long tons]) that had been first published in April 1993 and the latest revision being published in February 2007.[6]The part 4 of the standard series covers the intermodal transport between rail and road with the issue of July 1994 being still current.[7]
The DIN roller containers have a hook that is directed 45° upwards with the handle bar positioned at a height of 1,570 mm (61.81 in). The roller wheels have an inner distance of 1,560 mm (61.42 in) and an outer distance of 2,160 mm (85.04 in). The width of the containers does mostly follow intermodalshipping containersand there are undercarriage frames available for twenty-foot containers to be handled as a roller container. The length of DIN roller containers is standardized in steps of 250 mm (9.84 in) from an overall length of 4,000 to 7,000 mm (13 ft 1 in to 23 ft 0 in). The height has not been standardized and roller containers are commonly not used for stacking.[8]
The NATO standard STANAG 2413 "demountable load carrying platforms (dlcp/flatracks)" references the DIN 30722 for the definition of the "hookbar".[9]The LHS rollers and ISO container twistlock pockets are optional in STANAG 2413 - the LHS designation references the Load Handling System (GermanHakenladesystem/ hook load system) derived from the DIN roller containers in use for firefighting equipment.
The roller containers come in a larger variety for specific usages. For bulk waste a common type has additional impermeable doors on one side. There are low height containers that allow easy dumping of green care waste. There are squeeze containers that compress the garbage. Roller containers for construction waste need additional stability. The DIN standard does not define the height nor most of the other sizes - it concentrates on the hook for lifting the container and the wheels that allow sliding on the ground.[10]
According to Marrel they have invented hooklift trucks marketing them since 1969 in the USA.[11]There have been various heights and sizes of the hook with the ACTS roller container system standardizing on 1,570 mm (61.81 in) (rounded to 61.75 inches or 1,568 millimetres for the US market at Stellar Industries).[12]Hook heights of 54" and 36" are also in common use.[13]
The ACTS (from GermanAbrollcontainer Transportsystem/ roller container transport system) offers a loading principle from a roller container truck directly on to a rail car. There is no additional installation required for the process as the level arm of the truck can push the container on to a transport frame that is mounted on the rail car. The transport frame consists of two U-profile rail bars and a central pivot - this allows the frame to swing out for loading and to swing back to be parallel with the rail car for distance travel by rail.
The ACTS found wider usage first in Switzerland where rail transport to remote villages is often easier than running large trucks through narrow streets. Rail transport of roller containers is now prevalent in German-speaking countries and neighbouring countries like the Netherlands and the Czech Republic.
The roller container standards have become the basis of containerized firefighting equipment throughout Europe. The permanent mounting of equipment creates a large number of specialized fire trucks while containerization allows the use of only one transport truck with a level arm - in Germany it is called WLF (GermanWechselladerfahrzeug/ swap loader vehicle). In practical usage there are lighter specialized fire trucks for everyday usage while larger fire and catastrophic situations can be handled by using WLF in a shuttle operation bringing as much equipment to the scene as needed.
The containers come in a great variety with national regulations to control common types, for example in Germany one may find
For the most part the replacement of older fire trucks takes the form of new AB units in Germany. The AB units may be built from standard containers with equipment installed from different suppliers as required by the fire department. The WLF loader vehicle can be purchased independently with the availability of a wide variety of trucks on the market (that are not originally designed for firefighting) - the trucks are sent to specialized workshops that can convert them to WLF fire trucks by adding a hook lift, siren and communications. The AB units may be used far longer than the WLF trucks as the latter can be exchanged independently - this makes maintenance cheaper especially for special equipment that is only rarely needed. Additionally some firefighting equipment like the decontamination pod have advantages for military conversion dispatching them by standard NATO container transport.
In the US theHeavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck(HEMTT) was produced in a version with a hooklift hoist gear named Load Handling System (LHS). TheM1120 HEMTT LHSis the basis of thePalletized Load Systemusing a flatbed platform to be mounted under ISO containers as a Container Handling Unit (CHU). This allows containers to be unloaded without the help of a forklift. Current NATO agreements require PLS to maintain interoperability with comparable British, German and French systems through the use of a common flatrack.
The British Army has developed theDemountable Rack Offload and Pickup System(DROPS) using the Medium Mobility Load Carrier (MMLC) as an all-terrain truck with a hook loader system. As in the Palletized Load System a flatrack can be used to transport ISO containers. After an evolutionary step with the Improved Medium Mobility Load Carrier (IMMLC) the British Army is now transitioning the Enhanced Pallet Load System (EPLS). In the ELPS there is a different Container Handling Unit that is not put under the container but it uses an H Frame that fits into the corner locks of an ISO container on the back side.[14]
Although roller containers are very easy to load/unload they do have some problems. The steel rollers that contact the ground can cause damage to asphalt pavement, a concrete surface is more suitable.[15]The angle that the container is tilted can cause loads to move if they are not secured. Aswap bodymay be used where the container needs to be kept level.
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Aroll traileror "Mafi" is atrailerplatform that requires towing by apowered vehicle. It is commonly used for the transport of heavy static goods and materials in the maritime shipping industry. Roll trailers are similar to shippingflat racks containers, however, they have a set of rear wheels.
Roll trailers are a common equipment used inportsand on board ofroll-on/roll-offships,[1]to facilitate the shipping of unmovable commodities andoversize loadfrom one port to another.
Standard lengths of roll trailers are 20, 40 and 62 feet (6.1, 12.2 and 18.9 m), in line withtwenty-foot equivalent unitshipping containers, but can also be found in lengths of 30 and 80 feet (9.1 and 24.4 m). The standard payloads of roll trailers vary from 40 to 120 tons, and the tare of the trailer varies from 7 to 10 tons.[2]
Thetrailerhas asteelstructure and ahardwoodsurface, plus a front pocket for towing bytugmaster gooseneck, and side handles for applying lashing hooks.
Goods are usually placed on roll trailers byforkliftor shorecrane, secured with lashing or chains, and then towed on/off board via tugmastertractor.[3]When empty, they can be stacked likeshipping containers.
Every trailer has a unique identification number stamped on sides, composed of four letters and seven digits, directly related to the manufacturer company abbreviation name, the payload capacity and its length size.
All the mainshipping lineshave an owned fleet of roll trailers available to be offered to shippers for moving heavy static cargo.
Additionally, all main roll trailers manufacturers tend to lease extra equipment during peak times, by charging a daily hire fee to the shipping lines.
Once in theport, after a short "free time" period, roll trailers are subject todemurragecharges,[4]to cover storage and detention fees[5]and to ensure consignees swiftly unload their cargo, temporary positioned on the shipping line's trailers during the sea passage.As per standard practice, and opposite to shipping containers, roll trailers are not permitted to exit the ports, with receivers requested to collect their goods inside the terminals.
Shipping lines may need to move empty roll trailers to different ports. The roll trailers can be stacked on top of each other through lifting, then lashed together, and loaded onto a vessel to be taken to another port.
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SECU,Stora Enso Cargo Unit, is a type ofintermodal container(shipping container) built to transport bulk cargo like paper on railway and ship. They were invented and used byStora Enso(forest and paper company). The ports used are mainly in production countries like Finland (Kotka,Oulu) and Sweden (Gothenburg) and in consumer countries Belgium (Zeebrugge), UK (Tilbury,Immingham) and Germany (Lübeck).
A SECU looks like a larger standard 40-footISO Container, measuring 13.8×3.6×4.375 m (45.28×11.81×14.35 ft)[1]with a net weight of 80 metric tons (79 long tons; 88 short tons) of cargo. By contrast a 40-foot container is 12.2×2.7×2.4 m (40.0×8.9×7.9 ft) and can carry 26.5 metric tons (26.1 long tons; 29.2 short tons) of cargo. The benefit is that their larger capacity reduces the number of containers needed, and therefore their handling cost. The drawback is that special care is needed to handle them.
A SECU is too big and heavy to be transported by road (ISO-Containers are designed to fit roads), and instead they are transported only by railway and ship. A special vehicle or crane is used to load and unload them,[2]and special railcars are also needed. They can be transported on truck ferries, but do not fit normal container ships.
The Stora Enso Cargo Unit has fixed legs so that the inner floor has a height of 874 mm (34.4 in) for an unloaded container - the basic container (without legs) has outer dimensions of 3,600 mm (11 ft 10 in) squared.[1][3]
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Ashipping containeris acontainerwith strength suitable to withstand shipment, storage, and handling. Shipping containers range from large reusable steel boxes used for intermodal shipments to the ubiquitouscorrugated boxes. In the context of international shipping trade, "container" or "shipping container" is virtually synonymous with "intermodal freight container" (sometimes informally called a "sea can"), a container designed to be moved from one mode of transport to another without unloading and reloading.[1]
Freight containers are areusabletransport and storage unit for moving products and raw materials between locations or countries. There are about seventeen million intermodal containers in the world, and a large proportion of the world's long-distance freight generated byinternational tradeis transported in shipping containers. In addition, it is estimated that several million of these containers have now been discarded due to the shipping cost of sending them back to their port of origin. Their invention made a major contribution to theglobalizationof commerce in the second half of the 20th century, dramatically reducing the cost of transporting goods and hence of long-distance trade.[2][3]
Specialized shipping containers include: high cube containers (providing an extra 1 ft (305 mm) in height to standard shipping containers), pallet wides, open tops, side loaders, double door or tunnel-tainers, and temperature controlled containers. Another specialized container, known as Transtainer, is a portable fuel and oil freight container. The hybrid bulk fuel tank is originally intended for the construction, mining, logging and farming sectors. The tank can be used to transport and store bulk fuels as well as dangerous liquids, by road, rail and sea.[4]Sea containers are crucial for modern logistics, offering a cost-effective storage and shipping solution. These durable containers, designed for international transportation, provide secure storage for goods with robust steel construction. Beyond shipping, they find applications in on-site storage and modular living or workspaces. Sea containers for sale provide an accessible and convenient solution, meeting diverse needs and promoting sustainability through their reuse.
Reusable steel boxes for use as truck-sized shipping containers first came into use around 1956. It took some time for businesses to devise a structured process to utilize and to get optimal benefits from the role and use of shipping containers. Over time, the invention of the modern telecommunications of the late 20th-century made it highly beneficial to have standardized shipping containers, and made these shipping processes more standardized, modular, easier to schedule and easier to manage.[5]
Corrugated boxesare commonly used as shipping containers[6](more than 90% of all shipping containers are of this type).[6][7]They are made ofcorrugated fiberboardwhich is lightweight, recyclable, and strong enough to ship a variety of products.
Wooden boxes are often used for shipping heavy and dense products. They are sometimes specified for shipments of government or military shipments.
A crate is a large container, often made of wood, used to transport large, heavy or awkward items. A crate has a self-supporting structure, with or without sheathing.
Reusable plastic versions include:
An intermediate bulk container (IBC, IBC Tote, IBC Tank) is a multi-use container employed for the general transport, storage, and handling of bulk fluids and materials. IBC tanks are compatible with, and resistant to, an extensive list of chemicals, acids, caustics, as well as inert materials and food grade consumables. IBCs are commonly manufactured from the following materials:
Some IBC engineering models are foldable (collapsible) for space-saving breakdown following use.
A flexible intermediate bulk container,FIBC,big bag,bulk bag, orsuper sackis a standardized container in large dimensions for storing and transporting granular products. It is often made of a woven synthetic material.
A bulk box, bulk bin, skid box, or tote box is apalletsize box used for storage and shipping of bulk quantities.
Drums are cylindrical shipping containers made of steel, plastic or fiber. They are often used for liquids and granular materials.
Insulated shipping containers are a type of packaging used to ship temperature sensitive products such as foods, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals. They are used as part of acold chainto help maintain product freshness and efficacy.
Some pails are used as shipping containers.[8]
A Unit Load Device (ULD), is a container used to transport cargo on commercial aircraft. It can be a pallet or container used to load luggage, freight, and mail on wide-body aircraft and specific narrow-body aircraft. It allows a large quantity of cargo to be bundled into a single unit. Since this leads to fewer units to load, it saves ground crews time and effort and helps prevent delayed flights. Each ULD has its own packing list, manifest, or tracking identification to improve control and tracking of contents
Custom containers are used for shipments of products such as scientific instruments, weapons and aviation components.[9]Customizedcushioning, blocking and bracing, carrying handles, lift rings, locks, etc. are common to facilitate handling and to protect the contents. Often, these shipping containers are reusable.
The reusableifco tray("international fruit container") is used in Europe for transportation of fruit, vegetables, and fish.
Flight cases and transit cases are usually custom designed for shipping and carrying fragile equipment: audio visual, camera, instruments, etc. Although generally light in construction, they tend to have reinforced edges and corners.
Road cases are often used for shipping musical instruments and theater props.
Many types of shipping containers are reusable. Steel drums are frequently reconditioned and reused. Gas cylinders, transit cases and sometimes even corrugated boxes are reused.
The widespread availability and relative cheapness of used intermodal shipping containers meant that architects began to consider them as an alternative to traditional building materials.[10]Used shipping containers have been converted for use in housing, and as retail and office spaces.[11][12]Examples of its use include the Cité A Docks student housing project inLe Havre, France;[13]the Wenckehof container village in Amsterdam;[14]the portablePumaCity store in US cities;[15][16]the food and retailBoxparkin London;[17]theDordoy BazaarinBishkek, Kyrgyzstan;[18]the temporary mallRe:STARTinChristchurch, New Zealand built after the2011 Christchurch earthquake,[19]and asintensive-careunits in temporary hospitals during theCOVID-19 pandemic.[20]The Smoky Park Supper Club inAsheville, North Carolina, opened in 2015, was constructed from 19 containers and is considered " "America's largest recycled shipping container restaurant."[21]
It has however been pointed out there are problems with recycling shipping containers, that it may not be as ecologically friendly or cheap an option as it might appear. The containers may be coated with harmful chemicals such as chromate, phosphorus, and lead-based paints, while its wooden floors may be treated with toxic insecticides, and some cost and effort are involved in modifying containers to make them habitable.[10]Others have noted various issues such as space constraint, insulation, and structural weakness if too much steel is cut out of the containers.[22][23]
Shipping containers are used in the film and television industry for building temporary sets. Shipping containers can be stacked on top of each other and used as reinforced scaffold that large-scale film sets can be built against. An example can be seen atLeavesden Studios, England; an area of the studio backlot is allocated to spare containers when not in use.[citation needed]
Reefer containers orrefrigerated containersare containers built to haul refrigerated or frozen products. These containers can be repurposed for container housing or prefabricated for housing purposes. The advantage is theinsulationin the walls, ceiling, and floor compared tocorrugated metalin standard shipping containers that can get very hot or cold from the weather outside.Prefabricatedreefer containers with the wiring ran through the walls and the plumbing ran through the ceiling and floor before the insulation, interior walls, and floors are installed would be more practical than trying to do that with a repurposed used reefer container.[24]
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Intermodal freight transportinvolves the transportation offreightin anintermodal containerorvehicle, using multiple modes oftransportation(e.g.,rail,ship,aircraft, andtruck), without any handling of the freight itself when changing modes. The method reduces cargo handling, and so improves security, reduces damage and loss, and allows freight to be transported faster. Reduced costs over road trucking is the key benefit for inter-continental use. This may be offset by reduced timings for road transport over shorter distances.
Intermodal transportation has its origin in 18th centuryEnglandand predates the railways. Some of the earliest containers were those used for shipping coal on theBridgewater CanalinEnglandin the 1780s. Coal containers (called "loose boxes" or "tubs") were soon deployed on the early canals and railways and were used for road/rail transfers (road at the time meaninghorse-drawn vehicles).
Wooden coal containers were first used on the railways in the 1830s on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. In 1841,Isambard Kingdom Brunelintroduced iron containers to move coal from the vale ofNeathtoSwansea Docks. By the outbreak of theFirst World WartheGreat Eastern Railwaywas using wooden containers to trans-ship passenger luggage between trains and sailings via theport of Harwich.
The early 1900s saw the first adoption of covered containers, primarily for the movement of furniture and intermodal freight between road and rail. A lack of standards limited the value of this service and this in turn drove standardisation. In the U.S. such containers, known as "lift vans", were in use from as early as 1911.
In theUnited Kingdom, containers were first standardised by theRailway Clearing House(RCH) in the 1920s, allowing both railway-owned and privately-owned vehicles to be carried on standard container flats. By modern standards these containers were small, being 1.5 or 3.0 meters (4.9 or 9.8 ft) long, normally wooden and with a curved roof and insufficient strength for stacking. From 1928 theLondon, Midland & Scottish Railwayoffered "door to door" intermodal road-rail services using these containers. This standard failed to become popular outside the United Kingdom.
Palletsmade their first major appearance duringWorld War II, when the United States military assembled freight on pallets, allowing fast transfer betweenwarehouses, trucks, trains,ships, andaircraft. Because no freight handling was required, fewer personnel were needed and loading times were decreased.
Trucktrailerswere first carried by railway before World War II, an arrangement often called "piggyback", by the smallClass I railroad, theChicago Great Westernin 1936. TheCanadian Pacific Railwaywas a pioneer in piggyback transport, becoming the first majorNorth Americanrailway to introduce the service in 1952. In the United Kingdom, the big four railway companies offered services using standard RCH containers that could be craned on and off the back of trucks. Moving companies such asPickfordsoffered private services in the same way.
In 1933 in Europe, under the auspices of theInternational Chamber of Commerce, TheBureau International des Containers et du Transport Intermodal(BIC; English: International Bureau for Containers and Intermodal Transport) was established. In June 1933, the BIC decided about obligatory parameters for container use in international traffic. Containers handled by means of lifting gear, such as cranes, overhead conveyors, etc. for traveling elevators (group I containers), constructed after July 1, 1933. Obligatory Regulations:
In April 1935, BIC established a second standard for European containers:[1]
In the 1950s, a new standardized steelIntermodal containerbased on specifications from theUnited States Department of Defensebegan to revolutionize freight transportation. TheInternational Organization for Standardization(ISO) then issued standards based upon the U.S. Department of Defense standards between 1968 and 1970.
TheWhite Pass & Yukon Routerailway acquired the world's firstcontainer ship, theClifford J. Rogers, built in 1955, and introduced containers to its railway in 1956. In the United Kingdom the modernisation plan, and in turn theBeeching Report, strongly pushed containerization.British Railwayslaunched theFreightlinerservice carrying 8-foot (2.4 m) high pre-ISO containers. The older wooden containers and the pre-ISO containers were rapidly replaced by 10-and-20-foot (3.0 and 6.1 m) ISO standard containers, and later by 40-foot (12 m) containers and larger.
In the U.S., starting in the 1960s, the use of containers increased steadily. Rail intermodal traffic tripled between 1980 and 2002, according to theAssociation of American Railroads(AAR), from 3.1 million trailers and containers to 9.3 million. Large investments were made in intermodal freight projects. An example was the US$740 millionPort of Oaklandintermodal rail facility begun in the late 1980s.[2][3]
Since 1984, a mechanism for intermodal shipping known asdouble-stack rail transporthas become increasingly common. Rising to the rate of nearly 70% of the United States' intermodal shipments, it transports more than one million containers per year. Thedouble-stack rail carsdesign significantly reduces damage in transit and provides greater cargo security by cradling the lower containers so their doors cannot be opened. A succession of large, new, domestic container sizes was introduced to increase shipping productivity. In Europe, the more restrictedloading gaugehas limited the adoption of double-stack cars. However, in 2007 theBetuweroute, a railway fromRotterdamto theGermanindustrial heartland, was completed, which may accommodate double-stacked containers in the future. Other countries, likeNew Zealand, have numerous low tunnels and bridges that limit expansion for economic reasons.
Since electrification generally predated double-stacking, the overhead wiring was too low to accommodate it. However, India is building some freight-only corridors with the overhead wiring at7.45 mabove rail, which is high enough.[4]
Containers, also known as intermodal containers or ISO containers because the dimensions have been defined by ISO, are the main type of equipment used in intermodal transport, particularly when one of the modes of transportation is by ship. Containers are 8-foot (2.4 m) wide by 8-foot (2.4 m) or 9-foot-6-inch (2.90 m) high. Since introduction, there have been moves to adopt other heights, such as 10-foot-6-inch (3.20 m). The most common lengths are 20 feet (6.1 m), 40 feet (12 m), 45 feet (14 m), 48 and 53 feet (15 and 16 m), although other lengths exist. The three common sizes are:
In countries where the railwayloading gaugeis sufficient,trucktrailers are often carried by rail. Variations exist, including open-topped versions covered by a fabric curtain are used to transport larger loads. A container called atanktainer, with a tank inside a standard container frame, carries liquids.Refrigerated containers(reefer) are used for perishables.Swap bodyunits have the same bottom corners as intermodal containers but are not strong enough to be stacked. They have folding legs under their frame and can be moved between trucks without using a crane.
Handling equipment can be designed with intermodality in mind, assisting with transferring containers between rail, road and sea. These can include:
According to theEuropean CommissionTransportation Department "it has been estimated that up to 25% of accidents involving trucks can be attributable to inadequate cargo securing".[7]Cargothat is improperly secured can cause severe accidents and lead to the loss of cargo, the loss of lives, the loss of vehicles, ships and airplane; not to mention the environmental hazards it can cause.
There are many different ways and materials available to stabilize and secure cargo in containers used in the various modes of transportation. ConventionalLoad Securingmethods and materials such as steel banding and wood blocking & bracing have been around for decades and are still widely used. In the last few years the use of several, relatively new and unknownLoad Securingmethods have become available through innovation and technological advancement including polyester strapping and -lashing, synthetic webbings andDunnage Bags, also known as air bags.
Container shipsare used to transport containers by sea. These vessels are custom-built to hold containers. Some vessels can hold thousands of containers. Their capacity is often measured inTEUor FEU. These initials stand for "twenty-foot equivalent unit", and "forty-foot equivalent unit", respectively. For example, a vessel that can hold 1,000 40-foot containers or 2,000 20-foot containers can be said to have a capacity of 2,000TEU. After the year 2006, thelargest container shipsin regular operation are capable of carrying in excess of 15,000TEU.[8][9]
On board ships they are typically stacked up to seven units high.
A key consideration in the size of container ships is that larger ships exceed the capacity of important sea routes such as the Panama and Suez canals. The largest size of container ship able to traverse the Panama canal is referred to asPanamax, which is presently around 5,000TEU. A third set of locks is planned as part of thePanama Canal expansion projectto accommodate container ships up to 12,000TEUin future, comparable to the presentSuezmax.[10]
Very large container ships also require specialized deep water terminals and handling facilities. The container fleet available, route constraints, and terminal capacity play a large role in shaping global container shipment logistics.[11][12]
Increasingly, containers are shipped by rail incontainerwell cars. These cars resemble flatcars but have a container-sized depression, or well, in the middle of the car between thebogiesor trucks. Some container cars are built as an articulated "unit" of three or five permanently coupled cars, each having a single bogie rather than the two bogies normally found on freight cars.
Containers can be loaded onflatcarsor incontainer well cars. In North America, Australia and Saudi Arabia, wherevertical clearancesare generally liberal, this depression is sufficient for two containers to be loaded in a "double-stack" arrangement. InEurope, height restrictions imposed by smallerstructure gauges, and frequent overheadelectrification, prevent double-stacking. Containers are therefore hauled one-high, either on standard flatcars or otherrailroad cars– but they must be carried in well wagons on lines built early in theIndustrial Revolution, such as in the United Kingdom, whereloading gaugesare relatively small.
610 mm(2 ft) narrow-gauge railways have smaller wagons that do not readily carry ISO containers, nor do the 30-foot (9.14 m) long and 7-foot (2.13 m) wide wagons of the762 mm(2 ft 6 in) gaugeKalka-Shimla Railway. Widernarrow gauge railwaysof e.g.914 mm(3 ft) and1,000 mm(3 ft3+3⁄8in) gauge can take ISO containers, provided that theloading gaugeallows it.
It is also common inNorth AmericaandAustraliato transportsemi-trailerson railwayflatcarsorspine cars, an arrangement called "piggyback" or TOFC(trailer on flatcar)to distinguish it fromcontainer on flatcar(COFC). Some flatcars are designed with collapsible trailer hitches so they can be used for trailer or container service.[13]Such designs allow trailers to be rolled on from one end, though lifting trailers on and off flatcars by specialized loaders is more common. TOFC terminals typically have large areas for storing trailers pending loading or pickup.[14]
Thievery has become a problem in North America. Sophisticated thieves learn how to interpret the codes on the outside of containers to ascertain which ones have easily disposable cargo. They break into isolated containers on long trains, or even board slowly moving trains to toss the items to accomplices on the ground.[15]
Truckingis frequently used to connect the "linehaul" ocean and rail segments of a global intermodal freight movement. This specialized trucking that runs between ocean ports, rail terminals, and inland shipping docks, is often calleddrayage, and is typically provided by dedicated drayage companies or by the railroads.[16]As an example, since many rail lines in the United States terminate in or around Chicago, Illinois, the area serves as a common relay point for containerized freight moving across the country. Many of the motor carriers call this type of drayage "crosstown loads" that originate at one rail road and terminate at another. For example, a container destined for the east coast from the west will arrive in Chicago either via the Union Pacific or BNSF Railway and have to be relayed to one of the eastern railroads, either CSX or Norfolk Southern.
Bargesutilisingro-roand container-stacking techniques transport freight on large inland waterways such as theRhine/Danubein Europe and theMississippi Riverin the U.S.[5]
The termlandbridgeorland bridgeis commonly used in the intermodal freight transport sector. When a containerized oceanfreightshipment travels across a large body of land for a significant distance, that portion of the trip is referred to as the "land bridge" and themode of transportused israil transport. There are three applications for the term.
The termreverse land bridgerefers to amicro land bridgefrom an east coast port (as opposed to a west coast port in the previous examples) to an inland destination.
Generally modern, bigger planes usually carry cargo in the containers. Sometimes even the checked luggage is first placed into containers, and then loaded onto the plane.[19][unreliable source?]Of course because of the requirement for the lowest weight possible (and very important, little difference in the viable mass point), and low space, specially designed containers made from lightweight material are often used. Due to price and size, this is rarely seen on the roads or in ports. However, large transport aircraft make it possible to even load standard container(s), or use standard sized containers made of much lighter materials liketitaniumoraluminium.
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Intermodal passenger transport, also calledmixed-mode commuting, involves using two or moremodes of transportationin a journey. Mixed-modecommutingis often used to combine the strengths (and offset the weaknesses) of various transportation options. A major goal of modern intermodal passenger transport is to reducedependence on the automobileas the major mode of ground transportation and increase use ofpublic transport. To assist the traveller, variousintermodal journey plannerssuch asRome2rioandGoogle Transithave been devised to help travellers plan and schedule their journey.
Mixed-mode commuting often centers on a form ofrapid transit, such asregional rail, which has high speed but limited coverage, to which low-speed options (i.e.bus,tram, orbicycle) are appended at the beginning or end of the journey.[1]Trains offer quick transit from a suburb into an urban area, where passengers can choose a way to complete the trip. Mosttransportation modeshave always been used intermodally; for example, people have used road or urban railway to an airport or inter-regional railway station.
Intermodal transport has existed for about as long as passenger transport itself. People switched from carriages to ferries at the edge of a river too deep to ford. In the 19th century, people who lived inland switched fromtraintoshipfor overseas voyages.Hoboken TerminalinHoboken, New Jersey, was built to let commuters toNew York Cityfrom New Jersey switch to ferries to cross theHudson Riverin order to get toManhattan. A massiveferry slip, now in ruins, was incorporated into the terminal building. Later, when asubwaywas built through tunnels under the Hudson, now called thePATH, a station stop was added to Hoboken Terminal. More recently, theNew Jersey Transit'sHudson-Bergen Light Railsystem has included a stop there. Ferry service has recently been revived, but passengers must exit the terminal and walk across the pier to the more modest ferry slip.
With the opening of theWoodside and Birkenhead Dock Street Tramwayin 1873,[2]Birkenhead Dock railway stationprobably became the world's firsttramto traininterchange station.[3]
Public transportation systems such as train or metro systems have the most efficient means and highest capacity to transport people around cities. Therefore, mixed-mode commuting in the urban environment is largely dedicated to first getting people onto the train network and once off the train network to their final destination.
Althoughautomobilesare conventionally used as a single-mode form of transit, they also find use in a variety of mixed-mode scenarios. They can provide a short commute to train stations, airports, and piers, where all-day "park and ride" lots are often available. Used in this context, cars offer commuters the relative comfort of single-mode travel, while significantly reducing thefinancialandenvironmentalcosts.
Taxicabsandrental carsalso play a major role in providing door-to-door service betweenairportsortrain stationsand other points of travel throughouturban,suburban, andruralcommunities.
(Automobiles can also be used as the centerpiece of a multi-mode commute, with drivers resorting to walking or cycling to their final destination. Commuters to major cities take this route when driving is convenient, but parking options at the destination are not readily available.)
Transport planners often try to encourage automobile commuters to make much of their journey bypublic transport. One way of doing this is to provide car parking places at train or bus stations where commuters can drive to the station, park their cars and then continue on with their journey on the train or bus: this is often called "park and ride".
Similar to park and ride is what is often termed "kiss and ride". Rather than drive to the train or bus station and park the commuter is driven to the station by a friend or relative (parent, spouse etc.) The "kiss" refers to the peck on the cheek as the commuter exits the car. Kiss and ride is usually conducted when the train/bus/ferry station is close to home, so that the driver dropping the commuter off has a short journey to and from home.
Many large cities link their railway network to their bus network. This enables commuters to get to places that are not serviced directly by rail as they are often considered to be too far for walking.
Feeder buses are a specific example of this; feeder buses service local neighbourhoods by taking travellers from their homes to nearby train stations which is important if the distances are too far to comfortably walk; at the end of the working day the buses take the travellers home again. Feeder buses work best when they are scheduled to arrive at the railway station shortly before the train arrives allowing enough time for commuters to comfortably walk to their train, and on the commuters' return journey buses are scheduled to arrive shortly after the train arrives so that the buses are waiting to take the commuters home. If train and bus services are very frequent then this scheduling is unimportant as the commuter will in any case have a very short wait to interchange.
All around the worldbicyclesare used to get to and from train and other public transportation stations; this form of intermodal passenger transport is often called "bike and ride". To safeguard against theft or vandalism of parked bicycles at these train, bus, and ferry stations, "bike and ride" transport benefits greatly from securebicycle parkingfacilities such asbicycle parking stationsbeing available.
Some train, bus, and ferry systems allow commuters to take their bicycles aboard,[4]allowing cyclists to ride at both ends of the commute, though sometimes this is restricted to off-peak travel periods: in such cases,folding bicyclesmay be permitted where regular bicycles are not. In some cities, bicycles are permitted aboard trains and buses.[5][6]
In some cities apublic bicycle rental programmeallows commuters to take a public bike between the public transport station and a docking station near their origin or destination.
The use of "bike and ride" instead of a car can cut costs for fuel and parking, and some families no longer need to own and operate multiple cars. Environmental benefits can also increase (i.e. less pollution)[7]and reducedtraffic congestioncan deliver significant cost savings to the city and local government.
Many transit agencies have begun installing bike racks on the front of buses, as well as in the interior of buses, trains, and even on ferries. These transit bike racks allow cyclists the ability to ride their bicycle to the bus/train/ferry, take the mode of transportation, then ride again to their final destination. These types of racks combined with increased bike infrastructure and bike parking have made bike commuting a frequent topic of discussion by cities and local government.
Many cities have extended subway or rail service to major urban airports. This provides travellers with an inexpensive, frequent and reliable way to get to their flights as opposed to driving or being driven, and contending with full up parking, or taking taxis and getting caught in traffic jams on the way to the airport. Many airports now have some mass transit link, includingLondon,Sydney,Munich,Hong Kong,Vancouver,Philadelphia,Cleveland,New York City (JFK),Delhi, andChennai.
At theHong Kong International Airport,ferryservices to various piers in thePearl River Deltaare provided.PassengersfromGuangdongcan use thesepiersto take aflightat the airport, without passing throughcustomsandimmigrationcontrol, effectively like having a transit from one flight to another. The airport is well-connected withexpresswaysand anAirport Expresstrain service. Aseaportandlogisticsfacilities will be added in the near future.Kansai International Airportis also connected toKobe Airportwith ferries. TheToronto Island ferryconnectsBilly Bishop Toronto City Airportto mainlandToronto, where passengers can connect to theToronto streetcar systemor with airport shuttle buses which transports to bus, subway and rail connections atUnion Station.
Most airports have a number of dedicatedairport buseswhich connect the airport and the city, which usually offers a higher level of comfort and luggage facilities compared to normal city buses.
More recently, airlines have started running buses between airports and cities which the airport do not directly serve, as a means to replace short-haul flights, for example,Finnairhas now stopped flying between Helsinki and Turku / Tampere and runs buses from Helsinki airport direct to the city centre of the respective cities.[8]
Several passenger rail systems offer services that allow travelers to bring their automobiles with them. These usually consist of automobile carrying wagons attached to normal passenger trains, but some special trains operate solely to transport automobiles. This is particularly of use in areas where trains may travel but automobiles cannot, such as theChannel Tunnel. Another system calledNIMPRis designed to transport electric vehicles on high speed trains.
Atrain ferryis a ship designed to carry railway vehicles. While usually used to carry freight vehicles, passenger cars can also be carried. In other places passengers move between passenger cars to a passenger ferry.
Prior to the widespread use of automobiles, theSan Francisco Bay Areafeatured a complex network of ferry services which connected numerousinterurbanandstreetcarsystems in theNorthandEast Bayto theSan Francisco Ferry Building, where several city streetcar lines began service. The opening of the rail-carryingSan Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridgeand automotiveGolden Gate Bridgealmost entirely supplanted these services.
Sonoma–Marin Area Rail Transitcommuter railis expected to feature a connection with theGolden Gate Ferryand service toSan Francisco Ferry BuildingatLarkspur Landing. TheHercules stationis to be the first directAmtrak-to-ferry transit hub in theSan Francisco Bay.[9][10][11]
TheStaten Island Railway, while operated by theMetropolitan Transportation Authority, does not have a physical connection to the rest ofNew York City's rail network. As such, transfers toManhattanare facilitated by thefreeStaten Island Ferry.
In recent years, an increasing emphasis has been placed on designing facilities that make such transfers easier and more seamless. These are intended to help passengers move from one mode (or form) of transportation to another. An intermodal station may service air, rail, and highway transportation for example.
In some cases, facilities were merged or transferred into a new facility, as at theWilliam F. Walsh Regional Transportation CenterinSyracuse, New York, orSouth StationinBoston, Massachusetts. In other cases new facilities, such as theAlewife StationInCambridge, Massachusetts, were built from the start to emphasize intermodalism.
Regional transit systems in the United States often include regional intermodal transit centers that incorporate multiple types of rail and bus services alongside park and ride amenities. Until the completion of San FranciscoSalesforce Transit Center, theMillbrae Intermodal Terminalin California is the largest intermodal transit center west of the Mississippi which includes direct on-platform connections betweenBART, the Bay Area's regional rail system,Caltrain, the San Francisco Peninsula's commuter rail, andSamTrans, the regional bus service forSan Mateo County. The uniqueness of this transfer facility is that turnstiles are located on the platforms between rail services in addition to on a separate concourse to allow for direct transfers.[12]Millbrae Intermodal Terminal is also planned to be incorporated into theCalifornia High-Speed Railproject as one of two stations betweenSan FranciscoandSan Jose.
Mixed mode commuting combines the benefits ofwalking,bicycle commuting, ordrivingwith the benefits ofrapid transitwhile offsetting some of the major disadvantages of each. The use of a bicycle can, for example, make an (inexpensive compared to a car) 20 mile light-rail or suburban rail journey attractive even if the endpoints of the journey each sit 1 mile out from the stations: the 30 minutes walking time becomes 8 minutes bicycling.
As in the example above, location plays a large role in mixed mode commuting. Rapid transit such asexpress busorlight railmay cover most of the distance, but sit too far out from commute endpoints. At 3 mph walking, 2 miles represents about 40 minutes of commute time; whereas a bicycle may pace 12 mph leisurely, cutting this time to 10 minutes. When the commuter finds the distance between the originating endpoint (e.g. the home) and the destination (e.g. the place of employment) too far to be enjoyable or practical, commute bycarormotorcycleto the station may remain practical, as long as the commute from the far end station to the destination is practical by walking, a carry-on cycle, or another rapid transit such as a local or shuttle bus.
In general, locations close to major transit such as rail stations carry higherland valueand thus higher costs to rent or purchase. A commuter may select a location further out than practical walking distance but not more than practical cycling distance to reduce housing costs. Similarly, a commuter can close an even further distance quickly with anebike, motorcycle, or car, allowing for the selection of a more preferred living area somewhat further from the station than would be viable by walking or simple bicycle.
Other cost advantages of mixed mode commuting include lower vehicle insurance viaPay As You Driveprograms; lower fuel and maintenance costs; and increased automobile life. In the most extreme cases, a mixed-mode commuter may opt tocar shareand pay only a small portion of purchase, fuel, maintenance, and insurance, or to livecar-free. These cost benefits are offset by costs of transit, which can vary. A Maryland MTA month pass valid for MTA Light Rail, Metro Subway, and City Bus costs $64,[13]while a month pass for the Baltimore to DC MARC costs $175.00[14]and a DC MetroRail 7 day pass costs $47 totaling $182.[15]In most of Europede:Verkehrsverbundand mode neutral pricing eliminate the need to have several different tickets for public transit across different modes.Mobility as a serviceintends to take this a step further, offering one price per trip from door to door, no matter which mode is used for which part of the trip.
The effectiveness of a mixed-mode commute can be measured in many ways: speed to destination, convenience, security, environmental impact, and proximity to mass transit are all factors. Because mixed-mode commutes rely on a certain degree of coordination, scheduling issues with mass transit can often be an issue. For example, a sometimes-late train can be an annoyance, and an often-late train can make a commute impractical.[16]
Weather can also be a factor. Even when the use of an automobile is involved, the transition from one mode of transportation to another often exposes commuters to the elements. As a result, multi-mode commuters often travel prepared for inclement weather.
In the United Statesfare integrationis often lacking, making passengers "pay extra for the 'privilege' of having a connection". This is largely a non-issue in European cities where all modes of local public transit follow the same ticketing scheme and a ticket for e.g. the metro will be valid on buses or commuter rail.
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Acontainer port,container terminal, orintermodal terminalis a facility wherecargo containersaretransshippedbetweendifferent transport vehicles, for onward transportation. The transshipment may be betweencontainer shipsand land vehicles, for exampletrainsortrucks, in which case the terminal is described as amaritime container port. Alternatively, the transshipment may be between land vehicles, typically between train and truck, in which case the terminal is described as aninland container port.
In November 1932, the first inland container port in the world was opened by thePennsylvania Railroadcompany inEnola, Pennsylvania.[1]
Port Newark-Elizabethon theNewark Bayin thePort of New York and New Jerseyis considered the world's first maritime container port. On April 26, 1956, theIdeal Xwas rigged for an experiment to use standardized cargo containers that were stacked and then unloaded to a compatible truck chassis at Port Newark. The concept had been developed by the McLean Trucking Company. On August 15, 1962, thePort Authority of New York and New Jerseyopened the world’s first container port, Elizabeth Marine Terminal.[2]
Maritime container ports tend to be part of a largerport, and the biggest maritime container ports can be found situated around majorharbours. Inland container ports tend to be located in or near major cities, with good rail connections to maritime container ports.
It is common for cargo that arrives to a container port in a single ship to be distributed over several modes of transportation for delivery to inland customers. According to a manager from thePort of Rotterdam, it may be fairly typical way for the cargo of a large 18,000TEUcontainer ship to be distributed over 19 container trains (74 TEU each), 32 barges (97 TEU each) and 1,560 trucks (1.6 TEU each, on average).[3]The further container terminal, in April 2015, suchAPM TerminalMaasvlakte II, that adapts the advanced technology ofremotely-controlledSTSgantry cranesand conceptions ofsustainability,renewable energy, and zerocarbon dioxide emission.[4]
Both maritime and inland container ports usually provide storage facilities for both loaded and empty containers. Loaded containers are stored for relatively short periods, whilst waiting for onward transportation, whilst unloaded containers may be stored for longer periods awaiting their next use. Containers are normally stacked for storage, and the resulting stores are known as container stacks.
In recent years methodological advances regarding container port operations have considerably improved, such ascontainer port design process. For a detailed description and a comprehensive list of references see, e.g., the operations research literature.[5][6]
This is a list of the world's top 10 largest container port operators in 2024 according toLloyd's List.[7]
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This article lists the world's busiestcontainerports(ports withcontainer terminalsthat specialize in handling goods transported inintermodal shipping containers), by total number oftwenty-foot equivalent units(TEUs) transported through the port. The table lists volume in thousands of TEU per year. The vast majority of containers moved by large, ocean-faringcontainer shipsare 20-foot (1 TEU) and 40-foot (2 TEU)ISO-standardshipping containers, with 40-foot units outnumbering 20-foot units to such an extent that the actual number of containers moved is between 55%–60% of the number of TEUs counted.[1]
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The following articles listcompanies that operate ships:
Media related toShipping companiesat Wikimedia Commons
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Amerchant ship,merchant vessel,trading vessel, ormerchantmanis awatercraftthat transportscargoor carriespassengersfor hire. This is in contrast topleasure craft, which are used for personal recreation, andnaval ships, which are used for military purposes.
They come in a myriad of sizes and shapes, from six-metre (20 ft) inflatabledive boatsin Hawaii, to 5,000-passengercasino vesselson the Mississippi River, totugboatsplyingNew York Harbor, to 300-metre (1,000 ft) oil tankers andcontainer shipsat major ports, to passenger-carryingsubmarinesin theCaribbean.[1]
Many merchant ships operate under a "flag of convenience" from a country other than the home of the vessel's owners, such asLiberiaandPanama, which have more favorable maritime laws than other countries.
TheGreek merchant marineis the largest in the world. Today, the Greek fleet accounts for some 16 per cent of the world'stonnage; this makes it currently the largest single international merchant fleet in the world, albeit not the largest in history.[2]
During wars, merchant ships may be used as auxiliaries to thenaviesof their respective countries, and are called upon to delivermilitarypersonnel andmateriel.
The term "commercial vessel" is defined by theUnited States Coast Guardas any vessel (i.e. boat or ship) engaged in commercialtradeor that carries passengers for hire.
In English, the term "Merchant Navy" without further clarification is used to refer to theBritish Merchant Navy; the United States merchant fleet is known as theUnited States Merchant Marine.
Merchant ships' names have a prefix to indicate which kind of vessel they are:[3]
TheUNCTAD review of maritime transportcategorizes ships as: oil tankers, bulk (and combination) carriers, general cargo ships, container ships, and "other ships", which includes "liquefied petroleum gas carriers, liquefied natural gas carriers, parcel (chemical) tankers, specialized tankers, reefers, offshore supply, tugs, dredgers, cruise, ferries, other non-cargo". General cargo ships include "multi-purpose and project vessels andRoll-on/roll-offcargo".[5]
A cargo ship or freighter is any sort ofshipor vessel that carriescargo, goods, and materials from one port to another. Thousands of cargo carriers ply the world's seas and oceans each year; they handle the bulk ofinternational trade. Cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being equipped withcranesand other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes.
A bulk carrier is ashipused to transportbulk cargoitems such asiron ore, bauxite, coal, cement, grain and similar cargo. Bulk carriers can be recognized by large box-like hatches on deck, designed to slide outboard or fold fore-and-aft to enable access for loading or discharging cargo. The dimensions of bulk carriers are often determined by the ports and sea routes that they need to serve, and by the maximum width of the Panama Canal. Most lakes are too small to accommodate bulk carriers, but a large fleet oflake freightershas been plying theGreat LakesandSt. Lawrence SeawayofNorth Americafor over a century.
A container ship is a cargo ship that carries its cargo in standardized containers, in a technique calledcontainerization. These ships are a common means of commercialintermodal freight transport.
A tanker is ashipdesigned to transportliquidsin bulk. Tankers can range in size from several hundredtons, designed to serve small harbours and coastal settlements, to several hundred thousand tons, with these being designed for long-range haulage. A wide range of products are carried by tankers, including:
Different products require different handling and transport, thus special types of tankers have been built, such aschemical tankers,oil tankers, andgas carriers.
Among oil tankers,supertankerswere designed for carrying oil around theHorn of Africafrom theMiddle East; the FSOKnock Nevisbeing the largest vessel in the world, a ULCCsupertankerformerly known asJahre Viking(Seawise Giant). It has a deadweight of 565,000 metric tons and length of about 458 meters (1,500 ft). The use of such large ships is in fact very unprofitable, due to the inability to operate them at full cargo capacity; hence, the production ofsupertankershas currently ceased. Today's largest oil tankers in comparison by gross tonnage areTI Europe,TI Asia,TI Oceania, which are the largest sailing vessels today. But even with their deadweight of 441,585 metric tons, sailing as VLCC most of the time, they do not use more than 70% of their total capacity.
Apart frompipeline transport, tankers are the only method for transporting large quantities of oil, although such tankers have caused large environmental disasters when sinking close to coastal regions, causingoil spills. SeeBraer,Erika,Exxon Valdez,PrestigeandTorrey Canyonfor examples of tankers that have been involved in oil spills.
Coastal trading vessels are smaller ships that carry any category of cargo along coastal, rather than trans-oceanic, routes. Coasters are shallow-hulledshipsused for trade between locations on the same island or continent. Their shallow hulls allow them to sail overreefsand other submerged navigation hazards, whereas ships designed for blue-water trade usually have much deeper hulls for betterseakeeping.
A passenger ship is a ship whose primary function is to carry passengers. The category does not includecargo vesselswhich have accommodations for limited numbers of passengers, such as the formerly ubiquitous twelve-passenger freighters in which the transport of passengers is secondary to the carriage of freight. The type does however include many classes of ships which are designed to transport substantial numbers of passengers as well as freight. Indeed, until recently virtually allocean linerswere able to transport mail, package freight and express, and other cargo in addition to passenger luggage, and were equipped withcargo holdsand derricks, kingposts, or other cargo-handling gear for that purpose. Moderncruiseferrieshavecar decksfor lorries as well as the passengers' cars. Only in more recentocean linersand in virtually allcruise shipshas this cargo capacity been removed. Aferryis aboatorshipcarrying passengers and sometimes their vehicles. Ferries are also used to transport freight (inlorriesand sometimes unpowered freightcontainers) and evenrailroad cars(in the case of atrain ferry).
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Severalshipping linesare involved inintermodal freight transportas part ofinternational trade.
This is a list of the 30 largestcontainer shippingcompanies as of March 2025, according toAlphaliner, ranked in order of thetwenty-foot equivalent unit(TEU) capacity of their fleet.[1]In January 2022,MSCovertookMaerskfor the container line with the largest shipping capacity for the first time since 1996.[2]Hanjin Shippingwas also one of the biggest but it is now defunct.[3]
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In rail transportation, arolling highwayorrolling roadis a form ofcombined transportinvolving the conveying ofroad trucksby rail, referred to as Ro-La trains. The concept is a form ofpiggyback transportation.
The technical challenges to implement rolling highways vary from region to region. In North America, theloading gaugeis often high enough to accommodatedouble stack containers, so the height of asemi-traileron aflatcaris no issue. However, in Europe, except for purpose built lines such as theChannel Tunnelor theGotthard Base Tunnel, the loading gauge height is much smaller, and it is necessary to transport the trailers with the tires about 30 cm (11.81 in) above the rails, so the trailers cannot be simply parked on the surface of a flat car above thewagon wheelsorbogies. Making the wagon wheels smaller limits the maximum speed, so many designs allow the trailer to be transported with its wheels lower than the rail wagon wheels. An early approach in France was theKangourou wagon[1]with modified trailers. This technology did not survive, due to the market resistance to modified trailers. Today, three designs for these special wagons are in commercial service, "Modalohr", "CargoBeamer" and "Niederflurwagen"[2][3][4].
During a rolling-highway journey, if the drivers accompany the trailer, they are accommodated in apassenger caror asleeping car. At both ends of the rail link there are purpose-built terminals that allow the train to be easily loaded and unloaded.
Rolling highways are mostly used for transit routes, e.g. through theAlpsor from western to eastern Europe.
InAustria, rolling highways exist fromBavariaviaTyroltoItalyor toEastern Europe. Traditionally, Austria is a transit country and therefore the rolling highway is of environmental importance. In 1999 theAustrian Federal Railways(ÖBB) carried 254,000 trucks, which equals 8,500,000 tonnes (8,400,000 long tons; 9,400,000 short tons) of load (including vehicle's weight) (158,989 trucks in 1993). The rolling highway trains in Austria are operated by Ökombi GmbH, a division ofRail Cargo Austria, the cargo division of ÖBB. There is a direct rolling highway betweenSalzburgand the harbour ofTrieste, Italy, where the trucks arrive onferriesfromTurkey. In those cases, drivers arrive by plane viaLjubljanaairport, to take over the trucks.
In 1999, theKonkan Railway Corporationintroduced theRoll On Roll Off(RORO) service on the section betweenKoladinMaharashtraandVernainGoa,[5]which was extended up toSurathkalinKarnatakain 2004.[6][7]The RORO service, the first of its kind in India, allowed trucks to be transported onflatcars. It was highly popular,[8]carrying about 110,000 trucks and bringing in about₹740 million worth of earnings to the corporation until 2007.[9]These services are now being extended to other parts of India[10][11]
InSwitzerland, rolling highways across the Alps exist for both theGotthardandLötschberg-Simplonroute. They are operated by RAlpin AG, headquartered inOlten.[12]On April 15, 2015,BLS cargolaunched a service between Cologne and Milan capable of transporting four-metre (13 ft) articulated lorry trailers.[13]
In 2018, 51% of theTen-T networkhas been made adequate to P\C 80loading gauge, required forERATechnical Specifications for Interoperabilityto conveying road trucks by train. Further upgrades are underway.[14]
Two rolling highways are currently in operation in France, both using French Modalohr technology: the 175 km (109 mi)Autoroute Ferroviaire Alpine, connecting theSavoyregion to Turin through theFréjus Rail Tunnelowned and operated jointly bySNCFandTrenitalia, and the 1,050 km (650 mi)Lorry-Railwhich connectsBettembourg,Luxembourg, toPerpignanoperated by SNCF. Lorry-Rail only carries trailers, while the AFA carries accompanied and unaccompanied trailers. Since June 2012, these two are operated under the brand "VIIA" bySNCF Geodis.
In 2013, plans were announced to add more routes in France.[15]One was planned to linkDourges(near Lille) toTarnos(near Bayonne) in spring 2016[16]and the other was an extension North from Bettembourg to Calais. Eurotunnel announced its intention to build a terminal at Folkestone to extend the Dourges-Tarnos route to the UK
.[17]However, in April 2015 the French ministry of transportation announced the cancellation of the Dourges–Tarnos route, citing financial concerns.[18]
In July 2020, the government announced two further routes,Sète–Calais andCherbourg–Bayonne.[19]French Transport Minister Jean-Baptiste Djebbari confirmed in September 2021 €15m funding in 2021 for further development ofautoroutes ferroviairesincluding Calais – Sète, Cherbourg – Bayonne and Perpignan – Rungis.[20]
As of August 2021, the following routes are offered in France:
VIIA[21]
Cargobeamer[22]
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Roll-on/roll-off(ROROorro-ro)shipsarecargo shipsdesigned to carry wheeledcargo, such ascars,motorcycles,trucks,semi-trailer trucks,buses,trailers, andrailroad cars, that are driven on and off the ship on their own wheels or using a platform vehicle, such as aself-propelled modular transporter. This is in contrast tolift-on/lift-off(LoLo) vessels, which use acraneto load and unload cargo.
RORO vessels have either built-in or shore-basedrampsorferry slipsthat allow the cargo to be efficiently rolled on and off the vessel when in port. While smaller ferries that operate acrossriversand other short distances often have built-in ramps, the term RORO is generally reserved for large seagoing vessels. The ramps and doors may be located in thestern,bow, or sides, or any combination thereof.
Types of RORO vessels includeferries,cruiseferries,cargo ships,barges, and RoRo service for air/ railway deliveries. New automobiles that are transported by ship are often moved on a large type of RORO called a pure car carrier (PCC) or pure car/truck carrier (PCTC).
Elsewhere in the shipping industry, cargo is normally measured bytonnageor by thetonne, but RORO cargo is typically measured inlanes in metres(LIMs). This is calculated by multiplying the cargo length in metres by the number of decks and by its width in lanes (lane width differs from vessel to vessel, and there are several industry standards). On PCCs, cargo capacity is often measured in RT or RT43 units (based on a1966 Toyota Corona, the first mass-produced car to be shipped in specialised car-carriers and used as the basis of RORO vessel size. 1 RT is approximately 4m of lane space required to store a 1.5m wide Toyota Corona) or in car-equivalent units (CEU).
The largest RORO passenger ferry isMSColor Magic, a 75,100GTcruise ferry that entered service in September 2007 forColor Line. Built inFinlandbyAker Finnyards, it is 223.70 m (733 ft 11 in) long and 35 m (114 ft 10 in) wide, and can carry 550 cars, or 1,270 lane meters of cargo.[1]
The RORO passenger ferry with the greatest car-carrying capacity isUlysses(named aftera novel byJames Joyce), owned byIrish Ferries.Ulyssesentered service on 25 March 2001 and operates betweenDublinandHolyhead. The 50,938 GT ship is 209.02 m (685 ft 9 in) long and 31.84 m (104 ft 6 in) wide, and can carry 1,342 cars/4,101 lane meters of cargo.[2]
The first cargo ships specially fitted for the transport of large quantities of cars came into service in the early 1960s. These ships still had their own loading gear and so-called hanging decks inside. They were, for example, chartered by the GermanVolkswagen AGto transport vehicles to the U.S. and Canada. During the 1970s, the market for exporting and importing cars increased dramatically and correspondingly also did the number and type of ROROs .
In 1970 Japan'sK Linebuilt theToyota Maru No. 10, Japan's first pure car carrier, and in 1973 built theEuropean Highway, the largest pure car carrier (PCC) at that time, which carried 4,200 automobiles. Today's pure car carriers and their close cousins, the pure car/truck carrier (PCTC), are distinctive ships with a box-like superstructure running the entire length and breadth of the hull, fully enclosing the cargo. They typically have a stern ramp and a side ramp for dual loading of thousands of vehicles (such as cars, trucks, heavy machineries, tracked units,Mafi roll trailers, and loose statics), and extensive automatic fire control systems.
The PCTC has liftable decks to increase vertical clearance, as well as heavier decks for "high-and-heavy" cargo. A 6,500-unit car ship, with 12 decks, can have three decks which can take cargo up to 150short tons(136t; 134long tons) with liftable panels to increase clearance from 1.7 to 6.7 m (5 ft 7 in to 22 ft 0 in) on some decks. Lifting decks to accommodate higher cargo reduces the total capacity.
These vessels can achieve a cruising speed of 16 knots (18 mph; 30 km/h) at eco-speed, while at full speed can achieve more than 19 knots (22 mph; 35 km/h).
As of 7 August 2024[update], the largest LCTC was theHöegh Aurora, the inaugural vessel of a planned class of twelve, each with a capacity of 9,100 CEU.[3]Meanwhile, theMarine Design & Research Institute of China(MARIC) is developing a new vessel class with a capacity of 12,800 CEU. The design has received Approval in Principle (AiP) fromLloyd's Register, which was granted in June 2024.[4]
The car carrierAuriga Leader, belonging toNippon YusenKaisha, built in 2008 with a capacity of 6,200 cars, is the world's first partially solar powered ship.[5]
The seagoing RORO car ferry, with large external doors close to the waterline and open vehicle decks with few internalbulkheads, has a reputation for being a high-risk design, to the point where the acronym is sometimes derisively expanded to "roll on/roll over".[6]An improperly secured loading door can cause a ship to take on water and sink, as happened in 1987 withMSHerald of Free Enterprise. Water sloshing on the vehicle deck can set up afree surface effect, making the ship unstable and causing it tocapsize. Free surface water on the vehicle deck was determined by the court of inquiry to be the immediate cause of the 1968 capsize of theTEVWahinein New Zealand.[7]It also contributed to the wreck ofMSEstonia.
Despite these inherent risks, the very highfreeboardraises the seaworthiness of these vessels. For example, the car carrierMVCougar Acelisted 60 degrees to its port side in 2006, but did not sink, since its high enclosed sides prevented water from entering.
In late January 2016MVModern Expresswas listing offFranceafter cargo shifted on the ship. Salvage crews secured the vessel and it was hauled into the port of Bilbao, Spain.[8]
At first, wheeled vehicles carried as cargo on oceangoing ships were treated like any other cargo. Automobiles had their fuel tanks emptied and their batteries disconnected before being hoisted into the ship's hold, where they were chocked and secured. This process was tedious and difficult, and vehicles were subject to damage and could not be used for routine travel.
An early roll-on/roll-off service was atrain ferry, started in 1833 by theMonkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, which operated a wagon ferry on theForth and Clyde CanalinScotland.[9][page needed]
The first modern train ferry wasLeviathan, built in 1849. TheEdinburgh, Leith and Newhaven Railwaywas formed in 1842 and the company wished to extend theEast Coast Main Linefurther north toDundeeandAberdeen. As bridge technology was not yet capable enough to provide adequate support for the crossing over theFirth of Forth, which was roughly five miles across, a different solution had to be found, primarily for the transport of goods, where efficiency was key.
The company hired the up-and-coming civil engineerThomas Bouchwho argued for a train ferry with a roll-on/roll-off mechanism to maximise the efficiency of the system. Ferries were to be custom-built, with railway lines and matching harbour facilities at both ends to allow the rolling stock to easily drive on and off.[10]To compensate for the changingtides, adjustable ramps were positioned at the harbours and the gantry structure height was varied by moving it along the slipway. The wagons were loaded on and off with the use ofstationary steam engines.[10][9][page needed]
Although others had had similar ideas, Bouch was the first to put them into effect, and did so with an attention to detail (such as design of theferry slip) which led a subsequent President of theInstitution of Civil Engineers[11]to settle any dispute over priority of invention with the observation that "there was little merit in a simple conception of this kind, compared with a work practically carried out in all its details, and brought to perfection."[12]
The company was persuaded to install this train ferry service for the transportation of goods wagons across theFirth of ForthfromBurntislandinFifetoGranton.[13]The ferry itself was built byThomas Grainger, a partner of the firm Grainger and Miller.
The service commenced on 3 February 1850.[14]It was called "The Floating Railway"[15]and intended as a temporary measure until the railway could build a bridge, but this wasnot opened until 1890, its construction delayed in part by repercussions from the catastrophic failure of Thomas Bouch'sTay Rail Bridge.[13]
Train-ferry services were used extensively duringWorld War I. From 10 February 1918, high volumes of railway rolling stock, artillery and supplies for the Front were shipped to France from the "secret port" ofRichborough, near Sandwich on the South Coast of England.
This involved three train-ferries to be built, each with four sets of railway line on the main deck to allow for up to 54 railway wagons to be shunted directly on and off the ferry. These train-ferries could also be used to transport motor vehicles along with railway rolling stock. Later that month a second train-ferry was established from thePort of Southamptonon the South East Coast. In the first month of operations at Richborough, 5,000 tons were transported across the Channel, by the end of 1918 it was nearly 261,000 tons.[16]
There were many advantages of the use of train-ferries over conventional shipping in World War I. It was much easier to move the large, heavy artillery and tanks that this kind of modern warfare required using train-ferries as opposed to repeated loading and unloading of cargo. By manufacturers loading tanks, guns and other heavy items for shipping to the front directly on to railway wagons, which could be shunted on to a train-ferry in England and then shunted directly on to the French Railway Network, with direct connections to the Front Lines, many man hours of unnecessary labour were avoided.
An analysis done at the time found that to transport 1,000 tons of war material from the point of manufacture to the front by conventional means involved the use of 1,500 labourers, whereas when using train-ferries that number decreased to around 100 labourers. This was of utmost importance, as by 1918, theBritish Railway companieswere experiencing a severe shortage of labour with hundreds of thousands of skilled and unskilled labourers away fighting at the front. The increase of heavy traffic because of the war effort meant that economies and efficiency in transport had to be made wherever possible.[16]
After the signing of the Armistice on 11 November 1918, train ferries were used extensively for the return of material from the Front. Indeed, according to war office statistics, a greater tonnage of material was transported by train ferry from Richborough in 1919 than in 1918. As the train ferries had space for motor transport as well as railway rolling stock, thousands of lorries, motor cars and "B Type" buses used these ferries to return to England.
DuringWorld War II,landing ships(LST,"Landing Ship, Tank") were the first purpose-built seagoing ships enabling road vehicles to roll directly on and off. The Britishevacuation from Dunkirkin 1940 demonstrated to theAdmiraltythat the Allies needed relatively large, seagoing ships capable of shore-to-shore delivery oftanksand other vehicles inamphibious assaultsupon the continent of Europe. As an interim measure, three 4000 to 4800 GRT tankers, built to pass over the restrictive bars ofLake Maracaibo,Venezuela, were selected for conversion because of their shallow draft. Bow doors and ramps were added to these ships, which became the first tank landing ships.[17]
The first purpose-built LST design wasHMSBoxer. It was a scaled down design from ideas penned by Churchill. To carry 13Churchillinfantry tanks, 27 vehicles and nearly 200 men (in addition to the crew) at a speed of 18 knots, it could not have the shallow draught that would have made for easy unloading. As a result, each of the three (Boxer,Bruiser, andThruster) ordered in March 1941 had a very long ramp stowed behind the bow doors.[18]
In November 1941, a small delegation from the British Admiralty arrived in the United States to pool ideas with theUnited States Navy'sBureau of Shipswith regard to development of ships and also including the possibility of building furtherBoxers in the US.[18]During this meeting, it was decided that the Bureau of Ships would design these vessels. As with the standing agreement these would be built by the US so British shipyards could concentrate on building vessels for theRoyal Navy. The specification called for vessels capable of crossing the Atlantic and the original title given to them was "Atlantic Tank Landing Craft" (Atlantic (T.L.C.)). Calling a vessel 300 ft (91 m) long a "craft" was considered a misnomer and the type was re-christened "Landing Ship, Tank (2)", or "LST (2)".
The LST(2) design incorporated elements of the first British LCTs from their designer, Sir Rowland Baker, who was part of the British delegation. This included sufficient buoyancy in the ships' sidewalls that they would float even with the tank deck flooded.[18]The LST(2) gave up the speed of HMSBoxerat only 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) but had a similar load while drawing only 3 ft (0.91 m) forward when beaching. In three separate acts dated 6 February 1942, 26 May 1943, and 17 December 1943, Congress provided the authority for the construction of LSTs along with a host of other auxiliaries,destroyer escorts, and assortedlanding craft. The enormous building program quickly gathered momentum. Such a high priority was assigned to the construction of LSTs that the previously laid keel of anaircraft carrierwas hastily removed to make room for several LSTs to be built in her place. The keel of the first LST was laid down on 10 June 1942 atNewport News, Virginia, and the first standardized LSTs were floated out of their building dock in October. Twenty-three were in commission by the end of 1942.
At the end of the first world war vehicles were brought back from France toRichborough Port[19]drive-on-drive-off using the train ferry. During the war British servicemen recognised the great potential of landing ships and craft. The idea was simple; if you could drive tanks, guns and lorries directly onto a ship and then drive them off at the other end directly onto a beach, then theoretically you could use the same landing craft to carry out the same operation in the civilian commercial market, providing there were reasonable port facilities. From this idea grew the worldwide roll-on/roll-offferryindustry of today. In the period between the wars Lt. ColonelFrank Bustardformed theAtlantic Steam Navigation Company, with a view to cheap transatlantic travel; this never materialised, but during the war he observed trials onBrighton Sandsof an LST in 1943 when its peacetime capabilities were obvious.
In the spring of 1946 the company approached the Admiralty with a request to purchase three of these vessels. The Admiralty were unwilling to sell, but after negotiations agreed to let the ASN have the use of three vessels onbareboat charterat a rate of £13 6s 8d per day. These vessels were LSTs3519,3534, and3512. They were renamedEmpire Baltic,Empire Cedric, andEmpire Celtic, perpetuating the name ofWhite Star Lineships in combination with the"Empire" shipnaming of vessels in government service during the war.
On the morning of 11 September 1946 the first voyage of the Atlantic Steam Navigation Company took place whenEmpire Balticsailed fromTilburytoRotterdamwith a full load of 64 vehicles for the Dutch Government. The original three LSTs were joined in 1948 by another vessel,LST 3041, renamedEmpire Doric, after the ASN were able to convince commercial operators to support the new route betweenPrestonand the Northern Ireland port ofLarne. The first sailing of this new route was on 21 May 1948 byEmpire Cedric. After the inaugural sailingEmpire Cedriccontinued on the Northern Ireland service, offering initially a twice-weekly service.Empire Cedricwas the first vessel of the ASN fleet to hold a passenger certificate, and was allowed to carry fifty passengers. ThusEmpire Cedricbecame the first vessel in the world to operate as a commercial/passenger roll-on/roll-off ferry, and the ASN became the first commercial company to offer this type of service.
The first RORO service crossing theEnglish Channelbegan fromDoverin 1953.[20]In 1954, theBritish Transport Commission(BTC) took over the ASN under the Labour Governmentsnationalizationpolicy. In 1955 another two LSTs where chartered into the existing fleet,Empire CymricandEmpire Nordic, bringing the fleet strength to seven. The Hamburg service was terminated in 1955, and a new service was opened between Antwerp and Tilbury. The fleet of seven ships was to be split up with the usual three ships based at Tilbury and the others maintaining the Preston to Northern Ireland service.
During late 1956, the entire fleet of ASN were taken over for use in the Mediterranean during theSuez Crisis, and the drive-on/drive-off services were not re-established until January 1957. At this point ASN were made responsible for the management of twelve Admiralty LST(3)s brought out of reserve as a result of theSuez Crisistoo late to see service.
The first roll-on/roll-off vessel that was purpose-built to transport loaded semi trucks wasSearoad of Hyannis, which began operation in 1956. While modest in capacity, it could transport three semi trailers between Hyannis in Massachusetts and Nantucket Island, even in ice conditions.[21]
In 1957, the US military issued a contract to theSun Shipbuilding and Dry Dock CompanyinChester, Pennsylvania, for the construction of a new type of motorized vehicle carrier. The ship,USNSComet, had a stern ramp as well as interior ramps, which allowed cars to drive directly from the dock, onto the ship, and into place. Loading and unloading was sped up dramatically.Cometalso had an adjustable chocking system for locking cars onto the decks and a ventilation system to remove exhaust gases that accumulate during vehicle loading.
During the 1982Falklands War,SSAtlantic Conveyorwas requisitioned as an emergency aircraft and helicopter transport for BritishHawker Siddeley HarrierSTOVLfighter planes; one Harrier was kept fueled, armed, and ready to VTOL launch for emergency air protection against long range Argentine aircraft.Atlantic Conveyorwas sunk by ArgentineExocetmissiles after offloading the Harriers to proper aircraft carriers, but the vehicles and helicopters still aboard were lost.[22]
After the war, a concept called the shipborne containerized air-defense system (SCADS) proposed a modular system to quickly convert a large RORO into an emergency aircraft carrier with ski jump, fueling systems, radar, defensive missiles, munitions, crew quarters, and work spaces. The entire system could be installed in about 48 hours on a container ship or RORO, when needed for operations up to a month unsupplied. The system could quickly be removed and stored again when the conflict was over.[23]The Soviets flyingYakovlev Yak-38fighters also tested operations using the civilian RORO shipsAgostinio NetoandNikolai Cherkasov.[24]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off
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Aroll-on/roll-off discharge facility(RRDF) is a floating platform that provides a roadway between a ship's ramp andlighterage. It is constructed by connecting multiple causeway sections.
Portsequipped withroll-on/roll-offwharfs include:
This article related to ports, harbors or marinas is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off_discharge_facility
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Aliquid hydrogen tank-tainer, also known as aliquid hydrogentank container, is a specialized type ofcontainerdesigned to carrycryogenicliquid hydrogen (LH2) on standardintermodalequipment.[1]The tank is held within a box-shaped frame the same size and shape as a container.
Liquid hydrogen tanktainers are referenced by their size or volume capacity, generally an ISO 40 ft (12.19 m)container.[2]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_hydrogen_tanktainer
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Acontainer chassis, also calledintermodal chassisorskeletal trailer, is a type of semi-trailer designed to securely carry anintermodal container. Chassis are used bytruckersto deliver containers betweenports, railyards, container depots, and shipper facilities,[1]:2–3and are thus a key part of theintermodal supply chain.
The use of chassis to haul containers over-the-road is known asdrayage trucking, and is a section of intermodal, which also includes rail transport of containers using well or flat cars and overseas transport in ships or barges. Like other intermodal equipment, chassis are equipped withtwistlocksat each corner which allows a container (hoisted onto or off the chassis by acrane), to be locked on for secure transport or unlocked to be lifted off.[2]The length of a chassis corresponds to which container size will fit (i.e., a 40-foot-long chassis fits a 40-foot-long container), but some models are adjustable length.[3]
Semi-tractor truckshook up to chassis via thekingpin. When disconnected from a tractor, the chassis' landing gear can be cranked down to park it.[4]
Portablegenerators, also called gensets, can be mounted (underslung) onto chassis. These gensets are used to power arefrigerated container.[5]
The axle group on some chassis (especially 20-foot and 53-foot units) can be slid backwards or forwards to change the weight distribution of heavy containers, allowing safe operation and compliance withweight restrictions.
An identification number is often stenciled on chassis to track each unit in a fleet. According toISO 6346, a chassis should have the letter "Z" at the end of itsreporting mark.
A variation is the tank container chassis, which are used forISO tank containers. They are characteristically longer and have lower deck height then standard chassis, ideal for transporting constantly shifting payloads. These chassis can also be fitted with additional accessories including: lift kits to facilitate product discharge, hose tubes, and hi/lo kits to carry two empty tanks. They come in tandem axle, spread axle, tri-axle, and hi/lo combo configurations.
Unlike other countries where chassis are mostly owned or long-term leased by trucking companies, in the United States most chassis are currently owned by a few leasing companies (pools) which rent out the equipment to truckers.[1]:1[6]When a trucker leaves or enters a facility with a pool chassis, anelectronic data interchange(EDI) record is generated at the facility gate which identifies the trucking company and the chassis pool, and this allows the pool to invoice the appropriate trucking company for chassis usage. The system is influenced by the steamship lines and by the operation of container terminals. Firstly, containers are commonly stored on chassis as a single mounted unit at rail yards and depots—such terminals are known as "wheeled" facilities. Secondly, steamship lines offer a service called ″carrier haulage″ or ″store door delivery″, whereby they arrange the drayage of a customer’s container. The steamship line hires a local trucking company and pays the pool for the chassis usage.
As a result, steamship lines formed contractual agreements with the pools which entail that when a container is on-terminal it must be on a pool specified by the steamship line.[7]:26[8][9]This means that at wheeled facilities, containers are mounted onto chassis selected by the steamship line before the trucker arrives to pickup.[10]Some disadvantages of this system are that it can restrict truckers' choice of which chassis to use[11]and it can cause "chassis splits", which are when a container and its required chassis pool are in different locations.
In the United States, container chassis shortages are a chronic problem, especially during peaks in container volume.[12]There are several causes of chassis shortages, but a common problem is excessive off-terminal dwell time. Off-terminal dwell time is the length of time a shipper keeps a chassis/container at their premises. Long dwell times mean less free chassis on-site at ports and rail ramps.[13][14]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_chassis
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TheHCU-6/Eor463L Master Palletis a standardizedpalletused for transportingmilitary air cargo. It is the main air-cargo pallet of theUnited States Air Force, designed to be loaded and offloaded on today's military airlifters as well as many civilianCivil Reserve Air Fleet(CRAF)cargo aircraft.
The "SS-463L" project was developed by a U.S. Air Force committee in 1957 and awarded to the Douglas Aircraft Company in 1959. The "SS-463L Pallet Cargo Handling System" specifications for aircraft (aka "463L") included a "Master Pallet" design to meet a component of the material handling specifications of this system. The "Master Pallet" was contracted to the AAR Cadillac Manufacturing Corporation, at one time AAR Cadillac Corp, and nowAAR Corp.
In the 1950s, the U.S. Air Force used a standard designation system for all awarded projects. The "SS" represents Support System, the "463" represents an assigned general system category, 400–499 series for "Support Systems", and the suffix "L" also represents "Support Systems". The "463L" does not stand for the period that the pallet was initiated (April 1963); it is the name of the system.
The standard HCU-6/E pallet in the "463L" system was designed and finalized in the early 1960s by the AAR Cadillac Corp. to implement the "SS-463L Pallet Cargo Handling System" now known as "Materials Handling Support System "463L"". The original design of the HCU-6/E pallet met the standards of the Universal Cargo Handling Rail System design in 1962 for theC-130andC-141transport aircraft. The new sturdy HCU-6/E pallet was a drastic improvement to the older lightweight balsa wood pallets used by the Air Force in previous years.
Each HCU-6/E pallet is 88 inches (220 cm) wide, 108 inches (270 cm) long, and2+1⁄4inches (5.7 cm) high. The usable space is 84 by 104 in (210 by 260 cm). It can hold up to 10,000lb(4,500 kg) of cargo (not exceeding 250lbper square inch) at 8g. Empty, each pallet weighs 290 pounds (130 kg), or 355 pounds (161 kg) with two side nets and a top net.
Based on the HCU-6/E air cargo Master Pallet, additional components include the HCU-7/E side net, the HCU-15/C top net, and the CGU-1/B Device or cargo strap. MB-1 Devices or MB-2 Devices may be used with appropriate chains.
The "463L Master Pallets" can be unloaded on the ground in peacetime or in combat.
They are built of abalsawood core and surrounded by a thin aluminum skin. There are 22 tie-down rings surrounding the edge, each rated at 7,500 pounds (3,400 kg).
* Including one on the ramp
** 11 in centerline configuration
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/463L_master_pallet
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TheUnited States Air Force(USAF) is theairservice branchof theUnited States Department of Defense.[15]It is one of the sixUnited States Armed Forcesand one of the eightuniformed services of the United States. Tracing its origins to 1 August 1907, as a part of theUnited States Army Signal Corps, the USAF was established by transfer of personnel from the Army Air Forces with the enactment of theNational Security Act of 1947. It is the second youngest branch of the United States Armed Forces[e]and the fourth inorder of precedence. The United States Air Force articulates its core missions asair supremacy,global integrated intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance,rapid global mobility,global strike, andcommand and control.
TheDepartment of the Air Force, which serves as the USAF's headquarters andexecutive departmentis one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Department of the Air Force is headed by the civiliansecretary of the Air Force, who reports to thesecretary of defenseand is appointed by the president withSenateconfirmation. The highest-ranking military officer in the Air Force is thechief of staff of the Air Force, who exercises supervision over Air Force units and serves as one of theJoint Chiefs of Staff. As directed by the secretary of defense and secretary of the Air Force, certain Air Force components are assigned tounified combatant commands. Combatant commanders are delegated operational authority of the forces assigned to them, while the secretary of the Air Force and the chief of staff of the Air Force retain administrative authority over their members.
Along with conducting independent air operations, the United States Air Force providesair supportfor land and naval forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2020[update], the service operates approximately 5,500military aircraft[6]and approximately 400ICBMs.[16]The world's largest air force, it has a $179.7 billion budget[17][18][19]and is the second largest service branch of the U.S. Department of Defense, with 321,848active duty airmen,[f][3]147,879 civilian personnel,[g]68,927reserveairmen,[h][3]105,104Air National Guardairmen,[i][3]and approximately 65,000Civil Air Patrolauxiliaries.[5]
According to theNational Security Act of 1947(61Stat. 502), which created the USAF:
Section 9062 of Title 10 US Code defines the purpose of the USAF as:[20]
The five core missions of the Air Force have not changed dramatically since the Air Force became independent in 1947, but they have now evolved and are articulated as air superiority, global integrated ISR (intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance), rapid global mobility, global strike, and command and control. The purpose of all of these core missions is to provide what the Air Force states as global vigilance, global reach, and global power.[21]
Air superiority is "that degree of dominance in the air battle of one force over another which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, and special operations forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force" (JP 1-02).[22][23][24][25]
Offensive Counter-Air(OCA) is defined as "offensive operations to destroy, disrupt, or neutralize enemy aircraft, missiles, launch platforms, and their supporting structures and systems both before and after launch, but as close to their source as possible" (JP 1-02). OCA is the preferred method of countering air and missile threats since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source and typically enjoys the initiative. OCA comprises attack operations, sweep, escort, and suppression/destruction of enemy air defense.[22]
Defensive Counter-Air(DCA) is defined as "all the defensive measures designed to detect, identify, intercept, and destroy or negate enemy forces attempting to penetrate or attack through friendly airspace" (JP 1-02). In concert with OCA operations, a major goal of DCA operations is to provide an area from which forces can operate, secure from air and missile threats. The DCA mission comprises both active and passive defense measures. Active defense is "the employment of limited offensive action and counterattacks to deny a contested area or position to the enemy" (JP 1-02). It includes both ballistic missile defense and airborne threat defense and encompasses point defense, area defense, and high-value airborne asset defense. Passive defense is "measures taken to reduce the probability of and to minimize the effects of damage caused by hostile action without the intention of taking the initiative" (JP 1-02). It includes detection and warning; chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear defense; camouflage, concealment, and deception; hardening; reconstitution; dispersion; redundancy; and mobility, counter-measures, and stealth.[22]
Airspace control is "a process used to increase operational effectiveness by promoting the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace" (JP 1-02). It promotes the safe, efficient, and flexible use of airspace, mitigates the risk of fratricide, enhances both offensive and defensive operations, and permits greater agility of air operations as a whole. It both deconflicts and facilitates the integration of joint air operations.[22]
Global integrated intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) is the synchronization and integration of the planning and operation of sensors, assets, and processing, exploitation, dissemination systems across the globe to conduct current and future operations.[22]
Planning and directing is "the determination of intelligence requirements, development of appropriate intelligence architecture, preparation of a collection plan, and issuance of orders and requests to information collection agencies" (JP 2-01, Joint and National Intelligence Support to Military Operations). These activities enable the synchronization and integration of collection, processing, exploitation, analysis, and dissemination activities/resources to meet information requirements of national and military decision-makers.[22]
Collection is "the acquisition of information and the provision of this information to processing elements" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to obtain required information to satisfy intelligence needs (via use of sources and methods in all domains). Collection activities span the Range of Military Operations (ROMO).[22]
Processing and exploitation is "the conversion of collected information into forms suitable to the production of intelligence" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to transform, extract, and make available collected information suitable for further analysis or action across the ROMO.[22]
Analysis and production is "the conversion of processed information into intelligence through the integration, evaluation, analysis, and interpretation of all source data and the preparation of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated user requirements" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to integrate, evaluate, and interpret information from available sources to create a finished intelligence product for presentation or dissemination to enable increased situational awareness.[22]
Dissemination and integration is "the delivery of intelligence to users in a suitable form and the application of the intelligence to appropriate missions, tasks, and functions" (JP 2-01). It provides the ability to present information and intelligence products across the ROMO enabling understanding of the operational environment to military and national decision-makers.[22]
Rapid global mobility is the timely deployment, employment, sustainment, augmentation, and redeployment of military forces and capabilities across the ROMO. It provides joint military forces the capability to move from place to place while retaining the ability to fulfill their primary mission. Rapid Global Mobility is essential to virtually every military operation, allowing forces to reach foreign or domestic destinations quickly, thus seizing the initiative through speed and surprise.[22]
Airlift is "operations to transport and deliver forces andmaterielthrough the air in support of strategic, operational, or tactical objectives" (Annex 3–17, Air Mobility Operations). The rapid and flexible options afforded by airlift allow military forces and national leaders the ability to respond and operate in a variety of situations and time frames. The global reach capability of airlift provides the ability to apply US power worldwide by delivering forces to crisis locations. It serves as a US presence that demonstrates resolve and compassion in humanitarian crisis.[22]
Air refueling is "the refueling of an aircraft in flight by another aircraft" (JP 1-02). Air refueling extends presence, increases range, and serves as a force multiplier. It allows air assets to more rapidly reach any trouble spot around the world with less dependence on forward staging bases or overflight/landing clearances. Air refueling significantly expands the options available to a commander by increasing the range, payload, persistence, and flexibility of receiver aircraft.[22]
Aeromedical evacuation is "the movement of patients under medical supervision to and between medical treatment facilities by air transportation" (JP 1-02). JP 4-02, Health Service Support, further defines it as "the fixed wing movement of regulated casualties to and between medical treatment facilities, using organic and/or contracted mobility airframes, with aircrew trained explicitly for this mission." Aeromedical evacuation forces can operate as far forward asfixed-wing aircraftare able to conduct airland operations.[22]
Global precision attack is the ability to hold at risk or strike rapidly and persistently, with a wide range of munitions, any target and to create swift, decisive, and precise effects across multiple domains.[22]
Strategic attack is defined as "offensive action specifically selected to achieve national strategic objectives. These attacks seek to weaken the adversary's ability or will to engage in conflict, and may achieve strategic objectives without necessarily having to achieve operational objectives as a precondition" (Annex 3–70, Strategic Attack).[22]
Air Interdiction is defined as "air operations conducted to divert, disrupt, delay, or destroy the enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces, or to otherwise achieve JFC objectives. Air Interdiction is conducted at such distance from friendly forces that detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of friendly forces is not required" (Annex 3-03, Counterland Operations).[22]
Close Air Support is defined as "air action by fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to friendly forces and which require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of those forces" (JP 1-02). This can be as a pre-planned event or on demand from an alert posture (ground or airborne). It can be conducted across the ROMO.[22]
The purpose of nuclear deterrence operations (NDO) is to operate, maintain, and secure nuclear forces to achieve an assured capability to deter an adversary from taking action against vital US interests. In the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. The sub-elements of this function are:[22]
Assure/Dissuade/Deter is a mission set derived from the Air Force's readiness to carry out the nuclear strike operations mission as well as from specific actions taken to assure allies as a part of extended deterrence. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD and delivering them contributes to promoting security and is also an integral part of this mission. Moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. The Air Force maintains and presents credible deterrent capabilities through successful visible demonstrations and exercises that assure allies, dissuade proliferation, deter potential adversaries from actions that threaten US national security or the populations, and deploy military forces of the US, its allies, and friends.[22]
Nuclear strike is the ability of nuclear forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. If a crisis occurs, rapid generation and, if necessary, deployment of nuclear strike capabilities will demonstrate US resolve and may prompt an adversary to alter the course of action deemed threatening to our national interest. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level and lead to a rapid cessation of hostilities. Post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. The Air Force may present a credible force posture in either theContinental United States, within a theater of operations, or both to effectively deter the range of potential adversaries envisioned in the 21st century. This requires the ability to engage targets globally using a variety of methods; therefore, the Air Force should possess the ability to induct, train, assign, educate and exercise individuals and units to rapidly and effectively execute missions that support US NDO objectives. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of nuclear operations to ensure high levels of performance.[22]
Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations. Because of their political and military importance, destructive power, and the potential consequences of an accident or unauthorized act, nuclear weapons and nuclear weapon systems require special consideration and protection against risks and threats inherent in their peacetime and wartime environments. In conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, the Air Force achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. This program applies to materiel, personnel, and procedures that contribute to the safety, security, and control of nuclear weapons, thus assuring no nuclear accidents, incidents, loss, or unauthorized or accidental use (aBroken Arrow incident). The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements. Adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Force's ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission. Positive nuclear command, control, communications; effective nuclear weapons security; and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function.[22]
Command and control is "the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commander over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of the mission. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating, and controlling forces and operations in the accomplishment of the mission" (JP 1-02). This core function includes all of the C2-related capabilities and activities associated with air, cyberspace, nuclear, and agile combat support operations to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives.[22]
At the strategic level command and control, the US determines national or multinational security objectives and guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. These national objectives in turn provide the direction for developing overall military objectives, which are used to develop the objectives and strategy for each theater.[22]
At the operational level command and control, campaigns and major operations are planned, conducted, sustained, and assessed to accomplish strategic goals within theaters or areas of operations. These activities imply a broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they provide the means by which tactical successes are exploited to achieve strategic and operational objectives.[22]
Tactical Level Command and Control is where individual battles and engagements are fought. The tactical level of war deals with how forces are employed, and the specifics of how engagements are conducted and targets attacked. The goal of tactical level C2 is to achieve commander's intent and desired effects by gaining and keeping offensive initiative.[22]
The origins of the United States Air Force can be traced back to theUnion Army Balloon Corpsof theAmerican Civil War. The Union Balloon Corps, established by aeronautThaddeus S. C. Lowe, provided aerial reconnaissance for theUnion Army. This early use of balloons for military purposes marked the beginning of modern aerial warfare and set the stage for the development of the United States Air Force.[26]
TheU.S. War Departmentcreated the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force, as a part of the U.S. Army, on 1 August 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual independence 40 years later. InWorld War II, almost 68,000 U.S. airmen died helping to win the war, with only the infantry suffering more casualties.[27]In practice, theU.S. Army Air Forces(USAAF) was virtually independent of theArmyduring World War II, and in virtually every way functioned as an independent service branch, but airmen still pressed for formal independence.[28]TheNational Security Act of 1947was signed on 26 July 1947, which established theDepartment of the Air Force, but it was not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force,W. Stuart Symington, was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed as an independent service branch.[29][30]
The act created theNational Military Establishment(renamedDepartment of Defensein 1949), which was composed of three subordinate Military Departments, namely theDepartment of the Army, theDepartment of the Navy, and the newly created Department of the Air Force.[31]Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was shared between the Army Air Forces and its predecessor organizations (for land-based operations), theNavy(for sea-based operations fromaircraft carriersandamphibiousaircraft), and theMarine Corps(for close air support of Marine Corps operations). The 1940s proved to be important for military aviation in other ways as well. In 1947, Air Force CaptainChuck Yeagerbroke the sound barrier in his X-1 rocket-powered aircraft, beginning a new era of aeronautics in America.[32]
The predecessor organizations in the Army of today's Air Force are:
During the early 2000s, two USAF aircraft procurement projects took longer than expected, theKC-XandF-35programs. As a result, the USAF was setting new records for average aircraft age.[34]
Since 2005, the USAF has placed a strong focus on the improvement ofBasic Military Training(BMT) for enlisted personnel. While the intense training has become longer, it also has shifted to include a deployment phase. This deployment phase, now called the BEAST, places the trainees in a simulated combat environment that they may experience once they deploy. While the trainees do tackle the massive obstacle courses along with the BEAST, the other portions include defending and protecting their base of operations, forming a structure of leadership, directing search and recovery, and basic self aid buddy care. During this event, the Military Training Instructors (MTI) act as mentors and opposing forces in a deployment exercise.[35]In November 2022, the USAF announced that it will discontinue BEAST and replace it with another deployment training program called PACER FORGE.[36][37]
In 2007, the USAF undertook a Reduction-in-Force (RIF). Because of budget constraints, the USAF planned to reduce the service's size from 360,000 active duty personnel to 316,000.[38]The size of the active duty force in 2007 was roughly 64% of that of what the USAF was at the end of the firstGulf Warin 1991.[39]However, the reduction was ended at approximately 330,000 personnel in 2008 in order to meet the demand signal of combatant commanders and associated mission requirements.[38]These same constraints have seen a sharp reduction in flight hours for crew training since 2005[40]and the Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Personnel directing Airmen's Time Assessments.[41]
On 5 June 2008,Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted the resignations of both thesecretary of the Air Force,Michael Wynne, and thechief of staff of the Air Force,GeneralT. Michael Moseley. In his decision to fire both men Gates cited "systemic issues associated with... declining Air Force nuclear mission focus and performance".[42]Left unmentioned by Gates was that he had repeatedly clashed with Wynne and Moseley over other important non-nuclear related issues to the service.[42]This followed an investigation into two incidents involving mishandling ofnuclear weapons: specifically anuclear weapons incidentaboard a B-52 flight betweenMinot AFBandBarksdale AFB, and an accidental shipment of nuclear weapons components to Taiwan.[43]To put more emphasis on nuclear assets, the USAF established the nuclear-focusedAir Force Global Strike Commandon 24 October 2008, which later assumed control of all USAF bomber aircraft.[44]
On 26 June 2009, the USAF released a force structure plan that cut fighter aircraft and shifted resources to better support nuclear, irregular and information warfare.[45]On 23 July 2009, The USAF released their Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) Flight Plan, detailing Air Force UAS plans through 2047.[46]One third of the planes that the USAF planned to buy in the future were to be unmanned.[47]According to Air Force chief scientistGreg Zachariasthe USAF anticipates having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s, hypersonicunmanned aerial vehicles(also known as remotely-piloted vehicles, or RPAs) by the 2030s and recoverable hypersonic RPAs aircraft by the 2040s.[48]The USAF intends to deploy aSixth-generation jet fighterby the mid-2030s.[48]
On 22 October 2023, the USAF conducted its first-ever trilateral exercise with theSouth KoreanandJapaneseair forces near the Korean Peninsula.[49]On 29 November 2023, a USAFBell Boeing V-22 Ospreycrashed in the Japan island of Yakushima killing 1 airman.[50][51]
In 2024, citing theSupreme Court's ruling inLoper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo, the Air Force refused to comply with anEPAorder that they develop a cleanup plan for drinking water aroundTucson, Arizonaafter the region's groundwater was contaminated byPFASrunoff from nearby Air Force bases.[52][53]
GeneralDavid Allvin, the head of the U.S. Air Force (USAF), stated earlier in 2024 that the United States cannot rely on its air dominance for an extended period.[54]
The United States Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts and operations using military air operations. The USAF possesses the lineage and heritage of its predecessor organizations, which played a pivotal role in U.S. military operations since 1907:
In addition since the USAF dwarfs all other U.S. and allied air components, it often provides support for allied forces in conflicts to which the United States is otherwise not involved, such as the2013 French campaign in Mali.[94]
The USAF has also taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following:[95]
The culture of the United States Air Force is primarily driven by pilots, at first those piloting bombers (driven originally by theBomber Mafia), followed by fighters (Fighter Mafia).[107][108][109]
In response to a2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident, Secretary of DefenseRobert Gatesaccepted in June 2009 the resignations ofSecretary of the Air ForceMichael WynneandChief of Staff of the Air ForceGeneralT. Michael Moseley. Moseley's successor, GeneralNorton A. Schwartz, a former airlift and special operations pilot, was the first officer appointed to that position who did not have a background as a fighter or bomber pilot.[110]The Washington Post reported in 2010 that General Schwartz began to dismantle the rigid class system of the USAF, particularly in the officer corps.[111][112]
In 2014, following morale and testing/cheating scandals in the Air Force'smissile launch officercommunity, Secretary of the Air ForceDeborah Lee Jamesadmitted that there remained a "systemic problem" in the USAF's management of the nuclear mission.[113][114][115]
Daniel L. Magruder Jr. defines USAF culture as a combination of the rigorous application of advanced technology, individualism and progressive airpower theory.[116]Major GeneralCharles J. Dunlap Jr.adds that the U.S. Air Force's culture also includes anegalitarianismbred from officers perceiving themselves as their service's principal "warriors" working with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or the onboard crew of their aircraft. Air Force officers have never felt they needed the formal social "distance" from their enlisted force that is common in the other U.S. armed services. Although the paradigm is changing, for most of its history, the Air Force, completely unlike its sister services, has been an organization in which mostly its officers fought, not its enlisted force, the latter being primarily a rear echelon support force. When the enlisted force did go into harm's way, such as crew members of multi-crewed aircraft, the close comradeship of shared risk in tight quarters created traditions that shaped a somewhat different kind of officer/enlisted relationship than exists elsewhere in the military.[117]
Cultural and career issues in the U.S. Air Force have been cited as one of the reasons for the shortfall in neededUAVoperators.[118]In spite of demand for UAVs or drones to provide round the clock coverage for American troops during the Iraq War,[119]the USAF did not establish a new career field for piloting them until the last year of that war and in 2014 changed its RPA training syllabus again, in the face of large aircraft losses in training,[120]and in response to a GAO report critical of handling of drone programs.[121]Paul Scharre has reported that the cultural divide between the USAF and US Army has kept both services from adopting each other's drone handling innovations.[122]
Many of the U.S. Air Force's formal and informal traditions are an amalgamation of those taken from theRoyal Air Force(e.g., dining-ins/mess nights) or the experiences of its predecessor organizations such as theU.S. Army Air Service,U.S. Army Air Corpsand theU.S. Army Air Forces. Some of these traditions range from "Friday Name Tags" in flying units to an annual "Mustache Month".[123][124]The use of"challenge coins"dates back to World War I when a member of one of the aero squadrons bought his entire unit medallions with their emblem,[125]while another cultural tradition unique to the Air Force is the "roof stomp", practiced by Airmen to welcome a new commander or to commemorate another event, such as a retirement.[126][127]
TheDepartment of the Air Forceis one of three military departments within theDepartment of Defense, and is managed by the civiliansecretary of the Air Force, under the authority, direction, and control of thesecretary of defense. The senior officials in theOffice of the Secretaryare theunder secretary of the Air Force, fourassistant secretaries of the Air Forceand thegeneral counsel, all of whom are appointed by the president with theadvice and consentof theSenate. The senior uniformed leadership in theAir Staffis made up of thechief of staff of the Air Forceand thevice chief of staff of the Air Force.[128]
The directly subordinate commands and units are namedField Operating Agency(FOA),Direct Reporting Unit(DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency.[129]
TheMajor Command(MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. Including theAir Force Reserve Command, as of 30 September 2006, USAF has ten major commands. TheNumbered Air Force(NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused),Air Division(also now unused),Wing,Group,Squadron, and Flight.[128][130]
Headquarters, United States Air Force(HQ USAF):
The major components of the U.S. Air Force, as of 28 August 2015, are the following:[143]
The USAF, including its Air Reserve Component (e.g., Air Force Reserve + Air National Guard), possesses a total of 302 flying squadrons.[146]
The organizational structure as shown above is responsible for the peacetime organization, equipping, and training of air units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the secretary of defense (SECDEF) directs thesecretary of the Air Force(SECAF) to execute a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their administrative alignment to the operational command of aRegionalCombatant commander(CCDR).[147]In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency toUSTRANSCOMunless chopped to a Regional CCDR.
"Chopped" units are referred to asforces. The top-level structure of these forces is theAir Expeditionary Task Force(AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of air power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of air forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in theCCMD's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the preponderance of air forces in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as theJoint Forces Air Component Commander(JFACC).
The commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior USAF officer responsible for the employment of air power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission.
TheAir Operations Center(AOC) is the JFACC'sCommand and Control(C2) center. Several AOCs have been established throughout the Air Force worldwide. These centers are responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives.[148]
The AETF generates air power to support CCMD objectives fromAir Expeditionary Wings(AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions.[149][150]
The classification of any USAF job for officers or enlisted airmen is theAir Force Specialty Code(AFSC).
AFSCs range from officer specialties such as pilot,combat systems officer,special tactics, nuclear and missile operations, intelligence, cyberspace operations, judge advocate general (JAG), medical doctor, nurse or other fields, to various enlisted specialties. The latter range from flight combat operations such as loadmaster, to working in a dining facility to ensure that Airmen are properly fed. There are additional occupational fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties,enlisted aircrew, communication systems, cyberspace operations, avionics technicians, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations,security forces, and search and rescue specialties.[151]
Beyond combat flight crew personnel, other combat USAF AFSCs areSpecial Tactics Officer,[152]Explosive Ordnance Disposal(EOD),[153]Combat Rescue Officer,[154]Pararescue,[155]Security Forces,[156]Combat Control,[157]Tactical Air Control Party,[158]Special Operations Weather Technician.[159]
Nearly all enlisted career fields are "entry level", meaning that the USAF provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular field, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Military Training (BMT). After BMT, new enlisted airmen attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command, is responsible for nearly all enlisted technical training.[160][161]
Training programs vary in length; for example, 3F1X1 (Services) has 29 days of tech school training,[162]while 3E8X1 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) is one year of training with a preliminary school and a main school consisting of over ten separate divisions, sometimes taking students close to two years to complete. Officer technical training conducted by Second Air Force can also vary by AFSC, while flight training for aeronautically rated officers conducted by AETC's Nineteenth Air Force can last well in excess of one year.[163]
USAF rank is divided betweenenlistedairmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from the enlisted Airman Basic (E-1) to the commissioned officer rank of General (O-10), however in times of war officers may be appointed to the higher grade of General of the Air Force. Enlisted promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval while officer promotions are based on time-in-grade and a promotion selection board. Promotions among enlisted personnel and non-commissioned officers are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons.[164]Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five stars.[165]General of the Air ForceHenry "Hap" Arnoldis the only individual in the history of the US Air Force to attain the rank of five-star general.[166]
As of 30 June 2017, 70% of the Air Force is White, 15% Black and 4.8% Asian. The average age is 35 and 21% of its members are female.[167]
The commissioned officer ranks of the USAF are divided into three categories:company grade officers,field grade officers, andgeneral officers. Company grade officers are those officers in pay grades O-1 to O-3, while field grade officers are those in pay grades O-4 to O-6, and general officers are those in pay grades of O-7 and above.[168]
Air Force officer promotions are governed by theDefense Officer Personnel Management Actof 1980 and its companion Reserve Officer Personnel Management Act (ROPMA) for officers in the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard.[169]DOPMA also establishes limits on the number of officers that can serve at any given time in the Air Force. Currently, promotion from second lieutenant to first lieutenant is virtually guaranteed after two years of satisfactory service. The promotion from first lieutenant to captain is competitive after successfully completing another two years of service, with a selection rate varying between 99% and 100%. Promotion to major through major general is through a formal selection board process, while promotions to lieutenant general and general are contingent upon nomination to specific general officer positions and subject to U.S. Senate approval.
During the board process, an officer's record is reviewed by a selection board at the Air Force Personnel Center atRandolph Air Force Basein San Antonio, Texas. At the 10 to 11-year mark, captains will take part in a selection board to major. If not selected, they will meet a follow-on board to determine if they will be allowed to remain in the Air Force. Promotion from major to lieutenant colonel is similar and occurs approximately between the fourteen year and the fifteen year mark, where a certain percentage of majors will be in zone (i.e., "on time") or above zone (i.e., "late") for promotion to lieutenant colonel.[170]This process will repeat at the 18-year mark to the 21-year mark for promotion to full colonel.
The Air Force has the largest ratio of general officers to total strength of all of the U.S. Armed Forces and this ratio has continued to increase even as the force has shrunk from its Cold War highs.[171]
Although provisions were made inTitle 10 of the United States Codefor thesecretary of the Air Forceto appoint warrant officers, the Air Force had not usedwarrant officergrades for many years, and, along with the Space Force, were the onlyU.S. Armed Servicesnot to do so until 2024. The Air Force inherited warrant officer ranks from theArmyat its inception in 1947. The Air Force stopped appointing warrant officers in 1959,[173][174]the same year the first promotions were made to the new top enlisted grade,chief master sergeant. The remaining warrant officers were slowly phased out.[175][176]
The last active duty Air Force warrant officer, CWO4 James H. Long, retired in 1980, and the last Air Force Reserve warrant officer, CWO4 Bob Barrow, retired in 1992.[177]Upon his retirement, he was honorarily promoted to CWO5, the only person in the Air Force ever to hold this grade.[173]Since Barrow's retirement, the Air Force warrant officer ranks, while still authorized by law, were not used.[177]
It was announced at the AFA Warfare Symposium on 12 February 2024, that warrant officer ranks in the cyber and information technology fields would be reintroduced, beginning in FY25. It was stated that this effort was to retain talent in these technical fields for airmen who did not wish to pursue a leadership path.[178]The Air Force initially wanted a class of 30 warrant officers that would begin training by the summer 2024.[179][178]By the end of July 2024, 78 airmen were selected to be among the first Air Force warrant officers in over 66 years, more than double than originally estimated.[180]The 78 airmen will be spread out across three training classes, with the first starting in October 2024.[180]On December 6, 2024, 30 airmen graduated from the Air Force's Warrant Officer Training School located at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. These are the first warrant officers to serve in the U.S. Air Force since 1992. The warrant officer candidates graduated as either Warrant Officer 1 or Chief Warrant Officer 2.[181]
Enlisted airmen havepay gradesfrom E-1 (entry level) to E-9 (senior enlisted).[182]While all USAF personnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to asairmen, in the same manner that allArmypersonnel, enlisted and officer, are referred to assoldiers, the term also refers to the pay grades of E-1 through E-4, which are below the level ofnon-commissioned officers(NCOs). Above the pay grade of E-4 (i.e., pay grades E-5 through E-9) all ranks fall into the category of NCO and are further subdivided into "NCOs" (pay grades E-5 and E-6) and "senior NCOs" (pay grades E-7 through E-9); the term "junior NCO" is sometimes used to refer to staff sergeants and technical sergeants (pay grades E-5 and E-6).[183]
The USAF, along with theUS Space Force, are the only branches of the U.S. military where NCO status is achieved when an enlisted person reaches the pay grade of E-5. In all other branches, NCO status is generally achieved at the pay grade of E-4 (e.g., acorporalin the Army[l]andMarine Corps,Petty Officer Third Classin theNavyandCoast Guard). The Air Force mirrored the Army from 1976 to 1991 with an E-4 being either a senior airman wearing three stripes without a star or a sergeant (referred to as "buck sergeant"), which was noted by the presence of the central star and considered an NCO. Despite not being an NCO, a senior airman who has completedAirman Leadership Schoolcan be a supervisor according to the AFI 36–2618.[185]
The first USAF dress uniform, in 1947, was dubbed and patented "Uxbridgeblue" after "Uxbridge 1683 blue", developed at the former Bachman-Uxbridge Worsted Company.[187]The current service dress uniform, which was adopted in 1994, consists of a three-button coat with decorative pockets, matching trousers, and either a service cap or flight cap, all in Shade 1620, "Air Force blue" (a darker purplish-blue).[188]This is worn with a light blue shirt (shade 1550) and shade 1620 herringbone patterned necktie. Silver "U.S." pins are worn on the collar of the coat, with a surrounding silver ring for enlisted airmen. Enlisted airmen wear sleeve rank on both the jacket and shirt, while officers wear metal rank insignia pinned onto the epaulet loops on the coat, and Air Force blue slide-on epaulet loops on the shirt. USAF personnel assigned to base honor guard duties wear, for certain occasions, a modified version of the standard service dress uniform that includes silver trim on the sleeves and trousers, with the addition of a ceremonial belt (if necessary), service cap with silver trim and Hap Arnold Device (instead of the seal of the United States worn on the regular cap), and a silver aiguillette placed on the left shoulder seam and all devices and accoutrements.
TheAirman Combat Uniform(ACU) in theOperational Camouflage Pattern(OCP) replaced the previousAirman Battle Uniform(ABU) on 1 October 2018.[189][190]
In addition to basic uniform clothing,various badgesare used by the USAF to indicate a billet assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-basedawards. Over time,various badgeshave been discontinued and are no longer distributed.[191]
All enlisted airmen attendBasic Military Training(BMT) atLackland Air Force BaseinSan Antonio, Texas for7+1⁄2weeks.[192]Individuals who have prior service of over 24 months of active duty in the other service branches who seek to enlist in the Air Force must go through a 10-day Air Force familiarization course rather than enlisted BMT, however prior service opportunities are severely limited.[193][194]
Officers may be commissioned upon graduation from theUnited States Air Force Academy, upon graduation from another college or university through theAir Force Reserve Officer Training Corps(AFROTC) program, or through theAir Force Officer Training School(OTS). OTS, located atMaxwell Air Force BaseinMontgomery, Alabamasince 1993, in turn encompasses two separate commissioning programs: Basic Officer Training (BOT), which is for officer candidates for the Regular Air Force and the Air Force Reserve; and theAcademy of Military Science(AMS), which is for officer candidates of the Air National Guard.
The Air Force also provides Commissioned Officer Training (COT) for officers of all three components who are direct-commissioned into medicine, law, religion, biological sciences, or healthcare administration. COT is fully integrated into the OTS program and today encompasses extensive coursework as well as field exercises in leadership, confidence, fitness, and deployed-environment operations.[195]
The US Air Force Fitness Test (AFFT) is designed to test the abdominal circumference, muscular strength/endurance and cardiovascular respiratory fitness of airmen in the USAF. As part of theFit to Fightprogram, the USAF adopted a more stringent physical fitness assessment; the new fitness program was put into effect on 1 June 2010. The annual ergo-cycle test which the USAF had used for several years had been replaced in 2004. In the AFFT, Airmen are given a score based on performance consisting of four components: waist circumference, the sit-up, the push-up, and a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run. Airmen can potentially earn a score of 100, with the run counting as 60%, waist circumference as 20%, and both strength tests counting as 10% each. A passing score is 75 points. Effective 1 July 2010, the AFFT is administered by the base Fitness Assessment Cell (FAC), and is required twice a year. Personnel earning a score over 90% may test once a year. Additionally, only meeting the minimum standards on each one of these tests will not get you a passing score of 75%, and failing any one component will result in a failure for the entire test.[196]
The U.S. Air Force has a total force of approximately 5,500 aircraft.[6]Of these, an estimated 4,131 are in active service.[197]Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while theU.S. Navymaintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army and Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer toUnited States military aircraft designation systems. The various aircraft of the Air Force include:
The attack aircraft[198]of the USAF are designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as close air support for, and in proximity to, U.S. ground forces. The proximity to friendly forces require precision strikes from these aircraft that are not always possible with bomber aircraft. Their role is tactical rather than strategic, operating at the front of the battle rather than against targets deeper in the enemy's rear. Current USAF attack aircraft are operated by Air Combat Command, Pacific Air Forces, and Air Force Special Operations Command. On 1 August 2022,USSOCOMselected the Air Tractor-L3Harris AT-802U Sky Warden as a result of theArmed Overwatchprogram, awarding an indefinite quantity contract (IDIQ) to deliver as many as 75 aircraft.[199]
US Air Force bombers are strategic weapons, primarily used for long range strike missions with either conventional or nuclear ordnance. Traditionally used for attacking strategic targets, today many bombers are also used in the tactical mission, such as providing close air support for ground forces and tactical interdiction missions.[203]All Air Force bombers are under Global Strike Command.[204]
The service's B-2A aircraft entered service in the 1990s, its B-1B aircraft in the 1980s and its current B-52H aircraft in the early 1960s. TheB-52 Stratofortressairframe design is over 60 years old and the B-52H aircraft currently in the active inventory were all built between 1960 and 1962. The B-52H is scheduled to remain in service for another 30 years, which would keep the airframe in service for nearly 90 years, an unprecedented length of service for any aircraft. TheB-21is projected to replace the B-2 and parts of the B-1B force by the mid-2020s.[205]
Cargo aircraft are typically used to deliver troops, weapons and other military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations around the world, usually outside of the commercial flight routes in uncontrolled airspace. The workhorses of the USAF airlift forces are theC-130 Hercules,C-17 Globemaster III, andC-5 Galaxy. The CV-22 is used by the Air Force for special operations. It conducts long-range, special operations missions, and is equipped with extra fuel tanks and terrain-following radar. Some aircraft serve specialized cargo and transport roles such as executive or embassy support (C-12), Antarctic support (LC-130H), and AFSOC support (C-27J and C-146A). Although most of the US Air Force's cargo aircraft were specially designed with the Air Force in mind, some aircraft such as the C-12 Huron (Beechcraft Super King Air) and C-146 (Dornier 328) are militarized conversions of existing civilian aircraft. Transport aircraft are operated by Air Mobility Command, Air Force Special Operations Command, and United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa.
The purpose of electronic warfare is to deny the opponent an advantage in theEMSand ensure friendly, unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. Electronic warfare aircraft are used to keep airspaces friendly, and send critical information to anyone who needs it. They are often called "the eye in the sky". The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include electronic warfare and jamming (EC-130H), psychological operations and communications (EC-130J), airborne early warning and control (E-3), airborne command post (E-4B), range control (E-9A), and communications relay (E-11A, EQ-4B).
The fighter aircraft of the USAF are small, fast, and maneuverable military aircraft primarily used for air-to-air combat. Many of these fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers (e.g., theF-16 Fighting Falcon); the term "fighter" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such as theF-117 Nighthawk. Other missions include interception of bombers and other fighters, reconnaissance, and patrol. The F-16 is currently used by the USAF Air Demonstration squadron, theThunderbirds, while a small number of both man-rated and non-man-ratedF-4 Phantom IIare retained as QF-4 aircraft for use as full-scale aerial targets (FSATs) or as part of the USAF Heritage Flight program. These extant QF-4 aircraft are being replaced in the FSAT role by early model F-16 aircraft converted to QF-16 configuration. The USAF had 2,025 fighters in service as of September 2012.[230]
These aircraft are used forsearch and rescueandcombat search and rescueon land or sea. The HC-130N/P aircraft are being replaced by newer HC-130J models. HH-60W are replacement aircraft for "G" models that have been lost in combat operations or accidents. New HH-60W helicopters are under development to replace the "G" model Pave Hawks. The Air Force also has four HH-60U "Ghost Hawks", which are converted "M" variants. They are based out ofArea 51.[239]
The USAF's KC-135 and KC-46 aerial refueling aircraft are based on civilian jets. The USAF aircraft are equipped primarily for providing the fuel via a tail-mounted refueling boom, and can be equipped with "probe and drogue" refueling systems. Air-to-air refueling is extensively used in large-scale operations and also used in normal operations; fighters, bombers, and cargo aircraft rely heavily on the lesser-known "tanker" aircraft. This makes these aircraft an essential part of the Air Force's global mobility and the U.S. force projection. TheKC-10A Extenderwas retired in 2024.[243]TheKC-46A Pegasusbegan to be delivered to USAF units in 2019.
Specialized multi-mission aircraft provide support for global special operations missions. These aircraft conduct infiltration, exfiltration, resupply, and refueling forSOFteams from improvised or otherwise short runways. The MC-130J is currently being fielded to replace "H" and "P" models used by U.S. Special Operations Command. The MC-12W is used in the "intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance" (ISR) role.
Initial generations of RPAs were primarily surveillance aircraft, but some were fitted with weaponry (such as the MQ-1 Predator, which used AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles). An armed RPA is known as an "unmanned combat aerial vehicle" (UCAV).
The reconnaissance aircraft of the USAF are used for monitoring enemy activity, originally carrying no armament. Although the U-2 is designated as a "utility" aircraft, it is a reconnaissance platform. The roles of the aircraft vary greatly among the different variants to include general monitoring, ballistic missile monitoring (RC-135S), electronic intelligence gathering (RC-135U), signal intelligence gathering (RC-135V/W), and high altitude surveillance (U-2).
Several unmanned remotely controlled reconnaissance aircraft (RPAs), have been developed and deployed. Recently, the RPAs have been seen to offer the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting machines that can be used without risk to aircrews.
The Air Force's trainer aircraft are used to train pilots, combat systems officers, and other aircrew in their duties.
Several gliders are used by the USAF, primarily used for cadet flying training at the U.S. Air Force Academy.
Utility aircraft are used basically for what they are needed for at the time. For example, aHueymay be used to transport personnel around a large base or launch site, while it can also be used for evacuation. These aircraft are all around use aircraft. Mostly for troops and cargo.
These aircraft are used for the transportation of Very Important Persons (VIPs). Notable people include the president, vice president, cabinet secretaries, government officials (e.g., senators and representatives), the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and other key personnel.
These aircraft are used to study meteorological events such as hurricanes and typhoons.
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Aconcrete block, also known as acinder blockinNorth American English,breeze blockinBritish English, orconcrete masonry unit(CMU), or byvarious other terms, is a standard-size rectangular block used inbuilding construction. The use of blockwork allows structures to be built in the traditionalmasonrystyle with layers (or courses) of staggered blocks.
Concrete blocks may be produced with hollow centers (cores) to reduceweight, improveinsulationand provide an interconnected void into which concrete can be poured to solidify the entire wall after it is built.
Concrete blocks are some of the most versatilebuilding productsavailable because of the wide variety of appearances that can be achieved using them.[1]
Those that use cinders (fly ashorbottom ash) as anaggregatematerial are calledcinder blocksin the United States. They are also known asbreeze blocks, a term derived frombreeze, referring to the small cinders and cinder-dust that are created by partially burned coal.[2][3]However, in the United Statesbreeze blocksalso refers specifically to decorative blocks used on exterior walls to allow the breeze through, which were an important feature ofMid-Century Moderndesign,[4]popularised byEdward Durrell Stone.
In Australia, they are often known asbesser blocks(because theBesser Companywas a major supplier of machines that made concrete blocks), and also asgrey blocksor concrete masonry units (CMUs).[5]
Clinker blocksuseclinker(ash created as a waste product from impurities in minerals such as coal, limestone and iron-ore), also called slag.[2]
Concrete blocks are made fromcastconcrete(e.g.portland cementandaggregate, usually sand and finegravel, for high-density blocks). In the western United States, where they are easily obtainable, porous lava rock gravels are used for weight reduction. They also have an added decorative effect to certain types of block, such as split-face, due to their distinct red and black colors. Lower-density blocks may useindustrial wastes, such asfly ashorbottom ash,[6][7]as an aggregate.[8]
Recycledmaterials, such as post-consumer glass, slag cement, or recycled aggregate, are often used in the composition of the blocks.[9]Use of recycled materials within blocks can create different appearances in the block, such as aterrazzofinish, and may help the finished structure earnLEED certification.
Lightweight blocks can also be produced usingautoclaved aerated concrete; these are widely used for construction in Finland and other Scandinavian countries, as well as in the UK and central Europe, for the material's inherent thermal insulation characteristics, as areexpanded clay aggregateblocks.
Blocks come in modular sizes, with the most popular typically referred to (by their thickness) as "4-inch", "6-inch", "8-inch", and "12-inch". In the US, concrete blocks are nominally 16 in (410 mm) long and 8 in (200 mm) wide. Their actual dimensions are3⁄8inch (9.5 mm) less than the nominal dimensions (to allow for3⁄8-inch mortar joints between blocks in any orientation).[10]In Ireland and the UK, blocks are usually 440 mm × 215 mm × 100 mm (17.3 in × 8.5 in × 3.9 in) excluding mortar joints. In Australia, New Zealand and Canada,[11]blocks are usually 390 mm × 190 mm × 190 mm (15.4 in × 7.5 in × 7.5 in) excluding mortar joints.
Block cores are typically tapered so that their top surface (as laid) has a greater surface on which to spread a mortar bed and for easier handling. Most concrete blocks have two cores, but three- and four-core units are also produced. A core also allows for the insertion ofsteel reinforcementto span courses in order to increasetensile strength. This is accomplished bygroutingthe voids of blocks containing rebar with concrete. Thus reinforced, concrete block walls are better able to resist lateral forces such aswind loadand seismic forces.[12]Cores may also be filled withexpanded-polystyrene(EPS) block foam insulation, substantially increasing theR-valueof the resulting wall to be in compliance with the US national energy code.[13]
A variety of specialized shapes exist to allow special construction features. U-shaped blocks, or knockout blocks, have notches to allow the construction ofbond beamsorlintelassemblies, using horizontal reinforcing grouted into place in the cavity. Blocks with a channel on the end, known as "jamb blocks", allow doors to be secured to wall assemblies. Blocks with grooved ends permit the construction ofcontrol joints, allowing a filler material to be anchored between the un-mortared block ends. Other features, such as radiused corners known as "bullnoses", may be incorporated. A wide variety of decorative profiles also exist.[14]
Concrete blocks may be formulated with special aggregates to produce specific colors or textures for finish use. Special textures may be produced by splitting a ribbed or solid two-block unit; such factory-produced units are called "split-rib" or "split-face" blocks.[15]Blocks may be scored by grooves the width of a mortar joint to simulate different block modules. For example, an 8-by-16-inch (200 mm × 410 mm) block may be scored in the middle to simulate 8-by-8-inch (200 mm × 200 mm) masonry, with the grooves filled with mortar and struck to match the true joints.[16]
Concrete block, when built with integralsteel reinforcement, is a very commonbuilding materialfor theload-bearing wallsof buildings, in what is termedconcrete block structure(CBS) construction. One of the common foundation types for Americansuburbanhousesis the "crawl space foundation" which consists of a concrete block wall on the perimeter on which dimensional lumber floor joists are supported.Retaining walls, which can also be constructed of concrete blocks, can be constructed, either using blocks designed to be set back each course and used with a sand base and without mortar or reinforcing (gravity wall), or using blocks (typically an architectural style of block or clad with a veneer such as brick) with a concrete base, steel reinforcing and mortar (piling wall). Other very common, non-structural uses for concrete block walls (especially in American schools) are as interior fire-rated and extremely durable partition walls, and as exterior backup curtain walls for attachment of building envelope systems (rigid foam insulation and an air/vapor barrier) and veneers (stucco, steel, brick, or split-face concrete block).
Concrete masonry walls may be ungrouted, partially grouted, or fully grouted, the latter two enhancing their structural strength. Additionally, steel reinforcement bars (rebar) can be used both vertically and horizontally inside a concrete block wall to maximize its structural performance. The cells in which the rebar is placed must be grouted for the bars to bond to the wall. For this reason, high-seismic zones typically allow only fully grouted walls in their building codes. The American design code that guides design engineers in using concrete blocks as a structural system is theMasonry Standards Joint Committee's Building Code Requirements & Specification for Masonry Structures(TMS 402/602-16).[17]
Thecompressive strengthof concrete blocks and masonry walls varies from approximately 3.4 to 34.5 MPa (500–5,000 psi) based on the type of concrete used to manufacture the unit, stacking orientation, the type ofmortarused to build the wall, and whether it is a load-bearing partition or not, among other factors.[18][19][20][21]
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Acraneis amachineused to move materials both vertically and horizontally, utilizing a system of aboom,hoist,wire ropesorchains, andsheavesfor lifting and relocating heavy objects within the swing of its boom. The device uses one or moresimple machines, such as theleverandpulley, to createmechanical advantageto do its work. Cranes are commonly employed in transportation for the loading and unloading of freight, inconstructionfor the movement of materials, and in manufacturing for the assembling ofheavy equipment.
The first known crane machine was theshaduf, a water-lifting device that was invented in ancientMesopotamia(modern Iraq) and then appeared inancient Egyptian technology. Construction cranes later appeared inancient Greece, where they were powered by men or animals (such as donkeys), and used for the construction of buildings. Larger cranes were later developed in theRoman Empire, employing the use of humantreadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In theHigh Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction—some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, butcast iron,ironandsteeltook over with the coming of theIndustrial Revolution.
For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals, although hoists inwatermillsandwindmillscould be driven by the harnessed natural power. The firstmechanicalpower was provided bysteam engines, the earlieststeam cranebeing introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into the late 20th century.[1]Modern cranes usually useinternal combustion enginesorelectric motorsandhydraulicsystems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilized where the provision of power would be uneconomic.
There are many different types of cranes, each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, used for constructing high buildings. Mini-cranes are also used for constructing high buildings, to facilitate constructions by reaching tight spaces. Large floating cranes are generally used to buildoil rigsand salvage sunken ships.[citation needed]
Some lifting machines do not strictly fit the above definition of a crane, but are generally known as cranes, such as stacker cranes and loader cranes.
Cranes were so called from the resemblance to the long neck of thebird, cf.Ancient Greek:γερανός, Frenchgrue.[2]
The first type of crane machine was theshadouf, which had a lever mechanism and was used to lift water forirrigation.[3][4][5]It was invented inMesopotamia(modern Iraq) circa 3000 BC.[3][4]The shadouf subsequently appeared inancient Egyptian technologycirca 2000 BC.[5][6]
A crane for lifting heavy loads was developed by theAncient Greeksin the late 6th century BC.[7]The archaeological record shows that no later than c. 515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs andlewis ironsbegin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. Since these holes point at the use of a lifting device, and since they are to be found either above the center of gravity of the block, or in pairs equidistant from a point over the center of gravity, they are regarded by archaeologists as the positive evidence required for the existence of the crane.[7]
The introduction of thewinchandpulleyhoist soon led to a widespread replacement oframpsas the main means of vertical motion. For the next 200 years, Greek building sites witnessed a sharp reduction in the weights handled, as the new lifting technique made the use of several smaller stones more practical than fewer larger ones. In contrast to thearchaic periodwith its pattern of ever-increasing block sizes, Greek temples of the classical age like theParthenoninvariably featured stone blocks weighing less than 15–20 metric tons. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was practically abandoned in favour of using several column drums.[8]
Although the exact circumstances of the shift from the ramp to the crane technology remain unclear, it has been argued that the volatile social and political conditions ofGreecewere more suitable to the employment of small, professional construction teams than of large bodies of unskilled labour, making the crane preferable to the Greekpolisover the more labour-intensive ramp which had been the norm in the autocratic societies ofEgyptorAssyria.[8]
The first unequivocal literary evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system appears in theMechanical Problems(Mech. 18, 853a32–853b13) attributed toAristotle(384–322 BC), but perhaps composed at a slightly later date. Around the same time, block sizes at Greek temples began to match their archaic predecessors again, indicating that the more sophisticated compound pulley must have found its way to Greek construction sites by then.[9]
The heyday of the crane in ancient times came during theRoman Empire, when construction activity soared and buildings reached enormous dimensions. The Romans adopted the Greek crane and developed it further. There is much available information about their lifting techniques, thanks to rather lengthy accounts by the engineersVitruvius(De Architectura10.2, 1–10) andHeron of Alexandria(Mechanica3.2–5). There are also two surviving reliefs of Romantreadwheel cranes, with theHateriitombstone from the late first century AD being particularly detailed.
The simplest Roman crane, thetrispastos, consisted of a double-beam jib, awinch, arope, and a block containing three pulleys. Having thus amechanical advantageof 3:1, it has been calculated that a single man working the winch could raise 150 kg (330 lb) (3 pulleys x 50 kg or 110 lb = 150), assuming that 50 kg (110 lb) represent the maximum effort a man can exert over a longer time period. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys (pentaspastos) or, in case of the largest one, a set of three by five pulleys (Polyspastos) and came with two, three or four masts, depending on the maximum load. Thepolyspastos, when worked by four men at both sides of the winch, could readily lift 3,000 kg (6,600 lb) (3 ropes x 5 pulleys x 4 men x 50 kg or 110 lb = 3,000 kg or 6,600 lb). If the winch was replaced by a treadwheel, the maximum load could be doubled to 6,000 kg (13,000 lb) at only half the crew, since the treadwheel possesses a much bigger mechanical advantage due to its larger diameter. This meant that, in comparison to the construction of theancient Egyptianpyramids, where about 50 men were needed to move a 2.5 ton[which?]stone block up the ramp (50 kg (110 lb) per person), the lifting capability of the Romanpolyspastosproved to be60 timeshigher (3,000 kg or 6,600 lb per person).[10]
However, numerous extant Roman buildings which feature much heavier stone blocks than those handled by thepolyspastosindicate that the overall lifting capability of the Romans went far beyond that of any single crane. At the temple of Jupiter atBaalbek, for instance, thearchitraveblocks weigh up to 60 tons each, and one cornercorniceblock even over 100 tons, all of them raised to a height of about 19 m (62.3 ft).[9]InRome, the capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons, which had to be lifted to a height of about 34 m (111.5 ft) (seeconstruction of Trajan's Column).[11]
It is assumed that Roman engineers lifted these extraordinary weights by two measures (see picture below for comparable Renaissance technique): First, as suggested by Heron, a lifting tower was set up, whose four masts were arranged in the shape of a quadrangle with parallel sides, not unlike asiege tower, but with the column in the middle of the structure (Mechanica3.5).[12]Second, a multitude ofcapstanswere placed on the ground around the tower, for, although having a lower leverage ratio than treadwheels, capstans could be set up in higher numbers and run by more men (and, moreover, by draught animals).[13]This use of multiple capstans is also described byAmmianus Marcellinus(17.4.15) in connection with the lifting of theLateranense obeliskin theCircus Maximus(c. 357 AD). The maximum lifting capability of a single capstan can be established by the number of lewis iron holes bored into the monolith. In case of the Baalbek architrave blocks, which weigh between 55 and 60 tons, eight extant holes suggest an allowance of 7.5 ton per lewis iron, that is per capstan.[14]Lifting such heavy weights in a concerted action required a great amount of coordination between the work groups applying the force to the capstans.
During theHigh Middle Ages, the treadwheel crane was reintroduced on a large scale after the technology had fallen into disuse in western Europe with the demise of theWestern Roman Empire.[16]The earliest reference to a treadwheel (magna rota) reappears in archival literature in France about 1225,[17]followed by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240.[18]In navigation, the earliest uses of harbor cranes are documented forUtrechtin 1244,Antwerpin 1263,Brugesin 1288 andHamburgin 1291,[19]while in England the treadwheel is not recorded before 1331.[20]
Generally, vertical transport could be done more safely and inexpensively by cranes than by customary methods. Typical areas of application were harbors, mines, and, in particular, building sites where the treadwheel crane played a pivotal role in the construction of the loftyGothic cathedrals. Nevertheless, both archival and pictorial sources of the time suggest that newly introduced machines like treadwheels orwheelbarrowsdid not completely replace more labor-intensive methods likeladders,hodsandhandbarrows. Rather, old and new machinery continued to coexist on medieval construction sites[21]and harbors.[19]
Apart from treadwheels, medieval depictions also show cranes to be powered manually by windlasses with radiatingspokes,cranksand by the 15th century also by windlasses shaped like aship's wheel. To smooth out irregularities of impulse and get over 'dead-spots' in the lifting processflywheelsare known to be in use as early as 1123.[22]
The exact process by which the treadwheel crane was reintroduced is not recorded,[17]although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be viewed in close connection with the simultaneous rise of Gothic architecture. The reappearance of the treadwheel crane may have resulted from a technological development of thewindlassfrom which the treadwheel structurally and mechanically evolved. Alternatively, the medieval treadwheel may represent a deliberate reinvention of its Roman counterpart drawn fromVitruvius'De architecturawhich was available in many monastic libraries. Its reintroduction may have been inspired, as well, by the observation of the labor-saving qualities of thewaterwheelwith which early treadwheels shared many structural similarities.[20]
The medieval treadwheel was a large wooden wheel turning around acentral shaftwith a treadway wide enough for two workers walking side by side. While the earlier 'compass-arm' wheel had spokes directly driven into the central shaft, the more advanced "clasp-arm" type featured arms arranged as chords to the wheel rim,[23]giving the possibility of using a thinner shaft and providing thus a greater mechanical advantage.[24]
Contrary to a popularly held belief, cranes on medieval building sites were neither placed on the extremely lightweightscaffoldingused at the time nor on the thin walls of the Gothic churches which were incapable of supporting the weight of both hoisting machine and load. Rather, cranes were placed in the initial stages of construction on the ground, often within the building. When a new floor was completed, and massive tie beams of the roof connected the walls, the crane was dismantled and reassembled on the roof beams from where it was moved from bay to bay during construction of the vaults.[25]Thus, the crane "grew" and "wandered" with the building with the result that today all extant construction cranes in England are found in church towers above the vaulting and below the roof, where they remained after building construction for bringing material for repairs aloft.[26]
Less frequently, medieval illuminations also show cranes mounted on the outside of walls with the stand of the machine secured toputlogs.[27]
In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists — much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome[28]— were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well.[25]Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place,[25]or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall.[28]Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load.[29]Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340.[30]While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (GermanTeufelskralle), other objects were placed before in containers likepallets,baskets, wooden boxes orbarrels.[31]
It is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featuredratchetsorbrakesto forestall the load from running backward.[32]This curious absence is explained by the highfriction forceexercised by medieval tread-wheels which normally prevented the wheel from accelerating beyond control.[29]
According to the "present state of knowledge" unknown in antiquity, stationary harbor cranes are considered a new development of the Middle Ages.[19]The typical harbor crane was a pivoting structure equipped with double treadwheels. These cranes were placed docksides for the loading and unloading of cargo where they replaced or complemented older lifting methods likesee-saws,winchesandyards.[19]
Two different types of harbor cranes can be identified with a varying geographical distribution: While gantry cranes, which pivoted on a central vertical axle, were commonly found at the Flemish and Dutch coastside, German sea and inland harbors typically featured tower cranes where the windlass and treadwheels were situated in a solid tower with only jib arm and roof rotating.[15]Dockside cranes were not adopted in the Mediterranean region and the highly developed Italian ports where authorities continued to rely on the more labor-intensive method of unloading goods by ramps beyond the Middle Ages.[33]
Unlike construction cranes where the work speed was determined by the relatively slow progress of the masons, harbor cranes usually featured double treadwheels to speed up loading. The two treadwheels whose diameter is estimated to be 4 m or larger were attached to each side of the axle and rotated together.[19]Their capacity was 2–3 tons, which apparently corresponded to the customary size of marine cargo.[19]Today, according to one survey, fifteen treadwheel harbor cranes from pre-industrial times are still extant throughout Europe.[34]Some harbour cranes were specialised at mounting masts to newly built sailing ships, such as inGdańsk,CologneandBremen.[15]Beside these stationary cranes,floating cranes, which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin came into use by the 14th century.[15]
Asheer hulk(or shear hulk) was used in shipbuilding and repair as afloating cranein the days ofsailing ships, primarily to place the lowermastsof a ship under construction or repair. Booms known assheerswere attached to the base of a hulk's lower masts or beam, supported from the top of those masts.Blocks and tacklewere then used in such tasks as placing or removing the lower masts of the vessel under construction or repair. These lower masts were the largest and most massive single timbers aboard a ship, and erecting them without the assistance of either a sheer hulk or land-basedmasting sheerwas extremely difficult.[35]
The concept of sheer hulks originated with the Royal Navy in the 1690s, and persisted in Britain until the early nineteenth century. Most sheer hulks were decommissioned warships;Chatham, built in 1694, was the first of only three purpose-built vessels.[36]There were at least six sheer hulks in service in Britain at any time throughout the 1700s. The concept spread to France in the 1740s with the commissioning of a sheer hulk at the port of Rochefort.[37]
A lifting tower similar to that of the ancient Romans was used to great effect by theRenaissance architectDomenico Fontanain 1586 to relocate the 361 t heavyVatican obeliskin Rome.[38]From his report, it becomes obvious that the coordination of the lift between the various pulling teams required a considerable amount of concentration and discipline, since, if the force was not applied evenly, the excessive stress on the ropes would make them rupture.[39]
Cranes were also used domestically during this period. The chimney or fireplace crane was used to swing pots and kettles over the fire and the height was adjusted by atrammel.[40]
With the onset of theIndustrial Revolutionthe first modern cranes were installed at harbours for loading cargo. In 1838, the industrialist and businessmanWilliam Armstrongdesigned a water-poweredhydraulic crane. His design used a ram in a closed cylinder that was forced down by a pressurized fluid entering the cylinder and a valve regulated the amount of fluid intake relative to the load on the crane.[41]This mechanism, thehydraulic jigger, then pulled on a chain to lift the load.
In 1845 a scheme was set in motion to provide piped water from distant reservoirs to the households ofNewcastle. Armstrong was involved in this scheme and he proposed to Newcastle Corporation that the excess water pressure in the lower part of town could be used to power one of his hydraulic cranes for the loading of coal onto barges at theQuayside. He claimed that his invention would do the job faster and more cheaply than conventional cranes. The corporation agreed to his suggestion, and the experiment proved so successful that three more hydraulic cranes were installed on the Quayside.[42]
The success of his hydraulic crane led Armstrong to establish theElswick worksatNewcastle, to produce hishydraulic machineryfor cranes and bridges in 1847. His company soon received orders for hydraulic cranes from Edinburgh and Northern Railways and fromLiverpool Docks, as well as for hydraulic machinery for dock gates inGrimsby. The company expanded from a workforce of 300 and an annual production of 45 cranes in 1850, to almost 4,000 workers producing over 100 cranes per year by the early 1860s.[42]
Armstrong spent the next few decades constantly improving his crane design; his most significant innovation was thehydraulic accumulator. Where water pressure was not available on site for the use of hydraulic cranes, Armstrong often built high water towers to provide a supply of water at pressure. However, when supplying cranes for use atNew Hollandon theHumber Estuary, he was unable to do this, because the foundations consisted of sand. He eventually produced the hydraulic accumulator, a cast-iron cylinder fitted with a plunger supporting a very heavy weight. The plunger would slowly be raised, drawing in water, until the downward force of the weight was sufficient to force the water below it into pipes at great pressure. This invention allowed much larger quantities of water to be forced through pipes at a constant pressure, thus increasing the crane's load capacity considerably.[43]
One of his cranes, commissioned by theItalian Navyin 1883 and in use until the mid-1950s, is still standing inVenice, where it is now in a state of disrepair.[44]
There are three major considerations in the design of cranes. First, the crane must be able to lift the weight of the load; second, the crane must not topple; third, the crane must not fail structurally.
For stability, the sum of allmomentsabout the base of the crane must be close to zero so that the crane does not overturn.[45]In practice, the magnitude of load that is permitted to be lifted (called the "rated load" in the US) is some value less than the load that will cause the crane to tip, thus providing a safety margin.
Under United States standards for mobile cranes, the stability-limited rated load for a crawler crane is 75% of the tipping load. The stability-limited rated load for a mobile crane supported on outriggers is 85% of the tipping load. These requirements, along with additional safety-related aspects of crane design, are established by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in the volume ASME B30.5-2018Mobile and Locomotive Cranes.
Standards for cranes mounted on ships or offshore platforms are somewhat stricter because of the dynamic load on the crane due to vessel motion. Additionally, the stability of the vessel or platform must be considered.
For stationary pedestal or kingpost mounted cranes, the moment produced by the boom, jib, and load is resisted by the pedestal base or kingpost. Stress within the base must be less than the yield stress of the material or the crane will fail.
The dynamic lift factor (DLF), also known as the design dynamic factor, is a critical parameter in the crane design and operation. It accounts for the dynamic effects that can increase the load on a crane's structure and components during lifting operations. These effects include:
The DLF for a new crane design can be determined with analytical calculations and mathematical models following the relevant designspecifications. If available, data from previous tests of similar crane types can be used to estimate the DLF. More sophisticated methods, such asfinite element analysisor other simulation techniques, may also be used to model the crane's behavior under various loading conditions, as deemed appropriate by the designer or certifying authority.To verify the actual DLF, control load tests can be conducted on the completed crane using instrumentation such asload cells,accelerometers, andstrain gauges. This process is usually part of the crane'stype approval.
In offshore lifting, where the crane and/or lifted object are on a floating vessel, the DLF is higher compared to onshore lifts because of the additional movement caused by wave action.[46]This motion introduces additional acceleration forces and necessitates increased hoisting and lowering speeds to minimize the risk of repeated collisions when the load is near the deck. Additionally, the DLF increases further when lifting objects that are underwater or going through the splash zone.[47]The wind speeds tend to be higher than onshore as well.
Though actual DLF values are determined through crane tests under representative operational conditions, design specifications can be used for guidance. The values vary according to the specification, which reflects the type of crane and its usage. Here are some example typical values:
The methods for determining the DLF vary in the different crane specifications. The following formulas are examples from one specification.[46]
The working load (suspended load) is the total weight that a crane is designed to safely lift under normal operating conditions. It is[46]
W=g⋅(mwll+ma){\displaystyle W=g\cdot (m_{wll}+m_{a})}
where
The DLF is then used as a multiplier to determine the force applied to the crane structure and components[46]
Fd=ψ⋅W{\displaystyle F_{d}=\psi \ \cdot W}
where
The DLF can then be calculated using[46]
ψ=1+VR⋅C/(W⋅g){\displaystyle \psi =1+V_{R}\cdot {\sqrt {C/(W\cdot g)}}}
where
The relative velocity is dependent on the crane's operational requirements and the system stiffness at the hook can be determined by calculation or load deflection tests.
The crane types outlined in this section are categorized based on their primary area of application:
The most basictruck-mounted crane configuration is a "boom truck" or "lorry loader", which features a rear-mounted rotating telescopic-boom crane mounted on a commercial truck chassis.[50][51]
Larger, heavier duty, purpose-built "truck-mounted" cranes are constructed in two parts: the carrier, often called thelower, and the lifting component, which includes the boom, called theupper. These are mated together through a turntable, allowing the upper to swing from side to side. These modern hydraulic truck cranes are usually single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the undercarriage and the crane. The upper is usually powered via hydraulics run through the turntable from the pump mounted on the lower. In older model designs of hydraulic truck cranes, there were two engines. One in the lower pulled the crane down the road and ran a hydraulic pump for the outriggers and jacks. The one in the upper ran the upper through a hydraulic pump of its own. Many older operators favor the two-engine system due to leaking seals in the turntable of aging newer design cranes. Hiab invented the world's first hydraulic truck mounted crane in 1947.[52]The name, Hiab, comes from the commonly used abbreviation of Hydrauliska Industri AB, a company founded in Hudiksvall, Sweden 1944 by Eric Sundin, a ski manufacturer who saw a way to utilize a truck's engine to power loader cranes through the use of hydraulics.
Generally, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for special equipment to transport the crane unless weight or other size constrictions are in place such as local laws. If this is the case, most larger cranes are equipped with either special trailers to help spread the load over more axles or are able to disassemble to meet requirements. An example is counterweights. Often a crane will be followed by another truck hauling the counterweights that are removed for travel. In addition some cranes are able to remove the entire upper. However, this is usually only an issue in a large crane and mostly done with a conventional crane such as a Link-Belt HC-238. When working on the job site,outriggersare extended horizontally from the chassis then vertically to level and stabilize the crane while stationary andhoisting. Many truck cranes have slow-travelling capability (a few miles per hour) while suspending a load. Great care must be taken not to swing the load sideways from the direction of travel, as most anti-tipping stability then lies in the stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most cranes of this type also have moving counterweights for stabilization beyond that provided by the outriggers. Loads suspended directly aft are the most stable, since most of the weight of the crane acts as a counterweight. Factory-calculated charts (orelectronic safeguards) are used by crane operators to determine the maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work as well as (on-rubber) loads and travelling speeds.
Truck cranes range in lifting capacity from about 14.5short tons(12.9long tons; 13.2t) to about 2,240 short tons (2,000 long tons; 2,032 t).[53][54]Although most only rotate about 180 degrees, the more expensive truck mounted cranes can turn a full 360 degrees.
A loader crane (also called aknuckle-boom craneorarticulating crane) is a hydraulically powered articulated arm fitted to atruckortrailer, and is used for loading/unloading the vehicle cargo. The numerous jointed sections can be folded into a small space when the crane is not in use. One or more of the sections may betelescopic. Often the crane will have a degree of automation and be able to unload or stow itself without an operator's instruction.
Unlike most cranes, the operator must move around the vehicle to be able to view his load; hence modern cranes may be fitted with a portable cabled or radio-linked control system to supplement the crane-mounted hydraulic control levers.
In the United Kingdom and Canada, this type of crane is often known colloquially as a "Hiab", partly because this manufacturer invented the loader crane and was first into the UK market, and partly because the distinctive name was displayed prominently on the boom arm.[55]
Arolloadercrane is a loader crane mounted on a chassis with wheels. This chassis can ride on the trailer. Because the crane can move on the trailer, it can be a light crane, so the trailer is allowed to transport more goods.
A telescopic crane has a boom that consists of a number of tubes fitted one inside the other. Ahydraulic cylinderor other powered mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to increase or decrease the total length of the boom. These types of booms are often used for short term construction projects, rescue jobs, lifting boats in and out of the water, etc. The relative compactness of telescopic booms makes them adaptable for many mobile applications.
Though not all telescopic cranes are mobile cranes, many of them are truck-mounted.
A telescopic tower crane has a telescopic mast and often a superstructure (jib) on top so that it functions as a tower crane. Some telescopic tower cranes also have a telescopic jib.
A rough terrain crane has aboommounted on anundercarriageatop four rubber tires that is designed foroff-roadpick-and-carry operations. Outriggers are used to level and stabilize the crane for hoisting.[56]
These telescopic cranes are single-engine machines, with the same engine powering the undercarriage and the crane, similar to a crawler crane. The engine is usually mounted in the undercarriage rather than in the upper, as with crawler crane. Most have 4 wheel drive and 4 wheel steering for traversing tighter and slicker terrain than a standard truck crane, with less site prep.
An all-terrain crane is a hybrid combining the roadability of a truck-mounted and on-site maneuverability of a rough-terrain crane. It can both travel at speed on public roads and maneuver on rough terrain at the job site using all-wheel and crab steering.
AT's have 2–12 axles and are designed for lifting loads up to 2,000tonnes(2,205short tons; 1,968long tons).[57]
Main article:Lattice boom crawler crane
A crawler crane has its boom mounted on an undercarriage fitted with a set ofcrawler tracksthat provide both stability and mobility. Crawler cranes range in lifting capacity from about 40 to 4,000 long tons (44.8 to 4,480.0 short tons; 40.6 to 4,064.2 t) as seen from theXGC88000 crawler crane.[58]
The main advantage of a crawler crane is its ready mobility and use, since the crane is able to operate on sites with minimal improvement and stable on its tracks without outriggers. Wide tracks spread the weight out over a great area and are far better than wheels at traversing soft ground without sinking in. A crawler crane is also capable of traveling with a load. Its main disadvantage is its weight, making it difficult and expensive to transport. Typically a large crawler must be disassembled at least into boom and cab and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships to its next location.[59]
A pick and carry crane is similar to a mobile crane in that is designed to travel on public roads; however, pick and carry cranes have no stabiliser legs or outriggers and are designed to lift the load and carry it to its destination, within a small radius, then be able to drive to the next job. Pick and carry cranes are popular in Australia, where large distances are encountered between job sites. One popular manufacturer in Australia was Franna, who have since been bought by Terex, and now all pick and carry cranes are commonly called "Frannas", even though they may be made by other manufacturers. Nearly every medium- and large-sized crane company in Australia has at least one and many companies have fleets of these cranes. The capacity range is between 10 and 40 t (9.8 and 39.4 long tons; 11 and 44 short tons) as a maximum lift, although this is much less as the load gets further from the front of the crane. Pick and carry cranes have displaced the work usually completed by smaller truck cranes, as the set-up time is much quicker. Many steel fabrication yards also use pick and carry cranes, as they can "walk" with fabricated steel sections and place these where required with relative ease.
Smaller pick and carry cranes may be based on an articulated tractor chassis, with the boom mounted over the front wheels. In Australia these are popularly known as "wobbly cranes".[60]
A carry deck crane is a small 4 wheel crane with a 360-degree rotating boom placed right in the centre and an operators cab located at one end under this boom. The rear section houses the engine and the area above the wheels is a flat deck. Very much an American invention the Carry deck can hoist a load in a confined space and then load it on the deck space around the cab or engine and subsequently move to another site. The Carry Deck principle is the American version of the pick and carry crane and both allow the load to be moved by the crane over short distances.
Telescopic handlers areforklift-like trucks that have a set of forks mounted on a telescoping extendable boom like a crane. Early telescopic handlers only lifted in one direction and did not rotate;[61]however, several of the manufacturers have designed telescopic handlers that rotate 360 degrees through a turntable and these machines look almost identical to the Rough Terrain Crane. These new 360-degree telescopic handler/crane models have outriggers or stabiliser legs that must be lowered before lifting; however, their design has been simplified so that they can be more quickly deployed. These machines are often used to handle pallets of bricks and install frame trusses on many new building sites and they have eroded much of the work for small telescopic truck cranes. Many of the world's armed forces have purchased telescopic handlers and some of these are the much more expensive fully rotating types. Their off-road capability and their on site versatility to unload pallets using forks, or lift like a crane make them a valuable piece of machinery.
Ablock-setting craneis a form of crane. They were used for installing the large stone blocks used to buildbreakwaters,molesandstone piers.
Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane that consist of the same basic parts. Fixed to the ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes attached to the sides of structures), tower cranes often give the best combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings. The base is then attached to the mast which gives the crane its height. Further, the mast is attached to the slewing unit (gear and motor) that allows the crane to rotate. On top of the slewing unit there are three main parts which are: the long horizontal jib (working arm), shorter counter-jib, and the operator's cab.
Optimization of tower crane location in the construction sites has an important effect on material transportation costs of a project,[62]but site operators need to ensure they assess where the jib will oversail the property of other landowners and tenants as it rotates over the site. UnderEnglish lawa landowner also owns the airspace above their property and developers will need to agree terms with adjacent property owners before oversailing their land.[63]
The long horizontal jib is the part of the crane that carries the load. The counter-jib carries a counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load to and from the center of the crane. The crane operator either sits in a cab at the top of the tower or controls the crane by radio remote control from the ground. In the first case the operator's cab is most usually located at the top of the tower attached to the turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway down the tower. The lifting hook is operated by the crane operator using electric motors to manipulate wire rope cables through a system of sheaves. The hook is located on the long horizontal arm to lift the load which also contains its motor.
In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator usually works in conjunction with a signaller (known as a "dogger", "rigger" or "swamper"). They are most often in radio contact, and always use hand signals. The rigger or dogger directs the schedule of lifts for the crane, and is responsible for the safety of theriggingand loads.
Tower cranes can achieve a height under hook of over 100 metres.[64]
Tower cranes are used extensively in construction and other industry to hoist and move materials. There are many types of tower cranes. Although they are different in type, the main parts are the same, as follows:
A tower crane is usually assembled by a telescopic jib (mobile) crane of greater reach (also see "self-erecting crane" below) and in the case of tower cranes that have risen while constructing very tall skyscrapers, a smaller crane (orderrick) will often be lifted to the roof of the completed tower to dismantle the tower crane afterwards, which may be more difficult than the installation.[67]
Tower cranes can be operated by remote control, removing the need for the crane operator to sit in a cab atop the crane.
Each model and distinctive style of tower crane has a predetermined lifting chart that can be applied to any radii available, depending on its configuration. Similar to a mobile crane, a tower crane may lift an object of far greater mass closer to its center of rotation than at its maximum radius. An operator manipulates several levers and pedals to control each function of the crane.
When a tower crane is used in proximity to buildings, roads, power lines, or other tower cranes, atower crane anti-collision systemis used. This operator support system reduces the risk of a dangerous interaction occurring between a tower crane and another structure.
In some countries, such as France, tower crane anti-collision systems are mandatory.[68]
Generally a type of pedestrian operated tower crane, self-erecting tower cranes are transported as a single unit and can be assembled by a qualified technician without the assistance of a larger mobile crane. They are bottom slewing cranes that stand on outriggers, have no counter jib, have their counterweights and ballast at the base of the mast, cannot climb themselves, have a reduced capacity compared to standard tower cranes, and seldom have an operator's cabin.
In some cases, smaller self-erecting tower cranes may have axles permanently fitted to the tower section to make maneuvering the crane onsite easier.
Tower cranes can also use a hydraulic-powered jack frame to raise themselves to add new tower sections without any additional other cranes assisting beyond the initial assembly stage. This is how it can grow to nearly any height needed to build the tallest skyscrapers when tied to a building as the building rises. The maximum unsupported height of a tower crane is around 265 ft.[69]For a video of a crane getting taller, see "Crane Building Itself" on YouTube.[70]
For another animation of such a crane in use, see "SAS Tower Construction Simulation" on YouTube.[71]Here, the crane is used to erect a scaffold, which, in turn, contains a gantry to lift sections of a bridge spire.
Many tower cranes are designed to "jump" in stages, effectively lifting themselves to the next level. A specialty example of a climbing crane was introduced by Lagerwey Wind andEnercon[This paragraph needs citation(s)]to construct awind turbinetower, where instead of erecting a large crane a smaller climbing crane can raise itself with the structure's construction, lift the generator housing to its top, add the rotor blades, then climb down.
A reach stacker is a vehicle used for handlingintermodal cargo containersin small terminals or medium-sized ports. Reach stackers are able to transport a container short distances very quickly and pile them in various rows depending on its access.
Asideliftercrane is a road-goingtruckorsemi-trailer, able to hoist and transport ISO standardcontainers. Container lift is done with parallel crane-like hoists, which can lift a container from the ground or from arailway vehicle.
Atravel lift(also called a boat gantry crane, or boat crane) is a crane with two rectangular side panels joined by a single spanning beam at the top of one end. The crane is mobile with four groups of steerable wheels, one on each corner. These cranes allow boats with masts or tall super structures to be removed from the water and transported around docks or marinas.[72]Not to be confused mechanical device used for transferring a vessel between two levels of water, which is also called aboat lift.
A Straddle carrier moves and stacksintermodal containers.
Ring cranesare some of the largest and heaviest land-based cranes ever designed. A ring-shaped track support the main superstructure allowing for extremely heavy loads (up to thousands of tonnes).
The "hammerhead", or giantcantilever, crane is a fixed-jibcrane consisting of a steel-braced tower on which revolves a large, horizontal, doublecantilever; the forward part of this cantilever orjibcarries the lifting trolley, the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the machinery and counterbalancing weight. In addition to the motions of lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called "racking" motion, by which the lifting trolley, with the load suspended, can be moved in and out along the jib without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal movement of the load is a marked feature of later crane design.[73]These cranes are generally constructed in large sizes and can lift up to 350 tons.[74]
The design ofHammerkranevolved first in Germany around the turn of the 19th century and was adopted and developed for use inBritishshipyardsto support the battleship construction program from 1904 to 1914. The ability of the hammerhead crane to lift heavy weights was useful for installing large pieces ofbattleshipssuch asarmour plateandgunbarrels. Giant cantilever cranes were also installed in naval shipyards inJapanand in theUnited States. The British government also installed a giant cantilever crane at theSingaporeNaval Base (1938) and later a copy of the crane was installed atGarden Island Naval DockyardinSydney(1951). These cranes provided repair support for the battle fleet operating far fromGreat Britain.
In the British Empire, the engineering firmSir William Arrol & Co.was the principal manufacturer of giant cantilever cranes; the company built a total of fourteen. Among the sixty built in the world, few remain; seven in England and Scotland of about fifteen worldwide.[75]
TheTitan Clydebankis one of the four Scottish cranes on theRiver Clydeand preserved as a tourist attraction.
Normally a crane with a hinged jib will tend to have its hook also move up and down as the jib moves (orluffs). Alevel luffing craneis a crane of this common design, but with an extra mechanism to keep the hook at the same level when the jib is pivoted in or out.
Anoverhead crane, also known as a bridge crane, is a type of crane where the hook-and-line mechanism runs along a horizontal beam that itself runs along two widely separated rails. Often it is in a long factory building and runs along rails along the building's two long walls. It is similar to agantry crane. Overhead cranes typically consist of either a single beam or a double beam construction. These can be built using typical steel beams or a more complex box girder type. Pictured on the right is a single bridge box girder crane with thehoistand system operated with a control pendant. Double girder bridge are more typical when needing heavier capacity systems from 10 tons[which?]and above. The advantage of the box girder type configuration results in a system that has a lower deadweight yet a stronger overall system integrity. Also included would be a hoist to lift the items, the bridge, which spans the area covered by the crane, and a trolley to move along the bridge.
The most common overhead crane use is in thesteel industry. At every step of the manufacturing process, until it leaves a factory as a finished product,steelis handled by an overhead crane. Raw materials are poured into afurnaceby crane, hot steel is stored for cooling by an overhead crane, the finished coils are lifted and loaded ontotrucksandtrainsby overhead crane, and thefabricatoror stamper uses an overhead crane to handle the steel in his factory. Theautomobileindustry uses overhead cranes for handling of raw materials. Smallerworkstationcranes handle lighter loads in a work-area, such asCNCmill or saw.
Almost all paper mills use bridge cranes for regular maintenance requiring removal of heavy press rolls and other equipment. The bridge cranes are used in the initial construction of paper machines because they facilitate installation of the heavy cast iron paper drying drums and other massive equipment, some weighing as much as 70 tons.
In many instances the cost of a bridge crane can be largely offset with savings from not renting mobile cranes in the construction of a facility that uses a lot of heavy process equipment.
Thiselectric overhead traveling craneis most common type of overhead crane, found in many factories. These cranes are electrically operated by a control pendant, radio/IR remote pendant, or from an operator cabin attached to the crane.
A gantry crane has ahoistin a fixed machinery house or on a trolley that runs horizontally along rails, usually fitted on a single beam (mono-girder) or two beams (twin-girder). The crane frame is supported on a gantry system with equalized beams and wheels that run on the gantry rail, usually perpendicular to the trolley travel direction. These cranes come in all sizes, and some can move very heavy loads, particularly the extremely large examples used in shipyards or industrial installations. A special version is thecontainer crane(or "Portainer" crane, named by the first manufacturer), designed for loading and unloading ship-borne containers at a port.
Mostcontainer cranesare of this type.
A jib crane is a type of crane - not to be confused with a crane rigged with a jib to extend its main boom - where a horizontal member (jiborboom), supporting a moveable hoist, is fixed to a wall or to a floor-mounted pillar. Jib cranes are used in industrial premises and on military vehicles. The jib may swing through an arc, to give additional lateral movement, or be fixed. Similar cranes, often known simply as hoists, were fitted on the top floor of warehouse buildings to enable goods to be lifted to all floors.
Bulk-handling cranesare designed from the outset to carry a shell grab or bucket, rather than using a hook and a sling. They are used for bulk cargoes, such as coal, minerals, scrap metal etc.
A crane with aforklifttype mechanism used in automated (computer-controlled)warehouses(known as anautomated storage and retrieval system(AS/RS)). The crane moves on a track in an aisle of the warehouse. The fork can be raised or lowered to any of the levels of a storage rack and can be extended into the rack to store and retrieve the product. The product can in some cases be as large as anautomobile. Stacker cranes are often used in the large freezer warehouses of frozen food manufacturers. This automation avoids requiring forklift drivers to work in below-freezing temperatures every day.
Floating cranes are used mainly inbridgebuilding andportconstruction, but they are also used for occasional loading and unloading of especially heavy or awkward loads on and off ships. Some floating cranes are mounted onpontoons, others are specialized cranebargeswith a lifting capacity exceeding 10,000short tons(8,929long tons; 9,072t) and have been used to transport entire bridge sections. Floating cranes have also been used to salvage sunkenships.
Crane vessels are often used inoffshore construction.
The largest revolving cranes can be found onSSCVSleipnir, which has two cranes with a capacity of 10,000tonnes(11,023short tons; 9,842long tons) each. For 50 years, the largest such crane was "Herman the German" at theLong Beach Naval Shipyard, one of three constructed byNazi Germanyand captured in the war. The crane was sold to thePanama Canalin 1996 where it is now known asTitan.[76]
Deck cranes, also known as shipboard or cargo cranes,[77]are located on ships and boats, used for cargo operations where no shore unloading facilities are available, raising and lowering loads (such as shellfish dredges and fish nets) into the water, and small boat unloading and retrieval. Most are diesel-hydraulic or electric-hydraulic, supporting an increasingly automated control interface.[78]
A railroad crane has flanged wheels for use on railroads.
The simplest form is a crane mounted on aflatcar. More capable devices are purpose-built. Different types of crane are used formaintenance work, recovery operations and freight loading in goods yards and scrap handling facilities.
Aerial cranesor "sky cranes" usually arehelicoptersdesigned to lift large loads. Helicopters are able to travel to and lift in areas that are difficult to reach by conventional cranes. Helicopter cranes are most commonly used to lift loads onto shopping centers and high-rise buildings. They can lift anything within their lifting capacity, such as air conditioning units, cars, boats, swimming pools, etc. They also perform disaster relief after natural disasters for clean-up, and during wild-fires they are able to carry huge buckets of water to extinguish fires.
Some aerial cranes, mostly concepts, have also used lighter-than air aircraft, such asairships.
Lifetime of existing cranes made of welded metal structures can often be extended for many years by after treatment of welds. During development of cranes, load level (lifting load) can be significantly increased by taking into account the IIW recommendations, leading in most cases to an increase of the permissible lifting load and thus to an efficiency increase.[79]
The generally accepted definition of a crane is a machine for lifting and moving heavy objects by means of ropes or cables suspended from a movable arm. As such, a lifting machine that does not use cables, or else provides only vertical and not horizontal movement, cannot strictly be called a 'crane'.
Types of crane-like lifting machine include:
More technically advanced types of such lifting machines are often known as "cranes", regardless of the official definition of the term.
Crane operators areskilled workersandheavy equipment operators.
Key skills that are needed for a crane operator include:
The ISO 4306 series of specifications establish the vocabulary for cranes:[82]
History of cranes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crane_(machine)
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Directive 2008/1/EC[1]of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 January 2008 concerningintegrated pollution prevention and controlis adirectiveof theEuropean Union. It replaces theCouncilDirective 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996[2]on the same subject matter; both are commonly referred to asIPPC Directive.
From 2005 to 2007, the effect of the directive was assessed. In 2010, a revised wording was published, integrated with 6 other European directives regulating large industrial sites, into theIndustrial Emissions Directive2010/75/EU, shortIED.[3]
The European IPPC Bureau[4]was established in 1997 to organize an exchange of information between the European Commission, EU Member States, industries concerned, and non-governmental organizations promoting environmental protection for drawing up and reviewingBest Available Techniques(short: 'BAT') reference documents (short: 'BREFs'). These reference documents, specifically the BAT conclusions therein, provide the basis for EU Member States to grant operating permits for large agro-industrial installations. The information exchange is codified into law by Commission Implementing Decision 2012/119/EU and referred to asSevilla process,[5]named after the city ofSevillewhere the European IPPC Bureau is located.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Pollution_Prevention_and_Control
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ThePalletized Load System(PLS) is a truck-basedlogisticssystem that entered service in theUnited States Armyin 1993. It performs long and short distancefreight transport, unit resupply, and other missions in the tactical environment to support modernized and highly mobile combat units. It provides rapid movement of combat configured loads of ammunition and allclasses of supply, shelters andintermodal containers. It is similar to systems such as the BritishDemountable Rack Offload and Pickup System(DROPS).[3]
In January 1989, theUnited States Army Tank Automotive Commandawarded prototype PLS contracts toOshkosh Truck Corporation, thePACCARGovernment Group andGeneral Motors, Military Vehicle Operations, with each contractor to deliver nine trucks, six trailers, and 30 flatracks for prototype hardware testing which began in September 1989. Oshkosh Truck Corporation was awarded a five-year contract for PLS in September 1990, with production commencing in 1992.[3]
The original contract award was for 2626 PLS trucks, 1050 M1076 PLS trailers, and 11,030 M1077 PLS flat racks. Under the initial PLS contract, between 1992–1997 Oshkosh delivered 2905 PLS trucks and 1534 PLS trailers. Around half of the PLS trucks were fitted with a Grove material handling crane and were designated M1074. PLS without the crane are designated M1075.[2][3]Under an additional add-on contract from 1997 to 2001, Oshkosh produced 595 PLS trucks and 800 trailers, bringing the PLS fleet to 3,500 trucks and 2,334 trailers.[3][4]
In March 2001, Oshkosh Truck was awarded the Family of Heavy Tactical Vehicles (FHTV) contract. The FHTV award differed in that in addition to the provision for up to 740 PLS trucks and 1060 PLS trailers, the award covered deliveries of OshkoshHeavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck(HEMTT) andHeavy Equipment Transporter(HET). The FHTV contract was extended twice, following which FHTV 2 was awarded to Oshkosh Truck. In October 2008 FHTV 3 was awarded to Oshkosh Defense. As part of the FHTV 3 contract, Oshkosh commenced deliveries of PLS in A1 configuration.[3]In December 2009 the last of 6,288 production PLS A0 was delivered.[3][4]
Oshkosh announced in January 2012 that it had been awarded a bridge contract by theU.S. Armyto continue FHTV production. Under this extended contract, the government could place orders through October 2013 and Oshkosh Defense could deliver through September 2014.[3]
In July 2013 the U.S. Army released a synopsis for a FHTV 4 award. This stated the government intended to award the FHTV 4 contract on a sole-source basis to Oshkosh Corporation, and it is understood that the aim was to ensure negotiations with Oshkosh for FHTV 4 were concluded in time to ensure there was no break in production between FHTV 3 and FHTV 4 production and deliveries. There would be a break of seven months. FHTV 4 was awarded to Oshkosh Defense in June 2015 as a five-year requirements contract worth a potential USD780 million. At this time the FHTV IV award covered an estimated 1,800 FHTVs and in addition to Recapitalized (Recap'd) PLS covered Recap'd HEMTT and also included the production of approximately 1,000 new production PLSTs. PLSs accounted for about 25% of the Recap potential.[4]
In March 2020 the final FHTV 4 award was announced by Oshkosh, this calling for an undisclosed quantity of U.S. Army and U.S. Army Reserve FHTVs to be Recap'd. Quantities/breakdown have been revealed. Contract value was USD346.4 million, with deliveries scheduled to conclude in December 2021. As of the award date, Oshkosh disclosed that since 1995 the company had rebuilt over 3,400 PLS trucks.[4]On 3 May 2021 the U.S. Army announced that it had awarded Oshkosh Defense a three-year extension to the FHTV 4 contract. Under the extension, Oshkosh provided new and Recap'd PLS trucks and trailers, HEMTTs, and HETs. The initial delivery orders under the extension called for a total of 353 new and recapitalized vehicles,[4]with the final known orders placed in June 2024, these valued at $231.9 million for trucks, kits and kit installs. In total, Oshkosh is known to have received four FHTV 4 orders during 2024.[5]
In August 2024 Oshkosh Defense LLC announced that U.S. Army Contracting Command – Detroit Arsenal (ACC-DTA) had awarded the company a five-year, Fixed Price with Economic Price Adjustment Requirements contract for the Family of Heavy Tactical Vehicles (FHTV) V (5) program. Based on evaluated quantities, the requirements-type contract is estimated at $1.54 billion and allows Oshkosh to continue delivering new and recapitalized trucks and associated trailers into 2031. The Army was able to purchase under FHTV 5 from August 2024. The first known purchase under FHTV 5 was announced in April 2025, this $95 million order calling for an undisclosed quantity of autonomy-ready Palletized Load Systems A2.[5]It was not stated if these PLS A2 formed part of the Expedient Leader Follower (ExLF) program.
Reset and Recapitalization:Reset and Recapitalization are formal U.S. Army programs that refurbish and return equipment to service inas newcondition.
Since the award of two separate contracts in 2004, Oshkosh (in addition to HEMTTS and HETs) has rebuilt/overhauled service-worn PLS trucks to new build standard under the Reset and Recapitalization programs. The completed vehicles are stripped to the chassis frame rails from the process and are returned to service in zero miles/zero hours condition and with a new vehicle warranty. The Reset process returns trucks to original build standard (for example PLSA0 to PLSA0), with the exception of certain safety-related items. Recapitalized vehicles are completely rebuilt to meet the current build standard specifications and at a cost to the US DoD per vehicle of about 75% of new build (for example PLSA0 to PLSA1). The first A0 PLS were Recap’d to A1 standard in March 2012. In addition to Reset and Recap, Oshkosh has also refurbished PLS through the Theatre-Provided Equipment Refurbishment (TPER) program.
Expedient Leader Follower (ExLF) programOn 27 June 2018, Oshkosh announced that the US army's Tank Automotive Research, Development, and Engineering Center (TARDEC) had awarded the company a USD49 million contract to integrate existing PLS trucks with scalable autonomous technology as part of the army's Expedient Leader Follower (ExLF) program. The ExLF program addresses the needs of the Leader Follower Directed Requirement andProgram of Recordby removing soldiers from the vehicle while operating in highly-contested areas. Under the contract, Oshkosh will integrate an initial 70 autonomy kits for Program Development and Operational Technical Demonstrations (OTD). The contract holds an option to procure up to 150 autonomy kits.[6]
Common Tactical Truck (CTT); previously Next Generation Future Truck (NGFT)Parallel to the FHTV 4 extension effort, the U.S. Army’s Heavy Tactical Vehicles (HTV) PEO CS&CSS issued on 20 July 2020 Notice ID W56HZV-20-R-0237, a Request for Information (RfI) for the Next Generation Future Truck (NGFT). Responses were due by 24 August 2020 for what was quickly renamed the Common Tactical Truck (CTT). It was then the stated intent that CTT would replace the PLSA1, plus the HEMTT and M915 Truck Tractor, Line Haul. The Army desired five variants of the NGFT/CTT, and all with the option to perform semi-autonomous or autonomous operations. The five variants muted were: a wrecker to recover Stryker, MRAPs, and other tactical wheeled vehicles up to 40 US tons; an LHS Heavy variant with crane to transport flatrack with up to 16 tons of cargo payload; a Tractor variant operable with the M870, M871, M172, M872, M967 tanker, M1062 tanker, future tanker (8,200 gallons), and commercial standard trailers; a Tanker variant with a 2,500 gallon threshold or objective fuel payload greater than 2,500 gallons; and a Cargo variant with crane capable of carrying a payload of up to 22 tons or greater.[4]
By early 2025, the program had progressed and August and September 2024 an operational demonstration to assess prototype designs had taken place. Back in April 2024. The actual demonstration involved 12 prototypes supplied by American Rheinmetall Vehicles, Mack Defense, Navistar Defense, and Oshkosh Defense. Wording related to CTT had revised by this time and the program is now referred to as a next-generation family of vehicles (FoV) by the Army, and one that seeks to replace existing platforms such as the PLS, HEMTT, and other medium- and heavy-duty transport vehicles. The CTT FoV is now stated to feature a specialized range variants that will include cargo and LHS, off-road and line-haul tractors, tankers, and base platforms capable of supporting air defense systems, and bridging and boat transport/handling. Data collected from the operational demonstration will be used by the Army to refine CTT's Capability Development Document (CDD) for the CTT, and following some limited additional testing CTT is scheduled to transition to a major capability acquisition program at Milestone C (MS C) in Fiscal Year 2028. The Army then plans to commence low-rate initial production (LRIP), with the longer term objective being to procure 7,217 CTTs by FY2035. A single vendor will be selected for production through an open competition that is scheduled to commence FY2026.[7]
The Palletized Load System (PLS) is based around two variants of prime mover truck (M1074 and M1075) fitted with an integral self-loading and unloading capability, a trailer (M1076), and demountable cargo beds, referred to as flatracks. PLS trucks and trailers are air-transportable in C-5A and C-17 cargo aircraft.[2]
The PLS prime mover truck carries its payloads on its demountable flatrack cargo beds, or inside 8×8×20 footInternational Organization for Standardization(ISO)intermodal containers, or shelters. The M1074 is equipped with a variable reach material handling crane (MHC), the M1075 is not. A dp Manufacturing PLS-22K self-recovery winch with a capacity of 9,072 kg is an option on both the M1074 and M1075.[3]
The Oshkosh PLS truck is based on a C-sectionchassisformed of 356 × 89 × 9.5 mmSAE1027 modified heat-treatedcarbon manganese steelwith ayield strengthof 758MPa. Bolted construction with Grade 8 bolts is used throughout. PLS is unusual in that it is a five-axle truck, with two front and three rear axles, and with steering on the rear (5th) and front axle pair. A five-axle (10 × 10) configuration was selected by Oshkosh as it provides optimum turning capability and good weight distribution between all axles providing mobility and capability above the desired level of theU.S. Armyspecification. Competing PLS designs were both four-axle (8x8s), thePaccaroffering having a single front axle and rear tridem, theGeneral Motorsoffering was an AmericanisedMAN KAT1(8×8).[3]
PLS A1 variants are powered by aCaterpillarC-15four-strokedieseldeveloping 600hp, this coupled to anAllison4500SP six-speedautomatic transmission, and Oshkosh 36000 Series two-speedtransfer case.[2]The original PLS was powered by aDetroit Diesel8V92TA V-8two-strokediesel developing 500hp, with later production examples having the electronically-controlled DDECIV version of this engine. Original PLS were fitted with an Allison CLT-755 ATEC 5F/1R automatic transmission and Oshkosh 55000 two-speed transfer box. After October 2005, an Allison HD-4500 Generation 4 six-speed automatic transmission was fitted.[3]
All PLS variants have the same rear tridem unit which consists of a singleHendrickson-Turnerair-sprungdriveaxle(3rd axle) and a Hendrickson RT-400leaf-sprungAxleTech tandem (4th and 5th axles) on which the rearmost axle contra-steers.[2]On PLS A1 variants the front AxleTech/Oshkosh axles are sprung using Oshkosh's TAK-4 fully independent coil spring suspension. The original PLS had a pair of rigid AxleTech front axles, these with leaf springs.
Tires areMichelin1600R 20. Current fit is Michelin XZL, earlier PLS were fitted Michelin XL. Acentral tire inflation system(CTIS) is fitted, this having four settings - HWY (highway) • CC (cross-country) • MSS (mud sand snow) • EMERG (emergency). A spare wheel and tire is mounted behind the cab on A0 variants. On A1 variants the spare wheel and tire is located on the right-hand side of the vehicle, on the top of the engine/cooling compartments.[3]
The two-seat forward control cab is a development of the original Oshkosh M977HEMTTcab. The PLS A1 (and HEMTT A4)has a visually similar, but slightly larger, revised cab. An add-on armor kit has been developed for the M1074/M1075 by Armor Holdings Inc. PLS A1's cab is compliant with theU.S. Army's Long Term Armor Strategy (LTAS) requirements of an A- and B-kit armoring philosophy. Additionally, it comes as standard with integrated floor armor.[3]
The M1076 is a three-axle dolly-type trailer. It is capable of carrying the same 16.5 short ton payload as the prime mover. Flatracks can be on- and off-loaded from the trailer by the prime mover's load handling system. Without leaving the cab, the driver can load or unload the truck in less than one minute, and both truck and trailer in less than five minutes. The M1076 can be towed by M1074 and M1075 PLS trucks.[3]
Three types of flatrack have been procured as part of the system, the M1077/M1077A1, the M3/M3A1 and the M1 ISO Compatible Flatrack. The M1077 and M1077A1 General Purpose A-frame flatracks are sideless flatracks used to transport pallets of ammunition and other classes of supplies. On the ISO-compatible Palletized Flatrack (IPF) Type M1 there are two end walls, one incorporating the A-frame. Both walls can fold down inwardly for stacking when empty. The M3/M3A1 Container Roll-in/Out Platform (CROP) is, a flatrack that fits inside a 20 ft (6.1 m) ISO container.[3]
The Container Handling Unit (CHU) is an add-on kit that allows for the loading/unloading and transport of standard 20 ft (6.1 m) ISO containers without the need for an intermediate flatrack. M1075 PLS trucks (with or without winch) can have an integral CHU stowage facility between the LHS hook arm and engine. CHUs were procured as part of the original FHTV contract. Weight of the complete CHU is 1746 kg. Installation time is 80 man hours.
Oshkosh produced the original CHU, the current E-CHU (E - Enhanced) is manufactured by GT Machining & Fabricating Ltd of Canada. Order totals for CHU/E-CHU are at least 6300 units.[3]
Engineer Mission Modules (EMM) components are flatrack-based and designed to be used on M1075 PLS trucks fitted with the Universal Power Interface Kit (UPIK). Three EMMs were procured under the initial FHTV contract, the M4 Bituminous Distributor (EMM-BD), the M5 Concrete Mobile Mixer (EMM-CMM), and the M6 Dump Body (EMM-DB). The M4 EMM-BD provides the capability to spread measured amounts of bituminous material for road preparation, repair, and other engineer applications. The M5 EMM CMM transports raw concrete materials, mixes concrete as needed, and emplaces the mixed concrete. The M6 EMM-DB transports and spreads engineering construction material such as rocks, gravel, sand, and soil. A water Distributor also now in service, this placed under contract in 2009.[3]
Flat racks and CHU/E-CHU are interchangeable between PLS and theHEMTT-LHS. Also interchangeable between PLS and HEMTT LHS are Modular Fuel System (MFS) and Hippo (water) tankracks, and the Forward Repair System (FRS). a PLS version optimized for the transport and handling ofWFELHeavy Dry Support Bridge (HDSB) components is also in service. The DSB launch vehicle is a modified PLS truck.[3]
PLS is a major enabler of the Army's drive to achieve a distribution-based logistics system. The PLS-Enhanced (PLS-E) program procures the Movement Tracking System, which provides a multitude of tactical wheeled vehicles withGlobal Positioning Systemcapability and two-way digital messaging. The MTS enables the commander to track logistics assets over the range of the battle space. The two-way messaging allows redirection of logistics assets as needs develop.[citation needed]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palletized_load_system
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Aunit load device(ULD) is acontainerused to load luggage, freight, and mail onwide-body aircraftand specificnarrow-body aircraft. It allows preloading ofcargo, provided the containerised load fits in the aircraft, enabling efficient planning of aircraft weight and balance and reduced labour and time in loading aircraft holds compared with 'bulk-loading' single items of cargo or luggage by hand. Each ULD has its own packing list ormanifestso that its contents can be tracked. A loaded aircraftcargo palletsecured with acargo netalso forms a ULD, but its load must be gauged for size in addition to being weighed to ensure aircraft door and hold clearances.
TheIATApublishes ULD regulations and notes there are 900,000 in service worth more than US$1 billion, averaging $1100 each.[1]
ULDs come in two forms: pallets and containers. ULD pallets are rugged sheets ofaluminiumwith rims designed to lock onto cargo net lugs. ULD containers, also known as cans and pods, are closed containers often made of aluminium or a combination of aluminium (frame) andLexan(walls) but there are examples of containers made ofGRPwith an insulating foam core. Depending on the nature of the goods to be transported, ULDs may have built-inrefrigerationunits. Examples of common ULDs and their specifics are listed below.
LD3s, LD6s, and LD11s will fit787s,777s,747s,MD-11s,Il-86s,Il-96s,L-1011sand allAirbuswide-bodies. The767uses the smaller LD2s and LD8s because of its narrower fuselage. The less common LD1 is designed specifically for the 747, but LD3s are more commonly used in its place because of ubiquity (they have the same floor dimensions such that one LD3 takes the place of one LD1). LD3s with reduced height (1.14 metres (45 in) instead of 1.63 metres (64 in)) can also be loaded on theAirbus A320 family. LD7 pallets will fit 787s, 777s, 747s, late model 767s (with larger doors), and Airbus wide-bodies.
Interchangeability of certain ULDs between LD3/6/11 aircraft and LD2/8 aircraft is possible when cargo needs to be quickly transferred to a connecting flight. Both LD2s and LD8s can be loaded in LD3/6/11 aircraft, but at the cost of using internal volume inefficiently (33 ft3wasted per LD2). Only the LD3 of the LD3/6/11 family of ULDs can be loaded in a 767; it will occupy an entire row where two LD2s or one LD8 would otherwise have fit (90 ft3wasted per LD3). Policies vary from airline to airline as to whether such transfers are allowed.
The 787, intended to replace the 767, was designed to use the LD3/6/11 family of ULDs to solve the wasted volume issue.[4]
Aircraft loads can consist of containers, pallets, or a mix of ULD types, depending on requirements. In some aircraft the two types must be mixed as some compartments take only specific ULDs.
Container capacity of an aircraft is measured inpositions. Each half-width container (LD1/LD2/LD3) in the aircraft it was designed for occupies one position. Typically, each row in a cargo compartment consists of two positions. Therefore, a full-width container (LD6/LD8/LD11) will take two positions. An LD6 or an LD11 can occupy the space of two LD3s. An LD8 takes the space of two LD2s.
Aircraft pallet capacity is measured by how many PMC-type LD7s 96 by 125 in (240 by 320 cm) can be stored. These pallets occupy approximately three LD3 positions (two positions of one row and half of the two positions of the following row) or four LD2 positions. PMCs can only be loaded in cargo compartments with large doors designed to accept them (small door compartments are container-only).
All ULDs are identified by their ULD number. A three-letter prefix identifies its type and key characteristics,[54]followed by a 4 or 5 digit serial number (4 if prior to October 1, 1993; either 4 or 5 if after October 1, 1993) to uniquely identify it from others of the same type, and ending with a two character (alpha-numerical) suffix identifying the ULD's owner (if an airline, often the same asIATAdesignator codes). For example,AKN 12345 DLmeans that the ULD is a forkliftable LD3 with the unique number12345and its owner isDelta Air Lines.[55]
On the main deck of cargo planes are 79 to 108 inches (2,007 to 2,743 mm) tall ULDs with footprints similar to those of 88 inches (2,235 mm) or 96 inches (2,438 mm) wide pallets and 62 inches (1,575 mm) or 125 inches (3,175 mm) long. A 62-inch (1,575 mm) wide × 88-inch (2,235 mm) tall ULD is half the volume of a 125-inch (3,175 mm) × 88 inch pallet. The 20 foot pallet is 238 inches (6,045 mm) long and 96 inches (2,438 mm) wide. What the actual dimensions of contoured upper deck ULDs are is very hard to know, because most manufacturers only profile width, length and height data.
There are several common types of contoured main deck ULDs, that are contoured (curved to fit in the plane's body) to provide as much cargo volume as possible. Initially ULD contouring was simply a triangle removed from one or two corners of the profile of the ULD, such as the common LD3 and LD6. Main deck ULDs use curves for the contoured shape to truly maximize cargo volume. Upper deck ULDs are just like lower deck ULDs that are either the full width of the plane with two corners of the profile removed (lower deck LD6 lower), or that container is cut in half, down the center line of the plane, (lower deck LD3 and upper deck AAX).
Main deck ULDs and pallets are not only taller than lower deck ULDs, they are frequently two or four times longer. They are usually organized like an LD6, using the width of the plane and missing two profile corners, or two very long LD3s, stored in parallel to use the plane's width and each missing one profile corner, but often twice or four times as long from plane's nose to tail.
Many air cargo companies use main deck ULDs that have both features called dual-profile, so that on smaller planes such as the Boeing 727, they are stored widthwise and have two corners contoured, and on the bigger Boeing 767, they can be rotated 90 degrees and shipped in parallel like LD3s, so that only one corner is contoured when being used like an LD3. This greatly simplifies transportation of cargo containers at slight cost of cargo volume.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_Load_Device
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Less-than-truckload shippingorless than load(LTL) is the transportation of an amount offreightsized between individualparcelsand fulltruckloads.[1]Parcel carriers handle small packages and freight that can be broken down into units less than approximately 150 pounds (68 kg). Full truckload carriers move entiresemi-trailers. Semi-trailers are typically between 26 and 53 feet (7.92 and 16.15 m) and require a substantial amount of freight to make such transportation economical.[2][3]The termLTLcan refer to the freight itself, or to the carrier that transports such freight.
Full truck load (FTL) carriers typically haul loads for one single shipper. In these cases, the shipper "rents" a trailer to transport their product where it needs to go, typically paying a "per mile rate" from the carrier. However, with LTL, a single trailer can carry several different shippers' shipments and since each shipment is technically "less than a truckload" they would consider that to be LTL.
Due to the basic differences between these two modes, there are freight carriers who either specialize in FTL or LTL. While these carriers can crossover and handle freight shipments from the other mode, typically they operate under one mode. Oftentimes an LTL carrier can be references as a "common" carrier, one who handles common freight above what would normally ship via FedEx Ground, or UPS or U.S. LTL common carriers are also more likely to accept loose (non-palletized) cargo than the other two modes,FTLandparcel.[4]
Less than Truckload carriers use "hub and spoke" operations where linehauls/truck routes are the spokes, and service terminals for each carrier are the hubs (also called Distribution Centers or DC's). Terminals collect local freight from the various shippers they work with in an area and use the hub to consolidate the freight into regions or areas where those shipments are destined to be delivered. Because of the efficiency of this order of operations, most deliveries are performed in the morning and most pickups are made in the afternoon.
Pickup and delivery drivers usually have set casual routes which they travel every day or several times a week, so the driver has an opportunity to develop a rapport with their customers. Once the driver has filled their trailer or completed their assigned route, they return to their terminal for unloading. The trailer is unloaded and the individual shipments are then weighed and inspected to verify their conformity to the description contained in the accompanying paperwork.[5]All LTL freight is subject to inspection ('S.T.I.'), though not all freight is inspected.
Transit times for LTL freight are longer than for full truckload freight (FTL). LTL transit times are not directly related only to the distance between shipper and consignee. Instead, LTL transit times are also dependent upon the makeup of the network of terminals and breakbulks that are operated by a given carrier and that carrier's beyond agents and interline partners. For example, if a shipment is picked up and delivered by the same freight terminal, or if the freight must be sorted and routed only once while in transit, the freight will likely be delivered on the next business day after pickup. If the freight must be sorted and routed more than once, or if more than one linehaul is required for transportation to the delivering terminal, then the transit time will be longer. In some instances, the LTL freight has up to 10 days of delivery time frame.
The main advantage to using an LTL carrier is that a shipment may be transported for a fraction of the cost of hiring an entire truck and trailer for an exclusive shipment. Also, a number of accessory services are available from LTL carriers, which are not typically offered by FTL carriers. These optional services include liftgate service at pickup or delivery, residential (also known as "non-commercial") service at pickup or delivery, inside delivery, notification prior to delivery, freeze protection, and others. These services are usually billed at a predetermined flat fee, or for a weight based surcharge calculated as a rate per pound or per hundredweight.
Shippers with enough volume of LTL freight may choose to use a full truckload carrier to move the freight directly to a break-bulk facility of an LTL carrier. For example, a North Carolina shipper with a large quantity of shipments bound for Western US States (for example, California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho) may be able to realize significant cost savings by having a FTL carrier, known as a linehaul carrier, transport the freight to a break-bulk facility in a central location near the ultimate destination of the freight (in this example, delivery to a break-bulk facility in California for parceling out into LTL lots for transport to the final destinations). The use of an FTL carrier to transport this freight generally provides an overall cost savings because the freight will travel fewer miles in the FTL carrier's network, as well as a reduced overall fuel surcharge cost—that is, one FTL carrier travels the distance to the break-bulk facility for a single carrier's price while using only the fuel required for that FTL truck, vs. several LTL carriers at each carrier's price, each covering some of the same path to the final destinations and each using the fuel required for each one of the LTL trucks. A further benefit is realized in both loading cost and product damage, because the freight will not need to be unloaded and reloaded as many times. Additionally, this reduces the incidence of loss and the opportunity for pilfering or theft, because all of the freight travels together and is not broken down into LTL loads until it reaches the break-bulk distribution facility.
Aparcel carriertraditionally only handles pieces weighing less than approximately 150 pounds (68 kg). Parcel carriers typically compete with LTL carriers by convincing shippers to break larger shipments down to smaller packages. Parcel carriers typically refer to multipiece shipments as "hundredweight" shipments as the rating is based on 100 pounds (45 kg). The hundredweight rate is multiplied by the shipment's weight and then divided by 100 and then rounded up to the nearest hundred.
LTL carriers prefer to handle shipments with the fewest handling units possible. LTL carriers prefer a shipment of one pallet containing many boxesstretch wrappedto form one piece rather than many individual pieces. This reduces handling costs and the risk of damage during transit. Typically, the per-pound rates of LTL carriers are less than the per-pound rates of parcel carriers.[6]
Freight sent via LTL carriers must be handled several times during transit, often by different carriers. It must be packaged to protect it from scuffing, vibration, crushing, dropping, humidity, condensation. Thus, it is normally good practice to load freight onto pallets or package freight intocrates. Sturdyshipping containerssuch ascorrugated fiberboardboxes are normally acceptable as well, but pallets are preferred. Carriers have published tariffs that provide some guidance for packaging.Packaging engineersdesign and test packaging to meet the specific needs of thelogisticssystem and the product being shipped.
Properpackagingfreight serves several purposes:
Other considerations:
Not all LTL shipments travel by truck only. LTL carriers rely onrailorairto forward some freight toward its destination. LTL carriers are normally able to deal with railroads more effectively than small shippers since LTL carriers typically send a large volume of freight daily. For example, a significant portion of rail intermodal traffic consists of truck trailers, often dozens in a single intermodal train, carrying LTL freight. LTL carriers are able to monitor railroad performance to ensure delivery of freight within the specified delivery window. Anintermodal freight transportshipment employs several methods of transporting goods from start to finish. For instance, one shipment will start out on the railroad, then be transferred to an ocean carrier, and end up on a truck before delivery.
Intermodal shipping is considered advantageous by some shippers because there is no handling of the freight when it changes from one carrier to the next. Pallets are used to consolidate many items into one easy-to-move container. Because handling is reduced, it also reduces damage and loss, increases security, and allows quicker transport.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Less_than_truckload_shipping
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Dimensional weight, also known asvolumetric weight, is apricingtechnique for commercialfreight transport(includingcourier and postal services), which uses an estimated weight that is calculated from the length, width and height of a package.
The shipping fee is based upon the dimensional weight or the actual weight, whichever is greater.
Shipping costs have historically been calculated on the basis ofgross weightinkilogramsorpounds. By charging only byweight, lightweight, low density packages become unprofitable for freight carriers due to the amount of space they take up in the truck/aircraft/ship in proportion to their actual weight.
The concept of dimensional weight has been adopted by the transportation industry worldwide as a uniform means of establishing a minimum charge for the cubic space a package occupies. In fact, UPS[1]and FedEx[2]both announced that starting 2015, shipping charges on all shipments (air and ground) will be determined by greater of the actual weight and dimensional weight of a package. Prior to this announcement, dimensional weight charges were only applicable to packages of a specific size range.
Dimensional weight is a calculation of a theoretical weight of a package. This theoretical weight is the weight of the package at a minimum density chosen by the freight carrier. If the package is below this minimum density, then the actual weight is irrelevant as the freight carrier will charge for the volume of the package as if it were of the chosen density (what the package would weigh at the minimum density).
Furthermore, the volume used to calculate the dimensional weight may not be absolutely representative of the true volume of the package. The freight carrier will measure the longest dimension in each of the three axis (X, Y, Z) and use these measurements to determine the package volume. If the package is a right-angled rectangular box (cuboid), then this will be equal to the true volume of the package. However, if the package is of any other shape, then the calculation of volume will be more than the true volume of the package.
Dimensional weight is also known as DIM weight, volumetric weight, or cubed weight. Freight carriers utilize the greater of the actual weight or dimensional weight to calculate shipping charges. Dimensional weight is calculated as (length × width × height) / (dimensional factor). Measurements can be made all in inches or all in centimeters, but the appropriate shipping factor must also be used.
Shipping factors for imperial measurements represent cubic inches per pound (in3/lb) while metric factors represent cubic centimeters per kilogram (cm3/kg). These are the inverse of the package density. Dimensional weight is applied when the actual product density is less than the minimum density represented by the chosen factor. Dimensional weight is representative of the weight of the package at the minimum density accepted by the freight carrier.[3]Shipping factors are not only different for imperial and metric measurements, but also for shipment mode and in some cases between different customers. Shipping factors will be available from the freight carrier. Some common factors are listed below.
Imperial shipping factor examples:
Metric shipping factor examples:
When calculating the dimensional weight with metric measurements, the length, width, and height are measured in centimeters (cm) and the result is stated in a nominal kilogram (kg) dimensional weight band (usually rounded up).[4]
Using dimensional weight calculations, a freight carrier will charge for lightweight (low density) packages as if they had a greater weight (the weight of the package at the minimum accepted density).
For example, a box of clothing shipped internationally which weighs 10 pounds and measures 18 × 18 × 18 inches would be charged as if it weighed 36 pounds: (18 x 18 x 18)/166 = 35.1 pounds which is then rounded up to 36 pounds for shipping cost purposes. The 35.1 pounds is the 'theoretical" weight of the package if it had a density of 166 in3/lb or 10.4 lb/ft3: (18 × 18 × 18) = 3.375 ft3× 10.4 lb/ft3= 35.1 lb.
Note that for the USPS there are two different calculations for DIM weight: (L × W × H)/194 for domestic shipments and (L × W × H)/166 for international shipments.
Several programs are available to calculate dimensional weight:Dim Weight Calculator
Dimensional weight favors shippers of dense objects and penalizes those who ship lightweightboxes. A box of unpoppedcorn kernelswill likely be charged by gross weight; a box ofpopcornwill probably be charged by its dimensional weight. This is because the large box of popcorn takes up a lot of space but does not fill up a vehicle's capacity in terms of weight, making it an inefficient use of space.[14]
Shippers avoid dimensional weight charges by using smaller boxes, by compressing their goods, and by reducing the use of packing materials.
Dimensional weight is commonly used for invoicing by air freight forwarders, truck carriers, as well as all commercial airlines worldwide. In 2007,DHL,FedEx,United Parcel Serviceand USPS adopted the dimensional weight system for ground services.
In May 2007, theUnited States Postal Service (USPS)adopted dimensional weight, calling it "Shape Based Postage Pricing". This rate system is designed to charge more for lightweight items, and also to recover costs involving manualsortingand handling, since many postal machines are built to handle flats. This system would charge much more for mailing aparcelthan a flatenvelope. It encourages mailingbooksand DVDs in flatpaperboardorplasticenvelopes, rather than padded mailers.
Such companies use automated systems calleddimensionersfor calculating both dimensional and actual weight and invoice their customers accordingly. More and more transport and logistics companies including warehouses and retailers are investing indimensioningequipment for calculating the dimensional weight of their packages in order to keep in line with their carriers and avoid back charges.[15]
Cube weight is used inless than truckload shipping(LTL) to fill trailers with small heavy objects in them with light weight large objects to increaseload factor. Generally cube and weight are reference data from the shipment table.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_weight
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Aframe injectionattack is an attack onInternet Explorer 5,Internet Explorer 6andInternet Explorer 7to load arbitrary code in the browser.[1]This attack is caused byInternet Explorernot checking the destination of the resulting frame,[2]therefore allowing arbitrary code such asJavaScriptorVBScript. This also happens when code gets injected through frames due to scripts not validating their input.[3]This other type of frame injection affects all browsers and scripts that do not validate untrusted input.[4]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_injection
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